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THE   HOME  CYCLOPEDIA. 


CYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

ARCHITECTURE, 

HISTORICAL,  DESCRIPTIVE,  TOPOGRAPHICAL,  DECORATIVE, 
THEORETICAL  AND  MECHANICAL, 

ALPHABETICALLY  ARRANGED,  FAMILIARLY  EXPLAINED,  AND  ADAPTED  TO  THB 
COMPREHENSION  OF  WORKMEN,  ETC.,  ETC. 

BY 

ROBERT  STUART, 

ARCHITECT    AND     CIVIL  ENGINEER. 


TWO    VOLUMES   IK   0  ST  E.  VOL.  I. 


NEW  YORK: 
A.  S.  BARNES  &  CO.,  51  JOHN-STREET. 

CINCINNATI:  — n.  W.  DERBY. 
1854. 


PREFACE. 


In  presenting  to  the  public  a  new  Dictionary  of 
Architecture,  no  apology,  we  imagine,  will  be  re- 
quired for  the  undertaking.  Little  need  be  said  on 
the  necessity  of  such  a  work,  inasmuch  as  it  is  in 
reality  the  only  one  of  the  kind.  Those  which  already 
exist  on  the  subject,  not  to  mention  their  expensive 
size,  are  rather  encyclopedias  of  treatises  on  the  differ- 
ent branches  of  science  and  art  connected  with  archi- 
tecture, than  dictionaries,  of  the  practice,  and  theory, 
and  history,  and  description  of  the  science  of  archi- 
tecture, and  architectural  archaeology ;  such  works 
are  intended  to  supersede  separate  treatises  upon 
Geometry,  Perspective,  Trigonometry,  and  the 
Mechanical  parts  of  architecture.  Our  book  we  wish 
to  be  of  general  utility  to  the  professor  and  the 

b  3 


PREFACE. 

amateur,  and,  indeed,  to  almost  every  general  reader 
— to  contain  a  large  mass  of  material  for  general 
and  constant  reference,  brought  together  from  a 
multitude  of  sources,  much  of  which,  we  believe, 
cannot  otherwise  be  referred  to  without  great  labour 
and  expense.  In  such  a  work,  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  if  some  faults  are  to  be  found :  the 
defects,  however,  we  hope  and  trust,  will  be  found 
to  be  but  few,  and  not  of  any  great  importance,  in 
comparison,  at  least,  with  the  general  utility  of  the 
whole. 

It  was  first  intended  to  insert  brief  biographies  of 
eminent  architects  in  the  alphabetical  dictionary. 
It  was  found,  however,  that  by  giving  such  biogra- 
phical notices  of  all,  the  size  of  the  book  would  be 
increased,  without  proportionally  increasing  its 
utility  ;  and  we,  therefore,  came  to  the  determination 
of  giving  biographical  notices  of  such  only  as  were 
persons  of  very  great  note,  and  of  giving  at  the  end, 
complete  tables  of  architects  arranged  in  chrono- 
logical order,  and  exhibiting  at  once  their  name, 
country,  age,  and  works.  To  facilitate  the  reference 
to  these  Tables,  an  alphabetical  Index  of  their 
names  is  added,  and  more  particular  accounts  of 
British  architects  will  be  found  in  the  Intro- 
duction. 


4 


PREFACE. 

In  Appendix,  No.  II.,  we  have  given  a  Manual  ot 
Architectural  Bibliography.  In  many  of  the  arti- 
cles of  the  Dictionary,  we  have  referred  to  books  on 
the  subject,  and  sometimes  given  lists  of  them,  but 
it  was  still  considered  very  desirable  that  a  more 
complete  list  of  architectural  works  and  writers 
should  be  given.  The  reader  will,  by  means  of  this 
manual,  and  the  Indices  of  names  and  subjects  that 
follow  it,  when  he  has  gained  all  the  information 
that  our  book  will  give  him  on  any  subject,  be  able 
to  refer  to  such  books  as  will  furnish  him  with 
more.  This  does  not  by  any  means  pretend  to  con- 
tain a  complete  list  of  architectural  books,  but  it 
contains  nearly  all  of  any  importance. 

Our  third  Appendix  contains  brief  heads  of  Juris- 
prudence, as  far  as  it  is  connected  with  architecture, 
which  also,  we  trust,  will  not  be  found  devoid  01 
utility.  Our  principal  authority,  in  the  compilation 
of  this  part  of  the  work,  has  been  a  useful  little  book 
by  Mr.  Elmes,  on  Architectural  Jurisprudence, 
which  we  can  with  confidence  recommend  to  such 
of  our  readers  as  may  wish  for  more  information  on 
the  subject. 

The  plates  are  numerous;  and  as  it  was  found 
that  frequently  there  were  references  to  one  plate 


PREFACE. 

from  several  parts  of  the  book,  it  lias  been  deter- 
mined to  form  them  into  a  separate  volume,  to  make 
them  as  convenient  for  reference  as  possible ;  a 
description,  with  an  index  of  the  subjects  contained 
in  them,  is  also  given  ill  the  third  volume  with  the 
plates. 


INTRODUCTORY  ESSAY 

ON  THE 

PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE  IN  ENGLAND, 

SINCE  THE  NORMAN  CONQUEST. 


The  materials  for  a  history  of  early  English  Architecture  are  very  few, 
and  are  scattered  in  books  and  manuscripts  to  which  it  is  difficult 
to  many  to  gain  access.  If  there  were  more,  perhaps,  from  the 
rude  state  of  the  art  in  those  ages,  we  should  only  find,  that  with  what 
we  know  we  may  be  sufficiently  contented.  Of  the  Architecture  itself, 
as  it  is  known  from  works  that  remain,  numerous  notices  will  be  found 
in  different  articles  of  the  following  Dictionary  :  of  the  architects,  some 
account  will  be  given  in  the  Appendix :  we  shall,  therefore,  here 
content  ourselves  in  the  early  period,  by  arranging  such  matter  as 
has  been  discovered  in  ancient  documents  relating  to  Architecture; 
and,  as  we  approach  nearer  the  present  age,  we  shall  embody  in  these 
notices  some  observations  on  the  different  styles  that  have  prevailed 
in  those  modern  times. 1  Two  of  the  earliest  documents  relate  to  the 
reign  of  king  John  :  the  first,  dated  1209,  records  the  payment  of 
ten  marks  to  the  architect  Elyas,  for  repairing  the  palace  at  West- 
minster; the  second  relates  to  estimates  made  by  one  William  Puintell, 
who  was  either  an  architect  or  a  surveyor  employed  on  the  works 
at  the  Tower,  (ad  operationes  Turris  Londonise.)  The  interior  apart- 
ments of  the  royal  dwellings  were  at  that  time  ornamented  with  painted 
wainscoting,  as  appears  from  an  entry  of  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Third, 
in  1233,  ordering  a  chamber  to  be  painted  anew  with  such  histories 
and  pictures  as  had  before  adorned  it,  (quod  cameram  regis  lambrus- 


It  is  extracted  and  abridged  iu  a  great  part  from  Walpole'a  Anecdotes  of  Painting. 

b  7 


INTRODUCTORY  ESSAY. 


catam*  de  castro  Winton.  depingi  faciat  eisdem  historiis  et  picturis 
quibus  fuerit  prius  depicta.)  A  record  of  the  same  reign,  mentioned 
by  Stowe,  gives  directions  for  repairing  the  granary  under  the  Tower, 
and  all  the  leaden  gutters,  and  for  leading  the  whole  thoroughly  on 
that  side,  and  for  white-washing  the  chapel  of  St.  John.  The  same 
record  orders  that  three  painted  glass  windows  should  be  made  in  the 
same  chapel.  In  Aubrey's  Survey  of  Surrey,  quoted  by  Walpole,  he  says, 
on  the  authority  of  Dugdale,  that  the  first  painted  glass  in  England 
was  done  in  the  reign  of  king  John.  In  the  same  chapel  of  St.  John, 
another  record,  of  the  same  time,  mentions  a  marble  font  with  hand- 
some marble  columns,  (unum  fontem  marmoream  cum  columpnis  mar- 
moreis  bene  et  decenter  incisis.)  A  record  of  the  twenty-first  of  Henry 
the  Third,  orders  four  pounds  eleven  shillings  to  be  paid  to  Odo 
Aurifaber,  for  painting  pictures  in  the  king's  chamber.  A  record  of 
the  twenty-eighth  of  the  same  reign,  commands  the  sheriff  of  Kent 
to  furnish  and  carry  to  Westminster,  without  delay,  a  hundred  barge 
loads  of  grey  stone,  (100  navatas  grisise  petrse,)  which  might  either 
come  from  a  Kentish  quarry,  or  be  imported  from  the  coast  of  France. 
A  record  of  the  forty-fifth  year  of  the  same  reign,  contains  a  curious 
memorandum  of  the  sums  expended  on  the  king's  buildings  at  West- 
minster. 3  From  some  other  record,  we  learn  that  the  salary  of  Master 
William  of  Florence,  as  surveyor  of  the  works  at  Guildford,  was  six- 
pence a  day. 

Master  William,  we  see,  was  an  Italian,  and  it  is  probable  that 
it  was  no  uncommon  thing  to  employ  Italian  artists  in  England  about 
this  time.  The  crosses  erected  to  the  memory  of  queen  Eleanor, 
Vertue  supposed,  with  great  probability,  to  have  been  built  after  the 
designs  of  Peter  Cavalini,  a  Roman  sculptor.  Vertue  also  discovered 
that  this  person  was  the  architect  of  the  shrine  of  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor; and  the  following  extract  from  Walpole  will  shew  at  once  the 
arguments  he  makes  use  of,  and  the  mode  in  which  Italian  artists  came 
into  England. 

*  Lambruscatam,  wainscoted,  from  the  French  lambris. 

s  Summa  cust.  operationum  Westm.  ab  inceptione  usqae  in  die  dominica  post  festum 
divi  Micliaelis  anno  regni  regis  Henrici  xlvt0.  Et  cclx  Libre  restant  solvendee  pro 
stipendiis  alborum  cissoram  et  minulorum  operariorum,  et  pro  Franca  petra  et  aliis 
emptionibus  quse  non  computanlur  in  hac  summo  ;   xxix  millia,    cccxlv  /.  x\\  *. 


PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


V  The  original  Inscription  on  the  tomb  ran  thus : — 

Anno  milleno  Domini  cum  septuageno 

Et  bis  centeno,  cum  completo  quasi  deno, 

Hoc  opus  est  factum,  quod  Petrns  duxit  in  actom 

Romanus'civis  :  Homo,  causam  noscere  si  vis, 

Rex  fuit  Henricus,  sancti  praesentis  arnicas. 

"  The  words  Petrus  duxit  in  actum — Romanus  civis,  were  dis- 
cernible till  very  lately.  Some  old  authors  ascribe  the  erection  ot 
the  shrine  to  Henry  himself ;  others,  to  Richard  de  Ware  the  abbott 
elected  in  12b"0.  It  is  probable  that  both  were  concerned.  The  new 
abbot  repaired  to  Rome  immediately  on  his  election,  to  receive  con- 
secration from  Urban  the  Fourth.  At  that  time,  says  Vasari,  flour- 
ished there  Peter  Cavalini,  a  painter,  and  the  inventor  of  Mosaic, 
who  had  performed  several  costly  works  in  that  city.  About  four 
years  before  the  arrival  of  Abbot  Ware,  that  is,  in  1256,  had  been 
erected  a  splendid  shrine  for  the  martyrs,  Simplicius  and  Faustina,  as 
the  expense  of  John  James  Capoccio  and  his  wife,  adorned  with 
twisted  columns,  and  inlaid  with  precious  marbles  exactly  in  the 
taste,  though  not  in  the  precise  form,  of  that  of  St.  Edward.  Nothing 
is  more  probable  than  that  a  rich  abbot,  either  at  his  own  expense,  or 
to  gratify  the  taste  of  his  magnificent  master,  should  engage  a  capital 
artist  to  return  with  him,  and  undertake  the  shrine  of  his  master's 
patron  saint,  and  the  great  patron  of  his  own  church.  Weever  says 
expressly,  that  the  abbot  brought  back  with  him  from  Rome  workmen, 
and  rich  porphyry  stones,  for  Edward  the  Confessor's  erectory;  and 
for  the  pavement  of  the  chapel.  This  abbot  was  lord  treasurer  till  his 
death  in  1283,  and  was  buried  on  the  north  side  of  the  great  altar. 
Over  him  was  anciently  this  epitaph,  confirming  the  circumstances 
above  mentioned, 

Abbas  Richardus  de  Wari,  qui  requiescit 
Hie,  portat  lapides,  quos  bio  portavit  ab  Urbe. 

"  Vasari's  silence  on  Cavalini's  journey  to  England,  ought  to  be  no 
objection:  he  not  only  wrote  some  hundred  years  after  the  time,  but 
confounds  his  own  accounts  so  strangely,  as  to  make  Peter  Cavalini 
scholar  to  Giotto,  who  was  twenty  years  younger.  If  it  may  be 
imagined,  that  Richard  Ware  could  not  have  interest  enough  to  seduce 
so  capital  a  workman  from  the  service  of  the  pope,  it  might  still  be 
accounted  for  by  higher  authority.  Edward  the  First,  returning  from 
B  o 


INTRODUCTORY  ESSAY. 


the  Holy-land,  was  conducted  by  the  king  of  Sicily  to  Rome,  to  visit 
Gregory  the  Tenth,  who  had  been  Edward's  companion  and  friend 
in  the  holy  war.  An  artful  pope  would  certainly  be  glad  to  furnish  a 
young  king  with  artists,  who  would  encourage  him  in  raising  shrines 
and  temples.  The  monument  of  Henry  the  Third,  erected  by  his  son, 
is  beautified  in  the  same  taste,  with  porphyry  and  mosaic :  and  the 
first  brazen  statue  known  to  have  been  cast  here,  lies  upon  it. 
The  old  painting  round  the  chapel  of  St.  Edward,  and  those  in  a 
very  beautiful  and  superior  style,  though  much  decayed,  over  the  ragged 
regiment,  Vertue  ascribes  to  the  same  Cavalini." 

During  the  reigns  which  followed  that  of  Henry  the  Third,  the  arts 
were  allowed  to  lie  long  entirely  neglected.  In  the  reign  of  Henry 
the  Fourth  was  painted  the  fine  east  window  in  the  Cathedral  of  York. 
John  Thornton,  glazier,  of  Coventry,  who  contracted  for  it,  was  to 
receive  for  his  own  work  four  shillings  a  week,  and  to  finish  the  whole 
in  less  than  three  years.  Another  indenture  of  1338,  for  glazing 
some  of  the  west  windows,  stipulates,  that  the  workman  should  have 
sixpence  a  foot  for  white  glass,  and  twelve-pence  for  coloured. 

The  accession  of  Henry  the  Eighth  in  1509,  brought  along  with 
it  the  establishment  of  the  arts.  Till  the  end  of  the  reign  of  this  king, 
from  the  decline  of  the  heavy  Saxon  and  Norman,  the  pointed  Gothic 
was  almost  the  only  style  in  use  in  English  buildings.  The  style 
differed  much  in  its  characteristics  from  the  styles  which  had  flourished 
in  Greece  and  Rome,  but  it  was  in  its  particular  kind  strikingly  beauti- 
ful. It  is  difficult  for  the  noblest  Grecian  temple  to  convey  half  so 
many  impressions  to  the  mind,  as  does  a  cathedral  of  the  best  Gothic 
taste — a  proof  of  skill  in  the  architects,  and  of  address  in  the  priests, 
who  erected  them.  The  latter  exhausted  their  knowledge  of  the  pas- 
sions in  composing  edifices,  whose  pomp,  mechanism,  vaults,  tombs, 
painted  windows,  gloom,  and  perspectives,  infused  such  sensations  of 
romantic  devotion;  and  they  were  happy  in  finding  artists  capable 
of  executing  such  machinery.  One  must  have  taste,  to  be  sensible 
of  the  beauties  of  Grecian  architecture;  one  only  wants  passions,  to 
feel  Gothic.  In  St.  Peter's,  one  is  convinced  that  it  was  built  by  great 
princes.  In  Westminster  Abbey,  one  thinks  not  of  the  builder;  the 
religion  of  the  place  makes  the  first  impression;  and,  though  stripped 
of  its  altars  and  shrines,  it  is  nearer  converting  one  to  popery,  than  all 
the  regular  pageantry  of  Roman  domes.  Gothic  churches  infuse 
10 


PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


superstition ;  Grecian,  admiration.  The  papal  see  amassed  its  wealth 
by  Gothic  cathedrals,  and  displays  it  in  Grecian  temples.  Inigo  Jones, 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  Kent,  who  certainly  understood  beauty, 
blundered  into  the  heaviest  and  clumsiest  compositions,  whenever  they 
aimed  at  imitations  of  the  Gothic.  Walpole,  in  speaking  of  the 
architects  of  his  own  time,  observes — "  Considering  how  scrupulously 
our  architects  confine  themselves  to  antique  precedent,  perhaps  some 
deviations  into  Gothic  may  a  little  relieve  them  from  that  servile 
imitation.  I  mean,  that  they  should  study  both  tastes,  not  blend  them  : 
that  they  should  dare  to  invent  in  the  one,  since  they  will  hazard 
nothing  in  the  other.  When  they  have  built  a  pediment,  and  portico, 
the  sibyl's  circular  temple,  and  tacked  the  wings  to  a  house  by  a 
colonnade,  they  seem  au  bout  de  leur  Latin.  If  half  a  dozen  mansions 
were  all  that  remained  of  old  Rome,  instead  of  half  a  dozen  temples, 
I  do  not  doubt  but  our  churches  would  resemble  the  private  houses  ot 
Roman  citizens.  Our  buildings  must  be  as  Vitruvian,  as  writings  in 
the  days  of  Erasmus  were  obliged  to  be  Ciceronian." 

Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Henry  the  Eighth,  the  Grecian  01 
Roman  style  was  introduced.  "  It  was  first  plastered  upon  Gothic, 
and  made  a  barbarous  mixture.  Regular  columns,  with  ornaments 
neither  Grecian  nor  Gothic,  and  half  embroidered  with  foliage,  were 
crammed  over  frontispieces,  facades,  and  chimneys,  and  lost  all  grace 
by  wanting  simplicity.  This  mongrel  species  lasted  till  late  in  the 
reign  of  James  the  First. 

"  The  beginning  of  reformation  in  building  seems  owing  to  Holbein, 
His  porch  at  Wilton,  though  purer  than  the  works  of  his  successors,  is 
of  this  bastard  sort;  but  the  ornaments  and  proportions  are  graceful 
and  well  chosen.  I  have  seen  of  his  drawings  two  in  the  same  style. 
Where  he  acquired  this  taste,  is  difficult  to  say;  probably  it  was 
adopted  from  his  acquaintance  with  his  fellow-labourers  at  court. 
Henry  had  actually  an  Italian  architect  in  his  service,  to  whom  I 
should  without  scruple  assign  the  introduction  of  regular  architecture, 
if  it  was  clear  that  he  arrived  here  so  early  as  Holbein.  He  was 
called  John  of  Padua,  and  his  very  office  seems  to  intimate  something 
novel  in  his  practice.  He  was  called  Devizer  of  his  majesty's 
buildings"  No  particular  work  of  John  of  Padua  can  be  mentioned  : 
Holmby  house  was  one  of  our  earliest  productions  in  regular  archi- 
tecture, but  its  date  was  1583,  and  it  could  not,  therefore,  be  well 

u 


Introductory  essay. 


ascribed  to  John  of  Padua.  Several  other  specimens  of  the  same  style 
of  building  are  mentioned. 

In  the  reign  of  Edward  the  Sixth,  architecture  preserved  the  same 
footing  which  it  had  acquired  during  the  preceding  year.  Somerset 
house  was  built  on  the  site  of  Chester  inn,  where  the  ancient  poet 
Occleve  formerly  lived.  The  style  is  a  compound  of  Grecian  and 
Gothic,  and  as  the  pension  to  John  of  Padua  was  renewed  in  the  third 
year  of  this  reign,  we  may  suppose  that  he  owed  it  to  the  protector, 
and  that  he  was  the  architect  of  his  palace.  Longleat,  begun  in  1567, 
was  in  the  same  style  as  Somerset  house,  and  was  built  by  Sir  John 
Thynne,  a  principal  officer  to  the  protector. 

In  Elizabeth's  reign,  several  names  of  architects  occur.  John  Shute 
styles  himself,  "  paynter  and  architecte,"  in  a  folio  book  published  by 
him  in  1563,  called  "  The  Just  and  Chief  Groundes  of  Architecture, 
used  in  all  the  auncient  and  famous  monyments,  with  a  farther  and 
more  ample  discourse  uppon  the  same,  than  hitherto  hath  been  set 
out  by  any  other."  The  figures  are  in  a  better  style  than  ordinary. 
In  his  dedication  to  the  queen,  he  says,  that  he  had  been  sent  into 
Italy  in  1550,  by  the  duke  of  Northumberland,  who  maintained  him 
there  in  his  studies  under  the  best  architects.  Stowe  also  mentions 
one  Master  Stickles,  an  excellent  architect,  who  in  1596,  built  for  a 
triai  a  furnace  that  might  be  taken  to  pieces.  Robert  Adams,  the 
surveyor  of  the  queen's  buildings,  seems  to  have  been  a  man  of  abilities. 
He  was  buried  in  an  aisle  on  the  north  side  of  Greenwich  church,  with 
this  inscription. 

"  Egregioyiro,  Roberto  Adams,  operum  regiorum  supervisori,  arcbitecturae  peritis- 
simo,  ob.  1595.  Simon  Basil,  operationum  regiorum  contra  rotulator  hoc  posuit 
monumentnm,  1601." 

The  eastern  side  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  in  which  are  the 
porta  virtutis  et  sapientice  was  built  in  1566  and  1567.  These  are 
joined  by  two  long  walls  to  the  porta  humilitatis,  and  in  these  are 
two  little  Doric  frontispieces,  which  shew  the  Roman  architecture 
reviving,  with  little  columns  and  pilasters,  quite  unproportioned  to  the 
building  which  they  were  intended  to  adorn.  The  gate  of  honour  cost 
£128.  9s.  5d.  The  architect  was  Theodore  Havens.  In  the  college 
is  an  old  picture  of  a  man  in  a  flashed  doublet,  with  dark  curled  hair 
and  beard,  holding  a  pair  of  compasses,  which  appears  to  represent 
Theodore  Havens  himself.     In  the  gallery  of  Emmanuel  college, 

12 


PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


among  other  old  pictures,  is  one  with  the  following  inscription,  record- 
ing an  architect  of  the  same  age. 

"  Effigies  Rodulfi  Simons  architect  sua  aetate  peritissimi,  qui  (praeter  plurima 
aedificia  ab  eo  praeclare  facta)  duo  collegia,  Emanuelis  hoc,  Sidneii  illud,  estruxit 
integre  :  magnam  etiatn  partem  Trinitatis  reconcinnavit  amplissiuie." 

On  the  decline  of  the  Gothic  style,  the  ideas  of  grandeur  seem  to 
have  been  confined  to  what  was  spacious.  The  palaces  erected  during 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  by  Elizabeth  of  Hardwicke,  the"  countess  01 
Shrewsbury,  were  in  this  style  :  "  The  apartments,"  Walpole  says, 
"  are  lofty  and  enormous,  and  they  knew  not  how  to  furnish  them : 
pictures,  had  they  had  good  ones,  would  be  lost  in  chambers  of  such 
height ;  tapestry,  their  chief  moveable,  was  not  commonly  perfect 
enough  to  be  real  magnificence.  Fretted  ceilings,  graceful  mouldings 
of  windows,  and  painted  glass,  the  ornaments  of  the  preceding  age, 
were  fallen  into  disuse.  Immense  lights,  composed  of  bad  glass  in 
diamond  panes,  cast  an  air  of  poverty  on  their  most  costly  apartments. 
That  at  Hardwicke,  still  preserved  as  it  was  furnished  for  the  reception 
and  imprisonment  of  the  queen  of  Scots,  is  a  curious  picture  of  that 
age  and  style.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  expense  in  the  bed  of  state, 
in  the  hangings  of  the  same  chamber,  and  of  the  coverings  for  the 
tables.  The  first  is  cloth  of  gold,  cloth  of  silver,  velvets  of  different 
colours,  lace,  fringes,  and  embroidery.  The  hangings  consist  of  figures, 
large  as  life,  representing  the  virtues  and  vices,  embroidered  on  grounds 
of  white  and  black  velvet.  The  cloths  to  cast  over  the  tables  are  em- 
broidered, and  embossed  with  gold,  on  velvets  and  damask.  The  only 
moveables  of  any  taste  are  the  cabinets  and  tables  themselves,  carved  in 
oak.  The  chimneys  are  wide  enough  for  a  hall  or  kitchen,  and  over 
the  arras  are  friezes  of  many  feet  deep,  with  miserable  relievos  in  stucco 
representing  huntings.  There,  and  in  all  the  great  mansions  of  that 
age,  is  a  gallery,  remarkable  only  for  its  extent.  That  at  Hardwicke  is 
of  sixty  yards." 

During  the  reign  of  James  the  First,  the  arts  did  not  meet  with  much 
encouragement.  Edward  Jansen,  supposed  to  be  a  Fleming,  was 
engaged  in  many  great  works,  among  which  were  Audley  End,  near 
Walden  in  Essex,  and  the  greater  part  of  Northumberland  house. 
The  former  was  an  immense  pile  of  building,  its  rooms  large,  though 
not  proportionally  lofty,  with  a  gallery  of  immense  extent.  The  fron- 
tispiece of  Northumberland  house,  Vertue  discovered  to  be  the  work 

13 


INTRODUCTORY  ESSAY. 


of  Gerard  Christmas,  an  architect  of  the  same  reign,  who  made  the 
design  for  Aldersgate,  and  cut  the  bas-relief,  of  James  the  First  on 
horseback,  on  it.  John  Smithson  was  an  architect  employed  by  the 
earls  of  Newcastle;  he  built  Welbeck  in  1604,  the  riding-house  there 
in  1623,  as  appeared  by  his  name  over  the  gate,  and  the  stables  in 
1625.  When  William  Cavendish,  earl  of  Newcastle,  proposed  to  repair 
and  make  great  additions  to  Bolsover-castle,  Smithson  went  to  Italy  to 
collect  designs,  and  from  them,  Walpole  supposes,  "  the  noble  apart- 
ment erected  by  that  earl  (and  afterwards  duke,)  and  lately  pulled 
down,  was  completed."  Smithson  died  in  1648.4  His  son  was  also 
a  man  of  some  skill  in  architecture.  Stephen  Harrison,  who  calls  him- 
self, M  joyner  and  architect,"  invented  the  triumphal  arches  erected  in 
London  for  the  reception  of  James  the  First. 

The  metropolis,  during  the  reign  of  James,  increased  rapidly  in 
extent.  Elizabeth  had  issued  several  rigid  proclamations  against  the 
increase  of  new  buildings  in  the  city  ;  but  they  had  produced  little 
effect.  In  1605,  which  was  the  second  year  of  his  reign,  James  issued 
a  similar  proclamation,  forbidding  all  manner  of  building  within  the 
city,  and  a  circuit  of  one  mile  thereof.  It  commanded  also  that  all  per- 
sons henceforward  should  build  all  their  fore-fronts  and  windows,  either 
"*f  brick  or  stone  ;  as  well  for  decency,  as  by  reason  all  great  and  well- 
grown  woods  were  much  spent  and  wasted,  so  that  timber  for  shipping 
became  scarce."  As  this  proclamation  also  was  ineffective,  another 
was  issued  to  the  same  purport  in  1607,  and  some  offenders  were 
'ensured  in  the  star-chamber,  for  building  contrary  to  its  tenor. 
Another  edict,  issued  in  1614,  required  the  commissioners  to  proceed 
with  all  possible  strictness  against  every  offender,  and  from  this  time 

*  Smithson's  epitaph,  in  the  chancel  of  Bolsover  church,  is  as  follows : 

"  Reader,  beneath  this  plain  stone  buried  lies 
Smithson's  remainder  of  mortality; 
Whose  skill  in  architecture  did  deserve 
A  fairer  tomb  his  memory  to  preserve 
But  since  his  nobler  works  of  piety 
To  God,  his  justice  and  his  charity, 
Are  gone  to  heaven,  a  building  to  prepare 
Not  made  with  hands,  his  friends  contented  ar«: 
He  here  shall  rest  in  hope,  'till  th'  world  shall  burn , 
And  inierming'te  ashes  with  his  urn. 

Ob.  Decemb.  27, 1648.* 

14 


PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


we  may  date  the  reformation  of  domestic  architecture  in  London. 
The  first  house  of  note  erected  conformably  to  this  proclamation  was 
built  for  colonel  Cecilin  the  Strand.  Next,  one  was  built  in  the  city, 
near  Draper's  hall,  Throgmorton-street ;  and  another  for  an  opulent 
goldsmith,  opposite  Sadler's  hall  in  the  Cheapside.  A  leather-seller  in 
St.  Paul's  churchyard  had  constructed  his  dwelling,  near  the  north 
gate,  of  timber,  and  was  compelled  to  take  it  down,  and  rebuild  it  in 
the  prevailing  fashion.5 

Towards  the  end  of  this  reign,  architecture  was  undergoing  a  great 
change  for  the  better.  The  description  of  a  palace  which  has  been 
recommended  by  the  great  and  accomplished  Bacon,  exhibits  the  same 
style  which  was  so  successfully  cultivated  by  Inigo  Jones  and  Sir  Henry 
Wotton.6  The  description  given  by  Bacon  may  be  compared  with  the 
design  for  the  new  palace  at  Whitehall,  by  Inigo  Jones.  The  "  Ele- 
ments of  Architecture,"  by  Sir  Henry  Wotton,  contain  at  once  the 
soundest  doctrines  of  practice,  and  the  purest  ideas  of  taste. 

The  great  ornament  of  the  reign  of  the  second  Charles,  was  Inigo 
Jones.  Walpole  has  given  his  history,  as  a  genius,  in  a  few  words. 
*  Vitruvius  drew  up  his  grammar ;  Palladio  shewed  him  the  practice  ; 
Rome  displayed  a  theatre  worthy  of  his  emulation;  and  king  Charles 
tfas  ready  to  encourage,  employ,  and  reward  his  talents."  Many  of 
his  designs  may  be  seen  in  Campbell's  Vitruvius,  and  in  Kent's  edition 
of  his  works.  Among  the  best  are  the  banqueting  house  at  White- 
nail  ;  the  new  quadrangle  of  St.  John's  college,  Oxford  ;  the  church  of 
St.  Paul,  with  the  piazza  and  arcade  of  Covent-garden ;  the  chapel  of 
Lincoln's  Inn,  and  part  of  Lincoln's-inn-fields ;  the  queen's  chapel  at 
St.  James's;  the  fine  villa  of  lord  Pembroke  at  Wilton;  Coleshill,  in 
Berkshire;  Cobham  hall,  in  Kent;  the  Grange,  in  Hampshire;  the 
queen's  house  at  Greenwich ;  and  the  portico  of  old  St.  Paul's.* 
Horace  Walpole  observes,  of  the  banqueting  house  at  Whitehall,  that 
it  is  "  a  small  part  of  the  pile  designed  for  the  palace  of  our  kings ; 
but  so  complete  in  itself,  that  it  stands  a  model  of  the  most  pure  and 
oeautiful  taste."  "  Several  plates,  "  he  says,  "  of  the  intended  palace 
of  Whitehall  have  been  given ;  but,  I  believe,  from  no  finished  design. 
The  four  great  sheets  are  evidently  made  up  from  general  hints;  nor 

*  Stowe.  •  See  his  Essays. 

7  Lord  Burlington,  comparing  this  portico  with  the  new  one,  observed  sarcastically 
'  When  the  Jews  saw  the  second  temple,  they  wept." 

15 


INTRODUCTORY  ESSAY. 


ould  such  a  source  of  invention  and  taste  as  the  mind  of  Inigo,  ever 
produce  so  much  sameness.  The  whole  fabric,  however,  was  so 
glorious  an  idea,  that  one  forgets  for  a  moment,  in  the  regret  for  its 
not  being  executed,  the  confirmation  of  our  liberties  obtained  by  a 
melancholy  scene  that  passed  before  the  windows  of  that  very  banquet- 
ing house."8 

Another  remarkable  man  in  the  service  of  Charles  was  Sir  Balthazar 
Gerbier  D'Ouvilly,  of  Antwerp,  who  was  both  architect  and  painter, 
though  excellent  in  neither.  He  first  rose  to  repute  by  the  interest  or 
the  duke  of  Buckingham,  and,  after  the  death  of  that  nobleman,  still 
continued  to  keep  his  ground  in  the  court.  In  one  of  his  books,  he 
himself  says,  that  the  king  promised  him  the  office  of  surveyor-general 
of  the  works,  after  the  death  of  Inigo  Jones.  In  1662,  he  published  a 
small  discourse  on  magnificent  buildings,  dedicated  to  the  king,  in 
which  he  treats  principally  of  solidity,  convenience,  and  ornament,  and 
glances  at  some  errors  of  Inigo  Jones  in  the  banqueting  house.  He 
mentions  a  large  room  built  by  himself,  near  the  water-gate,  at  York- 
stairs,  and  says,  that  the  king  expressed  as  much  satisfaction  with  it 
as  with  the  banqueting  house.  In  this  book,  he  proposes  to  the  lords 
and  commons  to  level  the  streets,  Fleet-bridge  and  Cheapside,  and 
erect  a  sumptuous  gate  at  Temple-bar,  of  which  he  had  presented  a 
design  to  the  king.  His  last  book  is  a  small  manual  entitled,  "  Counsel 
and  Advice  to  all  Builders,"  &c.  London,  1663,  which  contains  some 
curious  things,  particularly  the  prices  of  work  and  materials  at  that 
time.  In  one  place  he  ridicules  the  heads  of  lions,  which  were  creep- 
ing through  the  pilasters  on  the  houses  in  Great  Queen -street,  built 
by  Webb,  the  scholar  of  Inigo  Jones.  Gerbier  gave  designs  for 
Hempstead-marshal,  the  seat  of  lord  Craven,  afterwards  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  died  there  while  it  was  building.  The  foundation  was  laid 
in  1662. 

The  early  part  of  the  reign  of  the  first  Charles  was  favourable  to  the 
progress  of  art.  But  this  progress  was  stopped  by  the  civil  contentions 
which  followed.  The  arts  were  in  a  manner  expelled  from  society. 
That  had  enjoyed  too  much  of  the  favour  of  the  kin^.  to  share  that  of 
the  people  who  had  been  oppressed  by  him.     At  the  restoration,  how- 

*  The  fee  of  Inigo  Jones,  as  surveyor,  was  eight  shillings  and  fourpence  per  day, 
with  an  allowance  of  forty-six  pounds  a  year  for  house-rent,  besides  a  clsrk,  and 
incidental  expenses.    What  greater  rewards  he  had,  are  not  on  record. 
16 


PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


ever,  they  returned  with  the  royal  family,  and  re-occupied  their  former 
place  among  the  pleasures  of  society. 

Walpole  has  observed,  that  "  the  restoration  of  royalty  brought  back 
the  arts,  not  taste. "  The  king  was,  indeed,  rather  a  lover  of  magni- 
ficence than  of  elegance,  and  true  taste  was  made  to  give  way  to 
extravagance  and  show.  Architecture  was  patronized,  and,  though  the 
general  taste  was  corrupted  by  imitations  from  the  French,  \et  this 
reign  produced  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

John  Webb,  a  scholar  of  Inigo  Jones,  built  the  seat  of  lord  Mountfort, 
at  Horseheath,  in  Cambridgeshire,  and  added  the  portico  to  the  Vine, 
in  Hampshire,  for  Chaloner  Chute,  speaker  to  Richard  Cromwell's 
parliament.  He  also  built  Ambresbury,  in  Wiltshire,  from  the  designs 
of  his  master,  Inigo  Jones.  1  He  built,  also,  according  to  Gerbier,  the 
large  buildings  in  Queen-street,  Lincoln's-inn-fields.  Contemporary 
with  Webb,  lived  captain  William  Winde,  a  native  of  Berghen-op- 
Zoom,  and  a  scholar  of  Gerbier.  He  built  a  house  for  the  duke  of 
Newcastle  in  Lincoln's-inn-fields,  the  house  at  Cliefden,  Coomb-abbey, 
for  lord  Craven,  and  finished  Hempstead-marshal,  which  had  been 
begun  by  Gerbier.  The  architect  of  Nottingham  castle  was  a  person 
of  the  name  of  Marsh,  who  also  designed  the  additional  buildings  at 
Bolsover.  The  building  of  Montagu  house,  now  the  British  museum, 
was  conducted  by  Monsieur  Pouget,  a  French  architect,  in  1678, 
according  to  Walpole. 

"  A  variety  of  knowledge  proclaims  the  universality,  a  multiplicity 
of  works  the  abundance,  St.  Paul's  the  greatness,"  of  the  genius  of 
Sir  Christopher  Wren.  As  an  architect,  Wren  was  more  than  equal 
to  Jones,  but  was  inferior  to  him  in  taste.  It  has  been  observed,  that, 
perhaps,  nothing  of  Wren's  is  equal  in  invention  and  taste  to  any 
thing  of  Jones's,  and  nothing  of  Jones's  equals  any  thing  of  Wren's 
in  scientific  construction.  His  works  in  domestic  architecture  are 
much  inferior  to  his  public  buildings,  because  they  are  more  in  accord- 
ance with  the  fashions  of  the  time.  His  best  productions  of  this  class 
are  the  two  fine  mansions  at  Chichester,  Marlborough  House  in  Pall  Mall, 
the  house  of  Mr.  Tegg  the  bookseller  in  Cheapside;  a  house  in  Great 
Russell  Street,  formerly  occupied  by  Mr.  Wren,  and  some  others.  Of  his 
public  buildings,  St.  Paul's  alone  is  sufficient  to  perpetuate  his  memory. 

Wren  was  for  a  long  time  the  sole  architect  of  note  ;  but,  towards  the 

i  Webb  designed  the  frontispiece  to  Walton's  Poljglott  Bible,  which  consists  of 

architecture  and  figures. 

C  17 


INTRODUCTORY  ESSAY. 


end  of  his  life,  a  school  of  architects  arose,  and  succeeded  him.  Dur- 
ing tfie  reign  of  William,  the  name  of  William  Salman  occurs,  who  was 
employed  on  several  considerable  works.  He  built  Thoresby  House  in 
Nottinghamshire,  which  was  afterwards  burnt;  Dynham  House  in 
Gloucestershire,  (in  1698,)  and  Chatsworth.  The  design  of  the  flight 
of  steps  leading  from  the  hall  to  the  apartments,  at  Chatsworth,  was 
borrowed  by  Kent,  in  the  erection  of  Holkham.  The  steeple  of  War- 
wick church,  having  been  burnt,  was  rebuilt  by  Sir  William  AVilson. 

In  the  reign  of  queen  Anne  flourished  Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  whose 
reputation  is  greater  as  a  poet  than  as  an  architect.  He  was  the  lead- 
ing architect  of  his  day,  and  his  genius  was  bold,  and  sometimes  pic- 
turesque, but  at  the  same  time  wild  and  incongruous.  He  began 
Blenheim  in  1705,  in  which  work  his  builder  was  Edward  Strong,  one 
of  the  master  masons  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  His  other  principal 
works  were — the  church  of  St.  John  in  Westminster,  "  a  wonderful 
piece  of  absurdity;"  Castle  Howard  in  Yorkshire;  Eastberry  in  Dorset- 
shire; King's  Weston,  near  Bristol ;  Easton  Neston  in  Northampton- 
shire; one  front  of  Grimsthorp ;  two  little  castles  at  Greenwich,  and 
the  Opera  House  in  the  Haymarket.  The  following  is  the  character 
which  Walpole  has  sketched  of  Vanbrugh's  style. 

"  What  Pope  said  of  his  comedies,  is  much  more  applicable  to  his 
buildings  : 

How  Van  wants  grace  I 
Grace!  He  wanted  eyes,  he  wanted  all  ideas  of  proportion,  con- 
venience, propriety.  He  undertook  vast  designs,  and  composed  heaps 
of  littleness.  The  style  of  no  age,  no  country,  appears  in  his  works  ; 
he  broke  through  all  rule,  and  compensated  for  it  by  no  imagination. 
He  seems  to  have  hollowed  quarries,  rather  than  to  have  built  houses; 
and  should  his  edifices,  as  they  seem  formed  to  do,  outlast  all  record, 
what  architecture  will  posterity  think  was  that  of  their  ancestors?  The 
laughers,  his  contemporaries,  said,  having  been  confined  in  the  bastile, 
he  had  drawn  his  notions  of  buildings  from  that  fortified  dungeon. 
That  a  single  man  should  have  been  capricious,  should  have  wanted 
taste,  is  not  extraordinary.  That  he  should  have  been  selected  to 
raise  a  palace,  built  at  the  public  expense  for  the  hero  of  his  country, 
surprises  one.  Whose  thought  it  was  to  load  every  avenue  to  that 
palace  with  inscriptions,  I  do  not  know ;  altogether  they  form  an 
edition  of  the  acts  of  parliament,  in  stone.  However  partial  the  court 
was  to  Vanbrugh,  every  body  was  not  so  blind  to  his  defects.  Swift 

18 


PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


ridiculed  both  his  own  diminutive  house  at  Whitehall,  and  the  stu- 
pendous pile  at  Blenheim  :  of  the  first  he  says; 

At  length  they  in  the  rubbish  spy 
A  thing  resembling  a  goose  pie. 

And  of  the  other; 

That  if  his  grace  were  not  more  skill'd  in 
The  art  of  battering  walls  than  building, 
We  might  expect  to  see  next  year 
A  mouse-trap  man  chief  engineer." 

The  names  of  Roberti  and  Bagotti  appear  also  as  architects  during 
the  reign  of  queen  Anne. 

Architectural  taste  appeared  to  be  at  its  lowest  ebb  during  the  reign 
of  the  first  George.  Inigo  Jones  first  revealed  on  our  soil  the  beauties 
of  antiquity,  and  established  simplicity,  harmony,  and  proportion. 
This  did  not  last  long,  for  the  chaste  beauties  of  this  school  expired 
with  Wren,  and  gave  place  to  a  style  whose  characteristics  verged  into 
mere  masses  of  masonry.  Nicholas  Hawksmoor  was  a  pupil  of  Wren, 
and  was,  as  early  as  the  reign  of  Charles,  supervisor  of  the  palace  at 
Westminster.  He  assisted  Wren  in  conducting  the  works  at  St.  Paul's 
until  their  conclusion,  was  deputy  surveyor  at  the  building  of  Chelsea 
college,  and  clerk  of  the  works  at  Greenwich,  it:  which  post  he  was 
continued  by  William,  Anne,  and  George  the  First,  at  Kensington, 
Whitehall,  and  St.  James's.  Under  George  the  First,  he  was  first 
surveyor  of  all  the  new  churches,  and  of  Westminster  Abbey,  after  the 
death  of  Wren.  His  churches  are  St.  Mary  Woolnoth  in  Lombard 
Street;  Christ  Church  in  Spitalfields  ;  St.  George,  Middlesex;  St. 
Anne,  Limehouse;  and  St.  George,  Bloomsbury.  He  also  built  part 
of  All  Souls  College,  Oxford;  the  two  towers  over  the  gateway  of 
which  are  copies  of  his  own  steeple  of  St.  Anne,  Limehouse.  He  was 
associated  with  Vanbrugh  in  the  works  at  Blenheim  and  Castle  Howard. 
Among  the  best  of  his  houses  may  be  instanced  Easton  Neston  in 
Northamptonshire.  1 

James  Gibbs  was  born  at  Aberdeen  in  1683,  and  pursued  the  study 
of  architecture  in  Italy.  In  1720,  he  became  the  most  popular  man  in 
his  profession.  The  knowledge  of  Gibbs  was  merely  mechanical  :  the 
members  of  his  works  are  correct,  but  the  whole  wants  taste  and  grace 

«  Hawksmoor  died  March  25,  1736,  aged  nearly  70.    He  restored  a  defect  in  the 
minster  of  Beverley,  by  means  of  a  machine  of  his  own  invention,  of  which  a  print  wa 
published,    lit  also  repaired  in  a  judicious  manner  the  west  end  of  Westminster  Abbey 
and  gave  a  design  for  the  RatcliflTe  Library,  at  Oxford. 

19 


INTRODUCTORY  ESSAY. 

hi  distribution  and  design.  Among  his  churches  are  St.  Martyn's, 
St.  Mary's  in  the  Strand;  and  a  church  at  Derby.  His  works  at 
Cambridge  are  the  central  pile  of  buildings  at  King's  College,  and  the 
Senate-house.  At  Oxford,  he  was  the  author  of  the  RatclitTe  Library  ; 
at  the  opening  of  which,  he  was  complimented  by  the  University  with 
the  degree  of  Master  of  Arts.  The  quadrangle  of  All  Saints,  though 
he  was  very  inferior  in  Gothic  architecture,  is  superior  to  the  library, 
and  possesses  considerable  grandeur,  when  seen  through  the  gate  that 
leads  from  the  school.  "  The  assemblage  of  buildings  in  that  quarter," 
Walpole  observes,  "  though  no  single  one  is  beautiful,  always  struck 
me  with  singular  pleasure,  as  it  conveys  such  a  vision  of  large  edifices, 
unbroken  by  private  houses,  as  the  mind  is  apt  to  entertain  of 
renowned  cities  that  exist  no  longer."  Gibbs  died  in  1754,  on  the  fifth 
of  August.    In  1728,  he  published  a  large  folio  of  his  own  designs. 

Colin  Campbell,  who  was  surveyor  of  the  works  at  Greenwich  Hos- 
pital, and  died  in  1734,  had  more  correctness  than  Gibbs,  though  he 
did  not  excel  him  in  taste  and  imagination.  His  best  designs  are 
Wanstead,  the  Rolls,  and  Mereworth  in  Kent,  which  was  copied  from 
Palladio.  John  James  was  also  an  architect  employed  in  the  works  at 
Greenwich.  He  built  the  church  there,  that  of  St.  George  in  Hanover 
Square  ;  the  body  of  the  church  at  Twickenham  ;  and  that  of  St.  L'  ke, 
Middlesex.  He  also  built  the  house  for  Sir  Gregory  Page,  at  Black- 
heath,  of  which  the  idea  was  taken  from  Houghton. 

The  reign  of  George  the  Second  opens  a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
the  arts.  During  the  first  years  of  this  reign,  Gibbs  and  Campbell 
were  still  at  the  head  of  their  profession ;  but  it  had  begun  to  improve 
before  they  left  it,  and  soon  after  resumed  all  its  rights.  Fine  publica- 
tions were  made  of  the  works  of  Palladio,  Inigo  Jones,  and  of  the 
antique;  men  of  genius  arose  to  imitate  them,  and  men  of  rank  came 
forwards  to  patronize  their  labours.  A  Venetian,  named  Giacomo 
Leoni,  settled  in  England,  and  published  a  fine  edition  of  Palladio  in 
1742,  and  was  employed  in  building  several  houses. 

The  two  great  patrons  of  architecture  were  Henry  Herbert,  earl  ot 
Pembroke,  and  Richard  Boyle,  earl  of  Burlington.  The  great  restorer 
of  architecture  was  William  Kent.  None  exceeded  the  earl  of  Pem- 
broke in  purity  of  taste.  Part  of  the  works  at  Wilton,  a  lodge  in  Rich- 
mond Park,  the  house  at  Marble-hill,  Twickenham,  the  Wate.house 
in  the  park  at  Houghton — were  all  his  own  designs.    He  overlooked 

20 


PROGRESS  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


assiduously  the  construction  of  Westminster  Bridge,  by  M.  Labelye. 
The  earl  of  Burlington  was  an  enthusiastic  admirer  of  Inigo  Jones.  He 
proved  his  attachment  to  the  arts  by  contributing  large  sums  to  public 
works,  and  his  own  designs  were  peculiarly  chaste  and  classic.  He 
assisled  Kent  in  publishing  the  designs  for  Whitehall,  and  gave  a 
beautiful  edition  of  the  antique  baths  from  the  drawings  of  Palladio, 
whose  papers  he  had  procured  at  a  great  expense.  The  grand  colonnade 
within  the  court  of  Burlington  House,  Piccaddily,  is  the  work  of  lord 
Burlington,  as  are  various  works  on  his  estate  at  Lonsborouah  in  York- 
shire.  His  house  at  Chiswick,  with  all  its  defects,  is  a  model  of  taste.1 
Other  designs  by  this  munificent  nobleman  were,  the  dormitory  at 
Westminster  school;  the  assembly-room  at  York;  lord  Harrington's 
seat  at  Petersham ;  the  duke  of  Richmond's  house  at  Whitehall ;  and 
general  Wade's  in  Cork  Street.  2 

William  Kent  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  and  put  apprentice  to  a  coach- 
painter,  but  left  his  master  without  leave,  and  went  to  London,  where 
his  talents  procured  him  patronage,  which  enabled  him  to  visit  Italy  in 
1710.  On  his  return  to  England  in  1719,  lord  Burlington  gave  him 
an  apartment  in  his  own  house,  and  procured  him  employment  in 
painting,  in  which  branch  of  art  his  genius  first  distinguished  him. 
This,  however,  was  a  misapplication  of  his  genius,  as  it  was  a  branch  in 
which  he  least  excelled.  His  taste  for  ornaments  was  excellent,  and  it 
became  a  general  fashion  to  consult  him  in  all  .designs  of  furniture,  and 
even  of  plate,  barges,  &c.  In  architecture  his  taste  is  deservedly 
admired.  His  favourite  work  was  the  house  at  Holkham  in  Norfolk  ; 
and  the  great  hall,  with  the  flight  of  steps  at  the  upper  end,  where  he 
proposed  to  place  a  colossal  statue  of  J upiter,  was  indeed  very  noble. 
"  Holkham,"  says  Walpole,  "  has  its  faults,  but  they  are  Kent's  faults." 
The  designs  of  Holkham  were  published  under  another  name.  Kent 
did  not  succeed  well  in  Gothic  architecture,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  King's- 
bench  at  Westminster,  and  the  house  of  Mr.  Pelham  at  Esher. 

Ripley,  who  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  was  employed  on  several  con- 
siderable works  during  this  reign,  but  was  devoid  of  architectural  taste, 
though  he  excelled  most  of  his  contemporaries  in  the  mechanical  part, 

•  The  idea  of  this  house  was  borrowed  from  a  well-known  villa  of  Palladio. 

*  The  front  of  this  latter  was  so  beautiful,  and  the  inside  so  ill-contrived,  that  lord 
Chesterfield  said,  "  as  the  general  could  not  live  in  it  to  bis  ease,  he  had  better  take 
a  bouse  ovcr-against  it,  and  look  at  it.*' 

21 


INTRODUCTORY  ESSAY. 


and  in  the  disposition  of  apartments  and  conveniences.  He  built  the 
AdmiraltVj  and  the  house  at  Woolterton,  which  belonged  to  lord 
Walpole,  which  is  characterized  by  Horace  Wal pole,  as  "  one  of  the 
best  houses  of  the  size  in  England."  The  Admiralty  is  not,  however, 
deserving  of  commendation  :  its  screen  was  the  work  of  Mr.  Adam. 

The  elder  Dance  was  a  man  of  some  genius,  as  may  be  seen  in  his 
church  of  Shoreditch,  and  his  mansion-house  was  preferred  to  a  design 
by  Pal  lad  io,  offered  to  the  city  by  lord  Burlington  ;  but  the  preference 
is  said  to  have  been  given  to  Dance's  design, because Palladio  was  a  papist, 
and  was  not  a  freeman.  Perhaps,  the  most  barbarous  artist  of  this  age, 
though  not  the  least  celebrated,  was  Batty  Langley.  Langley  formed  a 
kind  of  school,  and  his  disciples  were  excellent  workmen,  but  they  were  all 
carpenters.  His  Gothic  style  was  a  most  barbarous  invention  of  his  own. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  George  the  Second,  architecture 
had  again  fallen  to  a  low  ebb.  The  best  architects  of  that  reign 
left  no  disciples;  and  they  were  succeeded  by  men  of  no  account. 
The  profession  was  abandoned  to  common  surveyors  and  builders. 
George  the  Third,  however,  was  a  man  of  some  taste,  and,  while  prince 
of  Wales,  had  studied  the  science  under  Chambers,  who  was  then  in 
the  navy.  Chambers,  after  his  accession  to  the  throne,  became  the 
royal  architect,  and  his  works  have  a  chaste  correctness  of  detail, 
of  the  best  style  of  Italian  art,  though  his  taste  was  too  n-uch  Roman, 
and  impure.  In  his  "  Civil  Architecture,"  which  is  a  good  book,  he 
shews  his  bad  taste  by  reviling  the  architecture  of  ancient  Greece. 
The  exclusive  admiration  of  Roman  architecture,  however,  soon  passed 
away,  and  the  art  was  now  approaching  to  a  greater  degree  of  perfec- 
tion than  it  had  ever  before  reached  in  England.  Its  great  ornaments 
were  Adam,  and  Wyatt,  and  Milne.  Wyatt  was  always  tasteful  and 
scientific.  H's  Pantheon,  and  his  other  works,  proved  his  skill  in  the 
architecture  l.e  had  learnt  in  Italy.  His  imitations  of  the  Gothic 
at  Windsor,  at  Fonthill  Abbey,  and  at  Salisbury  Cathedral,  came 
little  short  of  originals.  Milne  was  the  first  of  our  countrymen  who 
obtained  a  premium  for  art,  at  Rome:  the  design  of  his  Blackfriar's 
Bridge  was  made  before  he  had  completed  his  studies.  The  encou- 
ragement now  given  to  architecture,  produced  a  multitude  of  skilful 
artists,  such  as  Holland,  the  younger  Dance,  Soane,  Wilkins,  Harrison 
of  Chester,  Smirke,  Gwilt,  and  Savage, 

22 


DICTIONARY  OF  ARCHITECTURE. 


ARON'S  -  ROD. 
In  decoration.  A 
rodwith  a  serpent 
twined  round  it. 
The  term  is  often 
used  byvvorkmen 
as  synonymous 
with  cadueeus,  or  the  wand  which 
the  ancients  used  as  a  symbol  of 
the  god  Mercury. 

Abaci.  A  word  found  in  some 
translations  of  Vitruvius,  which 
is  supposed  to  mean  pannels 
made  in  the  stucco  of  walls,  which 
are  seen  in  many  ancient  classical 
buildings,  and  used  as  a  decora- 
tion above  the  podium  or  dado. 

Vitruvius  directs  that  in  winter 
eating-rooms,  the  cornices  and 
ceilings  are  not  to  be  minutely 
or  delicately  ornamented,  because 
they  are  soon  soiled  by  the 
smoke  from  the  fire,  and  the  soot 
produced  by  a  number  of  lamps  ; 
and  it  is  probably  for  the  same 
reason  that  he  adds,  "  In  these 
apartments,  the  abaci  above  the 
podium  are  coloured  black,  and 


polished  with  yellow  and  red  or- 
naments intermixed." 

Galiani  supposes  abaci  to  be 
bricks  cut  from  old  plaster  wails, 
and  inserted  into  other  (or  new) 
work,  to  form  a  margin  or  re- 
lievo around  some  other  orna- 
ment. 

Abacot.  In  decoration.  A  co- 
ronet or  cap  of  state,  represent- 
ing that  which  was  anciently 
worn  by  the  kings  of  England. 
See  Crown. 

Abacus.  An  instrument  used 
by  the  ancients  for  casting  up 
accounts,  or  performing  arithme- 
tical calculations. 

By  some  authors  it  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  word  abax,  (a 
buffet,  or  table.)  By  others, 
from  the  Phoenician  word  abakx 
(dust  or  powder,)  because  this 
instrument  was  sometimes  a 
square  board  or  tablet,  rubbed 
with  wax,  and  strewed  with  sand 
or  green  dust,  upon  which  ma- 
thematicians noted  their  calcula- 
tions, and  traced  their  diagrams ; 

23 


ABA 


ABA 


and  children  formed  the  letters 
of  the  alphabet. 

In  furniture,  abacus  was  the 
name  of  a  tabic  (or  flap)  without 
feet,  fastened  to  the  wall,  used  for 
holding  vases  and  cups,  and  made 
so  as  to  fold  or  hang  down  after 
use,  a  sideboard  and  a  bujfet,  which 
were  made  of  the  precious  woods 
covered  with  plates  and  orna- 
ments of  ivory  or  gold,  a  luxury 
derived  by  the  Romans  from  the 
Asiatic  Greeks,  after  their  con- 
quest of  Asia.  This  was  Cicero's 
splendid  stand  for  the  exhibition 
of  his  plate.  Cato  makes  those 
of  more  homely  materials  part  of 
the  furniture  of  a  Roman  farmer's 
house.  A  marble  abacus  is  de- 
scribed by  Juvenal,  (Sat.  13,)  as 
being  that  used  by  a  poor  poet  to 
place  his  water  pitchers  on. 

Abacus.  In  Greek  and  Roman 
architecture.  The  upper  member 
of  the  capital  of  a  column,  in  the 
Greek  doric,  and  a  collection  of 
members  or  mouldings,  serving 
as  a  kind  of  crowning,  in  other 
orders.  In  the  Greek  and  Roman 
examples  it  covers  the  ornaments 
or  mouldings  of  the  capitals. 

In  the  corinthian  order,  the 
abacus  is  encurvated  ;  which 
curving  is  called  the  arch  of  the 
abacus,  and  is  commonly  deco- 
rated with  a  rose  or  some  other 
ornament  in  the  centre,  having 
the  angles  called  the  horns  of  the 
abacus  cut  off  in  the  direction  of 
the  radius  of  the  curve. 

The  upper  member  of  the  aba- 
cus of  the  corinthian  capital  is 
called,  by  some  English  writers, 
a  boultine  (or  echinus  ;)  the  pa- 
rallelopipedon  under  it,  the  fillet; 
and  the  third  and  undermost 
member,  the  plinth  of  the  aba- 
cus. 

Pall  ad  io  states  the  proportion 
of  the  abacus  to  be  one-third  of 
the  whole  height  of  the  tuscan 
24 


and  ionic  capitals,  and  in  the 
corinthian  one-seventh. 

The  proportions,  however,  of 
this  member  in  the  various  or- 
ders, vary  much  in  different  an- 
tique examples  of  the  same  order. 
Its  general  proportion,  stated 
by  the  height  of  the  entire  order, 
is  subject  to  similar  irregularities. 

Palladio  calls  the  plinth  above 
the  echinus  of  the  tuscan,  aba- 
cus, or  dye,  or  dado.  Others  re- 
strict the  term  to  the  moulding 
or  fillet  under  the  cymatium  of 
the  capital  of  the  Roman  doric. 
In  the  ionic  to  the  ogee,  which  is 
crowned  with  a  fillet ;  or  to  a 
cima  reversa  with  a  fillet  under, 
when  placed  in  the  same  situa- 
tion j  and  Scamozzi  writes  abacus 
for  the  concave  moulding  in  the 
capital  of  the  tuscan  pedestal. 

The  bowls  mentioned  in  the 
Book  of  Kings,  were  the  circular 
parts  of  the  doric  capitals,  and 
which,  in  the  columns  at  Paestum, 
have  a  great  resemblance  to  bowls 
or  cups,  called  by  the  Italians 
Tazze.  The  French  style  this 
member,  in  the  capital  of  doric 
columns,  the  vase  de  chapiteau. 

In  all  the  doric  buildings  of 
Greece  (except  one  or  two)  and 
its  Asiatic  colonies,  it  is  a  paral- 
lelopipedon  with  the  horizontal 
sides,  squares,  and  the  vertical 
faces,  rectangles. 

In  some  Egyptian  buildings  it 
is  a  square  block  having  the  same 
din tensions  on  its  side  as  the  dia- 
meter of  the  pillar;  in  others  it 
recedes,  and  then  assumes  the 
appearance  of  a  cube  interposed 
between  the  capital  and  the  soffet 
of  the  architrave. 

According  to  Vitruvius,  the 
abacus  was  originally  intended  to 
represent  a  tile  covering,  a  basket, 
or  vase.  And  it  is  probably  more 
correct,  with  a  reference  to  this 
origin,   to  limit  its  use  to  the 


ABA 


ABA 


crowning  of  the  corinthian  capi- 
tal }  or  to  the  coverings  of  baskets 
represented  us  borne  on  the  heads 
of  Caryatidae,  ike. 

The  abacus,  according  to  an 
ingenious  modern  author,  was 
the  primitive  capitul.  If  we  seek 
for  its  prototype  in  what  have 
been  considered  to  be  the  earli- 
est buildings,  in  those  countries 
abounding  with  timber,  it  ap- 
pears as  a  square  block,  or  plate 
of  wood,  inserted  between  the 
trunk  of  a  tree  serving  for  a  co- 
lumn, and  supporting  another 
piece  of  timber  employed  as  an 
architrave,  as  well  for  the  pur- 
pose of  steadying  the  one,  as  for 
fixing  the  other.  The  wooden 
abacus  was  at  first  very  thick, 
and  had  a  considerable  projec- 
tion, as  may  be  observed  in  the 
capitals  of  many  existing  classi- 
cal buildings,  thus  faithfully  pre- 
serving in  their  forms  the  history 
of  their  origin.  In  the  course  of 
improvement,  the  under  edge  of 
the  abacus  was  chamfered,  to 
unite  it  more  agreeably  with  the 
shaft ;  this  assumed  by  degrees 
the  curve  form,  and  in  receiving 
other  modifications,  it  was  still 
further  assimilated  to  the  shaft  by 
having  its  horizontal  section  made 
a  circle  concentric  to  that  of  the 
column  ;  the  abacus  then  formed 
only  apart  of  the  capital. 

If,  instead  of  seeking  for  the 
origin  of  its  introduction  among 
buildings  in  those  countries  where 
writers  are  agreed  that  the  pri- 
mitive habitations  of  man  must 
have  been  constructed  of  wood, 
it  is  sought  for  in  those  regions 
where,  from  a  scarcity  of  timber 
and  an  abundance  of  stone,  it  is 
probable  that  the  first  habitations 
were  erected  of  the  latter  mate- 
rial, the  abacus  will  be  used  for 
a  similar  purpose,  and  assume 
the  same  form  as  in  wooden 
structures.  In  Egyptian  build- 
D 


ings,  acknowledged  to  be  of  the 
most  remote  antiquity,  the  aba- 
cus is  a  single  cube  of  stone  in- 
serted between  the  column  and 
its  architrave.  In  other  examples, 
it  consists  of  two  and  three  pa- 
rallelopipedons  increasing  in  size, 
and  evidently  for  the  purpose  or 
giving  a  better  bed  to  the  stones 
of  the  architrave,  and  adding  to 
their  strength  .by  diminishing  the 
length  of  their  bearings.  The 
abacus  may  thus  be  considered 
as  a  member  essential  both  to  the 
real  and  apparent  stability  of  an 
order,  and  one  of  those  inven- 
tions which  have  been  used  by 
man  in  every  country  and  stage 
of  civilisation. 

The  suppression  of  the  abacus 
in  some  modern  examples  of  the 
leaved  capital,  and  the  practice  ot 
forming  that  of  the  doric  of  an 
echinus  only,  may  be  considered 
to  arise  as  well  from  ignorance 
of  the  first  principles  of  construc- 
tion, as  a  barbarous  taste.  The 
Chinese  practice  (who  often  em- 
ploy wooden  columns  without 
capitals  or  abacus)  is  greatly  to 
be  preferred,  for  if  we  are  forced 
to  renounce  the  abacus,  we  should 
like  them  also  abandon  the  use  or 
the  capital.  See  Capital,  Column, 
Order.     (See  Supplement.) 

Abaft,  (Aba/tan,  Sax.  behind.) 
In  naval  architecture.  The  hinder 
part  of  a  ship,  or  all  those  parts 
both  within  or  without,  which  lie 
towards  the  stern — used  in  oppo- 
sition to  afore — as  a  preposition, 
it  signifies  further  aft,  or  nearer 
the  stern. 

Abasciscus.  Is  sometimes  used 
as  synonymous  with  Abacus.  It 
is  more  correctly  applied  as  a 
square  compartment,  enclosing  a 
part,  or  the  entire  pattern  or  de- 
sign of  mosaic  pavement-. 

Abate,  Nicolas,  an  Italian  ar- 
chitect and  painter,  born  at 
Modena,  in  1512,  is  generally 

25 


ABA 


ABA 


considered  as  one  of  the  best 
scholars  of  Begarelli  ;  he  travel- 
led to  France,  and  was  employed 
in  decorating  with  paintings 
some  of  the  apartments  of  the 
palace  of  Fontainbleau.  His 
style  and  colour  nearly  approach- 
ed to  those  of  Raifaelle:  he  whs 
patronised  by  Francis  I.  and  his 
successors,  in  whose  service  he 
remained  until  his  death,  which 
took  place  at  a  very  advanced 
age,  at  Paris. 

His  most  celebrated  architec- 
tural works  are  the  old  chateau 
of  Meudon,  built  from  his  de- 
signs, for  the  cardinal  de  ftor- 
raine  ;  and  the  tomb  of  Francis  I., 
at  St.  Deny's. 

Abaton.  {Abatos,  Gr.)  An  in- 
accessible, or  impassable  place, 
from  a  building  at  Rhodes,  which 
no  one  was  permitted  to  enter. 
Vitruvius  thus  relates  the  origin 
of  its  erection.  "  Mausolus,  the 
most  potent  king  of  Halicar- 
nassus,  having  observed  Hali- 
carnassus  to  be  a  place  fortified 
by  nature,  well  adapted  for  com- 
merce, and  having  a  commodious 
harbour,  he  there,  established  his 
residence.  This  place  is  in  the 
form  of  a  theatre  ;  the  forum  is 
situated  at  the  bottom,  near  the 
port.  At  the  top,  in  the  middle 
of  the  curve,  is  formed  an  area, 
or  square,  of  ample  dimensions, 
in  the  midst  of  which  stands  the 
mausoleum,  a  building  so  excel- 
lent, tha*  it  is  numbered  among 
the  seven  wonders  of  the  world. 
In  the  middle  of  the  citadel, 
above,  is  the  temple  of  Mars, 
having  the  colossal  statue,  which 
they  call  acrolithon,  made  by 
the  hand  of  the  noble  Telochares, 
or,  as  some  think,  by  Timotheus. 
The  temple  of  Venus  and  Mer- 
cury is  at  the  extremity  of  the 
right  horn  of  the  curve,  near  the 
fountain  of  Salmacis.  As  the 
temple  of  Venus  and  the  above- 


mentioned  fountain  stand  on  the 
right  horn,  so  on  the  left  stand? 
the  royal  palace  which  king 
Mausolus  there  judiciously  situ- 
ated. From  its  right  side  it 
commands  a  view  of  the  forum, 
the  port,  and  the  whole  compass 
of  the  city  ;  on  its  left  there  is  a 
secret  port,  so  concealed  by  the 
mountains,  that  none  can  see  or 
know  what  is  there  transacted, 
and  the  king  himself  could  from 
his  palace  privately  give  his  com- 
mands to  his  seamen  and  soldiers. 
After  the  death  of  Mausolus, 
when  his  wife  Arthemisia  reigned, 
the  Rhodians,  rilled  with  indigna- 
tion that  all  the  cities  of  Caria 
should  be  governed  by  a  woman, 
despatched  a  powerful  Meet  to 
take  possession  of  the  kingdom. 
Arthemisia  hearing  this,  pre- 
pared a  private  squadron,  well 
furnished  with  mariners  and 
soldiers,  and  concealed  them  in 
this  secret  port,  ordering  the 
rest  of  the  citizens  to  guard  the 
walls.  When  the  pompous  fleet 
of  the  Rhodians  appeared  before 
the  greater  port,  she  commanded 
those  who  guarded  the  walls  to 
seem  to  give  them  encourage- 
ment, and  pretend  that  they 
would  surrender  the  town.  The 
deluded  Rhodians  having  en- 
tered within  the  walls  and  left 
their  navy  weakly  defended,  Ar- 
themisia unexpectedly  opened  a 
canal  that  had  a  communication 
with  the  sea,  brought  the  squa- 
dron out  of  the  secret  port  into 
the  greater,  and  the  Rhodian 
fleet  being  abandoned  by  the 
mariners  and  soldiers,  and  left 
defenceless,  she  drew  it  off  to 
sea.  The  Rhodians  having,  there- 
fore, no  place  of  retreat,  and 
being  surrounded  on  all  sides, 
were  slain  in  the  above-mention- 
ed forum.  Arthemisia  then  em- 
barked her  rowers  and  mariners 
in  the  Rhodian  vessels,  and  or- 


ABA 


ABB 


dered  them  to  sail  to  Rhodes :  the 
Khodians  seeing  their  vessels  ap- 
proach decorated  with  laurel,  be- 
lieved their  fellow-citizens  were 
returned  victorious,  and  received 
the  enemy.  By  this  stratagem 
Arthemisia  surprised  Rhodes, 
slew  the  principal  men,  and  then 
raised  a  trophy  of  her  victory 
in  the  midst  of  the  city,  making 
two  statues  of  brass,  one  repre- 
senting herself,  and  the  other  the 
city  of  Rhodes  held  by  her  in 
subjection. 

"  In  after-times,  the  Rhodians 
(as  their  religion  forbade  the  re- 
moval of  a  consecrated  monu- 
ment) erected  a  high  wall  around 
it  in  the  Greek  manner,  that  the 
trophy  might  not  be  seen,  and 
ordered  it  to  be  called  AbatonV 

Abbattis,  Abatis,  Abattis, 
Fr.  In  military  architecture.  A 
temporarv  defensive  work  of  tim- 
ber. It  is  usually  formed  of  a  great 
number  of  trees  placed  in  a  given 
alignment,  with  all  their  branches 
pointing  outwards,  and  their 
trunks  inwards.  To  strengthen 
the  abattis,  an  earthen  parapet 
and  bancpjette  for  infantry  is 
sometimes  constructed  in  the 
rear  of  the  trees,  a  part  of  which 
may  be  buried  in  the  parapet  to 
increase  the  solidity  of  the  de- 
fence. When  an  abattis  is  con- 
structed in  a  ditch,  the  trunks  of 
the  trees  composing  it  may  be 
placed  some  feet  in  the  ground, 
like  palisades,  and  the  general 
line  of  the  whole  may  incline  out- 
wards at  an  angle  of  about  forty- 
five  degrees,  instead  of  having  the 
described  horizontal  position. 

Abattis  is  considered,  among 
military  architects,  to  be  an  effec- 
tual defence  against  an  attack  of 
infantry;  it  may,  however,  be 
greatly  injured,  and  in  a  short 
time  rendered  unserviceable,  by 
a  fire  of  artillery.  On  this  ac- 
count, when  it  is  employed  to 


strengthen  earthen  works,  it  is 
usually  placed  in  a  dry  ditch,  or 
in  other  situations  affording  shel- 
ter from  direct  cannon  shot. 

It  is  a  very  useful  work  on 
most  occasions,  when  trees  are  at 
hand,  especially  in  sudden  emer- 
gencies, and  has  been  used  with 
great  success  by  the  ablest  com- 
manders in  all  ages  and  nations. 
Athough  it  is  more  commonly 
used  in  temporary  military  works, 
it  is  often  applied  with  great  pro- 
priety to  improve  the  defences, 
or  to  remedy  the  existing  defects 
of  permanent  fortifications. 

Abbey  or  Abby.  A  building 
appropriated  for  the  habitation  of 
a  religious  community,  under  the 
government  of  an  abbot  or  an 
abbess 

Abbeys  were  often  of  great  ex- 
tent, and,  being  constructed  for 
a  large  domestic  society,  contain- 
ed a  variety  of  buildings  adapted 
for  religious  obsen:*nc?«. — the 
government  of  the  establishment 
— for  transacting  the  secular  af- 
fairs of  the  body,  and  for  the 
general  purposes  of  habitation. 

The  church  was  an  object  of 
considerable  importance,  and  was 
generally  magnificent  (compara- 
tively) in  dimension,  and  splen- 
did in  its  decorations.  The  re- 
fectory was  a  large  hall  where 
the  monks  or  nuns  dined  ;  and 
the  misericord,  among  other  uses, 
served  them  as  a  sort  of  neutral 
ground,  where  they  indulged 
themselves  in  eating  that  food 
which  they  were  forbidden  by 
their  rules  To  eat  at  certain 
times  in  the  refectory.  The  in- 
firmary was  fitted  for  the  separa- 
tion and  accommodation  of  the 
sick.  The  guest-hall  for  the  en- 
tertainment and  reception  of 
strangers  visiting  the  abbey.  The 
parlour  or  locutory,  where  the 
fraternity  assembled  at  stated 
times  t\r  conversation.  Themeet- 

27 


ABB 


ABE 


inga  appointed  by  the  peculiar 
rule  of  the  order  for  its  govern- 
ment or  discipline,  were  held  in 
the  chapter.  The  dormitory  held 
the  beds  of  the  monks  ;  or  desig- 
nated the  range  of  cells  in  which 
they  were  placed.  The  almonry, 
a  storehouse  near  the  church  or 
abbey-gate,  in  which  the  alms  of 
the  abbey  were  distributed.  A 
library,  and  a  museum  adjoining. 
In  the  writing-room,  books  were 
copied  for  the  use  or  profit  of  the 
society — studies  furnished  with 
presses  and  cabinets — prison  for 
the  refractory — cells  for  penance, 
and  others  for  recreation.  The 
sanctuary  was  rather  a  precinct 
than  a  building,  in  which,  under 
certain  conditions,  an  offender 
was  safe  from  the  operation  of 
the  law. —  Granges  or  farm  build- 
ings, and  abbatial  residences, 
— schools  for  the  instruction  of 
youth,  with  separate  accommo- 
dations for  the  scholars.  Song- 
school,  where  the  boys  were  in- 
structed in  singing.  The  common- 
house,  a  large  room  with  a  fire  in 
it,  for  the  monks  to  warm  them- 
selves at ;  no  other  *fire  being  al- 
lowed except  in  the  apartments 
inhabited  by  the  abbot  and  some 
of  the  higher  officers.  A  mint 
for  coining,  and  a  room  called  an 
exchequer,  with  a  large  square 
table  for  making  calculations. 
The  abbey  had  a  churchyard,  or 
burying-  ground,  for  the  interment 
of  its  members.  And  the  abbey 
garden  was  as  proverbial  for  its 
high  state  of  cultivation,  and  the 
fine  quality  of  its  produce,  as  the 
kitchen  was  for  its  ample  dimen- 
sion and  conveniences  for  the 
preparation  in  abundance  of 
those  viands  which,  it  is  said, 
"  it  delights  the  stomach  to 
honour."  The  bakehouse  was  in 
its  neighbourhood.  In  the  sacristy 
the  garments  and  ceimelia  of  the 
church  were  deposited,  the  monk's 


garments  being  kept  in  the  vcs- 
tiaria,  or  wardrobe.  Many  of 
the  ordinary  duties  of  the  monks 
were  performed  in  the  cloisters, 
and  it  was  here  they  delivered 
their  lectures.  For  the  various 
peculiarities  in  the  arrangements 
and  fittingupof  these  parts  of  mo- 
nastic establishments,  see  the  se- 
veral words  and  their  references, 
in  their  alphabetical  order. 

Abbuttals,  Abuttals.  The 
boundings  or  boundaries  of  a 
piece  of  land,  expressing  on  what 
other  lands,  streets,  rivers,  or 
roads,  #c,  the  several  sides  or 
extremes  terminate. 

Abele-tree.  A  species  of 
white  poplar,  bearing  a  larger 
leaf,  a  finer  grain,  and  being  a 
quicker  grower  than  the  wild 
abele-tree  or  common  white  pop- 
lar. The  leaves  are  divided  into 
three,  four,  or  five  lobes  of  a 
very  dark  colour  on  their  upper 
side,  and  white  and  downy  on 
their  under.  The  young  branches 
have  a  purple  bark  covered  with 
a  white  down,  but  the  bark  of  the 
stem  and  older  branches  is  grey. 

"  In  moist  and  boggy  places," 
says  Evelyn,  "  they  will  flourish 
wonderfully,  so  the  ground  be 
not  spewing,  but  especially  near 
the  margins  and  banks  of  rivers, 
and  in  low,  sweet,  and  fertile 
grounds." 

The  best  sort  of  abele-trees 
having  been  originally  procured 
from  Holland,  it  is  in  some  places 
known  by  the  name  of  DutchDeech, 
and  it  is  recorded  that,  about 
a.  d.  1659,  ten  thousand  abeles 
were  imported  from  Flanders,  and 
transplanted  into  many  countries. 

They  are  remarkable  for  the 
quickness  of  their  growth,  and 
the  Dutch,  with  whom  the  abele 
is  a  favourite,  consider  a  planta- 
tion of  those  trees,  made  at  the 
birth  of  a  daughter,  to  be  an 
ample  provision  for  a  marriage 


ABE 


ABE 


portion.  In  England,  some 
abeles,  planted  twenty-five  years, 
measured  six  feet  in  circum- 
ference ;  and  another  instance  is 
given  of  a  tree  twelve  years  old 
girting  four  feet,  and  increasing 
from  three  to  four  inches  each 
year  in  circumference.  An  abele- 
tree  is  mentioned  by  Evelyn,  as 
growing  at  Sion,  near  Brentford, 
which  was  lopped  in  February, 
that  in  the  month  of  October, 
in  the  subsequent  year,  produced 
branches  as  big  as  a  man's  wrist. 
Its  height  varies  from  about 
forty-five  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty  feet.  The  colour  of  the 
wood  is  white  with  a  tinge  of 
umber  or  brown,  and  from  a 
slight  discolouration  of  the  outer 
edge  of  the  annual  rings  their 
increase  is  easily  noted.  The 
wood  is  of  a  very  uniform  texture. 

Jf  we  reckon  the  stiffness  of 
oak  to  be  100,  the  stiffness  of 
abele  may  be  taken  at  a  tenth 
less.  It  is  nearly  TW  tougher 
than  oak,  but  has  not  more  than 
-far  of  its  stiffness.  A  cubic  foot 
when  dry  weighs  about  3C2^ 
pounds  avoirdupois;  and  the  me- 
dium cohesive  force  of  a  square 
inch  is  5711  pounds  avoirdupois. 

It  is  less  combustible  than 
many  other  woods,  burning  "  un- 
towardly,  and  rather  moulders 
away  than  maintains  any  solid 
heat."  On  this  account  it  is  not 
well  adapted  for  fuel. 

The  abele  is  enumerated  by 
Vitruvius  (li.  xi.)  among  woods 
used  for  building  :  and  as  being 
in  many  situations  serviceable 
from  its  "  toughness,"  and  also 
from  its  colour  and  lightness  to 
be  proper  for  carving. 

Evelyn  mentions  its  being  an 
"  incomparable  wood  for  butchers' 
trays,  and  for  all  kinds  of  turnery 
and  toy- work,  and  for  t)ie  carver." 
From  the  lightness  of  the  wood 
saving  much  of  the  expense  of  the 


carriage,  it  is  well  adapted  for 
packing-cases,   and  much  used 
for  this  purpose  by  foreign  mer- 
chants.   As  also  for  its  not  being 
liable  to  split  in  nailing.    It  is  a 
favourite  with  bellows'  makers  ;  * 
and  the  inhabitants  of  a  district 
in  Holland,  which  is  noted  for 
its  production,  make  shoes  of  this 
wood,  of  which  they  export  im- 
mense quantities,  beside  supply- 
ing exclusively  the  province  of 
Holland.   For  all  sorts  of  wooden 
domestic  vessels  it  is  much  es- 
teemed, and  in  particular  situa- 
tions for  ships'  pumps.   It  is  used 
for  carts,  as  well  probably  from  a 
property  which  it  possesses  in  a 
remarkable  degree,  of  giving  way 
to  the  nail,  and  closing  upon  it 
afterwards,    as  for  its  lightness 
and  toughness.  The  wood  of  the 
abele   has    been    long  recom- 
mended by  old  women  for  "  mak- 
ing the  shelves  of  cheese-rooms, 
and  for  farm-houses  in  general, 
as  neither  mice   nor  mites  will 
attack  it."    The  recommendation 
has  been   repeated  by  a  recent 
compiler,   without   any  qualifi- 
cation. 

The  durability  of  the  abele, 
when  used  in  building,  depends 
entirely  on  its  situation,  with 
regard  to  dryness  or  moisture. 
In  contact  with  moisture  it 
quickly  rots  and  decays  5  but  un- 
der cover  and  in  a  dry  and  well- 
aired  situation,  its  durability  is 
equal  to  that  of  pine  timber. 

Besides  its  not  being  liable  to 
shrink,  it  has  been  strongly  re- 
commended for  floors  and  wains- 
cotting,  on  account  of  its  lesser 
inflammability;  but  its  softness 
is  an  objection  to  its  use  in  floor- 
ing. "  Lord  Sheffield,"  says 
Fontey,  "  has  lately  made  some 
floors,  which,  in  appearance,  are 
superior  to  any  thing  he  had 
seen,  whether  of  deal  or  oak,  and 
he  sees  no  reason  to  doubt  its  du- 


ABE 


ABR 


nihility.  Floors,  however,  he 
considers  as  one  only  of  the  many 
inferior  purposes  for  which  it  is 
applicable,  as  it  is  certainly  pro- 
per for  almost  every  article  of 
.  furniture  usually  made  of  maho- 
gany. For  the  lighter  descrip- 
tions of  this  wood,  now  so  fa- 
shionable, (and  high  priced,)  it 
might  be  made  a  very  good  sub- 
stitute without  any  other  addi- 
tion to  the  natural  colour  of  its 
fibres,  than  the  means  cabinet- 
makers generally  resort  to  in 
order  to  heighten  the  colour  of 
such  wood.  And  with  respect 
to  the  sap,  and  where  more  of 
colour  is  required,  the  aquafortis 
stain  will  instantly  produce  it,  so 
far  as  that  it  would  be  difficult  to 
distinguish  it  from  real  maho- 
gany. He  thinks  it  equal  to  the 
best  in  colour  and  smoothness  of 
surface,  and  much  superior  to  the 
plain  or  inferior  sorts  in  these  re- 
spects, as  well  in  transparency 
as  variety  •  and  it  has  the  fur- 
ther advantage  over  mahogany 
and  most  other  woods,  that  it 
takes  but  little  of  either  oil  or 
rubbing  to  produce  upon  it  a  sort 
of  mellow  shining  surface,  so 
much  admired  in  furniture,  that 
has  been  some  years  subjected  to 
proper  attention." 

In  landscape  gardening,  the 
abele  is  employed  to  screen  un- 
seemly or  unimportant  buildings, 
or  walls,  for  which  it  is  well 
adapted,  from  the  denseness  of 
its  foliage.  Its  shade  is  reckoned 
wholesome,  and  its  "  umbram 
hospitalem  "  is  celebrated.  In 
modern  practice,  the  abele  is 
placed  at  a  distance  from  walks 
or  dressed  lawns,  as  its  suckers, 
and  the  litter  which  its  leaves 
produce  in  autumn,  are  detri- 
mental to  that  verdure  and  neat- 
ness of  turf  which  are  essential 
in  those  situations.  Its  aspir- 
ing form  harmonizes  finely  with 

30 


the  horizontal  lines  of  Greek 
building;  and  few  trees  can  be 
introduced  with  a  happier  effect 
in  city  vistas,  where  the  streets 
are  wide  and  the  houses  lofty. 
One  beauty  poplars  possess  ;>ver 
almost  all  other  trees  in  landscape 
scenery,  is  the  waving  line  which 
they  form  when  agitated  by  the 
wind.  Most  trees  under  these 
circumstances  are  only  partially 
moved  ;  one  side  is  at  rest  while 
the  other  is  in  motion  :  but  the 
poplar,  bending  in  one  continuous 
sweep,  gives  a  variety  and  an  air 
of  animation  to  the  scene  that  is 
altogether  admirable. 

Abel-the-Great.  A  large 
stone,  on  which  the  ark  was 
placed,  when  it  was  sent  back  by 
the  Philistines. 

Abe.v-bohax.  The  boundary 
stones  which  among  the  ancient 
Jews  marked  the  territorial  se- 
paration of  the  tribes  of  Judah 
and  Benjamin. 

Aberthaw-lime-stone.  See 
Mortar. 

Abreuvoir.  (Fr.)  A  watering- 
place.  The  engraving  represents 
a  very  celebrated  abreuvoir  in 
Grand  Cairo,  in  the  modern  Ara- 
bian style. 

In  masonry,  abreuvoir  is  the 
joint  between  two  stones,  or  the 
interstice  left  to  be  filled  up  with 
mortar  or  cement,  when  either 
are  to  be  used. 

Abreast.  In  naval  architecture. 
Within  the  ship,  denotes  on  a  line 
with  the  beam,  or  by  the  side  of 
any  object  aboard. 

Abraxas,  Abracax,  Abrasas. 
In  decoration.  The  name  of  a 
species  of  gems  and  small  statues, 
having  figures  of  beetles,  ser- 
pents, with  human  heads,  #c,  and 
words,  and  letters  in  the  Roman, 
Greek,  Phoenician,  and  other  cha- 
racters, engraved  and  sculptured 
upon  them. 

The  word  is  derived  from  the 


A  B  R 


ABU 


solar  divinity  Abraxas,  and  these 
stones  and  statues  are  thought  to 
have  been  worn  as  amulets,  (some- 
times called  abracadabra,)  by  the 
worshippers  of  that  god,  to  pre- 
serve them  from  misfortune. 
Their  origin  and  uses  are  still 
considered  to  be  good  debatable 
subjects  among  antiquaries.  The 
most  ingenious  of  the  many  theo- 
ries proposed  for  their  explana- 
tion, appears  to  be  that  suggest- 
ed by  Ilieronymus,  in  which  the 
figures  and  cabalistic  letters  are 
considered  to  be  allegorical  of  the 
motions  of  the  sun  and  heavenly 
bodies.  In  this  theory  the  figure 
in  the  engraving,  representing 
a  man  with  the  head  of  a  cock, 
armed  with  a  buckler  and  poi- 
gnard,  and  his  extremities  also 
decorated,  and  ending  with  the 
head  of  this  bird,  may  be  satis- 
factorily deciphered. 


The  cock,  among  some  ancient 
people,  was  sacred  to  the  sun, 
whose  appearance  he  announced 
by  his  crowing  ;  the  cock  was  also 
sacred  to  ^seulapius,  the  god  of 
medicine,  which  is  indicated  by 
the  legs  being  formed  like  ser- 
pents, and  terminated  with  the 
head  of  a  cock  ;  iEseulapius  is 
himself  typified  by  the  serpents. 
In  the  position  which  the  god 
occupies,  he  is  the  image  of  the 
decline  (or  lower  part)  of  the 
sun,  or  autumn  and  winter.  The 


figure  is  in  a  menacing  attitude, 
or  defending  himseU  (or  votaries) 
from  the  fury  of  the  suffocating 
Typhon,  which  is  considered  as 
an  evil  genius  ;  this  then  makes 
the  engraved  figure  to  represent 
the  benevolent  and  protecting 
being  Abraxas. 

The  next  sculpture  represents 
the  god  Anubis,  with  the  head  of 
a  dog,  symbolical  of  the  constel- 
lation of  that  name,  concurring 
with  the  rise  or  fall  of  the  waters 
of  the  Nile,  which  is  farther  indi- 


cated by  Abraxus  holding  in 
his  hand  a  vase  to  contain  the 
water. 

Absis.    See  Apsis. 

Abutment.  The  extremity  of 
a  bridge  ;  the  last  or  boundary 
pier  of  the  high  water-way  ;  the 
land-stool ;  land-pier  ;  sometimes 
the  revetment,  or  facing  of  ma- 
sonry of  this  pier. 

The  steep  banks  of  rivers,  or 
the  sides  of  ravines,  being  com- 
posed of  rock,  or  other  materials 
of  that  consistency,  as  will  allow 
the  arch  to  rise  or  spring  from  it, 
without  the  intervention  of  a  pier, 
or  a  revetment  of  masonry,  is  an 
instance  of  a  natural  abutment. — 
The  abutment  is  said  to  be  arti- 
Jicial,  when  a  mass  of  masonry  is 
formed  to  resist  the  entire  pres- 
sure and  thrust  of  the  arch. — 
Many  of  the  mountain  bridges 

31 


ABU 


AB  Y 


of  all  countries  are  instances  of 
arches  rising  from  the  natural 
abutments.  In  the  bridges  con- 
structed on  rivers  with  low 
shores,  are  instances  of  artificial 
abutments.  Among  English  and 
French  architects,  the  natural 
abutment  is  seldom  alone  trusted 
to  ;  even  in  high  rocky  banks,  it 
is  not  unusual  for  them  to  form 
an  abutment  of  masonry. 

In  the  construction  of  abut- 
ments the  same  care  is  required 
in  laying  the  ^foundations,  the 
joining  of  the  stones,  and  the 
filling  up,  or  backing,  as  in  the 
formation  of  the  piers,  (which 
see.)  Abutments  are  often 
strengthened  with  counterforts 
behind  them.  It  has  been  re- 
commended, by  some  authors, 
to  lay  the  stones  of  which  the 
abutment  is  composed,  with 
joints  radiating  more  or  less  to 
the  centre ;  but  the  advantages 
said  to  be  derived  from  this  prac- 
tice are  quite  hypothetical,  for, 
much  as  has  been  written  on  the 
subject,  the  value  of  the  forces 
acting  to  overturn  a  pier,  and 
those  increasing  its  stability,  are 
equally  unknown. 

The  following  rule  has  been 
given  in  a  recent  compila- 
tion, to  determine  the  proper 
thickness  of  an  abutment. 

The  square  of  the  height  of  the 
abutment  is  to  be  multiplied  by 
160,  and  the  product  divided  by 
the  weight  of  a  square  foot  of  the 
arch,  and  by  the  rise  of  the  arch: 
unity  then  is  to  be  added  to  the 
quotient,  and  the  square  root  to 
be  extracted  ;  then  diminish  the 
square  root  by  unity,  and  multi- 
ply the  diminished  root  by  half 
the  span  of  the  arch — the  quotient 
will  be  the  thickness  of  the  abut- 
ment. For  an  arch  of  200  feet 
span,  with  a  rise  of  IS  feet,  this 
will  give  an  abutment  nearly  33 
feet  thick,  which  may  be  correct  : 

32 


but  with  only  attempts  at  cer- 
tainty for  a  guide,  it  were  safer  to 
trust  solely  to  the  tact  derived 
from  observation  or  experience. 
See  Bridge,  Counterfort,  Pier, 
Revetment,  Retaining-watl. 

In  a  range  of  casemates,  or 
other  bomb-proofs,  in  military 
architecture,  the  same  terms  ap- 
ply which  are  used  in  speaking 
of  a  bridge,  or  any  other  work 
composed  of  a  series  of  arches — 
the  intermediate  walls  being  call- 
ed piers,  and  the  end  walls  abut- 
ments. 

Abutment,  among  carpenters 
and  joiners,  is  the  joint  or  join- 
ing of  two  pieces  of  timber ;  in 
which  the  fibres  or  grain  of  the 
wood  of  the  abutting  pieces  are 
placed  as  nearly  as  practicable  in 
a  direction  at  right  angles  to  each 
other. 

Abydos,  Bridge  of.  "  While 
Xerxes,"  says  an  ancient  histo- 
rian, "  was  preparing  to  go  to 
Abydos,  numbers  were  employed 
in  throwing  a  bridge  over  the 
Hellespont,  from  Asia  to  Europe. 
They,  on  whom  the  office  was 
imposed,  proceeded  in  the  work, 
co;  mencing  at  the  side  next 
Ab)..  »s.  The  Phoenicians  used 
a  cordage  made  of  linen,  the 
Egyptians  using  a  cordage  made 
of  the  bark  of  the  biblos — the 
bridge  was  no  sooner  completed, 
than  a  great  tempest  arose,  which 
tore  in  pieces  and  destroyed  the 
whole  of  their  labour. 

"  When  Xerxes  heard  of  what 
had  'happened,  he  was  so  enraged, 
that  he  ordered  three  hundred 
lashes  to  be  inflicted  on  the  Hel- 
lespont, and  a  pair  of  fetters  to  be 
thrown  into  the  sea.  It  is  said, 
that  he  even  sent  some  execu-- 
tioners  to  brand  the  Hellespont 
with  some  mark  of  infamy ;  but 
it  is  certain  that  he  commanded 
those  who  inflicted  the  lashes  to 
use  these  barbarous,  mad  expres- 


BRIDGE  OF  ABYDOS. 


sions.  '  Thou  ungracious  water, 
thy  master  condemns  thee  to  this 
punishment  for  having  injured 
him  without  provocati  n;  Xerxes 
the  king  will  pass  over  thee, 
whether  thou  consentest  or  not : 
iust  is  it  that  no  man  honours 
thee  with  sacrifice,  for  thou  art 
insidious,  and  of  an  ungrateful 
flavour.'  After  thus  disgracing 
the  sea,  the  king  commanded 
those  who  presided  over  the 
bridge  to  be  beheaded. 

"A  bridge  was  then  constructed 
by  a  different  set  of  architects, who 
performed  it  in  1  he  following  man- 
ner. They  connected  together 
ships  of  different  kinds,  some 
long  vessels  of  fifty  oars,  others 
three-banked  galleys,  to  the  num- 
ber of  three  hundred  and  sixty,  on 
the  side  towards  the  Euxine  Sea, 
and  three  hundred  and  thirteen 
on  that  of  the  Hellespont.  The 
former  of  these  were  placed  trans- 
versely, but  the  latter,  to  diminish 
the  strain  upon  the  cables,  were 
placed  in  the  direction  of  the 
current.  When  these  vessels  were 
firmly  connected  to  each  other, 
they  were  secured  on  each  side 
by  anchors  of  great  length  on  the 
upper  side,  because  of  the  winds 
which  set  in  from  the  Euxine  ; 
on  the  lower,  towards  the  iEgean 
Sea,  on  account  of  the  south  and 
south-east  winds.  They  left, 
however,  openings  in  three 
places,  sufficient  to  afford  a  pas- 
sage for  light  vessels  which  might 
have  occasion  to  sail  into  the 
Euxine,  or  from  it;  having  per- 
formed this,  they  extended  cables 
from  the  shore,  stretching  them 
upon  large  capstans  of  wood. 
Tor  this  purpose  they  did  not 
employ  a  number  of  separate 
cables,  but  united  two  of  white 
flax  witli  four  of  biblos ;  these 
were  alike  in  thickness,  and  ap- 
parently .so  in  goodness;  but 
those  of  flax  were  in  proportion 


much  more  solid,  weighing  not 
less  than  a  talent  to  every  cubit. 
When  the  pass  was  thus  secured, 
they  sawed  out  rafters  of  wood, 
making  their  length  equal  to  the 
space  required  for  the  bridge ; 
these  they  laid  in  order  across 
upon  the  extended  cables,  and 
then  bound  them  fast  together. 
They  next  brought  unwrought 
wood,  which  they  placed  very 
regularly  upon  the  rafters ;  over 
all  this  they  threw  earth,  which 
they  raised  to  a  proper  height, 
and  finished  all  by  a  fence  on 
each  side,  that  the  horses  and 
other  beasts  of  burden  might  not 
be  frightened  by  looking  down 
upon  the  sea." 

Thus  far  the  Greek  writer,  but 
his  account  has  been  observed 
by  some  of  his  commentators  to 
be  (in  one  or  two  instances)  in- 
consistent ;  the  vessels  he  de- 
scribes as  placed  transversely  must 
reach  to  a  much  greater  extent 
than  the  same  number  placed  side 
by  side  ;  and,  since  the  Helles- 
pont in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Abydos,  has  a  very  considerable 
bend  in  its  course,  first  running 
northward  from  Abydos  towards 
Sestos,  and  then  taking  a  pretty 
sharp  turn  to  the  eastward,  that 
it  might  truly  be  said  of  the  two 
lines  of  ships  on  different  sides 
of  the  angles  mentioned,  the 
ships  in  one  line  presented  their 
heads  to  the  Euxine,  the  others 
their  sides,  although  the  heads 
of  both  were  presented  to  the 
current.  The  different  numbers 
in  the  two  lines  certainly  indicate 
different  breadths  of  the  strait, 
which  can  only  be  accounted  for 
by  their  being  at  some  distance 
from  each  other,  for  it  cannot  be 
said  that  the  line  was  placed  ob- 
liquely across  the  9trait.  The 
cables  extended  from  each  shore 
appear  to  have  been  for  the  sole 
purpose  of  supporting  the  bridge- 

33 


A  B  Y  D  TJ  S. 


ways — the  ships  were  kept  in 
their  places  by  anchors  a-head 
and  a-stern  ;  by  the  lateral  pres- 
sure of  each  other,  and  by  the  side 
fastenings. 

As  no  mention  is  made  of  the 
current  making  anchors  necessary 
on  the  upper  side,  it  is  conjec- 
tured by  another  commentator, 
that  some  words  expressing  that 
circumstance  may  have  been  lost 
in  the  original,  and  that  it  is  pro- 
bable that  each  range  of  vessels 
were  secured  by  anchors  above 
and  below — those  placed  with 
the  current  having  anchors  from 
head  and  stern,  the  transverse 
ships  having  them  from  each 
side,  so  that  there  would  be  in 
all  four  sets  of  anchors — perhaps 
the  cables  extended  from  shore 
to  shore  served  each  range  of 
vessels  on  the  inner  side ;  if  so, 
there  would  only  be  two  sets  of 
anchors,  one  from  the  upper 
sides  of  the  transverse  ships,  the 
other  from  one  end  of  those 
which  lay  side  by  side. 

Abydus.  A  town  in  Egypt, 
celebrated  for  containing  a  mag- 
nificent temple,  built  by  Isman- 
des,  in  honour  of  Osiris,  and 
which  was  further  remarkable, 
from  its  being  the  only  shrine  in 
Egypt  where  singers  and  musici- 
ans were  denied  entrance.  During 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  town 
had  dwindled  into  a  village ;  and 
at  the  present  day,  it  is  in  ruins, 
and  a  desert  j  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  building  to  which  it 
owed  its  fame  yet  remains,  to 
attest  its  ancient  splendour. 

The  entrance  to  the  temple  is 
under  a  portico,  60  feet  high, 
supported  by  two  rows  of  large 
marble  columns ;  beyond  is  the 
temple,  300  feet  in  length,  and  140 
feet  wide  At  the  entrance  is  an 
immense  hall,  containing  twenty- 
eight  columns,  60  feet  high,  and 
19  in  circumference  at  the  base. 


They  stand  12  feet  asunder.  The 
enormous  stones  of  the  ceiling 
are  so  perfectly  joined  and  in- 
serted one  in  the  other,  as  to  ap- 
pear to  the  eye  one  sole  marble 
slab,  126  feet  in  length,  and  66 
in  breadth.  The  walls  are  loaded 
with  innumerable  hieroglyphic:-, 
among  which  are  a  multitude  ot 
animals,  birds,  and  human  figures, 
wearing  pointed  caps  (still  worn 
by  Egyptian  priests,  on  festivals,) 
with  a  piece  of  pendant  stuff  be- 
hind, and  clothed  in  open  robes, 
which  do  not  descend  below  the 
waist.  The  rudeness  of  the  sculp- 
ture bespeaks  antiquity  and  art  in 
its  infancy. 

At  the  further  end  of  the  first 
hall  is  the  great  door,  which  leads 
to  an  apartment  46  feet  long,  and 
22  feet  wide.  Six  square  pillars 
support  the  ceiling;  and  four  doors 
at  the  corners  lead  to  four  other 
chambers,  to  which,  at  present, 
the  heaps  of  rubbish  debar  all 
entrance.  The  last  hall,  64  feet 
long,  and  24  wide,  contains  stair- 
cases leading  to  the  subterranean 
parts  of  this  grand  edifice,  with 
sculptures  and  hieroglyphics,  si- 
milar to  the  other  chambers.  Six 
lions'  heads,  on  two  sides  of  the 
temple,  serve  as  water-spouts  :  a 
very  singular  staircase  leads  to 
the  summit  of  the  building — it  is 
formed  by  the  stones  being  in- 
serted into  the  wall,  f.'om  which 
they  project  6  feet,  so  that  being 
only  sustained  on  one  side,  they 
appear  suspended  in  the  air. 

Neither  the  walls,  roof,  nor 
columns,  of  this  edifice  are  in- 
jured by  time,  and  did  not  the 
hieroglyphics,  which  are  defaced 
in  many  places,  show  marks  of 
age,  it  would  seem  as  if  newly 
built ;  such  is  its  solidity,  it  will 
stand  for  ages,  unless  purposely 
destroyed.  The  colossal  figures, 
the  heads  of  which  serve  as  orna- 
ments to  the  capitals  o**  the  co- 


ABYSSINIAN  BUILDINGS. 


lumns  are  in  basso-relievo,  but 
all  the  remaining  hieroglyphics 
within  the  temple  are  cut  into 
the  stone.  On  the  left  of  this 
great  building  there  is  a  smaller 
one,  at  the  further  end  of  which 
stands  a  kind  of  altar.  This  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  sanctuary 
of  the  temple  of  Osiris.  See 
Egyptian  Building. 

Abyssinian  Buildings.  The 
most  remarkable  architectural 
objects  which  remain  in  the 
kingdom,  are  found  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Tigre,  on  the  site  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Axum,  in  former 
times  the  capital  of  the  empire 
of  Abyssinia.  On  approaching 
Axum  from  the  modern  town  of 
Adowa,  the  first  object  which 
attracts  attention  is  a  small  obe- 
lisk, about  9  feet  high,  at  the 

Small  Obelisk  at  Axum. 


foot  of  a  hill  on  the  right  hand, 
at  the  summit  of  which  stands 
the  monastery  of  Abba  Pantaleon, 
and  immediately  opposite  a  large 
square  stone,  with  a  Greek  in- 
scription. After  passing  between 
these,  the  modern  town  of  Axum 
and  its  church  begin  to  make 
their  appearance  ;  and  upon  in- 
clining a  little  to  the  northward, 
leaving  a  number  of  broken  pe- 
destals on  the  left  hand,  a  full 
view  of  the  "  large  obelisk' "  is 
presented,  standing  close  to  an 
immense  daro-tree.  This  highly 
wrought  and  magnificent  work  of 


art  is  formed  of  a  single  block  of 
granite,  measuring  full  60  feet  in 
height.  All  it&  ornaments  are 
very  regularly  disposed  andboldly 
relieved,  which,  together  with  the 
hollow  space  or  recess  running 
up  the  centre,  and  terminating 
with  a  patera  at  top,  give  a  light- 
ness and  elegance  to  the  whole 
form,  which  is  probably  unrival- 
led. On  comparing  it  with  simi- 
lar structures  of  undoubted  Gre- 
cian and  Roman  construction,  it 
may  be  considered  the  most  ad- 
mirable and  perfect  monnment  of 
its  kind  in  existence. 

There  are  no  hierogliphics  on 
the  obelisk,  but  its  faces  are  co- 
vered with  a  repetition  of  an  or- 
nament of  a  peculiar  description, 
similar  in  its  details  to  that 
shown  on  the  figure  of  the  "  small 
obelisk  at  Axum."  At  the  bot- 
tom of  the  obelisk,  a  figure  oi 
a  wooden  door,  and  lock  and 
latch,  are  carved  as  if  to  represen 
an  entrance  through  it  to  som, 
building  behind.  The  lock  and 
latch  seem  designed  first  U 
draw  back,  and  then  to  lift  up 
exactly  in  the  manner  those  kint1 
of  locks  are  fashioned  in  Egyp4 
and  Palestine  at  this  very  day 
but  were  never  seen  in  Ethiopia 
or  at  any  time  in  use  in  Abyssinia 
It  is  conjectured  that  Ptolem^ 
Evergetes,  the  third  Grecian  king 
of  Egypt,  after  having  conquerec1 
Axum,  and  overrun  the  neigh 
bouring  kingdoms,  resided  som 
time  in  this  ancient  capital  o 
Ethiopia,  "  and  being  absolutely 
ignorant  of  hieroglyphics,  then 
long  disused,  he  left  the  obelisk 
he  had  erected  for  ascertaining 
his  latitudes,  ornamented  with 
figures  of  his  own  choosing,  and 
representations  of  the  inventions 
of  his  subjects,  and  particularly 
the  door  for  the  convenience  or 
private  life,  to  be  imitated  by  his 
new-acquired  subjects,  the  Ethi- 

33 


ABYSSINIAN  BUILDINGS. 


opians,  to  whom  it  had  hitherto 
been  unknown." 

Several  other  obelisks  lie  bro- 
ken on  the  ground  at  no  great 
distance,  one  cf  which  is  of  still 
larger  dimensions.  The  era  of 
their  erection,  it  is  probable, 
could  not  have  been  prior  to  the 
reign  of  the  Ptolemies,  as  their 
style  of  architecture  is  strictly 
Grecian,  and  similar  to  the  one 
which  we  have  already  described. 
The  tradition  of  the  country  as- 
cribes them  to  a  later  period — the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Acizana, 
about,  three  hundred  years  after 
Christ ;  but  the  native  workmen 
of  that  age  were  probably  un- 

Axum 


equal  to  complete  such  chaste 
and  elegant  works  of  art.  What- 
ever era  may  be  assigned  to  them, 
opinions  seem  to  coincide  that 
they  were  the  work  of  Grecian 
artists;  and  what  gives  additional 
strength  to  the  conjecture,  is  the 
fact  of  its  having  been  the  cus- 
tom of  the  ancient  Abyssinian 
emperors  to  procure  artificers  ot 
the  Greek  nation  from  Egypt, 
See  Obelisk. 

The  monument  called  the  King's 
Chair,  is  also  situated  at  Axum. 
It  is  a  small  square  enclosure 
surrounded  by  pillars,  on  a  seat 
within  which  the  ancient  kings 
of  Ethiopia  used  to  be  crowned 

Chair. 


The  pillars  are  octagonal,  and 
are  supposed  to  exhibit,  in  their 
form  and  finish,  traces  of  the 
workmanship  of  the  lower  Roman 
empire.  The  seat  is  of  granite, 
as  well  as  the  pavement  and  pil- 
lars, and  it  is  supposed  that,  for- 
merly, the  pillars  were  crowned 
with  small  images,  probably  of 
metal,  of  the  Dog  Star,  and  that 
the  pillars  are  Egyptian. 

The  church  of  Abba  Garima  is 
said  to  have  been  built  about  the 
year  a.  d.  560  :  thirty  rough  steps 


lead  up  to  a  w  retched  shed  form- 
ing the  porch  of  the  church.  This 
is  approached  through  an  open 
area,  walled  round  ;  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  the  main  building,  ot 
a  square  form,  and  divided  by  a 
passage  that  runs  through  it  into 
two  unequal  compartments.  It  is 
built  of  solid  masses  of  stone  and 
1  imber,  which  have  in  some  places 
been  strengthened  by  bars  of 
iron  ;  and  the  butt  etuis  of  all  the 
beams  and  planks  have  been 
rounded,  and   left   projecting  as 


ABYSSINIAN  BUILDINGS. 


ornaments.  Within  it  is  orna- 
mented with  some  miserable 
paintings. 

Of  the  many  singular  excava- 
tions which  are  found  in  this 
country,  that  of  the  church  of 
Abu-has-ubha  is  one  of  the  most 
interesting. 

In  the  front  of  the  excavation 
is  a  thatched  and  two-storied  en- 
trance, built  in  a  style  resembling 
that  employed  by  the  Portuguese 
— from  this  three  doors  lead  into 
an  oblong  square  room,  the  di- 
mensions of  which  are  about  50 
by  30  feet,  supported  by  two  rows 
of  columns,  each  consisting  of 
four  pillars  and  two  pilasters. 
The  pillars  are  about  three  feet 
in  diameter,  resembling  the  Tus- 
can order  in  their  proportions. 
Beyond  this  apartment  is  a  room, 
answering  in  some  degree  to  the 

Plan  of  the  Churchqf  Abu-has-ubha. 

-'  i-L-  


?        a  pc 


Li 


tion,  by  two  square  pillar3,  and 
has  a  dome-shaped  ceiling,  about 
40  feet  high,  of  very  excellent 
workmanship.  On  each  side  is  a 
smaller  room,  communicating  by 
a  door  and  window  with  the 
larger  excavation.  The  ceiling 
in  front  of  the  Ventre  room,  in 
the  larger  excavation,  is  hollowed 
out  into  a  dome  of  about  30  feet 
high,  curiously  painted  and  carv- 
ed; and  in  front  of  the  side-rooms 
it  is  also  adorned  in  the  same 
manner,  but  withmit  the  dome. 
The  floor  is  flagged  with  square 
stones,  and  the  walls  are  carred 
and  ornamented  with  crosses, 
paintings,  and  inscriptions  in  the 
Ethiopic  character,  which  are  said 
to  entirely  consist  of  sentences 
taken  from  the  Bible.  In  each 
of  the  side  cells  is  a  tomb.  On 
the  outside  several  tombs  are  ex- 
cavated in  the  rock,  and  only 
covered  over  by  loose  stones.  It 
is  also  conjectured  that  this  church 
was  the  work  of  Egyptian  artists, 
during  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Lalibala  (about  a.  d.  \02°). 

Thfc  ?n'  "d  elevations  of  some 
of  these  excavations  are  in  a  very 
simple  taste  ;  and  travellers  who 
have  visited  Abyssinia  speak  in 
high  terms  of  their  general  effect, 
being  in  admirable  accordance 
with  the  simple  grandeur  of  the 
surrounding  scenery. 
Elevatioii  of  an  Abyssinian  Exca- 
vated Church. 


chancel  of  modern  churches.  It  is 
divided  from  the  larger  excava- 


ABYSSINIAN  BUILDINGS. 


The  church  at  Axum  is  a 
modern  erection,  and  the  first 
impression  on  beholding  it,  is 
its  great  resemblance  to  gothic 
houses  in  England.  The  colon- 
nade in  front  is  supported  by  four 
Modern  chutch  at  Axum. 


massive  stone  pillars,  about  five 
feet  in  diameter,  composed  of 
small  stones,  and  covered  with 
plaster.  It  is  flat-roofed,  laid 
with  mortar  and  stucco,  and  its 
parapet  surrounded  with  gothic 
ornaments. 

It  is  111  feet  in  length,  and  51 
in  breadth  :  is  approached  by  two 
flights  of  steps.  The  upper  flight 
only  is  shown  in  the  engraving. 
A  row  of  broken  pedestals  still 
remaining  indicates  the  principal 
entrance.  The  tradition  of  the 
neighbourhood  says  it  was  erected 
on  the  site  of  an  ancient  temple  • 
the  fifty-five  broken  obelisks  form- 
ing the  ornaments  of  its  approach. 

There  is  no  country  in  the 
world  in  which  there  are  so  many 
churchesasin  Abyssinia.  Though 
the  country  is  very  mountainous, 
and,  consequently,  the  view  very 
much  obstructed,  it  is  seldom  that 
you  see  less  than  five  or  six  of 
these  buildings;  and  if  you  are  on 
a  commanding  ground,  five  times 
that  number.  In  Gondar  there  are 
forty-two  churches  to  a  population 
of  ten  thousand  families.  Every 
great  man  that  dies  thinks  he  has 
atoned  fo-  all  his  wickedness  if 
he  buil  's  a  church  in  his  lifetime 


or  leaves  funds  to  erect  one  after 
his  death  The  king  builds  many 
— wherever  a  victory  is  gained, 
there  a  church  is  erected. 

The  situation  of  a  church  is 
generally  chosen  near  running 
water  for  the  convenience  of  ab- 
solution. They  are  always  placed 
on  the  top  of  some  beautiful  round 
hill  which  is  surrounded  with 
rows  of  trees  called  azz  (the  Vir- 
ginia cedar),  and  which  grow  in 
this  climate  to  great  beauty  and 
perfection.  This  plantation  of 
cedar  is  interspersed  at  proper 
distances  with  a  number  of  the 
trees  called  cusso. 

All  the  country  churches  are 
round,  with  thatched  roofs,  their 
summits  being  perfect  cones.  The 
outside  is  surrounded  by  a  num- 
ber of  wooden  pillars,  formed  of 
the    trunks   of  the  cedar-tree 


Church  of  Muccallahi. 


placed  to  support  the  edifice;  about 
8  feet  of  the  roof  projecting 
beyond  the  wall  of  the  church, 
which  forms  a  colonnade  or  an 
agreeable  walk  in  hot  or  rainy 
weather.  The  inside  of  the  build- 
ing is  formed  in  several  divisions, 
according  as  is  prescribed  by  the 
law  of  Moses  :  the  first,  of  a  circle 
somewhat  wider  than  the  inner 
one — here  the  congregation  sit : 
within  this  is  a  square,  and  that 
square  is  divided  by  a  veil  or 
curtain,  in  which  is  another  small 
division,  answering  to  the  Holy 
of  Holies  •  this  is  ve«*v  w*rrnw 


A  B  Y 


A  B  Y 


go  as  to  allow  only  the  priests  to 
enter  it. 

They  are  full  .f  pictures  paint- 
ed on  parchrnenc,  which  are  nail- 
ed upcn  the  walls  in  a  manner 
little  less  slovenly  .than  we  see 
paltry  prints  in  country  English 
alehouses.  There  has  always  been 
known  and  practised  among  the 
scribes  a  species  of  painting,  or 
rather  a  sort  of  daubing,  much 
inferior  to  the  worst  of  our  sign- 
painters.  In  some  instances,  for 
the  adorning  of  a  particular 
church,  they  get  a  number  of 
pictures  of  saints,  on  skins  of 
parchment,  ready  finished,  from 
Cairo,  in  a  style  very  little  supe- 
rior to  these  performances  of  their 
own.  They  are  placed  like  a 
frieze,  and  hung  along  the  upper 
part  of  the  wall.  St.  George  is 
generally  to  be  seen  there,  with 
his  dragon,  and  Demetrius  fight- 
ing with  a  lion. 

Nothing  embossed  or  in  re- 
lief ever  appears  in  any  of  the 
churches.  All  this  would  be 
reckoned  idolatry.  On  this  ac- 
count they  do  not  wear  a  cross 
on  the  top  of  the  ball  of  the 
sendick  or  standard,  because  it 
casts  a  shade.  But  there  is  no 
doubt  that  pictures  have  been 
used  in  their  churches  from  the 
earliest  age  of  Christianity. 

The  Palace  at  Gondar  stands 
at  the  west  end  of  the  city,  and 
was  formerly  a  building  of  con- 
siderable importance.  It  is  built 
in  a  square  form,  and  flanked  with 
square  towers  four  stories  high  ; 
the  palace  properly  consists  of  a 
number  of  houses  detached  from 
each  other,  with  one  room  in 
each  ;  in  one  of  these  the  coro- 
nation is  performed,  in  another 
the  king  sits  in  festivals,  a  third 
is  called  the  gold  house,  and 
another  the  brocade-house,  where 
the  wardrobe  and  gold  stuffs  used 
for  presents,  or  received  as  such, 


are  laid  up;  and  a  square  tower 
containing  many  fine  apartments. 

The  houses  stand  in  a  square 
court,  nearly  a  mile  in  circum- 
ference; a  substantial  wall,  30 
feet  high,  built  of  stone  and  lime, 
in  the  time  of  the  Kmperor  Fa- 
cilidas,  by  masons  from  India, 
surrounds  all  the  buildings ;  a 
platform  roof,  connecting  the 
outer  and  inner  walls,  lias  bat- 
tlements, loop-holes,  and  other 
conveniences  for  discharging 
missile  weapons  from  its  para- 
pet. The  interval,  between  these 
walls,  forms  a  covered  way  by 
which  you  can  go  along  the 
whole,  and  look  into  the  street ; 
a  church  is  built  to  each  corner. 
The  part  built  by  Facilidas,  has 
in  part  fallen  into  ruins,  although 
there  is  still  ample  lodging  in  the 
two  lower  floors  of  it ;  the  au- 
dience-chamber being  above  12 
feet  long. 

A   succession    of  kings  have 
built  some  apartments,  or  houses 
of  one  story  high,  in  different 
parts  of  the  area  or  square,  oj 
mud  and  clay  only,  and  thatched 
with    straw,  in  the   fashion  or 
their  country,  according  to  the 
taste    of  the    reigning    prince ; 
these  mud  erections  are,  however, 
magnificently  lined  and  furnished 
within.    Some  idea  of  the  Abys- 
sinian taste  in  decoration  may  be 
formed,  from  an  account  of  the 
operations  of  the  Emperor  Ya- 
sous  II.  A  rebellion  and  massacre 
happening  at  .Smyrna,  many  Chris- 
tian inhabitants  fled  to  Cairo  for 
protection*;  but  finding  that  city 
in  a  stdl  less  peaceable  state  than 
the  one  they  had  left,  repaired  to 
jidda,  on  their  way  to  India; 
missing  the  monsoon,  and  being 
destitute  of  money  and  necessa- 
ries, they  crossed  over  the  Hed 
Sea  for  Massuah,  and  came  to 
Gondar.    Twelve  of  them  were 
silversmiths,  very  expert  in  that 


A  BY 


ABY 


fine  work  called  filligrane,  who 
were  all  well  received,  and  speed- 
ily employed  by  the  king-,  as 
their  own  taste  directed  them,  in 
his  palace  at  Gondar,  which  he 
was  then  ornamenting,  by  the 
hands  of  these  and  other  Abys- 
sinians,  sons  of  Greek  artists 
whose  fathers  were  dead.  The 
emperor  finished  the  decoration 
of  his  presence-chamber  in  a  man- 
ner truly  admirable.  The  skirt- 
ing, which  in  oar  houses  is  gene- 
rally of  wood,  was  finished  with 
ivory,  as  high  as  four  feet  from 
the  floor.  Over  this  were  rows  of 
mirrors,  from  Venice,  joined  to- 
gether, and  fixed  in  frames  of 
copper,  or  cornices,  gilt  with 
gold.  The  roof,  in  gaiety  and 
taste,  corresponded  perfectly  with 
the  magnificent  finishing  of  the 
walls  of  the  room.  It  was  the 
work  of  the  Falasha  (or  Jews), 
and  consisted  of  painted  cane, 
split  and  disposed  in  Mosaic 
figures,  which  produces  an  effect 
of  great  lightness  and  beauty. 

The  king  began  another  cham- 
ber of  equal  magnificence,  con- 
sisting of  plates  of  ivory,  with 
shades  of  all  colours  stained  in 
each  plate  at  proper  distances ; 
but  he  did  not  live  to  finish  it. 

The  great  hall  of  the  gover- 
nor's palace  at  Antalow,  may  be 
aptly  compared  in  size  to  an  Eng- 
lish barn,  but  without  its  comfort. 
The  residence  of  another  man  of 
high  rank  near  Tcherkin,  is  de- 
scribed as  being  built  of  cane 
very  artificially  disposed  ;  the 
outer  wall  of  fascines  #f  cane,  so 
neatly  joined  together  as  to  be 
impervious  to  wind  or  rain  ;  and 
the  inside  of  the  state-rooms  are 
hung  with  long  stripes  of  carpet- 
ing, and  the  floors  covered  with 
the  same  material. 

Permanent  bridges  are  almost 
unknown  in  this  country  :  there 
is  one  very  solid  good  stone  bridge 
40 


of  four  arches,  built  by  the  Em- 
peror Facilidas,  on  the  river  Mo- 
getch,  near  Gondar. 

Much  as  Gondar  excels  in  ap- 
pearance the  other  towns  of  the 
kingdom,  this  is  more  specious 
than  real; — for  the  composition 
splendour  of  the  churches  which 
are  the  great  ornament  of  the 
capital,  the  Abyssinians  are  in- 
debted to  the  Portuguese,  who 
erected  them  during  the  conti- 
nuance of  their  power,  and  left 
them  as  models  for  artisans  of 
the  present  time.  But  the  want 
of  wood  and  stone,  added  to  the 
want  of  enterprise  among  the 
Abyssinians,  render  the  little 
science  which  still  glimmers  in 
the  country  almost  useless,  for 
they  are  ignorant  of  the  art  of 
making  brick  ;  the  few  G'eek 
artisans,  at  present  in  the  coun- 
try, are  little  better  than  native 
workmen.  The  roofing  of  the 
houses,  and  neatness  of  the 
churches,  are  admirable,  but  this 
is  performed  here  as  elsewhere 
by  the  Falasha. 

The  general  form  and  appear- 
ance of  Abyssinian  buildings  are 
exhibited  in  the  modern  town  of 
Axum.  The  houses  in  the  town 
of  Abha  are  of  a  different,  but 
also  common  form  ;  in  villages 
built  on  the  sides  of  hills  the  roof 
of  the  cottage  being  a  continua- 
tion of  the  natural  slope  of  the 
ground  :  the  smoke  is  conveyed 
from  the  inside  by  a  hole  in  the 
roof. 

At  Adowa  the  buildings  are 
all  constructed  of  rough  stone, 
cemented  with  mud,  instead  of 
mortar.  Mortar  not  being  used 
throughout  the  empire,  except  at 
Gondar,  where  it  is  very  bad. 
The  roofs  are  in  the  usual  form 
of  a  cone,  and  thatched  with  a 
reedy  sort  of  grass,  something 
thicker  than  wheat-straw.  rl  he 
Jews,  called  Falasha,  enjoy  this 


A  BY 


A  BY 


trade  of  thatching  exclusively ; 
they  begin  at  the  bottom,  and 
finish  at  the  top. 

In  building  these  houses,  the 
only  tools  employed  are  a  kind  of 
adze  to  shape  the  stones,  and  the 
blade-bone  of  a  bullock  to  dig 
out  the  earth  for  the  foundations, 
and  to  temper  the  mortar ;  and, 
notwithstanding  these  imperfect 
instruments,  the  operation  is  con- 
ducted with  great  expedition. 
The  working  of  iron  and  brass  is 
general  throughout  the  country, 
and  both  are  commonly  employed 
in  their  buildings. 

Smiths  are  called  Buda,  and 
a  strange  superstition  is  attached 
to  their  employment.  Every 
man  engaged  in  the  occupation 
being  supposed  to  possess  a  power 
of  transforming  himself  into  a 
hyaena,  during  which  he  is  thought 
to  be  capable  of  preying  even 
upon  human  flesh.  And  it  is  a^o 
believed,  that  if,  during  the  pe- 
riod of  his  transformation,  he 
should  experience  any  bodily  in- 
jury, that  a  corresponding  wound 
would  be  found  on  his  proper  body; 
a  belief  which  is  inconceivably 
strong  throughout  the  country. 

The  houses  in  Maitsliaw  are 
of  a  very  singular  construction; 
the  first  proprietor  has  a  field, 
which  he  divides  into  three  or 
four,  as  he  pleases,  (suppose  four), 
by  two  hedges  made  of  the  thorny 
bianches  of  the  acacia  tree.  In 
the  corner,  or  intersection,  of 
these  two  hedges,  he  begins  his 
low  hut,  and  occupies  as  much  of 
the  angle  as  he  pleases.  Three 
other  brothers,  perhaps,  occupy 
each  of  the  three  other  angles  — 
behind  these  their  children  place 
their  houses,  and  enclose  the  end 
of  their  father's  hut  by  another, 
which  they  make  generally  shorter 
than  the  first,  because  broader. 
After  they  have  raised  as  many 
houses  as  they  please,  they  sur- 


round the  whole  with  a  thick,  and 
almost  impenetrable  abbattis,  or 
thorny  hedge,  and  all  the  family 
are  under  one  roof,  ready  to  assist 
each  other  on  the  first  alarm  ot 
danger,  or  of  an  enemy. 

The  monastery  of  Aba  Asfa, 
now  in  ruins,  is  evidence  of  a 
better  style  of  construction  hav- 
ing been  practised  in  Abyssinian 
building.  Part  of  the  walls,  forty 
feet  high  and  five  feet  thick,  have 
been  built  with  large  masses  ot 
stone,  seven  feet  long  and  20  in- 
ches broad,  and  fitted  so  exactly 
to  one  another,  as  scarcely  to 
leave  a  visible  interstice  between 
them.  No  mortar  or  other  fas- 
tening having  been  made  use  ot 
throughout  the  building. 

The  Shangalla,  who  were  for- 
merly a  very  numerous  people, 
divided  into  several  tribes,  during 
the  fair  half  of  the  year  live  under 
the  shade  of  trees,  the  lowest 
branches  of  which  they  cut  near 
the  stem  on  the  upper  part,  and 
then  bend  or  break  them  down, 
planting  the  ends  of  the  branches 
in  the  earth — these  branches  they 
cover  with  the  skins  of  wild 
beasts.  After  this,  they  cut  away 
all  the  small  or  superfluous 
branches  in  the  inside,  and  so 
form  a  spacious  pavilion,  which, 
at  a  distance,  appears  like  a  tent; 
the  tree  serving  for  the  pole  in 
the  middle  of  it,  and  the  large  top 
overshadowing  it.  Every  tree 
is  then  a  house,  under  which  live 
a  multitude  of  black  inhabitants 
until  the  tropical  rains  begin. 
Nothing  can  be  more  beautiful 
than  these  shady  habitations;  but 
they  have  the  fatal  disadvantage 
of  being  easily  discernible  from 
the  high  grounds,  and  thus  guide 
their  enemies  to  the  places  they 
inhabit.  The  soil,  called  by  the 
Abyssinians  Maraga,  when  wet 
by  the  tropical  rains,  dissolving 
into  mire,  forces  these  savages  to 

41 


A  B  Y 


A  B  Y 


search  for  winter  quarters ;  their 
tents  under  the  trees  being  no 
longer  tenable — they  retire  (with 
their  food  all  dried  in  the  sun) 
into  caves  dug  into  the  heart  of 
the  mountains,  which  are  not  in 
this  country  basaltes,  marble,  or 
alabaster,  as  is  all  that  ridge 
which  runs  down  into  Egypt  along 
the  side  of  the  Hed.  Sea,  but  are 
of  a  soft  gritty  sandy  stone,  easily 
excavated,  and  formed  into  differ- 
ent apartments. 

The  Shiho,  another  tribe  of 
savages,  have  neither  tents  nor 
cottages,  but.  either  live  in  caves 
in  the  mountains,  under  trees,  or 
in  small  conical  huts,  constructed 
of  a  strong  grass  like  reeds. 

The  houses  at  Arkeeko  are 
also  formed  of  grass,  with  a  few 
of  clay.  At  Thalassa,  the  Ha- 
zorta  tribe  live  in  cavas,  or  ca- 
bins, just  large  enough  to  hold 
two  persons,  and  covered  with  an 
ox's  hide. 

The  Ogows,  of  the  province  of 
Avergale,  another  tribe,  invari- 
ably construct  their  buildings 
without  mortar  ;  the  better  sort 
of  buildings  being  constructed  in 
the  characteristic  form  of  ancient 
Egyptian  temples. 

At  Dankali,  in  the  Bay  of  Am- 
phila,  and  which  formerly  was 
comprehended  in  the  Abyssinian 
kingdom,  a  tribe  of  the  Hazorta 
form  their  huts  like  the  wig- 
wams of  the  American  Indians, 
covering  them  with  mats  made  of 
the  leaf  of  the  doom-tree.  Their 
rude  tombs  have  a  striking  simi- 
larity to  some  Egyptian  monu- 
ments. In  a  secluded  spot  be- 
tween two  hills,  one  of  their 
burying-grounds  was  discovered. 
The  tombs  were  rudely  con- 
structed in  the  exact  shape  of 
pyramids,  with  stones  cemented 
together  with  chunam  ;  some  of 
them  were  entirely  covered  with 
this  material ;  the  base  of  one 

*1 


which  was  measured  occupying  a 
space  of  full  ten  feet  square. 

Acacia.  (Robinia  Fseudo 
Acacia).  The  common,  false,  or 
bastard  acacia,  is  a  native  of  the 
American  States,  where  it  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  locust- 
tree;  being  well  furnished  with 
leaves,  which  appear  late  in  the 
spring,  and  fall  off  early  in  the 
autumn,  and  these  being  of  a 
brilliant  rich  green,  make  a  fine 
appearance.  The  finely-pinnated 
leaves  and  pendulous  white  flowers 
in  pretty  long  branches  hanging 
down  like  those  of  the  laburnam, 
add  greatly  to  its  beauty — the 
flowers,  however,  are  not  always 
produced,  and  when  they  are, 
they  last  only  for  about  eight 
days,  and  appear  in  June — they 
smell  very  sweet,  and  perfume  the 
air  around  them. 

The  acacia  requires  to  be 
planted  in  a  sheltered  situation, 
for  although  "  adorning  our  walks 
with  their  exotic  leaf  and  sweet 
flowers,  and  very  hardy  against  a 
pinching  winter,  they  are  not  so 
proof  against  blustering  winds/' 

The  acacia  will  grow  well  in 
almost  any  soil,  but  the  trees 
thrive  best  in  one  of  a  light 
sandy  nature;  here  they  have 
been  known  to  shoot  6  feet  in 
one  year.  The  wood,  when  green, 
is  of  a  soft  texture,  but  becomes 
very  hard  when  dry.  It  is  of  an 
agreeable  bluish  yellow  colour, 
having  a  reddish  tinge  in  the 
pores.  One  side  of  its  annual 
ring  is  very  compact,  and  the 
other  slightly  porous,  and  in 
working  it,  there  is  not  much 
difference  between  the  labour, 
and  that  required  for  oak.  Has- 
senfratz  (  Traitc  de  Vart  du  Char- 
pentier),  states  the  average  length 
of  its  trunk  in  France  to  be  about 
32  feet,  and  about  2  feet  in  dia- 
meter. A  locust-tree  in  York- 
shire, three  feet  from  the  ground, 


A  C  A 


A  C  A 


measured  4  feet  10  inches  in  cir- 
cumference, and  was  60  feet  high. 

The  wood  makes  excellent  fuel, 
and  its  shade  is  less  injurious  to 
grass  than  that  of  most  other 
trees.  In  New  England,  the 
leaves  afford  a  wholesome  food 
for  cattle:  horses  seem  to  like  it, 
and  hogs  are  fond  of  it. 

The  value  of  the  acacia  is  very 
little  known  in  England,  but  is 
highly  prized  in  North  America, 
and  said  to  be  superior  to  the 
laburnam;  being  close-grained, 
hard,  and  finely  veined,  it  is  more 
valued  by  the  American  cabinet- 
maker than  any  other  wood  what- 
ever. Pursh,  in  his  Flora,  asserts 
that  being;  nearly  incorruptible, 
it  is  equally  useful  for  posts  and 
gates.  At  New  York  it  has  been 
found,  upon  repeated  trial,  that 
posts  for  rail-fencing  of  acacia 
stand  wet  and  dry  next  the 
ground,  better  than  those  of  any 
other  wood  in  common  use,  al- 
most as  well  as  posts  of  swamp 
cedar.  Gate  posts  of  this  timber, 
on  an  estate  near  Baltimore,  have 
remained  fresh  for  nearly  a  cen- 
tury. Most  of  the  houses  which 
were  built  at  Boston,  in  New 
England,  on  the  first  settling  of 
the  English  there,  were  built  of 
this  timber,  which,  in  1782,  were 
firm  and  sound  as  when  erected. 
Among  those  who  use  the  wood 
it  is  reckoned  better  than  the 
best  white  oak  for  the  axle-trees 
of  carriages. 

The  first  experiment  to  employ 
the  locust-tree  for  ship-building 
purposes  was  made  in  Virginia 
in  1737.  "  I  then  happened,5' 
says  .Mr.  Harrison,  "  to  be  ac- 
quainted with  an  ingenious  ship- 
wright that  had  been  sent  over 
by  some  merchants  of  Liverpool 
to  bui'd  two  large  .ships.  I  had 
frequent  conversations  with  him 
respecting  the  qualities  of  the 
principal    timber-trees   of  that 


country — he  reckoned  the  oaks, 
elms,  ashes,  common  to  both 
countries,  much  inferior  to  the 
same  sorts  in  England — but  fre- 
quently spoke  of  the  locust-tree 
as  of  extraordinary  qualities,  both 
for  strength  and  duration;  and  it 
a  sufficient  quantity  could  be  had,1 
he  considered  it  to  be  the  btst 
timber  he  had  ever  men  with  for 
building  of  ships.  After  lie  had 
finished  his  engagement  with  his 
employers,  he  put  a  small  ship 
on  the  stocks  for  himself,  but  not 
having  a  sufficient  quantity  ot 
iron,  he  substituted  trenails  ot 
the  locust-tree,  and  the  experi- 
ment succeeded  beyond  his  most 
sanguine  expectations."  It  was 
many  years  afterwards,  however, 
when  they  were  used  by  an  emi- 
nent ship-builder  of  New  York, 
and  since  that,  the  practice  has 
extended  among  the  other  ship- 
builders in  North  America.  As 
yet,  the  use  of  the  locust-tree  has 
been  confined  to  trenails,  on  ac- 
count of  its  scarcity ;  but  were  it 
as  plentiful  as  oak,  it  would  be 
applied  for  more  purposes  by  the 
shipwright,  such  as  knees,  floor- 
timbers,  and  foot-hooks,  being 
much  superior  to  oak  for  its 
strength  and  duration,  and  from 
the  tree  spreading  into  branches, 
affords  full  as  large  a  proportion 
of  crooks  or  compass  timber  as 
oak. 

A  cubic  foot  of  acacia,  in  a 
dry  state,  weighs  from  48  to  53 
pounds  avoirdupois.  If  we  com- 
pare its  toughness  in  an  unsea- 
soned condition  with  that  of  oak, 
it  will  not  be  more  than  less. 
Its  stillness  is  equal  to  of 
oak;  and  its  strength  nearly  ; 
but  were  it  properly  seasoned,  it 
might  possibly  be  found  much 
superior  to  oak  in  strength,  tough- 
ness, and  stiffness.  A  piece  of 
unseasoned  acacia,  two  feet  six 
inches  l<^ng,  and  an  inch  square, 


AC  A 


AC  A 


in  the  vertical  seetion,  broke 
when  loaded  with  a  weight  of  247 
pound*  avoirdupois.  Its  medium 
cohesive  force  is  about  11,500 
pounds. 

In  Landscape  Gardening,  the 
acacia  is  only  esteemed  for  its 
form,  when  young,;  but  it  is  well 
adapted,  at  all  ages,  for  copse- 
wood  and  rough  timber  In  plan- 
tations in  dressed  ground,  they 
are  seldom  introduced,  from  their 
being  liable  to  have  their  branches 
broken  by  strong  winds,  which 
renders  them  unsightly.  Mr. 
Gilpin  considers  it,  "  even  in 
England,  a  very  beautiful  tree, 
whether  it  feathers  to  the  ground, 
or  is  adorned  with  a  light  foliage 
hanging  from  the  tree;"  but  in 
consequence  of  its  being  least 
able,  of  all  trees,  to  endure  the 
blast,  its  beauty  is  very  frail 
and  uncertain." 

Academy.  (Academia,  Gr.)  A 
public  villa,  or  grove,  situated  in 
the  suburbs  of  Ancient  Athens, 
which  is  said  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  one  Academus,  an 
Athenian  citizen,  to  whom  it  be- 
longed (in  the  time  of  Theseus), 
and  who  devoted  it  to  the  exhi- 
bition of  gymnastic  exercises; 
others  derive  it  from  Cadmus, 
who  first  introduced  the  use  of 
letters  into  Greece.  It  was  adorn- 
ed with  shady  groves,  fountains, 
and  temples,  by  Cimon;  and 
was  enclosed  with  a  wall,  by 
Hipparchus.  Sylla  cut  down  a 
great  many  of  the  trees,  in  his 
siege  of  the  city. 

The  most  interesting  objects 
in  this  celebrated  spot  were  the 
tombs  of  those  Athenians,  or  their 
allies,  whose  services  to  the  state 
gave  them  a  claim  to  the  grate- 
ful remembrance  of  its  citizens; 
for  "  every  Athenian  that  died, 
either  in  naval  or  land  engage- 
ments, fighting  for  his  country, 
had  here  a  sepulchre;  excepting 
44 


those  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Ma- 
rathon, for  the  tombs  of  these  are 
raised,  in  memory  of  their  virtue, 
in  the  same  place  where  they 
died."  First  were  the  tombs  oi 
those  who  conquered  Thrace,  but 
were  slain  by  the  Edoni-— of  the 
Thessalian  knights,  who  came  to 
assist  them  against  the  Pelopon- 
nesians — near  these  was  the  se- 
pulchre of  the  Cretan  archers — 
of  the  Cleoneei,  who  came  with 
the  Argives  into  Attica  —  "  also 
a  sepulchre  of  those  Athenians 
who  fought  against  the  iEginetse, 
for  that  institution  of  the  people 
was  certainly  just,  which  confer- 
red the  honour  of  public  burial 
on  servants,  and  inscribed  their 
names  on  pillars,  if  they  were 
such  as  had  vigorously  assisted 
their  masters  in  battle;'' — of  Ku- 
bulus,  the  son  of  fc'pintharus,  and 
those  men  whose  virtue  was  not 
assisted  by  fortune — of  those 
"  who  fell  at  Corinth,  where  the 
god  evinced,  in  no  trifling  degree, 
as  likewise  afterwards  in  the 
Leuctrian  battle,  that  those  who 
were  called  bold  by  the  Greeks, 
were  nothing  without  the  assist- 
ance of  fortune." — 'k  One  column 
was  erected  over  many,  as  the 
inscribed  elegies  evinced,  who 
died  in  Eubcea  and  Chios,  and 
on  the  continent  of  Asia,  and  in 
Sicily. — On  another  pillar  vvere 
inscribed  their  names,  who  fell  at 
Thrace  and  Megara ;  and  like- 
wise their  names,  who  conquered 
the  Syracusans.  —  Their  sepul- 
chres were  likewise  to  be  seen 
here  that  fought  in  a  naval  battle 
about  the  Hellespont — those  that 
opposed  the  Macedonians  in 
Chaeronea  —  those  that  fought 
under  Cleon,  at  Amphipoli*-— 
those  that  fell  at  Delium — those 
that  Leosthenes  led  into  Thessaly 
■ — those  that  sailed  with  Cimon 
into  Cyprus — and  those  that  fol- 
lowed Oiympiodorus,  who,  though 


A  C  A 


A  C  A 


only  thirteen  in  number,  drove 
out  the  guard  of  the  Macedo- 
nians— of  Toimides  and  his  sol- 
diers. Here,  also,  were  the  tombs 
of  Pericles,  under  whose  govern- 
ment Athens  reached  the  pin- 
nacle of  her  glory  and  refinement 
— and  of  Chabrias  —  of  Phormio 
— of  Conon — of  Timotheus — N't* 
cias,  the  son  of  Nicomedes,  who 
was  the  most  excellent  painter  of 
animals  of  his  time — and  Aristo- 
geiton,  who  slew  Hipparchus — of 
Ephialtes,  the  orator — and  Ly- 
curgus,  the  son  of  Lycophron, 
who,  in  collecting  money  for  the 
public  treasury,  surpassed  Peri- 
cles, the  son  of  Xanthippus,  by 
6500  talents."  Before  the  sepul- 
chre of  those  who  were  slain  by 
the  Edoni.  was  a  column,  in 
which  "  Mel  an  Opus  and  Marca- 
bas,  two  knights,  are  seen  fight- 
ing;" there  was  also  the  tomb  of 
Clesthenes,  who  first  instituted  the 
mode  of  distribution  into  tribes. 
"  All  the  rest  of  the  Athenians  are 
buried  in  the  way  ivhich  leads  to 
the  Academy,  and  columns  are 
placed  on  their  tombs,  with  in- 
scriptions, signifying  the  name 
and  town  of  each  individual." 
See  Cemetery,  Cenotaph. 

Besides  these  memorials  of 
statesmen  and  heroes,  the  groves 
of  the  Academy  were  adorned 
with  altars  to  the  Muses,  to  Mer- 
cury, to  Minerva,  to  Hercules, 
an  enclosure  to  Diana,  in  which 
were  the  images  of  Ariste,  and 
Calliste;  also  a  temple,  into  which, 
every  year,  they  carried  the  sta- 
tue of  Bacchus. 

Jn  a  corner  of  this  grove,  Plato 
purchased  a  small  garden,  and 
there  he  opened  his  celebrated 
school  for  the  study  of  philoso- 
phy. From  this  circumstance  is 
derived  the  usual  meaning  of  the 
word  academy,  as  a  place  for  the 
instruction  of  youth,  or  for  the 
study  and  cultivation  of  any  of 


the  liberal  arts  and  ajiences.  (See 
School.)  Cicero  called  one  of  his 
country  seats  by  this  name,  where 
he  had  fine  groves,  and  pleasant 
walks  for  the  entertainment  of 
his  philosophical  friends  and  vi- 
sitors. 

Among  architects,  technically, 
academy  is  a  place  for  the  recep- 
tion of  a  society,  and  for  the  so- 
ciety itself,  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  promoting  and  cultivating  the 
science  of  design,  by  lectures  and 
conversation;  and  where  facili- 
ties are  afforded  to  individuals  to 
refine  their  taste,  and  improve  in 
the  art  of  drawing,  by  copying 
from  antique  remains,  or  models, 
procured  at  the  expense  of  the 
society. 

These  are  the  two  grand  objects 
of  modern  academies  of  design, 
to  which  are  sometimes  added, 
that  of  forming  a  taste  in  the  pub- 
lic for  works  of  art,  by  a  public 
exhibition  of  the  productions  of 
its  members  at  stated  times — of 
directing  the  studies  of  young 
artists  into  the  proper  channel, — 
of  stimulating  their  perseverance, 
and  ambition  to  excel  in  their 
art, — by  a  distribution  of  medals, 
and  other  '  academic*  honours  — 
and  also  of  enabling  those  aspi- 
rants who  may  have  distinguished 
themselves,  to  reside  for  a  cer- 
tain time  in  Italy,  for  the  further 
prosecution  of  their  studies.  Al- 
most every  European  capital  has 
its  academy  of  the  fine  arts,  em- 
bracing all,  or  some  of  these  ob- 
jects, and  they  are  all  composed 
of  painters,  sculptors,  and  archi- 
tects. 

The  French  have  a  Royal  Aca- 
demy of  Architecture  distinct 
from  that  of  Painting,  which  was 
founded  by  the  great  Colbert,  in 
1671.  Its  members  have  the  title 
of  academicians,  and  enjoy  some 
privileges  of  precedence  in  rank. 
There  are  two  professors  who  lec- 

45 


A  C  A 


AC  A 


ture  on  the  general  principles  of 
architecture,  and  others  on  geo- 
metry, mensuration,  carpentry, 
Sfc.  Every  year  they  distribute 
two  medals  to  the  students,  one 
of  which  is  of  gold;  this  prize 
entitles  its  possessor  to  be  sent 
to  Rome  for  several  years  as  a 
student,  at  the  expense  of  the 
Academy.  The  establishment  of 
the  Academy  has  been  of  immense 
benefit  to  the  respectability  of  the 
body  of  French  architects. 

The  Royal  Academy  of  Lon- 
don, founded,  in  the  year  1762,  by 
George  the  Third,  embraces  all 
the  objects  which  we  have  enu- 
merated, as  entering  into  the  plan 
of  European  academies.  It  is 
under  the  immediate  patronage 
of  the  king,  and  consists  of  forty 
members,  called  academicians, 
chosen  from  among  the  most 
eminent  painters,  sculptors,  and 
architects  in  the  kingdom;  and 
a  certain  number  of  members 
called  associate  academicians,  from 
among  whom,  a  vacancy  occur- 
ring among  the  academicians  is 
supplied.  In  the  list  of  associates 
there  are  several  eminent  engra- 
vers, but  these  are  rarely  elected 
to  the  higher  honour.  At  the 
time  of  the  formation  of  the  Aca- 
demy, neither  their  present  num- 
bers nor  eminence  could  have 
been  foreseen,  and  the  charter  of 
foundation  limits  the  election  of 
academicians  to  painters,  sculp- 
tors, and  architects.  There  are, 
however,  instances  where  engra- 
vers have  been  elected  academi- 
cians— being  admitted  under  the 
title  of  painters. 

The  Academy  is  governed  by 
a  president  and  council,  chosen 
from  the  body  of  academicians ; 
— and  the  ordinary  business  of 
the  institution,  and  care  of  its 
books  and  prints  is  entrusted  to 
a  librarian  ; — the  museum  to  the 
Keeper,    generally  an  academi- 

46 


cian  who  resides  in  the  building; 
— the  visitors  who  are  annually 
appointed,  to  attend  alternately 
to  direct  the  students  in  their 
studies  ; — a  secretary,  treasurer, 
and  other  subordinate  officers. — 
Lecturers  are  appointed  who  an- 
nually deliver  a  series  of  discour- 
ses on  painting,  sculpture,  archi- 
tecture, and  perspective — and  on 
the  anatomy  necessary  for  paint- 
ers. The  library  is  rich  in  books 
and  prints  relating  to  the  fine 
arts,  and  is  open  to  all  the  stu- 
dents at  stated  times — the  mu- 
seum of  casts  from  the  antique, 
is,  through  the  munificence  of  hi& 
late  majesty,  one  of  the  finest 
in  Europe,  and  every  convenience 
and  facility  is  afforded  to  those 
who  avail  themselves  of  the  pri- 
vilege of  drawing  from  them.  In 
winter,  the  students  who  have  at- 
tained a  certain  proficiency,  or  a 
medal,  are  admitted  to  draw  from 
the  "  living  figure,"  provided  for 
that  purpose  by  the  Academy ; 
and  in  summer,  to  paint  from  (  lie 
same  description  of  studies. 

The  only  qualification  required 
to  obtain  the  privilege  of  studying 
in  the  Royal  Academy,  and  to  be 
admitted  to  all  the  lectures,  and 
to  the  use  of  its  library,  is  a  cer- 
tain proficiency  in  drawing,  if  the 
candidate  be  a  painter  or  archi- 
tect ;  and  in  modelling,  if  he  be  a 
sculptor.  The  drawings  submit- 
ted for  this  purpose  are  to  be 
made  within  the  walls  of  the 
Academy,  under  the  eye  of  the 
keeper,  who  generally  suggests 
the  subject  of  the  design.  '1  hese 
being  laid  before  the  president 
and  council  at  one  of  their  meet- 
ings, they  judge  from  the  spe- 
cimens, whether  the  candidate 
has  the  requisite  facility  in  the 
rudiments  of  his  art,  and  admit, 
or  reject  him  as  they  see  occa- 
sion. 

The  establishment  of  the  RoyaJ 


A  C  A 


A  C  A 


Academy  is  the  only  institution 
in  England  where  architecture 
as  a  fine  art  is  cultivated  and 
encouraged.  But  candour  extorts 
the  confession,  that  although  the 
advantages  arising  to  architecture 
from  its  establishment  have  been 
manifold  and  important,  both  in 
promoting  a  love  for  its  beauties 
in  the  public,  and  directing  the 
taste  of  its  professors,  and  liber- 
ally as  the  treasures  of  its  mu- 
seum and  library  have  been 
thrown  open  to  all,  its  plan  is 
but  little  calculated  to  benefit  the 
student  of  architecture. 

The  general  principles  of  de- 
sign, it  is  admitted,  which  are 
taught  in  its  lecture-room,  being 
common  to  all  the  arts,  a  know- 
ledge of  them  is  as  essential  to  the 
architect  as  to  the  painter,  and  the 
advantages  would  on  this  admis- 
sion appear  to  be  equal.  To  the 
painter  and  sculptor  however,  the 
decorative  parts  of  architecture 
are  alone  of  any  use,  which  con- 
fines the  lecturer  to  illustrations 
and  'principles  drawn  from  orna- 
mental and.  picturesque  archi- 
tecture ;  this,  then,  will  be  the 
only  part  of  his  profession  in 
which  a  student  of  architecture 
will  acquire  any  information  by 
his  attendance  at  the  Academy  ; 
any  thing  exclusively  adapted 
to  only  one  description  of  au- 
ditors could  not  with  propriety 
be  introduced  into  a  system  of 
instruction  addressed  in  common 
to  all  the  three  classes. 

It  must  also  be  admitted  that 
there  is  no  description  of  build- 
ing in  which  utility  alone  must 
be  studied,  where  a  cultivated 
taste  would  not  become  apparent, 
even  to  ordinary  observers,  in  a 
refined  and  elegant  adaptation  of 
the  means  to  the  end.  But  this 
is  a  class  of  buildings,  in  the 
arrangement  and  execution  of 
which,  not  only  all  that  the  ar- 


chitect has  learned  at  the  Aca- 
demy is  of  no  use,  but  in  which 
those  decorations  he  has  studied 
with  c,are,  and  can  apply  with 
propriety  and  elegance,  would 
not  only  be  useless  but  thrown 
away.  This  description  too  ot 
buildings  is  neither  the  least  n!K 
merous,  nor  the  least  important 
of  those,  which  in  the  course  ot 
his  profession,  the  architect  is 
called  upon  to  design  and  see 
carried  into  execution. 

It  is  here  that  the  science  and 
practice  of  construction,  instead 
of  secondary,  becomes  of  primary 
consideration, — but  in  every  thing 
relating  to  it,  the  young  archi- 
tect is  not  only  left  without  a 
guide,  and  without  a  stimulus 
to  carry  him  through  the  most 
laborious  portion  of  his  studies, 
but  his  exertions  are  absolutely 
depressed.  He  is  associated  with 
painters,  who  can  have  no  relish 
for  practical  details,  and  his 
works  are  to  judged  in  a  great 
degree  not  only  by  them,  but  by 
their  standard  of  excellence.  His 
productions  therefore  are  to  have 
a  painter-like  air,  as  well  in  ef- 
fect as  in  composition  ;  the  re- 
sult is  obvious,  in  his  search  af- 
ter and  study  of  pictorial  excel- 
lence and  effect,  instead  of  that 
simplicity,  and  of  that  attention 
to  fitness  and  propriety,  which 
are  the  grand  essentials  of  archi- 
tectural beauty,  —  his  designs, 
when  analyzed,  are  meretricious 
in  style,  gaudy  in  ornament,  and 
not  unfrequently  impracticable  in 
execution.  The  celebrated  Pe- 
ranisi  may  be  instanced  as  an 
example  of  the  truth  of  this  posi- 
tion.— with  an  imagination  of  as- 
tonishing fertility,  and  an  exqui- 
site taste  in  detail,  his  whole  sys- 
tem of  architectural  composition, 
was  a  manful  setting  of  consist- 
ency at  defiance,  but  producing 
compositions  of  wonderful  splen- 

47 


A  C  A 


A  C  A 


dour  and  beauty  in  the  Royal 
Academy. 

It  is  thus,  that,  in  the  struggle  • 
of  an  honourable  ambition  to 
cope  with  those  who  have  un- 
wisely been  made  his  rivals,  that 
a  student  of  architecture  loses 
a  relish  for  the  severer  studies  of  . 
his  profession ;  and  when  the 
day  of  trial  arrives,  and  his  plans 
are  to  be  carried  into  execution, 
it  is  too  late  to  supply  his  defi- 
ciencies. 

The  formation  of  the  Academy 
is  productive  of  another  evil, 
which  has  a  deep  and  powerful 
influence,  not  only  on  the  pro- 
fessors, but  on  the  art  itself. 
From  the  list  of  academicians 
being  limited  to  forty,  only  a 
smail  number  (three  or  four)  can 
be  architects — this  is  a  great 
hardship  on  those  individuals 
whose  abilities  and  integrity  have 
placed  them  in  the  upper  ranks 
of  their  profession.  These  form 
the  greater  number,  but  have  no 
bond  of  union  among  themselves, 
or  fellowship  with  their  three  or 
four  brethren  in  the  Academy; 
and  the  result  is,  that  the  fine 
taste  and  independent  practice  of 
those  (both  in  the  Academy  and 
out  of  it)  who  are  an  honour  to 
their  profession,  are  borne  down 
and  obscured  by  the  activity  of  a 
host  of  rapacious  barbarians 
around  them,  assuming  the  name, 
and  usurping  the  functions,  of  an 
architect. 

The  same  thing  was  the  case 
in  France,  and  gave  rise  to  the 
Royal  Academy  of  Architecture; 
and  in  all  probability  will  con- 
tinue to  be  the  case  in  England, 
until  some  society  be  organized, 
where  genius  and  taste  may  ac- 
quire vigour  and  influence,  from 
their  union  and  concentration, 
and  which  the  public  may  look 
to,  as  offering  a  guarantee  that 
the  junior  branches  of  the  pro- 

48 


fession  are  properly  grounded  in 
their  art;  and  also,  where  a 
check  will  be  placed,  for  the 
purpose  of  controlling  the  discre- 
ditable practices  of  a  few  indi- 
viduals, which  have  brought  so 
much  undeserved  obloquy  on  the 
whole  body. 

It  was  with  a  view  to  raise  the 
rank  of  the  profession,  as  well  as 
the  art  itself,  that,  about  ten  or 
twelve  years  ago,  several  archi- 
tects of  great  respectability  as 
individuals,  and  eminent  for  their 
talents  as  artists,  attempted  to  es- 
tablish an  Academy  of  Architec- 
ture ;  but  from  some  peculiarity 
in  its  constitution,  it  failed  of  re- 
ceiving the  support  of  the  profes- 
sion generally,  and  its  meetings 
were  discontinued.  The  volume 
of  its  Transactions,  and  one  or  two 
of  its  occasional  publications,  leave 
deep  cause  for  regret,  that  so 
meritorious  an  institution  should 
have  been  abandoned.  Nothing 
would  have  had  a  greater  effect 
than  its  example,  in  acquiring 
for  the  professors  that  rank  in  so- 
ciety to  which  they  are  entitled, 
in  making  the  profession  of  an 
architect  (as  in  good  old  times  it 
has  been)  that  of  a  gentleman, 
and  the  title  one  of  distinction 
and  honour. 

Acanthines  (from  Akanthos). 
In  decoration,  a  border  or  fillet 
ornament,  with  leaves  of  the 
acanthus.  Acanihine  vases  and 
paterce  were  those  vessels  orna- 
mented with  representations  of 
acanthus  leaves.  Virgil  describes 
the  handles  of  Alcimedon's  cup 
as  adorned  with  them. 

Acanthus  (Acanthus,  Gr.,  a 
thorn.)  In  decoration,  the  leaf 
which  forms  one  of  the  orna- 
ments of  the  Corinthian  capital ; 
and  supposed  to  have  first  been 
used  for  that  purpose  by  a  ce- 
lebrated ancient  sculptor.  "  A 
Corinthian  maid  just  marriage- 


A  C  A 

able  being  seized  with  a  dis- 
order died.  After  her  interment, 
her  nurse  collected  and  disposed 
in  a  basket  the  toys  which  had 
pleased  her  when  alive,  carried  it 
to  the  grave,  placed  it  on  the  top, 
and  that  it  might  endure  the 
longer  in  the  open  air,  covered  it 
^  with  a  tile.  The  basket  chanced 
to  be  placed  over  the  roots  of  an 
acanthus,  which  being  thus  de- 
pressed in  the  middle,  the  leaves 
and  stalks,  in  the  spring  season, 
issued  outward  and  grew  round 
the  sides  of  the  basket,  and  being 
pressed  by  the  weight  at  the  angles 
of  the  tile,  were  made  to  convolve 
at  the  extremities  like  volutes. 
At  that  time  Callimaohus,  who 
for  his  ingenuity  and  excellence 
in  the  arts  was  by  the  Athenians 
called  Catatechnos  (or  the  first 
of  artists)  happening  to  pass  by 
this  tomb,  took  notice  of  the 
basket,  and  being  pleased  with 
the  delicacy  of  the  foliage  grow- 
ing around  it,  as  well  as  with 
the  novehy  of  the  form,  made 
some  columns  near  Corinth,  ac- 
cording to  this  model,  and  from 
thence  established  the  symmetry, 
and  determined  the  proportions 
of  the  Corinthian  order." — Vitru- 
vius. 

The  leaved  capital  however, 
it  is  remarked  by  Quatremere 
(Juincy,  appeared  in  Egyptian 
buildings  long  before  the  time  of 
Caliimachus.  Although  the  ac- 
count of  Vitruvius  may  be  in- 
correct, as  far  as  regards  the  in- 
vention of  the  capital,  it  may  and 
appears  to  be  true  as  to  the  fact 
of  Caliimachus  having  first  intro- 
duced the  acanthus-leaf  as  a  de- 
coration into  Greek  capitals,  in- 
stead probably  of  the  olive,  or 
laurel.  The  great  variety  also 
which  is  observable  in  the  deco- 
rations of  ancient  capitals  is  also 
an  argument  against  its  being  de- 
rived as  related  by  Vitruvius — 


AC  A 

their  form  and  proportions  being 
totally  independent  of  the  orna- 
mental accessories,  which  appear 
to  have  been  employed  with  an 
allegorical  or  religious  meaning, 
oftener  than  from  the  taste  or 
whim  of  the  artists. 

Wilkins,  in  his  excellent  trans- 
lation of  Vitruvius,  also  doubts 
the  claim  of  Caliimachus.  "  This 
fanciful  and  ingenious  story"  he 
thinks  cannot  be  received  as 
credible  history — the  tale,  how- 
ever, is  valuable,  as  affording  an 
intimation  of  the  date  of  the  in- 
troduction of  the  acanthus  leaves 
into  Grecian  capitals.  Caliima- 
chus lived  towards  the  end  of  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  and  was  the 
artist  so  celebrated  as  the  author 
of  the  lamp  preserved  constantly 
burning  in  the  Temple  of  Mi- 
nerva Polias  at  Athens.  It  is 
not  improbable  that  the  charac- 
teristic ornament  of  the  style 
may  have  been  imported  from 
Egypt.  The  flower  of  the  lotus, 
which  generally  formed  the  de- 
coration of  the  ponderous  struc- 
tures of  that  country,  in  some  of 
its  fantastic  varieties  bears  a  near 
resemblance  to  the  ornaments  of 
the  Corinthian  capital ;  and  as 
no  great  degree  of  intercourse 
prevailed  between  Greece  and 
Egypt  until  the  more  recent  pe- 
riod of  their  history,  its  late 
appearance  in  Europe  is  suffi- 
ciently accounted  for. 

The  concluding  years  of  the 
Peloponnesian  War  witnessed  ex- 
amples of  the  style  in  Greece, 
and  no  notice  occurs  in  ancient 
writers  of  its  previous  existence. 

Two  sorts  of  acanthus  are  sup- 
posed to  be  imitated  in  the  leaves 
of  capitals.  The  one  employed 
by  the  Greeks  is  known  amongst 
us  by  the  name  of  the  brank 
ursine  (from  the  officinal  name 
branca  ursi)  and  by  the  vulgar 
appellation  bears-b/cech,  from  its 


ACC 


A  0  C 


roughness  giving  it  some  resem- 
blance to  the  shaggy  hide  of  the 
bear.  These  terms  are  now  sel- 
dom used,  and  the  softer  and 
more  classical  name  of  acanthus 
is  generally  given  it  in  English. 
It  is  a  native  of  Italy,  Sicily,  and 
the  isles  of  the  Archipelago,  and 
forms  an  ornament  to  the  flower 
plat  in  some  states  of  Barbary. 

The  other  variety,  wild  or 
prickly  acanthus,  is  of  a  more 
diminutive  character,  as  well  in 
its  size  as  in  the  indentations  of 
its  leaves,  and  other  qualities, 
which  give  so  much  grace  to  the 
larger  variety — this  has,  it  is  said 
by  some  writers  on  architecture, 
been  the  model  followed  by  the 
architects  of  buildings  of  the 
middle  ages. 

A  botanist,  however,  would  not 
only  be  at  a  loss  to  distinguish 
any  difference  in  the  leaves  used 
by  architects  (according  to  ano- 
ther author)  of  any  period,  but 
he  would  find  it  exceedingly  dif- 
ficult, if  not  impossible,  to  say 
at  all  what  was  the  leaf  used  in 
the  Corinthian  capitals  by  Greek 
architects,  or  by  those  moderns 
who  follow  this  practice.  He 
thinks  it  possible,  that  to  a  **  warm 
imagination"  the  leaves  of  the 
Corinthian  capital  (of  the  Temple 
of  Jupiter  Stator,  for  instance), 
may  suggest  those  of  the  herb 
bear's-breech,  but  so  many  pic- 
turesque and  sculpturesque  beau- 
ties having  been  introduced, which 
make  the  resemblance  so  indis- 
tinct, that  he  considers  it  "  an 
admirably  beautiful  ornament, 
which  does  not  resemble  any  leaf 
with  which  we  are  at  present  ac- 
quainted." 

Accesses.  See  Passage. 

Accessible  Altitude,  in  Geo- 
metry, the  height  of  an  object 
whose  foot  may  be  approached 
from  a  remote  station. 

ActEssoniEs.    Those  parts  or 

50 


ornaments,  in  architectural  com- 
position, whether  designed  or 
accidental,  which  are  not  appa- 
rently essential,  either  to  the 
use  or  character  of  a  building — 
they  have  been  compared  to  epi- 
sodes in  poetry.  See  Compusitiuxf 
Design, 

Accident.  An  effect  or  com- 
bination in  architectural  compo- 
sition which  was  not  foreseen:  a 
deviation  from  regularity  or  sym- 
metry without  design.  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  was  of  opinion  that  it 
might  not  be  amiss  for  an  archi- 
tect to  take  advantage  of  acci- 
dents, to  improve  the  composition 
of  his  designs — to  follow  them 
when  they  lead,  and  to  improve 
(or  assimilate)  them  rather  than 
always  trust  to  a  regular  plan. 
It  often  happens  that  additions 
have  been  made  to  houses  at  va- 
rious times  for  use  or  pleasure; 
as  such  buildings  depart  from 
regularity,  they  now  and  then 
acquire  something  of  scenery 
(picturesqueness?)  by  this  acci- 
dent, which  might  be  successfully 
adopted  by  an  architect  in  an 
original  plan,  if  it  does  not  too 
much  interfere  with  convenience. 
The  forms  and  burning  of  the 
streets  of  London,  and  other  old 
towns,  are  accidents,  without  any 
original  plan  or  design,  but  they 
are  not  always  the  less  pleasant 
to  the  walker  or  spectator  on 
that  account.  On  the  contrary, 
if  the  city  had  been  built  on  the 
regular  plan  proposed  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  after  the  great 
fire,  the  effect  might  have  been, 
as  we  know  it  is  in  some  new 
parts  of  the  town,  rather  un- 
pleasing — the  uniformity  might 
have  produced  weariness,  and  a 
slight  degree  of  disgust. 

Accidental  Point,  in  per- 
spective, a  point  on  the  horizontal 
line,  where  certain  lines  parallel 
to  each  other,  but  not  to  the 


AC  H 


A  C  H 


principal  object  in  the  picture, 
converge.  From  the  position  of 
the  object  represented,  an  acci- 
dental point  may  not  be  in  the 
horizontal  line 

Accompaniments.  Buildings 
or  ornaments  having  a  necessary 
connexion,  or  dependence,  and 
which  serve  to  make  a  design 
more  or  less  complete — a  cha- 
racteristic peculiarity  of  orna- 
ments. 

Accouplement.  Among  car- 
penters, a  tie  or  brace ;  some- 
times the  entire  work  when 
framed. 

Acer.  See  Maple. 

Acerra.  In  decoration,  vases 
made  like  a  little  chest,  or  box, 
in  which  the  ancients  put  per- 
fumes and  incense.  These  are 
frequently  seen,  in  sculptures  of 
sacrifices,  in  the  hands  of  the 
Camilli,  on  the  Trajan  column; 
and  in  others,  in  the  hands  of 
the  vestals.  They  are  adorned 
with  sculptures.  The  Thuribu- 
lum  was  also  a  vase  for  incense, 
'jut  antiquaries  are  not  agreed 
whether  it  was  an  acerra.  It  is 
sometimes  introduced  ns  a  deco- 
ration, on  the  friezes  of  temples. 
Also,  "  an  altar  erected  by  the 
Romans,  on  which  perfumes  were 
burned  before  a  dead  body,  until 
the  period  of  its  inhumation.'' 

Achmin,  a  large  town  of  upper 
Egypt,  situated  on  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Nile.  "  We  admire 
there,"  says  Abulfeda,  as  cited  by 
Mr.  Savary,  "  a  temple,  which  is 
equal  to  the  most  celebrated  mo- 
numents of  antiquity.  It  is  con- 
structed with  stones  of  a  surprising 
size,  on  which  are  sculptured  in- 
numerable figures."  Although  it 
is  now  fallen  from  its  ancient 
splendour,  this  town  is  still  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  in  Kgy.pt.  It 
appears  to  be  the  same  as  the 
Cliemmis  of  Herodotus,  which  was 
called,  in  the  time  of  Strabo, 


Panopolis,  or  the  city  of  Pan, 
that  deity  being  the  object  of  the 
worship  of  its  inhabitants.  Hero- 
dotus says,  that  Perseus  was  a 
native  of  this  city,  and  that  his 
descendants  had  established  fes- 
tivals there  in  his  honour.  The 
ruins  of  the  temple  described  by 
Abulfeda,  are  beyond  the  limits 
of  the  town,  to  the  north.  No- 
thing remains  of  it  but  the  stones, 
which  are  of  such  magnitude  that 
the  Turks  have  not  been  able  to 
move  them.  They  are  covered 
with  hieroglyphics.  On  one  of 
them  are  traced  four  concentric 
circles  in  a  square  :  the  innermost 
contains  a  sun:  the  two  next,  di- 
vided into  twelve  parts,  contain, 
the  one  twelve  birds,  the  other 
twelve  animals,  almost  effaced, 
which  appear  to  have  been  in- 
tended for  the  signs  of  the  zodiac  : 
the  fourth  has  no  divisions,  and 
presents  twelve  human  figures. 
Mr.  Savary  supposes  the  whole  to 
represent  the  twelve  gods,  the 
twelve  months  of  the  year,  and 
the  twelve  zodiacal  signs.  The 
Egyptians,  Herodotus  tells  us, 
first  divided  the  year  into  twelve 
months,  and  gave  them  the  name 
of  the  twelve  gods.  The  four 
seasons  occupy  the  angles  of  the 
square,  on  the  side  of  which  may 
be  distinguished  a  globe  with 
wings.  Mr.  Savary  thinks  that 
this  stone  belonged  to  a  temple 
dedicated  to  the  sun,  and  that  the 
whole  of  these  hieroglyphics  mark 
his  passage  into  the  signs  of  the 
zodiac.  The  columns  of  the  tem- 
ple have  been  partly  broken,  to 
make  lime  and  mill-.tones.  Some 
of  them  have  been  transported 
into  one  of  the  mosques  of  Ach- 
min, where  they  are  placed  with- 
out any  taste,  and  others  are 
heaped  up  in  the  square  of  the 
town.  Mr.  Savary  tells  us  of  a 
singular  instance  of  imposture  at 
this  rjlace :  the  people  have  been 

51 


A  C  R 


ACR 


induced  to  believe  in  the  divinity 
and  immortality  of  a  serpent, 
which  they  worship,  and  into 
which  the  soul  of  one  Sheiik 
Haridi,  a  religious  man,  who  lived 
above  a  century  ago,  is  believed 
to  have  passed.  Except  the  tem- 
ple, the  ancient  buildings  of 
Achmin  have  entirely  vanished. 
It  is  in  modern  times  noted  only 
for  its  manufactory  of  cotton 
stuffs  and  pottery. 

Acorn.  In  naval  architecture, 
a  little  ornamental  piece  of  wood, 
fashioned  like  a  cone,  and  fixed 
on  the  uppermost  point  of  the 
spindle,  above  the  vane,  on  the 
mast  head. 

Acoustics.  (Gr.)  The  science 
which  comprehends  every  thing 
relative  to  the  nature,  operation, 
and  effects  of  sound.  Some 
knowledge  of  this  science  is  very 
necessary  to  the  architect  of  large 
edifices,  particularly  churches  and 
places  intended  for  public  speak- 
ing, to  guide  him  in  regulating 
the  proportions,  so  as  to  have  the 
best  possible  effect  on  the  hearers. 
The  theory  of  whispering  galleries 
and  echoes  is  explained  under  the 
article  Echo. 

Acoustic  Vessels.  A  kind  of 
vessels  made  of  brass,  shaped  like 
a  bell,  which,  being  of  all  tones 
within  the  pitch  of  the  voice, 
rendered  the  sounds  more  distinct 
and  audible,  so  that  the  ancient 
actors  could  be  heard  through  all 
parts  of  the  theatres,  which  some- 
times exceeded  400  feet  in  dia- 
meter. Vases,  harmonically  tuned, 
were  placed  in  various  parts  of 
the  opera-house  at  Turin,  and  in 
some  other  theatres  of  Italy,  but 
without  the  effect  of  augmenting 
the  tone  of  the  actor's  voices,  or 
of  the  instruments. 

Acradina,  the  strongest,  larg- 
est, and  most  beautiful  of  the  four 
divisions  of  Syracuse  It  con- 
tained a  forum,  a  senate-house,  &c. 

52 


Acrolinthon.  A  celebrated 
statue  of  colossal  proportions 
placed  in  the  temple  of  Mars, 
which  was  enclosed  in  the  citadel 
of  the  tow  n  of  Halicarnassus. 

Acropolis.  (A/crospolis,  high- 
est city,  Gr.)  In  ancient  military 
architecture,  a  citadel,  a  Greek 
strong  hold  or  fortress. 

An  Acropolis  should,  accord- 
ing to  Alberti,  occupy  an  elevated 
ground  behind  a  city,  from  whence 
there  are  easy  means  of  sallying 
against  enemies  or  seditious  citi- 
zens, or  of  receiving  reinforce- 
ments. It  should  be  the  point  of 
junction  for  all  the  town  walls, 
and  small  because  more  easily 
defended.  The  foundations  (of 
the  walls)  should  be  solid — ot 
vast  stones  in  an  oblique  line,  on 
purpose  that  scaling  ladders  may 
be  weakened  by  curvature,  the 
besieging  enemy  be  unable  to 
avoid  the  stones  discharged;  and 
those  sent  from  their  engines  fly 
off  obliquely  —  the  inner  area 
should  be  thickly  strewn  with 
large  stones  to  prevent  mining. 
The  Acropolis  was  not  only  to 
be  a  refuge  during  danger,  but 
to  be  especially  devoted  for 
guarding  matrons,  virgins,  and 
the  sacred  religious  objects  from 
profanation — for  this  reason  there 
were  temples  erected  in  every 
Acropolis. 

Every  ancient  Greek  city  ap- 
pears to  have  occupied  a  peculiar 
plain,  surrounded  by  a  natural 
wall  of  mountains — or  possessed 
its  Acropolis  and  its  plain,  the 
former  for  refuge  during  war, 
and  the  latter  for  agricultural 
purposes. 

Among  architects,  Acropolis  is 
applied  by  way  of  eminence  to 
the  citadel  of  Athens,  in  which 
are  some  magnificent  remains  of 
ancient  Athenian  buildings, chiefly 
monuments  raised  by  Pericles — 
which  have  not  only  reflected  an 


ACROPOLIS. 


imperishable  glory  upon  his  go- 
vernment, but  so  admirable  are 
they  in  design  and  decoration, 
that  the  age  in  which  they  were 
erected  they  have  distinguished 
above  all  other  ages  as  that  of 
inimitable  taste  and  refinement. 

The  rock  of  tlie  Acropolis  is 
on  three  sides  rugged  and  steep. 
On  the  west  the  ascent  is  less 
difficult,  and  here  was  the  only 
approach.  Near  the  summit  is  a 
broad  flight  of  steps  by  which  the 
terrace  or  platform  in  front  of 
tiie  Probylaeum  was  approached. 
These  extend  the  whole  width  of 
the  principal  portico,  and  were 
flanked  by  two  square  pedestals 
of  considerable  magnitude  and 
height,  which  are  thought  to  have 
supported  equestrian  statues. 

The  western  end  of  the  hill  was 
168  feet  in  breadth,  an  opening 
so  narrow,  that  the  space  was 
filled  up  with  a  single  building, 
which  serving  the  purpose  of  a 
gateway,  should  at  once  adorn 
and  protect  the  citadel.  This 
work,  the  greatest  architectural 
work  in  Athens,  which  equalled 
the  Parthenon  in  happiness  of 
execution,  and  almost  surpassed 
it  in  originality  and  grandeur  of 
design,  is  said  to  have  cost  2012 
talents.  Of  the  168  feet  forming 
the  dimension  of  the  natural 
entrance  of  the  Acropolis,  58 
feet  were  left  near  the  centre, 
for  the  great  artificial  entrance, 
the  remainder  being  closed  by 
two  wings,  which  projected  32 
feet  in  front  of  the  grand  co- 
lonnade of  the  entrance.  The 
entire  building  was  called  Pro- 
pria?, from  its  forming  a  vestibule 
to  th  '  five  gates. 

The  wall  in  which  these  doors 
were  pierced,  receded  about  50 
feel  from  the  front  of  the  artifi- 
cial opening  of  the  hill,  which 
was  ir>elf  thrown  back  a  few  feet 
beyond  the  natural  entrance.  The 


whole  work  has  been  compared 
by  one  of  the  ablest  recent  wri- 
ters on  the  antiquities  of  Athens, 
to  the  front  of  a  modern  fortifi- 
cation:— the  great  vestibule  or 
propylaeum,  resembling  the  cur- 
tain, and  each  of  the  wings  pre- 
senting a  face  and  flank  like  two 
adjoining  bastions:  the  difference 
between  it,  and  the  front  of  a 
modern  fortification,  being  such 
only  as  naturally  arises  from  the 
difference  of  weapons,  and  of  the 
art  of  war  of  the  two  ages,  and 
from  the  admirable  taste  with 
which  the  Athenians  combined 
utility  with  ornament. 

This  magnificent  building  was 
constructed  entirely  of  Pentelic 
marble — the  propylaeum  or  vesti- 
bule consisted  of  a  front  of  six 
Doric  columns,  mounted  upon 
four  steps,  which  supported  a  pe- 
diment.    The  columns  are  five 
feet  in  diameter,  nearly  29  feet 
high,  and  have  an  intercolumnar 
space  of  about  7  feet,  except  be- 
tween the  two  central  columns, 
where  a  space  of  13  feet  is  left 
for  the  sake  of  the  carriage-way 
— behind   the   Doric  colonnade 
was  a  vestibule  43  feet  deep,  the 
roof  of  which  was  supported  by 
six  Ionic  columns  standing  in  a 
double  row,  and  thus  dividing  the 
vestibule  into  three  aisles.  These 
columns  were  nearly  34  feet  high, 
their  architraves  being  on  the 
same  line  with  the  frieze  of  the 
Doric  colonnade.     The  ceiling 
was  laid  upon  marble  beams  rest- 
ing on  the  side  walls,  and  on  the 
architraves  of  the  two  rows  of 
Ionic  columns — the  beams  cover- 
ing the  side  aisles  were  22  feet 
long,  and  those  of  the  centre 
aisle  17  feet,  with  a  proportional 
breadth  and  thickness.  These 
enormous  masses  raised  to  the 
roof  of  a  building  standing  on 
the  summit  of  a  steep  hill,  might 
well  excite  the  admiration  of 

53 


ACROPOLIS. 


ancient  travellers.  See  Athens, 
Propyltsum.  The  wings  of  the 
Propyl aea  were  nearly  symme- 
trical in  front,  each  presenting  on 
this  side,  a  wall  adorned  only 
with  a  frieze  of  tryglyphs,  and 
with  antse  at  the  extremities. 
The  great  simplicity  of  the  wings 
in  this  direction  was  charac- 
teristic of  the  work  of  defence, 
of  which  they  formed  so  impor- 
tant a  part,  and  the  purposes  of 
which  regulated  their  construc- 
tion. The  flanks  also  in  these 
bastions  were  uniform  in  their 
external  appearance,  each  of  them 
presenting  a  Doric  front  of  three 
columns,  in  antse  of  three  feet  in 
diameter  supporting  pediments, 
the  summits  of  which  were  on  a 
level  with  the  frieze  of  the  great 
Propylaeum.  The  inner  or  south- 
ernmost column  of  each  wing 
stood  in  a  line  with  the  great 
Doric  columns  of  the  Propylaeum, 
and  as  both  these  columns  and 
those  of  the  wings  were  upon  the 
same  level,  the  three  porticoes 
were  all  connected  together,  and 
the  four  steps  which  ascended  to 
the  Propylaeum  were  continued 
also  along  the  portico  of  the  two 
wings.  Here  the  uniformity  of 
the  building  ended,  for  in  regard 
to  interior  size  and  distribution 
the  wings  were  very  dissimilar. 

In  the  northern  wing,  a  porch 
12  feet  deep,  conducted  by  ihree 
doors  into  a  chamber,  ?A  feet  by 
26;  the  porch  and  chamber  thus 
occupying  the  entire  space  lying 
between  the  western  wall  of  that 
wing.  The  southern  wing  con- 
sisted of  a  porch  or  open  gallery, 
26  feet  by  1 6,  which,  on  the  east 
and  south  sides,  was  formed  by  a 
wall  connected,  and  of  the  same 
thickness,  with  the  side  wali  of 
the  Propylaeum;  having  its  roof 
supported  by  a  narrow  pilaster, 
standing  between  the  north-west 
column  of  the  wing  and  an  antai, 

54 


which  terminated  its  southern 
wall.  The  wall  thus  appearing 
in  front  of  this  wing,  and  pre- 
serving the  outside  symmetry, 
formed  a  screen  to  the  open  gal- 
lery, between  which  and  the 
screen  there  was  a  passage  of  four 
or  five  feet,  leading  into  the  cita- 
del by  a  postern  gate.  The  mili- 
tary defences  of  the  Propylaeum 
would  have  been  incomplete  with- 
out this  postern. 

The  circumstance  which  prin- 
cipally appears  to  have  regulated 
the  Greeks  in  protecting  the  ap- 
proach to  their  fortified  places, 
was  the  undefended  state  of  the 
Greek  soldier  on  the  right  side 
of  his  body;  while  an  ample 
shield  covered  the  left  of  the 
Aoplita,  all  his  right  side  was 
exposed  to  the  missiles  of  the 
enemy.  It  may  be  inferred  from 
the  description  by  Thucydides, 
of  the  battle  between  the  Lace- 
daemonian:-; and  Argives,  at  Man- 
tinea,  that  this  effect  of  the  arms 
of  the  Greeks,  was  one  of  the 
chief  regulators  of  the  movements 
of  their  troops  in  the  field  of 
battle;  but  it  was  still  more  im- 
portant, as  a  leading  principle,  in 
defending  the  approaches  to  the 
gates  and  vulnerable  points  of 
their  fortifications,  as  Vitruvius 
instructs  his  readers,  and  as  we 
find  exemplified  in  a  great  variety 
of  Greek  ruins  still  existing  in 
Greece,  Italy,  and  Sicily.  It  often 
taught  the  Grecian  engineers 
how  to  occupy  their  ground,  and 
in  many  cases  determined  the 
general  form  of  theirfortifications; 
and  it  frequently  regulated  the 
construction  of  their  gates,  and 
the  direction  in  which  they  were 
to  be  approached.  In  several 
Acropoles  there  are  seen  traces 
in  the  rocks  of  the  ancient  paths 
leading  to  the  gates,  where  it  is 
very  evident,  that  the  direction  of 
the  paths  was  contrived  w  ith  a  view 


ACROPOLIS. 


to  oblige  the  enemy  in  his  ap- 
proach to  expose  his  right  side 
to  the  rampart.  It  follows  that 
the  left  front  of  a  Greek  fortifica- 
tion was  more  easily  defended 
against  the  approach  of  an  enemy 
than  the  right ;  and  as  the  only 
approach  to  the  Acropolis  was  by 
the  ridge  falling  to  the  south- 
west, it  was  greatly  favoured  by 
natural  situation ;  its  right,  which 
would  otherwise  have  been  the 
weaker  side,  is  defended  by  steep 
rocks ;  while  the  ridge  which 
slopes  from  the  left,  bv  obliging 
the  assailants  to  move  from  that 
quarter,  facilitates  the  formation 
of  outworks,  which  would  have 
the  effect  of  obliging  the  enemy 
to  mount  the  steep  ascent  under 
the  continual  disadvantage  cf 
exposing  his  right  side  to  the 
besieged. 

The  plan,  which  is  partly  con- 
jectural, will  more  fully  explain 
the  construction — the  entrance- 
gate  A,  was  completely  command- 
ed from  the  wall  BC,  of  the  Acro- 
polis, and  the  soldier  who  was  ad- 
vancing to  the  attack,  was  obliged 
continually  to  expose  his  right 
side  to  the  soldiers  on  the  ram- 
part. Having  turned  the  point 
C,  he  again  exposed  his  right 
side  to  that  part  of  the  rampart 
or  platform  above  EF;  and  it  is 
probable  that  while  advancing  to 
G,  he  was  farther  exposed  to  the 
missiles  of  the  Athenians  from  a 
lower  citadel  or  fort,  meant  to 
command  or  overlook  the  road 
beneath.  If  the  enemy  succeeded 
in  turning  this  terrace  by  a  pas- 
sage at  the  end  of  it,  he  pro- 
ceeded to  the  right,  and  advanced 
to  the  gate  of  the  Propylaea,  and 
thus  would  obtain  possession  of 
the  outwork  BE  in  reverse.  The 
besieged  would  then  be  under  the 
necessity  of  retiring  within  the 
Propylaea.  In  approaching  the 
entrance  of  this  building,  the  be- 


sieger was  again  exposed  in  front 
from  the  Propylaeum,  and  on  the 
other  side  from  the  wings  IK ; 
and  here  again  his  right  was  still 
more  undefended,  because  the 
besieged  in  the  southern  wing 
had  the  power  of  retreat  and  re- 
inforcement through  the  postern, 
which  was  placed  at  or  near  the 
gate  L ;  this  situation  was  thus 
so  well  secured  and  covered  by 
the  construction  of  the  southern 
wing,  that  the  postern  still  afford- 
ed the  opportunity  of  endangering 
the  rear  of  the  besiegers. 

The  postern  was  therefore  es- 
sential to  the  military  defences 
of  the  Propylaea,  and  the  ine- 
quality of  the  two  wings,  is  not 
to  be  ascribed  to  any  difficulties 
arising  from  the  nature  of  the 
ground;  for  while  the  adorning 
of  the  citadel  was  the  object  of 
the  architects,  and  their  director 
Pericles,  its  details  and  plan  were 
parts  of  an  admirably-contrived 
system  of  military  architecture. 

This  building  was  completed  in 
five  years,  and  is  estimated  to 
have  cost  nearly  480,000/.  For 
its  details,  see  Proipylcea. 

After  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
when  success  so  often  favoured 
the  arms  of  the  Athenians,  and 
the  state  rose  rapidly  to  domi- 
nion and  to  glory,  Victory  was 
then  fabled  to  have  been  fixed  by 
their  tutelary  deity  Minerva  to 
the  Acropolis,  by  being  deprived 
of  her  wings.  Jn  the  Acropolis, 
therefore,  they  placed  her  statue 
and  temple,  which  were  erected 
from  the  spoils  taken  in  that  ce- 
lebrated contest. 

Of  this  little  temple,  of  which 
there  are  now  no  traces  on  the 
spot,  the  figure  V.  is  a  conjec- 
tural elevation,  by  Mr.  Cockerell, 
from  an  admeasurement  of  some 
detached  fragments,  lying  in  the 
Acropolis,  and  one  or  two  frag- 
ments (which  are  suoposed  to  have 


ACROPOLIS. 


belonged  to  it,)  at  present  in  the 
British  Museum  It  was  seen  by 
Spon  and  Wheler,  who  have  given 
a  few  measurements  of  what  then 
remained  at  their  visit.  It  was 
used  as  a  powder-magazine  by  the 
Turks,  and  destroyed  in  an  acci- 
dental explosion. 

On  the  steepest  part  of  the 
ascent  to  the  Propylaea,  about  17 
feet  before  the  south-western 
angle  of  the  northern  wing  of  the 
vestibule,  was  placed  a  pedestal, 
supporting,  it  is  supposed,  an 
equestrian  statue,  having  a  cor- 
responding pedestal  and  statue 
placed  opposite  the  southern  wing. 
The  statues  are  conjectured  to 
have  been  those  of  Marcus  Agrip- 
pa,  who  was  a  great  benefactor 
to  the  Athenians,  and  Caius  Caesar 
Octavlanus,  his  colleague  in  his 
third  consulship.  The  fine  taste 
of  the  Athenians,  it  has  been  re- 
marked, has  been  shewn  even  in 
the  placing  of  these  statues  ;  the 
pedestal  of  M.  Agrippa  did  not 
stand  parallel  to  the  front  of  the 
entrance-gate  or  vestibule,  but  its 
south-western  angle  was  thrown 
a  little  back.  "  Undoubtedly," 
says  an  observer,  (himself  imbued 
with  no  small  portion  of  that  sa- 
gacity and  fine  taste,  which  he 
was  noticing  to  be  displayed  by 
others,)  il  for  the  purpose  of  more 
advantageously  exhibiting  to  those 
who  ascended  the  hill,  the  statue 
which  stood  upon  it." 

Upon  a  minute  inspection  of 
several  fragments  of  two  pedi- 
ments found  in  the  ruins,  it  was 
discovered  that  some  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  cornice  were  gilt ;  on 
others  an  enrichment  was  painted 
in  reddish  ochre;  in  one  instance, 
the  form  of  the  echinus  moulding 
was  slightly  sculptured,  for  the 
purpose  of  assisting  the  effect  of 
the  painting ;  a  mode  of  deco- 
ration not  uncommon  in  Grecian 
buildings:  it  seems  probable  that 

56 


the  colour  which  was  observed 
was  the  ground  of  gijding  which 
has  long  perished. 

After  passing  through  the  Pro- 
pylaea, a  descent  of  steps  conducts 
to  the  grand  platform  or  area  of 
the  Acropolis,  on  which  was  erect- 
ed the  Parthenon.  The  level  of 
the  rock  on  which  it  is  founded 
is  more  than  30  feet  higher  than 
that  part  on  which  the  Propylaea 
is  built;  so  that  the  temple  was 
so  far  elevated  above  the  level  of 
the  western  entrance,  that  the 
pavement  of  its  peristyle  was 
upon  the  same  level  as  the  capi- 
tals of  the  columns  of  the  eastern 
or  inner  portico  of  the  Propylaea. 
This  temple  was  begun  and  finish- 
ed under  the  government  of  Peri- 
cles, and  is  justly  esteemed  the 
"  Pride  of  Athens,  and  the  boast 
of  Architecture."  In  whatever 
direction  Athens  is  approached, 
it  forms  a  splendid  and  magnifi- 
cent feature  in  the  landscape.  It 
was  built  under  the  architect 
Ichinus,  to  whom  some  have  ad- 
ded the  architect  Callicrates. 

The  platform  is  elevated  three 
steps  above  the  surrounding 
ground,  and  the  area  embraced 
by  the  uppermost  steps  is  little 
more  than  227  feet  in  length,  and 
101  in  width. 

There  were  eight  columns  in  the 
portico  of  either  front,  and  17  in 
the  flanks;  these  columns  were 
6  feet  2  inches  in  diameter,  and 
34  feet  high.  From  the  episty- 
lium  of  the  eastern,  or  principal 
front,  were  probably  suspended 
shields  of  gilt  metal,  in  confor- 
mity with  the  practice  observed 
in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olym- 
pia.  The  total  height  of  the  tem- 
ple being  about  65  feet. 

Within  the  peristyle,  at  either 
end,  there  was  an  interior  range 
of  six  columns  of  5^  feet  in  dia- 
meter, forming  a  vestibule  to  the 
door  of  the  cella  or  adytum; 


ACROPOLIS. 


these  vestibules  were  ascended  by 
two  steps  from  the  peristyle. — 
The  cella,  62%  feet  broad  within, 
was  divided  into  two  unequal 
chambers,  of  which  one  was  near- 
ly 44  feet  long,  and  the  other 
about  9?t  feet  long.  The  ceiling 
of  the  smaller  chamber  was  sup- 
ported by  4  columns,  and  of  the 
larger  by  16  columns;  the  order 
of  these  interior  columns  is  un- 
known, as  all  traces  of  their  orna- 
ments appear  to  have  perished; 
even  their  existence  can  be  but 
conjectured.,  by  means  of  the  con- 
struction of  the  pavement,  and 
by  a  trace  of  one  of  the  columns 
in  either  chamber. 

The  existence  of  these  internal 
columns  is  not  however  admitted 
by  W  ilkins,  who  made  a  very 
minute  inspection  of  the  building 
in  1 80 ] .  Under  Parthenon,  his 
arguments  in  favour  of  this  sup- 
position will  be  stated  at  length. 

The  metopes  were  enriched  with 
sculptures,  executed  in  high  re- 
lief; the  subject,  a  series  of  com- 
bats between  one  of  the  Lapitliae 
and  the  Centaurs  :  in  the  tympan 
of  the  pediments  were  sculptured 
groups  of  a  colossal  size,  many  of 
the  figures  being  perfect  statues, 
wholly  detached  from  the  tympa- 
num, and  sculptured  all  round, — 
The  circumstances  attending  the 
birth  of  Minerva  were  represented 
over  the  one  entrance,  and  also 
the  contest  between  the  goddess 
and  Neptune  for  the  honour  of 
presiding  over  the  affairs  of  the 
city  ;  for  the  Athenians,  in  choos- 
ing a  tutelary  deity,  did  not  omit 
the  opportunity  of  paying  a  com- 
pliment to  their  national  vanity. 

Behind  the  columns  of  both 
fronts  was  another  range  of  co- 
lumns, of  lesser  dimensions,  ad- 
vanced before  the  antae  of  the 
pronaos  and  posticum,  contrary  to 
the  usual  Greek  practice  ;  and  the 
area  of  the  pronaos  and  of  the 
H 


posticum  was  elevated  two  steps 
above  the  level  of  the  peristyle. 

The  entablature  or  frieze  of  the 
inner  range  was  continued  along 
the  side-walls  of  the  temple,  and 
enriched  with  sculptures  executed 
in  bas-relief ;  it  was  not  broken 
by  the  insertion  of  triglyphs  :  but 
in  the  epistylium,  the  guttae,  or 
drops,  are  introduced  in  the  same 
manner  as  when  the  usual  inser- 
tion of  triglyphs  was  made.  This 
afforded  an  opportunity  for  an 
uninterrupted  representation  of 
the  grand  procession  which  took 
place  at  the  celebration  of  the 
Panathensean  fesiival. 

The  transverse  walls,  terminat- 
ing the  pronaos  and  posticum, 
receded  1 2  feet  behind  the  columns 
of  the  interior  ranges,  and  door- 
ways of  ample  width  and  height 
were  left  in  them  for  the  ap- 
proaches to  the  cella. 

Stuart  imagined  the  Parthenon 
to  have  been  of  that  description 
of  temples  called  Hypaethral,  or 
those  of  which  the  cella  was 
divided  into  three  aisles,  of  which 
the  two  next  the  side-walls  were 
covered  with  a  roof,  and  the  mid- 
dle aisle  left  open  to  the  sky. — 
The  researches  of  recent  travel- 
lers having  thrown  additional 
light  on  this  subject,  his  opinion 
is  no  longer  tenable,  and  the  pas- 
sage in  Vttruvius,  which  was  con- 
sidered to  allude  to  this  temple, 
has  been  shown  to  be  a  corruption 
of  that  author's  text.  '1  litre  vt  ere 
no  columns  in  the  cella  of  the 
temple. 

The  roof  was  unquestionably  of 
timber,  and  covered  with  marble, 
sculptured  so  as  to  represent  large 
tiles,  after  the  model  observed  in 
the  Temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olym- 
pia. 

£ome  of  the  blocks  of  stone  of 
which  the  Parthenon  is  composed, 
are  so  closely  fitted,  that  no  se- 
paration is  visible;  and  in  some 

57 


ACROPOLIS. 


instances,  where  the  adjoining 
fragments  of  two  contiguous  stones 
have  broken  on",  they  adhere  al- 
most as  firmly  as  though  they  had 
never  been  disjoined ;  this  cohe- 
sion is,  however,  only  observable 
in  the  vertical  joints  :  the  separa- 
tion between  the  horizontal  beds 
of  the  blocks  is  far  more  conspi- 
cuous. 

The  want  of  cement  was  amply 
supplied  by  the  liberal  use  of  iron 
cramps  ;  in  a  block  of  four  feet 
in  length,  three  cramps  are  some- 
times found  connecting  it  with 
the  next  adjoining.  One  set  of 
cramps  being  used  for  connecting 
the  stones  of  the  same  bed  toge- 
ther, and  the  other  for  connecting 
the  superincumbent  courses  ;  the 
first,  which  united  the  blocks 
both  at  the  end  and  at  the  sides, 
resembled  the  letter  H,  protract- 
ed so  as  to  be  from  II  to  15 
inches  in  length.  The  others 
were  plates  of  iron,  5  inches  in 
depth,  3  in  width,  and  three  quar- 
ters of  an  inch  thick.  They  were 
usually  inserted  half  their  depth 
into  the  stones  beneath  the  verti- 
cal joints  of  the  next  superior 
course,  the  other  half  remaining 
to  be  received  into  a  groove  made 
across  the  common  joint  of  the 
two  blocks  meeting  above  it. 
Holes  of  the  same  form,  but  of 
greater  dimensions  were  sunk  for 
the  reception  of  the  first  sort  of 
cramps,  the  space  being  filled 
around  with  melted  lead ;  lead 
was  only  used  in  fixing  the  second 
sort  of  cramps  in  the  horizontal 
courses,  but  no  means  appear  to 
have  been  employed  for  its  intro- 
duction at  the  angles  of  two  blocks, 
whose  vertical  joint  is  immediately 
above  them. 

The  stones  composing  the  shaft 
of  each  column  were  held  toge- 
ther by  round  pins  of  wood ; 
square  sockets  of  the  same  mate- 
rial were  first  sunk  in  the  centre 

58 


of  two  adjoining  blocks,  the  socket 
of  the  lower  course  received  half 
the  pin,  and  the  other  half  pro- 
jected into  the  socket  in  the  upper 
stone.  The  pins  which  have 
been  found,  appear  to  have  shrunk 
very  considerably  ;  besides  these, 
there  were  usually  two  metal 
plates,  of  the  kind  already  men- 
tioned, inserted  in  these  blocks 
composing  the  column,  as  in  the 
other  part  of  the  building. 

North  of  the  Parthenon  stands 
the  Erecht/ieum,  a  double  temple 
of  the  Ionic  order;  its  size,  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  Parthenon, 
is  small,  but  its  details  and  com- 
position are  equally  beautiful. 

This  temple  was  built  over  a 
salt-spring  or  well,  and  was  pro- 
bably a  spot  consecrated  to  the 
gods  earlier  than  any  other  in 
Athens.  It  was  the  burying- 
place  of  Erechtheus  ;  and  enclos- 
ed an  olive  tree,  an  object  which 
was  held  in  great  veneration  by 
the  Athenians. — The  present  re- 
mains form  part  of  the  temple 
raised  during  the  dominion  of 
Pericles. 

The  Krechtheum  consists  of  two 
temples  :  one  of  them  dedicated 
to  Minerva  Polias,  and  the  other 
to  Pandrosus.  The  whole  erec- 
tion is  sometimes  called  the  Tem- 
ple of  Minerva  Polias,  from  its 
being  the  more  important  of  the 
two  buildings.  The  wooden  sta- 
tue of  the  goddess,  which  was 
here  worshipped,  was  considered 
the  most  holy  of  any  in  Attic  land, 
and  was  especially  venerated  by 
the  Athenians  as  being  the  pecu- 
liar protectress  of  their  Acropolis. 
The  floors  of  the  cellar  of  the  two 
temples  were  not  upon  a  level, 
that  of  Minerva  Polias  being  ele- 
vated 8  feet  above  the  Pandro- 
seum. 

The  Pandroseum  is  formed  ot 
two  chambers,  of  which  the  west- 
ern is  narrow  and  opens  into  a 


V 


ACROPOLIS. 


portico  at  either  end ;  the  northern 
portico  being  formed  of  six  Ionic 
columns,  and  the  southern  portico, 
instead  of  columns,  has  its  roof 
supported  by  six  female  figures 
called  Caryatids.  The  porticoes 
of  the  temple  were  approached 
by  a  descent  of  steps,  and  within 
it  was  preserved  the  sacred  olive; 
The  Caryatic  portico  is  thought 
to  be  a  building  mentioned  in  old 
Greek  writers,  and  called  the  Ce- 
cropium. 

Besides  these  temples,  the  re- 
mains of  which  are  still  in  exist- 
ence, ancient  authors  enumerate 
the  temples  of  Jupiter  Polieus, 
Pandion,  and  to  Home  and  Au- 
gustus, the  Hierum  of  Venus  Le- 
acna,  which  contained  the  brazen 
lioness,  and  the  statue  of  Venus 
by  Calamis;  the  Diitrephes,  the 
two  Hygaeiae,  the  Aspergillifer 
by  Lycius,  and  Perseus  slaying 
Medusa  by  Myron;  between  the 
temple  of  Diana  and  the  Parthenon 
were  the  Trojan  horse,  the  Epi- 
charmus,  the  JEnobius,  the  Her- 
molycus,  the  Phonnio.  Theseus 
and  the  Minotaur,  Apollo  flay- 
ing Marsyas,  Phryxus  sacrificing, 
Hercules  slaying  the  serpents, 
Minerva  rising  from  the  head  of 
Jupiter,  the  bull  dedicated  by  the 
Areopagus.  Not  far  from  the 
temple  of  the  genius  of  pious  men 
stood  the  warrior  with  silver  nails, 
by  Cleoetas,  Earth  praying  for 
Rain;  then  the  statues  of  Timo- 
theus,  Conon,  Procne  and  Itys  of 
Alcamenes,  the  contest  of  Nep- 
tune and  Minerva,  Jupiter  by 
Leochares,  and  Jupiter  Polieus. 
In  front  of  the  Parthenon,  to- 
wards the  east,  stood  Apollo  Por- 
nopius  by  Phidias,  the  Anacreon, 
and  the  statues  by  Deinomes,  of 
Io  and  Callisto.  On  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  Acropolis  were 
the  Glympiodorus,  the  Diana 
Leucophryne,  and  the  ancient 
statue  cf  Minerva  by  Eudocus. 


On  the  opposite  side  were  the 
half-burnt  figures  of  Minerva,  the 
statue  of  Lysimacha,  and  the  co- 
lossal group  of  Erechtheus  and 
Eumolpus;  near  or  between  these 
were*  the  hunting  of  the  wild  boar. 
Cycnus  and  Hercules,  The>eus 
discovering  the  sandals,  Theseus 
subduing  the  bull ;  the  Cyclon, 
and  a  brazen  colossus  of  Minerva 
by  Phidias.  Near  the  entrance 
of  the  Propylaea  were  a  statue  of 
Pericles,  and  a  statue  of  Minerva 
Lemnia  by  Phidias.  Besides  these 
were  a  statue  of  the  mother  of 
Isocrates,  of  Isocrates  himself, 
Mercury  (surnamed  the  Unini- 
tiated), a  brazen  ram,  compared 
for  its  colossal  dimensions  to  the 
Trojan  horse,  Daraus,  a  statue  of 
the  Emperor  Adrian,  a  Minerva 
by  Nicias,  a  statue  of  Demetrius 
of  Phalerum,  an  ox  by  Lysias, 
a  horse  dedicated  by  Diphilus, 
upon  occasion  of  his  being  made 
a  Roman  knight,  and  numerous 
portraits  of  Grecians  of  no  great 
note;  but  besides  these,  the  ser- 
vility and  flattery  of  the  Athe- 
nians had  crowded  the  citadel 
with  statues  of  powerful  Ro- 
mans. 

Chandler  supposed  the  Acropo- 
lis also  to  have  enclosed  streets  of 
houses;  but  such  an  arrangement 
would  have  been  at  variance,  as 
well  with  the  fine  taste,  as  with 
the  religious  prejudices  of  the 
Athenians.  In  justice  to  both, 
we  must  consider  the  entire  plat- 
form of  the  Acropolis  as  a  splendid 
composition  of  architecture  and 
sculpture,  and  as  "  a  single  superb 
monument  or  magnificent  dedi- 
cation to  the  gods." 

The  walls  of  the  Acropolis  are 
built  at  the  extreme  edge  of  the 
precipice,  and  are  about  2500 
feet  in  circuit ;  the  length  from 
the  south  to  the  northwest  angle 
about  I  150  feet,  and  its  greatest 
breadth  500  feet,  forming  an  ir- 

59 


ACROPOLIS. 


regular  polygon  ;  the  height  of 
the  rock  may  be  about  !;>()  feet 
from  the  plain,  composed  of  a 
stone  of  a  calcareous  and  friable 
quality,  and  of  a  deep  ochreous 
tint. 

From  the  Pelasgi,  who  are  said 
to  have  been  the  first  inhabitants 
of  the  piains,  the  citadel  some- 
times received  the  name  of  the 
Pelasgic  fortress  ;  and  from  a  tra- 
dition of  Cecrops.  the  first  king, 
having  here  founded  the  city,  it 
was  also  called  the  Cecropian 
Kill.  In  progress  of  time,  as  it 
increased  in  importance, the  houses 
stretched  into  the  plain,  when  the 
distinction  of  the  lower  and  upper 
city,  or  Acropolis,  took  place, 
until,  in  later  times,  the  plat- 
form of  the  Acropolis  was  appro- 
priated solely  to  the  uses  of  the 
citadel. 

Who  first  surrounded  the  Acro- 
politan  platform  with  a  wall,  is 
unknown,  but  it  is  probable  that 
the  work  of  Pelasgi  may  be  traced 
in  part  of  the  boundary  wall,  from 
a  division  of  it  having  received 
that  name  by  tradition.  It  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  the  walls  had 
fallen  into  decay  at  the  period  of 
the  first  Persian  war;  for  it  was 
then  necessary  to  repair  them  with 
palisades  ;  that  the  ancient  walls 
had  been  constructed  with  care, 
and  in  the  manner  usual  in  mili- 
tary erections,  appears  highly  pro- 
bable from  a  passage  in  Thucy- 
dides  : — he  describes  the  fortifica- 
tions to  have  been  restored,  after 
that  war,  in  great  haste,  (and  by 
inference,  in  an  inferior  manner 
to  the  old  wall),  and  says,  "  the 
foundations  were  built  of  stones 
of  every  shape  and  size — not 
fitted  to  one  another ;  and  the  wall 
is  full  of  sepulchral  columns,  and 
of  wrought  stones  from  former 
buildings,  united  together." 

Cinion  appears  to  have  restored 

60 


and  re-established  those  parts  of 
the  walls  which  the  Persians  in 
their  second  inroad  under  Mar- 
dcnius,  had  thrown  down.  Those 
which  were  demolished  by  the 
Spartan  Lysander,  were  rebuilt 
by  Conon,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Chaironea  they  were  repaired  by 
Demosthenes.  Philip,  son  of 
Demetrius,  of  Macedon,  with  un- 
sparing vengeance,  also  appears 
to  have  destroyed  a  great  part  of 
the  enclosure;  and  Sy  11a  comple- 
ted this  so  effectually,  that  they 
lay  in  ruins  for  nearly  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty  years  afterward, — 
when  they  were  again  rebuilt  in 
the  reign  of  Valerian  and  Galli- 
enus,  and  also  afterwards  repaired 
by  Justinian. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  di- 
lapidations, it  is  probable  that  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  walls 
at  this  moment  forming  the  en- 
closure, are  part  of  the  works 
existing  from  the  period  of  first 
reparation  ;  a  part  of  the  northern 
side  bears  the  strongest  evidence 
of  having  been  part  of  the  work 
erected  in  the  time  of  Themisto- 
cles. 

The  upper  part  of  the  present 
wall  is  the  work  either  of  the 
Venetians  or  Turks, — the  but- 
tresses are  the  additions  of  a 
recent  period.  The  lower  parts 
are  composed  of  large  rectangular 
blocks  of  stone,  without  any  re- 
mains of  what  has  been  called 
polygonal  building. 

The  Acropolis  was  lately  used 
as  a  fortress  by  the  Turks,  but 
all  its  statues  and  decorations 
have  for  ages  disappeared.  The 
Parthenon  was  converted  into  a 
Greek  church,  and  the  ancient 
roof  having  perished,  it  was  co- 
vered with  a  roof  and  cupola  in 
the  usual  manner.  At  the  siege 
of  Athens,  in  1^76,  by  the  Vene- 
tians, the  explosion  of  a  bheJI, 


ACROPOLIS. 


fired  by  the  besiegers,  nearly  de- 
stroyed half  of  the  fabric,  and  the 
walls  of'  the  Cella  were  almost 
totally  levelled,  and  five  of  the 
columns  of  the  pronaos  —  eight 
columns  on  the  north  side,  and  six 
on  the  south  side,  were  also  at  this 
disastrous  time  thrown  down. — 
The  shell  appears  to  have  explo- 
ded in  nearly  the  centre  of  the 
Cella,  or  Adytum  ;  many  of  the 
masses  were  carried  to  a  consi- 
derable distance  beyond  the  build- 
ing. The  columns  of  the  eastern 
portico  suffered  nothing,  but  the 
pediment  and  its  sculptures  were 
almost  wholly  destroyed:  one  of 
the  principal  groups  which  re- 
mained, after  the  citadel  surren- 
dered, was  shattered  to  pieces  in 
the  attempt  of  Morosini,  (a  Vene- 
tian barbarian  who  accompanied 
the  expedition,)  to  displace  it,  for 
the  purpose  of  transporting  it  to 
Venice.  What  was  then  unhap- 
pily begun,  has  been  since  nearly 
completed.  The  British  Museum 
possesses  the  greater  part  of  the 
sculptures  which  once  adorned  its 
metopes  and  pediment ;  and,  what 
with  the  influence  of  the  seasons, 
and  the  operations  of  petty  spoil- 
ers, the  temple  is  rapidly  approach- 
ing total  annihilation. 

The  columns  of  the  Propylsea 
are  disfigured,  and  their  fine  pro- 
portions are  lost,  by  an  accumu- 
lation of  rubbish — of  the  columns 
supporting  the  marble  ceiling, 
only  some  of  the  shafts  remain, 
the  capitals  and  ornaments  have 
perished;  every  thing  is  buried 
by  the  ruins,  which  have  risen 
about  eighteen  feet  above  the 
original  level,  and  vaults  and 
prisons  have  been  constructed 
beneath  the  accumulation. 

The  Erechtheum  has  suffered 
more  from  wilful  spoliation  than 
even  the  Parthenon  ;  one  of  the 
columns  and  its  entablature  is  in 
the  British  Museum  ;  only  five  co- 


lumns of  its  portico  and  their  cpi- 
stylia  remain  ;  but  mutilated,  dis- 
jointed, and  shaken,  they  cannot 
long  resist  the  attacks  of  time, 
and  wanton,  barbarous  dismem- 
berment:  the  wall  towards  the 
south  is  nearly  level  with  the 
ground  —  the  transverse  walls 
have  almost  totally  disappeared. 

The  Pandroseum,  which,  be- 
fore 1801,  was  in  a  state  of  pre- 
servation that  would  have  for 
ages  resisted  the  attacks  of  the 
weather,  has  even  suffered  more 
than  the  Temple  of  Minerva 
Polias  from  the  fangs  of  the 
dilapidator.  Of  the  six  exquisite 
caryatidae  one  was  wanting  when 
Stuart  visited  Athens ;  and  its 
place  was  ill-supplied  by  a  pillar 
of  modern  masonry — another,  in 
1801 ,  was  removed  by  Lord  Elgin, 
which  has  also  found  its  way  into 
the  British  Museum;  and.  as  if  the 
genius  of  the  deepest  and  most 
unfeeling  barbarism  had  guided 
his  lordship's  spoliation,  the 
statue  he  selected  was  taken 
from  a  part  of  the  buiiding 
which  has  not  only  irretrievably 
destroyed  the  admirable  beauty 
of  the  fabric,  but  also  its  sta- 
bility. 

64  Every  thing,"  says  an  eye- 
witness of  the  transaction,  u  re- 
lative to  this  catastrophe,  was  con- 
ducted with  an  eager  spirit  of  in- 
sensate outrage,  and  an  ardour 
of  insensate  rapacity,  in  oppo- 
sition not  only  to  every  feeling 
of  taste,  but  to  every  sentiment 
of  justice  and  humanity." 

"  Independent  of  the  moral 
blame  which  necessarily  attaches 
to  such  an  act,"  says  Mr.  Dod- 
well,  "  the  authority  of  the  ex- 
ample may  be  henceforth  pleaded 
as  a  precedent,  and  employed  as  an 
apology  for  similar  depreciations. 
The  Athenian  Temples  will  pro- 
bably be  destroyed  for  their  orna- 
ments, which  instead  of  remain- 

61 


ACROPOLIS. 


ing  in  their  original  places  as  the 
property  of  all  nations,  will  be 
appropriated  by  the  strongest. 

"  When  we  come  to  trace  the 
causes  which  led  to  this  scene  of 
havoc  and  destruction,  the  greater 
share  of  the  odium  will  naturally, 
and  not  unjustly,  be  referred  to 
those  who  first  exhibited  the  ex- 
ample of  such  unhallowed  viola- 
tions of  all  that  the  feeling  of 
genius  and  taste  respects  and  con- 
secrates. We  cannot  also  omit 
to  observe,  that  had  the  temples 
been  left  untouched,  and  the 
sculpture  only  been  removed 
which  had  already  fallen,  our  Na- 
tional Museum  would  still  have 
been  enriched  with  sufficient  spe- 
cimens for  the  improvement  of 
our  national  taste,  while  casts 
would  have  answered  every  pur- 
pose of  those  originals  of  which 
the  temples  have  been  sacrile- 
giously despoiled. 

"  It  is  indeed  impossible,"  con- 
tinues this  accomplished  traveller, 
"  to  suppress  the  feelings  of  regret 
which  must  arise  in  the  breast  of 
every  traveller  who  has  seen  these 
temples  before  and  since  their 
late  dilapidation  ;  nor  have  I  any 
hesitation  in  declaring  that  the 
Athenians  in  general,  nay,  even 
the  Turks  themselves,  did  lament 
the  ruin  that  was  committed,  and 
loudly  and  openly  blamed  their 
sovereign  for  the  permission  he 
had  granted.  I  was  on  the  spot 
at  the  time,  and  had  an  opportu- 
nity of  observing,  and  indeed  of 
participating  in  the  sentiment  of 
indignation  which  such  conduct 
universally  inspired :  the  whole 
proceeding  was  so  unpopular  at 
Athens,  that  it  was  necessary  to 
pay  the  labourers  more  than  their 
usual  profits,  before  any  could  be 
prevailed  upon  to  assist  in  this 
work  of  profanation. 

"  During    my   residence  at 

62 


Athens,  the  work  of  devastation, 
having  been  begun  by  the  Chris- 
tians, was  imitated  in  an  humble 
manner  by  the  Turks,  and  a  large 
block  of  the  epistylia  of  the  Erech- 
theum,  at  the  south-west  angle, 
contiguous  to  the  Pandroseion, 
was  thrown  down  by  order  of  the 
Disdar,  and  placed  over  one  ot 
the  doors  of  the  fortress.  I  ima- 
gined that  he  intended  to  demo- 
lish the  other  parts  of  this  ele- 
gant edifice,  which  seems  doomed 
to  destruction.  I  took  the  liberty 
of  remonstrating  on  the  impro- 
priety of  his  proceedings  —  he 
(a  Turk  ! !)  pointed  to  the  Parthe- 
non, to  the  Caryatid  Portico,  and 
to  the  Erechtheion  !  and  answered 
with  a  singularly  enraged  tone  ot 
voice,  4  What  right  have  you  to 
complain  —  where  are  now  the 
marbles,  which  were  taken  by 
your  countrymen  from  the  tem- 
ples?' " 

Whatever  feelings  of  satisfac- 
tion therefore  may  be  experienced 
at  these  having  become  the  proper- 
ty of  the  nation,  the  deepest  exe- 
cration ought  to  follow  the  dis- 
memberment of  these  exquisite 
buildings,  for  a  purpose  so  sordid 
and  mercenary  as  that  which  seems 
to  have  influenced  Lord  Elgin — ■ 
mutilated  in  his  own  person,  he 
seems  to  have  delighted  in  muti- 
lating those  remains  of  Athenian 
glory  and  magnificence,  which  for 
twenty-two  centuries  the  Romans, 
the  Vandals,  the  Huns,  the  Vene- 
tians, and  the  Turks  had  spared! 

The  Acropolis  of  Tiryns  is 
the  best  specimen  existing  of  the 
mode  of  building  fortresses  in  the 
heroic  ages.  It  was  surrounded 
with  walls  in  the  time  of  Homer, 
who  calls  it  the  "  walled  or  for- 
tified Tirynthus." 

The  ruins  which  are  now  seen 
are  considered  to  be  those  which 
existed  in  the  time  of  the  bard, 


ACROPOLIS. 


and  were  built  by  Prcetus  about 
1376  years  before  Christ. — The 
Acropolis  is  built  on  asmall  mount 
about  fifty  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  plain,  and  the  foundations  of 
the  enclosure  are  still  perfect. 
The  ancient  city  is  supposed  to 
have  surrounded  the  fortress  ;  and 
that  the  sea  formerly  came  nearer 
to  its  site  than  at  the  present  day  ; 
being  now  nearly  fifteen  minutes 
(journey)  distant. 

The  plan  of  Tiryns  (figure  V.) 
is  compared  to  that  of  a  long  ship, 
and  the  ingenious  Mr.  Bryant 
supposes  that  in  fact  its  type  was 
the  long  ship  of  Danaus. 

Towards  the  east  of  Tiryns  rise 
some  barren  hills,  the  quarries  of 
which  furnished  the  stones  for 
the  Tirynthian  Acropolis. 

The  Acropolis  had  entrances 
from  the  east,  from  the  west,  and 
one  at  the  south-eastern  angle. 

The  eastern  entrance  (a,  fig. 
V.)  is  still  in  tolerable  preserva- 
tion, and  is  approached  by  a  slop- 
ing way  (6),  fifteen  feet  wide, 
along  the  eastern  and  southern 
sides  of  a  tower  (c),  twenty  feet 
square  and  forty  feet  high,  pass- 
ing at  the  end  of  the  second  side, 
under  a  gateway  composed  of 
immense  blocks  of  stone ;  the 
stone  forming  the  architrave  be- 
ing 10|  feet  long. — It  is  thought 
that  there  was  formerly  a  trian- 
gular stone  above  the  architrave 
of  this  portal,  forming  a  kind  of 
pediment ;  the  fragments  are  now 
lying  on  the  spot,  but  without 
any  appearance  of  having  been 
sculptured: 

The  walls  are  generally  25  feet 
thick,  and  are  formed  of  three  pa- 
rallel ranks  of  stones,  5  feet  thick, 
which  separate  two  ranges  of  gal- 
leries in  the  walls,  each  five  feet 
broad  and  about  twelve  feet  high 
— the  sides  of  the  galleries  are 
formed  of  two  courses  of  stone, 
and  the  covering  of  other  two 


horizontal  courses  wnich  project 
until  they  meet.  (fig.  VI.) 

The  roof  is  pointed  when  seen 
from  below,  the  lower  surfaces  of 
the  stones  being  cut.  at  an  angle  of 
forty-five  degrees,  (figure  VII.) 
That  part  of  the  gallery  (figure 
IV.)  which  is  now  uncovered,  is 
about  ninety  feet  long,  and  has 
six  openings  or  recesses  towards 
the  east,  one  of  which  is  a  kind 
of  window  or  door,  which  proba- 
bly communicated  with  some  ex- 
terior building,  of  which  there 
are  still  some  traces  of  the  foun- 
dation in  existence — the  space 
between  these  niches  varies  from 
ten  feet  six  inches,  to  nine  feet 
eight  inches,  and  the  niches  them- 
selves are  from  five  feet  six  inches 
to  four  feet  ten  inches  wide  ;  these 
galleries  were  probably  continued 
all  round  the  citadel,  but  they  are 
only  accessible  at  present  where 
the  walls  are  least  perfect  (w, 
fig.  III.),  at  the  southern  part  of 
the  enclosure.  The  galleries  were 
probably  constructed  for  shelter 
of  the  garrison  in  case  of  a  siege, 
as  no  loop-holes  or  other  open- 
ings, open  from  them  into  the 
plain,  and  which  would  have  been 
the  case,  had  they  been  construct- 
ed for  any  defensive  purpose, — if 
the  inner  gallery  received  light 
from  the  arched  area,  the  exterior 
must  have  remained  almost  dark. 
Jtfo  remains  of  the  south-eastern 
portal  remain  ;  it  appears  to  have 
been  connected  with  the  eastern 
gate  by  an  avenue  enclosed  be- 
tween the  outer  wall  and  the  inner 
curtain  ;  yet  it  is  not  easy  to  con- 
jecture the  use  of  this  singular 
place, — others,  of  a  similar  kind, 
are  met  with  at  Argos,  and  in  some 
other  ancient  cities  of  Greece. 

The  walls  of  Tiryns  and  Myce- 
nae, are  the  finest  remains  of  Acro- 
politan  building  in  Greece,  but 
they  are  inferior  in  magnitude  to 
erections,  (called  Cyclopean),  of 

63 


ACROPOLIS. 


Norba,  in  Latium ;  and  several 
other  Pelasgic  fortresses  of  Cora, 
Signia,  and  Alatrium,  in  Italy, 
(the  walls  of  which  resemble  those 
of  Tiryns,  Argos,  and  Mycenae,) 
whose  wonderful  ruins  exhibit 
walls  of  equal  strength  and  soli- 
dity with  those  of  Argolis. 

The  northern  point  of  the  hill 
is  less  elevated  than  any  other, 
and  its  wall  is  composed  of  stones 
of  a  smaller  size  than  those  em- 
ployed in  the  galleries.  All  the 
exterior  walls  are  composed  of 
rough  stones,  some  of  them  nine 
feet  four  inches  in  length  and  four 
feet  thick  ;  their  usual  size  is  from 
three  to  seven  feet.  The  wall, 
when  entire,  must  have  been  about 
sixty  feet  high.  On  the  eastern 
side  the  wall  has  been  entirely 
destroyed,  probably  by  the  Ar- 
gives,  about  460  years  before 
Christ,  that  the  city  might  be  left 
entirely  unprotected. 

There  is  a  small  entrance-gate 
in  the  pointed  form,  six  feet  one 
inch  wide,  situated  in  the  recess 
of  the  western  wall ;  it  is  defended 
by  a  wall  projecting  in  a  curve. 

The  whole  length  of  the  cita- 
del is  about  660  feet,  and  the 
breadth  about  180  feet,  and  the 
walls  are  constructed  upon  a 
straight  line,  without  any  refe- 
rence to  the  sinuosities  of  the 
rock. 

Pausanias  (Corinthiaca,  chap, 
ii.)  states  a  tradition  that  "  the 
hero,  Tirynthius,  from  whom  the 
city  was  also  denominated,  was 
the  son  of  Argus,  and  the  grand- 
son of  Jupiter  ;  but  the  wall,  which 
is  all  that  is  left  of  the  ruins,  is, 
according  to  ttadition,  the  work 
of  the  Cyclops.  It  was  raised 
from  rude  stones,  each  of  which 
is  so  large,  that  the  least  of  them 
cannot  be  raised  out  of  its  place 
by  two  oxen  yoked  together  ;  but 
formerly  small  stones  were  in- 
serted, that  each  of  them  might 

64 


harmonize  as  much  as  possible 
with  the  greater  ones."  Pliny 
says  that  Thrason  first  construct- 
ed the  walls  of  cities, — the  Cyclo- 
peans,  according  to  Aristotle,  first 
built  towers  and  forts  ;  but  Theo- 
phrastus  attributes  the  latter  in- 
vention to  the  Tirynthii. 

Tiryns  was  either  built  by  Prce- 
tus,  or  then  first  became  a  royal 
residence.  It  is  mentioned  by 
Homer  first  amongst  the  cities  of 
Greece,  in  possession  of  the  art  of 
conveying  thought  by  letters  or 
symbols.  Hercules  lived  some 
time  at  Tiryns;  the  Tirynthians 
are  mentioned  by  ancient  author* 
as  being  immoderately  addicted 
to  laughter. 

The  Acropolis  of  Mycenae  ap- 
pears to  have  been  constructed  by 
the  same  people  who  built  Tiryn- 
thus.  Homer  says,  the  town  was 
"  well  built,"  and  its  walls  "  hea- 
venly." Perseus,  according  to 
Apododorus,  fortified  Tiryns,  Mi- 
deia  and  Mycenae.  Jn  the  time  of 
Pausanias,  a  part  of  the  walls  was 
visible,  and  a  gate  on  which  were 
sculptured  two  lions ;  the  same 
gate  now  remains  nearly  in  the 
same  state  as  when  he  described 
it,  1600  years  ago;  the  lions  over 
the  gate  are  still  in  their  original 
position,  and  are  now  probably  the 
only  specimen  of  the  sculpture  of 
the  heroic  ages  in  existence. 

The  gate  (fig.  JX.)  is  situated 
at  the  end  of  a  recess,  about  fifty 
feet  deep,  commanded  by  projec- 
tions of  the  walls,  which  are  in  this 
part  composed  of  huge  blocks  of 
squared  stones,  but  they  are  often 
placed  exactly  one  above  another, 
so  that  the  joints  of  three  or  four 
courses  are  in  one  perpendicular 
line,  which  gives  a  strange  and 
barbarous  appearance  to  the  w  hole. 
The  architrave  consists  of  a  single 
stone,  fifteen  feet  Jong,  and  four 
feet  four  inches  high. 

To  the  south  of  the  gate  of  the 


ACROPOLIS. 


lions,  the  wall  of  the  citadel  is 
much  ruined.  In  one  part,  some- 
thing like  a  tower  is  visible,  which 
being  perpendicular,  while  the 
curtain  inclines  a  little  inward 
from  its  base,  there  remained  a 
projection  at  the  top  sufficient  to 
enable  an  archer  to  defend  the 
wail  below.  The  blocks  of  the 
superstructure  are  in  general  of 
great  size,  while  those  of  the 
foundation  are  much  smaller. 

Th;s  mode  of  building  is  ob- 
servable in  all  the  very  early  for- 
tifications of  Greece.  With  the 
exception  of  the  gates,  the  whole 
circuit  of  the  citadel  is  built 
of  rough  masses  of  rock,  very 
nicely  adjusted  and  fitted  to  each 
other,  though  the  smaller  stones, 
which  filled  up  the  interstices, 
have  generally  disappeared;  this 
style  of  building  has  commonly 
been  called  Cyclopean: — it  cer- 
tainly appears  that  the  walls  of 
the  most  ancient  cities  of  the  Pe- 
loponnesus, whether  attributed  to 
the  Cyclops  or  not,  were  of  this 
construction.  Tiryns  and  My- 
cenae differ  from  other  acropoles 
in  their  galleries  and  gates,  so 
that,  perhaps,  the  ponderous  me- 
thod, which  so  nearly  resembles 
the  style  used  by  the  Egyptians, 
of  which  the  gate  of  the  lions  is 
the  best  specimen  in  Europe,  is 
the  real  Cyclopean,  while  the 
remainder  of  the  circuit  is  the 
work  of  the  natives. — These  for- 
tifications were  reputed  to  be  im- 
pregnable, and  were  so  in  ancient 
times.  At  the  siege  of  Mycenae 
by  the  Argives,  these  warriors 
found  themselves  unable  to  de- 
stroy the  city,  but  they  forced 
the  inhabitants  to  surrender 
through  famine.  Mycenae  was 
demolished  by  the  Argives  at  the 
time  of  the  destruction  of  Tiryns, 
the  buildings  were  overthrown, 
and  the  city  for  nearly  3000  years 
has  been  desolate. 
I 


The  southern  ramparts  of  the 
citadel,  and  all  the  other  walls, 
follow  the  natural  irregularity  ot 
the  precipice  on  which  they  are 
founded.  At  its  eastern  point  it 
is  attached  by  a  narrow  isthmus 
to  the  mountain.  It  is  a  long 
irregular  triangle,  standing  nearly 
east  and  west;  the  walls  are 
mostly  constructed  of  the  second 
style  of  well-jointed  polygons, 
although  the  rough  construction 
is  occasionally  seen. 

So  small  a  fortress  appears  un- 
worthy of  the  Tirynthian  hero; 
but  though  the  space  which  it 
occupies  is  so  circumscribed,  the 
walls  are  truly  Herculean;  their 
general  thickness  is  21  feet,  in 
some  places  they  are  25;  their 
present  height,  in  the  most  perfect 
part,  is  43  feet.  In  some  places 
there  are  square  projections  from 
the  walls  in  form  of  towers,  but 
the  projection  is  very  slight;  the 
most  perfect  of  these  is  at  the 
south-east  angle;  its  breadth  is 
33  feet,  and  its  height  43  feet. 

The  block  on  which  the  lions 
are  sculptured,  is  1 1  feet  broad 
at  the  base,  9  feet  high,  and  about 
2  feet  thick,  of  a  triangular  form, 
filling  the  niche  made  for  its  re- 
ception. 

The  construction  of  the  lateral 
walls  is  nearly  regular,  differing 
from  the  walls  which  constitute 
the  peribolus  or  boundary  of  the 
Acropolis,  which  are  irregular 
polygons;  they  are  of  the  hard 
breccia  stone,  found  on  the  spot; 
but  the  block  ornamented  with 
the  lions  resembles  in  its  appear- 
ance the  green  basalt  of  Egypt. 
The  back  or  inner  part  of  the 
gate  of  the  lions  is  highly  inte- 
resting, as  it  exhibits  two  styles 
of  construction  totally  differing 
from  each  other;  that  side  which 
is  towards  the  plain  of  Argos,  is 
of  the  rough  Cyclopean  masonry, 
while  the  other  side  is  regularly 

65 


ACROPOLIS. 


constructed  like  the  front  of  the 
gate,  and  two  lateral  walls,  which 
diverge  from  it.  1  It  would  appear 
that  the  gate  had  been  made 
some  time  after  the  original  Cy- 
clopean structure.  Without  pre- 
suming to  decide  whether  the  re- 
gular as  well  as  the  irregular,  or 
polygonal  construction,  were  not 
sometimes  employed  at  the  same 
period,  there  are  indeed  reasons 
for  believing,  that  while  the  walls 
of  acropoles,  or  citadels,  and 
other  strong  places,  were  com- 
posed of  Cyclopean  masonry,  the 
temples,  sepulchres,  and  sacred 
edifices,  were  formed  of  a  more 
regular  construction,  as  the  former 
were  principally  adapted  to  resist 
the  impulse  of  warlike  engines, 
while  the  sanctuaries  of  the  gods, 
and  the  chambers  of  the  dead, 
were  regarded  with  reverential 
awe  even  by  enemies. 

A  magnificent  wall,  composed 
of  irregular  polygons,  closely 
united  and  carefully  smoothed, 
supports  the  terrace  on  which  the 
gate  of  the  lions  is  situated. 

The  area  of  the  Acropolis  is  a 
long  irregular  triangle,  standing 
nearly  east  and  west. 

On  the  northern  side,  the  de- 
clivity is  also  very  steep,  and 
there  is  a  gate  which  consists  of 
two  stones,  covered  by  a  third. 
The  opening  is  five  feet  eleven 
inches  wide  at  bottom,  and  five 
feet,  four  inches  at  top.  Above 
the  architrave  is  a  large  stone, 
approaching  the  form  of  a  tri- 
angle, with  which  the  ruin  is 
about  fourteen  feet  high.  The 
gates  folded,  and  were  secured  by 
bars.  The  access  to  this  entrance 
was  by  an  artificial  terrace,  which 
was  completely  commanded  by 
the  wall:  a  curtain,  nearly  in  a 
right  line,  extends  from  this  gate 
to  that  of  the  lions  ;  and  it  is  very 
probable,  that  certain  holes  in  the 
earth  above  this  wall,  which  are 


shewn  by  the  natives  as  cisterns, 
are  actually  connected  with  gal- 
leries similar  to  those  of  Tiryn- 
thus.  After  entering  the  gate 
there  was  a  road  commanded 
by  a  wall,  which  traversed  the 
hill  almost  to  the  opposite  side 
before  it  turned  to  the  summit — 
so  that  the  Acropolis  was  de- 
fended by  at  least  a  triple  enclo- 
sure :  on  the  northern  side  is  a 
small  gate,  with  its  lintel  entire. 
The  structure  is  so  disposed, 
that  those  who  entered  it  would 
have  their  left  arm,  which  was 
guarded  by  the  shield,  on  the 
side  of  the  Acropolis,  which  is  a 
deviation  from  the  common  rule 
followed  in  constructing  ancient 
Greek  fortresses  of  all  ages. 
The  grooves  for  the  bolts  in  the 
jambs  rf  the  door,  are  of  large 
dimensions. 

A  deep  rocky  glen  separates 
the  Acropolis  from  the  neigh- 
bouring hill:  there  was  anciently 
a  bridge  over  the  ravine — one  of 
the  side-walls  still  remains,  con- 
sisting in  well-jointed  polygons. 

The  Acropolis  of  Plateae  was 
placed  on  an  elevation  of  a  mo- 
derate height,  and  from  the  few 
remains  at  present  existing,  these 
appear  to  have  been  constructed 
in  the  rude  Tirynthian  style. 

There  are  several  remains  ol 
the  walls  of  the  ancient  acropoles 
of  Argjs,  consisting  of  the  se- 
cond style,  or  well-jointed  poly- 
gons, but  not  the  slightest  traces 
of  the  rough  Tyrinthian  style ; 
and  it  is  next  to  impossible  that, 
had  any  part  of  the  works  ever 
been  built  in  this  style,  that  they 
should  have  so  completely  dis- 
appeared that  not  a  single  stone 
of  it  is  at  present  visible :  the 
walls  in  existence  are  those 
which  are  attributed  to  the  Cy- 
clopeans.  The  walls  encircle  the 
summit  of  the  Acropolis,  and  the 
modern  castle,  composed  of  bas- 


ACiiOPOLIS. 


tions  and  towers,  built  with  small 
stones  and  mortar,  is  erected  on 
the  ancient  remains,  in  which 
the  lower  parts  of  some  round 
and  square  towers  are  visible. 
Argos  had  a  second  citadel  or 
fortress,  but  of  which  there  are 
no  remains  in  existence. 

Of  the  acropolis  of  Cyparissiai, 
two  entire  gates  are  remaining,  of 
the  common  square  form.  One 
of  them  is  almost  buried  under 
the  ruins  and  earth,  which  reach 
nearly  to  its  architrave.  The 
towers  are  square — one  of  them 
is  almost  entire,  and  contains  a 
small  window  or  arrow-hole — a 
transverse  wall  is  carried  com- 
pletely across  the  Acropolis,  by 
which  it  was  anciently  divided 
into  two  parts — the  foundation  of 
this  wall  and  part  of  the  elevation 
still  remain. 

Three  different  styles  of  build- 
ing are  evident  in  this  fortress  — 
the  walls  are  composed  of  poly- 
gons— some  of  the  towers  con- 
sist of  irregular,  and  others  of 
rectangular  quadrilaterals. 

The  walls  of  the  Acropolis  of 
Thorikos,  are  all  of  an  inferior 
kind  of  wrhite  marble  veined  with 
grey — which  is  found  on  the  spot 
— though  not  in  the  Cyclopean  or 
polygon  style;  they  are,  neverthe- 
less, systematically  irregular^  and 
the  stones,  though  generally  qua- 
drilateral, and  placed  in  horizontal 
layers,  are  of  various  dimensions, 
and  their  angles  seldom  rectan- 
gular. 

In  the  walls  of  the  Acropolis  of 
Akraiphnion,  are  the  remains  of 
a  small  gate,  diminishing  slightly 
towards  the  top,  but  without 
its  lintel.  The  walls  of  the 
city  were  of  the  third  style  of 
construction. 

The  ruins  of  the  strong  hold  at 
the  pass  of  Thermopylae,  are  in 
the  fourth  style  of  Acropolitan 
building.     Their  general  thick- 


ness is  seven  feet ;  in  some  places 
they  are  constructed  with  small 
stones  and  mortar,  where  their 
thickness  is  more  considerable. 

The  walls  and  square  towers 
of  the  Acropolis  of  Chaeroneia, 
are  in  some  places  well  pre* 
served — and  their  style,  which 
is  nearly  regular,  renders  it  pro- 
bable that  they  were  constructed 
not  long  before  the  invasion  of 
the  Macedonians.  Within  the 
enclosure,  there  is  a  projecting 
wall  which  has  been  built  to  sup- 
port a  terrace,  a  singular  remain  ; 
as  in  all  other  parts  of  Greece, 
the  terrace  walls  are  straight. 

At  Drymaia,  the  walls  of  the 
citadel  are  eight  feet  and  a  half 
thick,  and  in  the  third  style, 
which  is  the  usual  manner  in 
that  part  of  Greece.  They  are 
well  preserved ;  some  of  the 
square  towers  are  nearly  perfect, 
and  are  of  a  more  irregular  style 
of  masonry  than  the  other  parts 
of  the  walls.  The  lateral  walls 
lead  from  the  base  of  the  hill  to 
the  summit  of  the  acropoles, 
where  they  almost  meet  in  a 
point,  forming  nearly  an  equila- 
teral triangle,  which  is  the  plan 
of  most  Greek  cities  having  an 
Acropolis. 

At  Panopeus,  the  walls  exhibit 
the  three  last  styles  of  Greek  ma- 
sonry, although  polygons  are  seen 
only  in  a  few  places:  many  of  the 
stones  are  twelve  feet  long.  The 
square  towers  projecting  from  the 
walls,  are  probably  of  a  later  date. 
Several  of  them  are  very  perfect, 
and  contain  doors  and  windows 
of  the  usual  form,  diminishing 
towards  the  top. 

■  The  Acropolis  of  Eleutherai  is 
situated  upon  an  insulated  rock, 
steep  on  all  sides,  and  in  some 
places  precipitous ;  and  appears  to 
have  been  designed  for  the  pro- 
tection of  the  pass  between 
Boeotia  and  Attica.   The  form  of 

67 


ACROPOLIS. 


the  enclosure  is  oblong,  and  runs 
nearly  east  and  west ;  its  entire 
length  is  about  360  yards,  and  its 
greatest  breadth  about  110;  the 
walls  are  very  perfect,  in  the  style 
of  those  of  Mantineaand  Messene, 
fortified  with  square  towers  at 
unequal  distances,  projecting  from 
the  walls — many  of  them  are 
nearly  entire ;  they  were  divided 
into  two  stories,  each  of  which 
had  two  rooms,  at  least  the  upper 
story,  which  has  two  entrances 
from  without,  and  three  small 
windows  ;  the  lower  story  has  only 
one  door,  which  is  three  feet 
and  a  half  wide  at  the  base,  dimi- 
nishing upwards ;  the  walls  are 
five  feet  and  a  half  thick,  and  the 
inside  space  of  the  towers  is 
fifteen  feet  square  ;  the  boundary 
walls  are  eight  feet  thick,  pierced 
by  several  doors  ;  of  one,  the  pros- 
tomia,  or  opening,  was  four  feet 
two  at  the  base,  and  three  feet 
eight  at  top,  the  lintel  was  seven 
feet  long ;  this  fortress  had  four 
entrances. 

The  walls  of  Palaio  Kastro  at 
Aito  formed  an  irregular  triangle, 
at  one  corner  of  which  was  placed 
the  Acropolis,  a  figure  preferred, 
from  its  convenience,  in  the  con- 
struction of  many  Grecian  cities, 
which  occupied,  like  Ithaca,  the 
side  of  a  hill.  There  are  no  traces 
of  towers  projecting  from  the 
curtain  of  the  city  walls ;  it 
seems,  however,  probable,  that 
the  walls  inclined  inwards  to- 
wards the  top,  leaving  towers,  as 
in  figure  7,  this,  however,  was 
only  near  the  gates.  The  walls 
of  the  Acropolis  shew  some  traces 
of  towers  on  the  south  side,  but 
they  project  within,  and  not  in 
front  of  the  curtain. — (See  Cyclo- 
pean building.) 

From  the  preceding  enumera- 
tion of  Greek  Acropoles,  whose 
walls  are  partly  to  be  seen,  it  ap- 
pears that  among  their  vestiges 


four  different  modes  of  building 
were  practised  by  the  Greeks,  at 
various  periods,  in  military  works 
as  in  their  civil  erections — the 
most  ancient  and  simple  being 
that  in  which  immense  masses  of 
rocks,  detached  from  the  moun- 
tains, are  piled  upon  each  other  ; 
their  shape  being  uneven,  they 
could  not  be  united  so  as  to  form 
a  compact  body ;  smaller  stones 
were  therefore  inserted  between 
them,  in  order  that  the  building 
might  be  rendered  more  solid  and 
secure.  The  walls  at  Tiryns  are 
of  this  class,  and  also  those  at 
Mycenae;  but  those  at  Mycena? 
are  probably  not  quite  so  an- 
cient as  those  of  Tiryns,  for  the 
sides  of  the  stones  with  which 
they  are  built  are  in  some  degree 
squared  and  adapted  to  each  other 
— the  masses  of  both  are  great, 
some  of  them  containing  21 C 
cubic  feet ;  these  walls  more  re- 
semble the  works  of  giants  than 
men,  they  are  called  Cyclopic,  or 
Pelasgic  works,  by  which  we 
must  understand  nothing  more 
than  that  they  are  constructed  of 
large  masses,  in  reference  to  the 
fables  of  the  Cyclops,  who  were 
said  to  hurl  rocks  instead  of  stonesr 
This  mode  of  construction  is  how- 
ever rare  in  Greek  Acropoles. 

The  second  mode  of  building 
in  the  Hellenic  fortresses  is  that 
wherein  smaller  stones  are  used  of 
a  very  irregular  size  and  figure, 
and  differing  from  each  other, 
but  the  surfaces  of  each  grooved 
and  adapted  to  one  another  with 
the  greatest  nicety  and  truth — 
sometimes  the  pieces  had  seven 
or  eight  sides;  in  one  instance,  a 
piece,  having  thirteen  sides,  has 
been  noticed — instead  of  being 
placed  in  their  beds  in  the  wall, 
rough  as  they  came  from  the 
quarry,  the  masons  worked  the 
stone  according  to  the  shape  in 
which  it  happened  to  be  detached 


ACROPOLIS. 


from  its  native  rock  into  straight 
and  smooth  lines  and  sides,  so  that 
when  joined  together  they  pro- 
duced a  mass  of  masonry  of  great 
stability ;  perhaps,  the  polygonal 
blocks  are  all  posterior  to  the 
siege  of  Troy,  and  the  Cyclopean 
masonry  anterior — the  polygons 
found  at  Mycenae  are  owing  pro- 
bably to  subsequent  repairs.  In 
the  third  mode  of  building,  the 
stones  were  placed  in  horizontal 
courses,  but  occasionally  by  de- 
scending below,  or  projecting 
above  the  general  line  of"  the 
course,  they  varied  from  regula- 
rity. The  joints  were  sometimes 
at  an  angle  with  the  horizon,  and 
sometimes  perpendicular. 

The  first  mode  is  peculiar  to 
Tiryns  and  Mycenae.  The  second 
and  third  are  observed  indiscrimi- 
nately in  the  fortified  places  of 
Greece  Proper,  and  in  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

In  the  fourth  mode,  the  stones 
were  parallelopipedons,  squared 
on  five  sides,  and  laid  in  horizontal 
courses.  In  these,  no  cement  or 
any  other  composition  was  used 
to  unite  the  masonry  — in  the 
greater  number  of  Greek  Acro- 
poles  the  stones  have  no  other 
bond  but  their  own  elaborate 
workmanship  ;  yet  the  walls  and 
towers  present  the  firmness  and 
solidity  of  a  rock,  three  thousand 
years  after  their  erection.  Phyle, 
in  Attica,  is  mostly  built  in  this 
manner.  It  is  situated  upon  a  hill 
inaccessible  on  two  sides,  of  an 
oblong  form,  the  narrow  sides 
facing  the  east  and  west;  its 
length  is  about  170  yards,  and  its 
breadth  nearly  ninety,  and  had 
two  entrances,  one  on  the  east 
and  another  on  the  west.  At  the 
north  east  angle  is  a  round  tower, 
on  the  opposite  angle  a  square 
one,  and  another  of  the  same  form 
on  the  north  side,  projecting  from 
the  walls.     Twenty  layers,  or 


courses  of  blocks,  are  still  seen  in 
some  parts  of  the  walls  ;  they  are 
generally  parallelogrames,  though 
the  system  of  acute  and  obtuse 
angles,  which  seem  to  have  been 
disused  about  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander, may  be  occasionally  re- 
marked in  this  building;  the  date, 
however,  of  the  foundation  of 
Phyle  is  unknown. 

The  walls  of  Byzantium  and 
Jerusalem  are  described  by  Hero- 
dian  and  Josephus,  as  constructed 
in  a  similar  manner,  the  stones  of 
a  rectangular  form  were  so  ad- 
justed to  each  other  as  to  present 
the  most  regular  surface.  Very 
great  care  was  paid  by  ancient 
military  architects,  of  almost 
every  country,  to  erect  their 
Acropoles  and  city  walls  in  this 
smooth  and  firm  mode  of  build- 
ing— because  the  fortresses  were 
better  able  to  resist  the  sharp 
points  of  the  catapultae  and  bat- 
tering engines  which  were  im- 
pelled on  the  walls,  where  a  breach 
was  desired  by  the  besieging 
party. —  (See  City,  Cramps,  Cyclo- 
pean Building,  Fortress.) 

In  this  style  were  the  fortifica- 
tions of  Plateae.  Thucydides 
says,  the  fortifications  of  the  Acro- 
polis were  protected  by  a  fosse  or 
ditch.  Yet  such  was  the  sim- 
plicity of  the  means  used  for 
securing  these  ancient  strong 
holds,  compared  with  the  compli- 
cated works  of  a  modern  fortress, 
that  when  the  Thebans,  after 
their  vain  attempt  to  surprise 
the  city,  were  endeavouring  to 
effect  their  escape,  they  cut 
the  wooden  bolts  of  the  gates 
asunder — a  woman  having  lent 
them  a  hatchet  for  that  purpose. 

Tithoniai  is  a  square  structure 
built  in  the  Cyclopean  style,  with 
large  masses  of  stone,  but  laid 
together  with  great  evenness  and 
regularity,  although  without  any 
cement,  the  work  not  being  so 

69 


ACR 


A  C  R 


ancient  as  that  of  Argos,  of  Ti- 
rvns  or  Mycena;.  The  walls  of 
the  city,  fortified  by  mural  tur- 
rets, are  of  the  third  and  fourth 
styles  ;  the  towers  are  in  good 
preservation,  approaching  to  the 
regular  construction,  and  are  no 
douot  less  ancient  than  the  walls. 
Each  tower  has  two  doors,  and 
two  rows  of  windows  of  the 
usual  form,  diminishing  towards 
the  top.  The  interior  of  these 
/s  nineteen  feet  eight  inches 
Square,  originally  of  two  stories  ; 
the  holes  that  received  the  beams 
are  seen  in  the  walls  above  the 
lower  range  of  windows. 

Very  few  traces  remain  of  the 
original  walls  of  the  city — but 
some  parts  of  those  restored  are 
in  good  preservation.  These 
parts  are  composed  of  regular 
masonry,  with  some  accidental 
irregularity  in  the  size  of  the 
stones,  but  which  does  not  appear 
to  be  systematical.  They  are 
about  eight  feet  thick,  fortified 
by  square  towers,  with  a  few  of 
a  circular  form  ;  they  are  orna- 
mented with  perpendicular  stripes, 
similar  to  those  of  Agia  Euphe- 
mia  in  Locris,  and  which  occur 
in  most  of  the  walls  of  this 
period. 

In  those  of  Agia  Euphemia, 
equidistant  towers  extend  round 
the  town,  the  steps  up  to  many 
of  them  remain.  The  blocks 
composing  the  walls  are  orna- 
mented and  cut  with  parallel 
perpendicular  lines,  as  in  many 
other  parts  of  Greece ;  an  orna- 
ment still  used,  particularly  in 
Italy ;  the  lines  are  sometimes 
horizontal. 

Acroterium,  (Akroterion,  Gr.) 
the  extremity  or  vertex  of  any 
thing.  A  pedestal,  or  base 
placed  on  the  angle,  or  on  the 
apex  of  a  pediment. 

The  Greeks  placed  ornaments 
upon  the  acroteria  of  the  angles 

70 


of  a  pediment,  and  also  figures, 
generally  small,  of  bronze,  or 
some  metal  gilt. 

The  Megarenses,  who  dwelt 
in  Attica,  built  a  treasury,  and  in 
it  they  placed  "  images  made  of 
cedar,  and  painted  with  gold,  so 
as  to  resemble  flowers  and  other 
ornaments — the  battle  of  Her- 
cules with  Acheloi'is,  &c.  About 
the  top  (or  tympan)  of  the  pedi- 
ment was  represented  the  battle 
of  the  gods  and  giants ;  and  on 
the  apex,  or  middle  acroterium, 
they  placed  a  shield,  with  an  in- 
scription, relating  that  the  build- 
ing was  erected  by  the  Mega- 
renses, from  the  spoils  taken  by 
them  from  the  Corinthians." 

Over  the  Corinthian  propylsea 
were  placed  two  brazen  chariots, 
gilt,  one  of  which  "  bore  Phaeton, 
the  offspring  of  the  Sun — the 
other,  the  Sun  himself." 

The  Temple  of  Jupiter,  at 
Olympia,  built  of  the  stone  of  the 
country,  after  the  Doric  manner, 
under  the  direction  of  the  archi- 
tect Lihon,  had  brazen  vases  on 
the  lateral  acroteria,  and  the  cen- 
tre one  supported  a  golden  statue 
of  Victory,  on  the  shield  of  which 
was  sculptured  the  head  of  the 
Gorgon  Medusa,  and  also  bore 
an  inscription,  naming  the  per- 
sons who  dedicated  it,  and  the 
occasion  of  its  erection. 

Acroteria  were  placed  at  the 
angles  of  the  pediments  of  the 
Parthenon,  and  from  the  remains 
at  this  day,  exhibiting  the  marks 
of  cramps  in  their  upper  sur- 
face, it  is  evident  that  they  must 
have  supported  some  ornamental 
termination. 

"  It  does  not  seem  improbable, 
that  the  ornaments  upon  the 
acroteria  of  the  Parthenon  might 
have  been  vases  of  a  similar  de- 
scription ;  the  custom  of  placing 
them  in  such  situations,  appears 
to   have  been  common  amongst 


ACHOTEKIUM 


the  nations  of  anti(|uity.  In  tliis 
situation,  they  might  probably 
have  had  some  allusion  to  the 
prize  bestowed  upon  the  con- 
querors in  the  games  which  took 
place  at  the  Panathenaic  festival. 
It  is  not  unlikely  that  the  Par- 
thenon was  the  temple  alluded  to 
in  a  fragment  of  Callimachus,  to 
which  the  scholiast  upon  Pindar 
refers.  The  vases  he  speaks  of, 
were  placed  upon  the  summit  of 
the  temple." 

The  acroterium  of  the  propy- 
laeum  of  the  Agora,  at  Athens, 
still  remains,  and  bears  an  in- 
scription, implying  that  it  for- 
merly supported  a  statue,  or  some 
trophy  decreed  by  the  Athenians 
to  Lucius  Caesar,  the  adopted  son 
of  Augustus, 

Stuart  (Antiquities  of  Athens, 
vol.  I.)  supposed  the  acroteria 
usually  supported  statues;  and 
that,  in  this  instance  of  the  Agora, 
there  was  ground  for  believing 
that  the  centre  acroterium,  from 
its  large  size,  was  adorned  with 
an  equestrian  statue  of  Lucius 
Caesar,  and  that  the  lateral  acro- 
teria also  supported  statues,  pro- 
bably of  individuals  of  the  Au- 
gustan family. 

This  opinion  is,  however,  ques- 
tioned by  some  later  authors,  who 
have  had  the  means  of  inspecting 
the  building — and  one  argument 
adduced,  among  others,  for  Stuart 
having  been  mistaken,  is  the 
fact,  »«  that  wherever  the  orna- 
mental decorations  of  the  acro- 
teria have  been  discovered,  they 
are  invariably  of  diminutive  pro- 
portions. And  if  the  trophy  is 
supposed  to  have  been  a  Victory 
personified  under  the  figure  of  a 
winged  genius,  drawn  in  a  trium- 
phal car,  it  will  be  more  consist- 
ent with  the  practice,  both  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.'' 

The  use  of  the  ornament  for 
tombs    is   conjectured    by  Sir 


William  Cell  to  have  had  a  dif- 
ferent origin  besides  that  of  mere 
imitation. 

"  The  little  acroteria,  in  some 
instances  bearing  bassi  relievi, 
and  which  are  so  frequent  about 
the  tombs  of  Pompeii,  are  curious 
— some  tombs  remaining  in  the 
necropolis,  or  burial-ground,  of 
the  ancient  city  of  Cnidus,  are 
ornamented  in  a  similar  manner. 
Places  of  sepulture  were  origi- 
nally surrounded  with  a  fence  or 
paling  of  wood  ;  the  standards  at 
intervals,  so  necessary  for  its 
stability,  were  possibly  the  proto- 
types of  these  pinnacles,  and  from 
them  were  probably  suspended 
the  garlands  and  wreaths,  with 
which,  at  stated  periods,  the  se- 
pulchre was  adorned." 

From  the  pediments  of  build- 
ings, the  acroterium  became  a 
common  ornament  in  altars,  fyc, 
and  for  decorating  the  angles  of 
the  abacus.  The  forms  given  to 
them  were  numerous,  but  it  is 
seldom  (not  more  than  three  or 
four  examples  of  exception  occur 
to  our  recollection)  that  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  destined  to 
support  any  thing.  Garlands  are 
often  seen  suspended  between 
them,  which  may  have  an  allusion 
to  the  custom  of  adorning  the  urns 
or  cippi  at  stated  periods,  by  the 
relations  of  the  deceased,  with 
wreaths  of  flowers. 

In  the  engravings  which  illus- 
trate the  word  altar,  various  ex- 
amples of  acroteria  are  given. 

Among  workmen,  decorated 
acroteria  are  very  generally  called 
asses' -ears,  or  dogs' -ears,  from  a 
supposed  resemblance  to  those 
parts,  in  their  outline  and  si 
tuation. 

Vitruvius  says,  that  the  late- 
ral acroteria  ought  to  be  half  the 
height  of  the  tympanum,  and 
the  apex-acroterium  should  be  an 
eighth  part  more.    In  Grecian 

71 


AC  It 


A  D  A 


buildings,  any  regular  proportion 
is  not  observable.  The  word,  in 
old  writers,  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  ornaments  placed  on  the 
acroteria;  and  for  the  pinnacles, 
or  other  ornaments,  which  stand 
in  ranges  on  the  horizontal  cop- 
ings or  parapets  of  buildings. 
Acroters.  See  Acroteria, 
Acrostolium.  {A/crosolia,  Gr.) 
In  ancient  naval  architecture. 
The  ornament  of  the  extremity 
of  the  prow,  or  forecastle  of  a 
ship.  The  entire  ornaments  of 
the  prow  were  called  solos,  acros- 
tolium being  limited  to  the  ter- 
minating ornament.  Corymba 
designated  ornaments  of  every 
kind,  used  in  naval  decoration. 
To  the  acrostolia  may  be  re- 
ferred those  polished  steel  pieces 
resembling  a  duck's  neck,  used 
by  the  Venetians  in  their  gon- 
dolas. 

The  favourite  emblem  of  each 
particular  people,  rarely  failed 
to  make  its  appearance  as  the 
acrostolium  ornament  in  vessels, 
both  for  commercial  and  state 
purposes.  The  owl  was  conspi- 
cuous on  Athenian  galleys;  the 
cock,  emblematical  of  vigilance, 
on  those  of  the  Phoenicians ;  a 
goose,  or  a  swan's  head,  was  a 
common  termination  of  the  prow; 
or  a  shield,  or  helmet,  and  an 
ornamented  scroll  is  often  seen 
to  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  acrostolium  was  usually 
made  of  metal,  polished  or  gilt, 
in  national  vessels,  and  it  appears 
to  have  been  further  decorated 
with  paintings,  as  is  common  in 
ships  at  present. 

The  plate  entitled  Acrostolium 
contains  a  collection  of  ornamental 
prows  taken  from  ancient  medals; 
the  names  under  which  they  are 
ranged,  are  those  of  the  countries 
to  which  the  medal  has  belonged. 
Those  marked  Trajan  and  An- 
toiihie,  are  from  the  sculptures 

72 


which  adorn  the  triumphal  co- 
lumns of  these  emperors,  still  to 
be  seen  at  Rome.  In  the  plate, 
marked  Naval  Trophies,  cthei 
examples,  as  parts  of  architectural 
decoration,  will  be  found.  The 
acrostolia  of  vanquished  enemies 
were  torn  from  their  prows,  and 
fastened  on  that  of  the  victor,  a- 
a  signal  of  triumph. 

Actuarijf  Naves.  In  anciem 
naval  architecture.  A  description 
of  long  light  ships,  deriving  their 
name  from  being  constructed  for 
the  purpose  of  swift  sailing;  they 
answer  to  what  the  French  call 
brigantines:  they  were  propelled 
by  oars. 

Acute-angled  Cone,  a  cone 
whose  axis  makes  an  acute  angle 
with  its  side. 

Adam,  Hobert — was  born  at 
Edinburgh  in  1728,  and  received 
his  education  at  the  University 
of  that  city.  He  was  early  dis- 
tinguished for  his  taste  in  land- 
scape drawing  and  composition, 
and  at  one  period  had  devoted 
himself  to  that  study,  with  a  view 
of  making  it  his  future  profession. 
He  travelled  to  Italy  in  1756, 
and  was  remarked  for  his  assi- 
duity in  studying  after  nature, 
and  making  measurements  of  an- 
cient Roman  buildings.  When 
he  had  visited  almost  every  part 
of  Italy,  and  drawn,  for  some 
years,  its  most  remarkable  anti- 
quities, he  felt,  as  all  do,  his  know- 
ledge of  architecture  as  still  im- 
perfect, lie  found  it  necessary 
to  add  the  observation  of  a  pri- 
vate edifice  of  the  ancients  to 
his  study  of  their  public  works. 
This  led  him  to  the  scheme  of 
visiting  the  Emperor  Diocletian's 
palace  of  Spalatro  in  Dalmatia, 
that  favourite  building  in  which, 
after  resigning  the  empire,  he 
chose  to  reside.  He  knew,  from 
the  accounts  of  former  travellers, 
that  the  remains  of  this  palace, 


ADAM. 


though  tolerably  entire,  had  never 
been  observed  with  any  accuracy, 
or  drawn  with  any  taste.  He 
was  likewise  no  stranger  to  the 
passion  of  that  Prince  for  archi- 
tecture, which  prompted  him  to 
erect  many  grand  and  expensive 
structures  at  Rome,  Nicomedia, 
Milan,  Palmyra,  and  other  places 
in  his  dominions.  Adams  had 
studied  his  public  baths  at  Rome, 
one  of  the  noblest,  as  well  as  the 
most  entire,  of  all  the  ancient 
buildings,  with  no  less  admiration 
than  care,  which  convinced  him, 
notwithstanding  the  visible  de- 
cline of  architecture,  as  well  as 
of  the  other  arts,  before  the  reign 
of  Dioclesian,  that  his  munificence 
had  revived  a  taste  in  architec- 
ture superior  to  that  of  his  own 
times,  and  had  formed  artistt**- 
capable  of  imitating,  with  no  in- 
considerable success,  the  style  and 
manner  of  a  purer  age  :  the  names 
and  history  of  those  great  masters 
are  now  unknown,  but  their  works 
which  remain,  merit  the  highest 
applause,  and  the  extent  and  fer- 
tility of  their  genius  seem  to  have 
equalled  the  magnificence  of  the 
monarch  by  whom  they  were  em- 
ployed. 

Induced  by  these  circumstances, 
he  undertook  his  voyage  to  Dal- 
matia,  with  the  most  sanguine 
hopes,  and  flattered  himself  that 
it  would  be  attended,  not  only 
with  instruction  to  himself,  but 
might  produce  entertainment  to 
the  public. 

Having  prevailed  on  Mr.  Cle- 
riseau,  a  French  artist,  from 
whose  taste  and  knowledge  of 
antiquities  he  was  certain  of  re- 
ceiving great  assistance  in  the 
execution  of  his  scheme,  to  ac- 
company him  in  this  expedition  ; 
and  having  engaged  two  draughts- 
men, of  whose  skill  and  accuracy 
he  had  long  experience,  they  set 
sail  from  Venice,  in  July,  1/57, 
K 


and  in  eleven  days  afterwards 
reached  Spalatro.  £ 

This  city,  though  of  no  great 
extent,  is  so  happily  situated,  that 
it  appears,  when  viewed  from  the 
sea,  not  only  picturesque,  but 
magnificent.  As  they  entered  a 
grand  bay,  and  sailed  slowly  to- 
wards the  harbour,  the  marine 
wall,  and  long  arcades  of  the  pa- 
lace, one  of  the  ancient  temples, 
and  other  parts  of  that  building 
which  was  the  object  of  his  voy- 
age, presented  themselves  to  their 
view,  and  flattered  him,  from  this 
first  prospect,  that  his  labour  in 
visiting  it  would  be  amply  re- 
warded. 

M  To  these  soothing  expec- 
tations of  the  pleasures  of  my 
task,"  says  Adams,  "  the  cer- 
tain knowledge  of  its  difficulty 
soon  succeeded.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  Spalatro  have  destroyed 
some  parts  of  the  palace,  in 
order  to  procure  materials  for 
building,  and  to  this  their  town 
owes  its  name,  which  is  evi- 
dently a  corruption  of  Pala- 
tium.  In  other  places,  houses 
are  built  upon  the  old  founda- 
tions, and  modern  works  are  so 
intermingled  with  the  ancient,  as 
to  be  scarcely  distinguishable. 
Assiduity,  however,  and  repeated 
observation,  enabled  me  to  sur- 
mount these  difficulties.  Atten- 
tion to  such  parts  of  the  palace 
as  were  entire,  conducted  me 
with  certainty  to  the  knowledge 
of  those  which  were  more  ruin- 
ous, and  I  was  proceeding  in  my 
work  with  all  the  success  I  could 
have  expected,  when  1  was  inter- 
rupted by  an  unforeseen  acci- 
dent. 

"  The  Venetian  governor  of 
Spalatro,  unaccustomed  to  such 
visits  of  curiosity  from  strangers, 
began  to  conceive  unfavourable 
sentiments  of  my  intentions,  and 
to  suspect  that,  under  pretence 

73 


ADAM. 


of  taking  views  and  plans  of  the 
pal  a  A  I  was  really  employed  in 
surveying  the  state  of  the  forti- 
fications. An  order  from  the 
senate  to  .allow  me  to  carry  on 
my  operations,  the  promise  of 
which  1  had  procured  at  Venice, 
had  not  yet  arrived,  and  the  go- 
vernor sent  an  officer,  command- 
ing me  to  desist.  By  good  for- 
tune, General  Graeme  (also  a 
native  of  Scotland)  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  Venetian  forces, 
happened  at  that  time  to  be  at 
Spalatro,  on  the  service  of  the 
state:  he  interposed  in  my  be- 
half, with  the  humanity  and  zeal 
natural  to  a  polite  man,  and  to  a 
lover  of  the  arts ;  and  being 
warmly  seconded  by  Count  An- 
tonio Marcovich,  a  native  of  that 
country,  who  had  applied  himself 
with  great  success  to  the  study 
of  antiquities,  they  prevailed  on 
the  governor  to  withdraw,  his 
prohibition,  though,  by  way  of 
precaution,  he  appointed  an  offi- 
cer constantly  to  attend  me.  The 
fear  of  a  second  interruption  in- 
creased my  industry,  and  by  un- 
wearied application,  we  com- 
pleted,  with  an  accuracy  that  af- 
forded them  great  satisfaction, 
those  parts  of  our  work  which  it  was 
necessary  to  execute  on  the  spot." 

The  result  of  this  voyage  was 
his  determination  to  present  the 
details  of  the  palace  ofDioclesian 
to  the  public  ;  and  before  his  de- 
parture from  Rome,  he  had  al- 
ready carried  his  project  partly 
into  execution,  by  having  several 
of  the  drawings  he  had  made  at 
Spalatro  engraven  by  some  Ro- 
man artists. 

On  Mr.  Adam's  return  to  Eng- 
land, he  was  introduced  to  the 
court  by  the  Earl  of  Bute,  and, 
through  the  influence  of  that 
nobleman,  he  received  the  ap- 
pointment of  architect  to  their 
Majesties. 

74 


In  176*4  appeared  his  work  on 
the  uuins  of  Spalatro.  which  he 
dedicated  to  the  King.  The  en- 
gravings of  views,  plans,  sec- 
tions, and  details,  leave  nothing 
to  be  wished  for  as  architectural 
studies :  and  the  style  of  the 
drawings,  which  was  beautiful, 
being  ably  translated  by  the  en- 
gravers, left  every  publication 
which  had  appeared  in  England 
at  a  great  distance  behind  it. 
This  splendid  book  placed  him 
at  the  head  of  his  profession ;  an 
eminence  which  it  was  his  felicity 
to  preserve  to  the  end  of  a  long 
and  active  life. 

Being  elected  to  represent  the 
county  of  Kinross  in  Parliament, 
he  resigned  his  office  of  archi- 
tect to  the  King,  but  his  prac- 
tice and  his  fame  continued  to 
increase. 

His  life  henceforward  offers  no 
incident  of  importance.  His  time 
was  fully  occupied  in  the  prac- 
tice of  his  profession  ;  and  no  stu- 
dent ever  laboured  with  greater 
ardour  to  acquire  the  mastery  of 
his  art  than  Mr.  Adam  did,  from 
an  enthusiastic  love  of  it,  after 
he  had  achieved  both  fame  and 
fortune.  The  year  before  he  died, 
he  designed  eight  public,  and 
twenty-four  private  buildings. 
There  are  few  instances  of  houses 
of  any  magnitude  being  erected 
in  England,  in  his  time,  in  which 
he  was  not  either  applied  to  for 
his  opinion  or  for  his  designs. 
In  Scotland  he  was  without  a 
rival  in  his  practice. 

The  architecture  of  Greece,  in 
his  earlier  and  middle  time,  was 
little  known,  and  its  beauties 
were  not  appreciated.  The  course 
of  his  studies  having  been  turned 
into  the  channel  of  Italian  anti- 
quities, the  general  style  of  his 
works  was  founded  on  an  imitation 
of  Roman  architecture,  in  its 
most  florid  period.    Yet,  in  many 


ADA 


A  D  H 


of  his  works,  where  the  taste  for 
exuberance  of  ornament,  which 
he  had  imbibed,  was  checked, 
either  by  the  means  of  his  clients, 
or  the  nature  of  the  building,  he 
produced  compositions  of  great 
simplicity  and  elegance — and  at 
almost  all  times  he  was  happy  in 
his  outlines,  and  particularly  in 
what  are  technically  called  his 
"  sky-lines."  The  facade  of  the 
Register  Office  at  Edinburgh  is 
generally  esteemed  to  be  his  finest 
public  work  ;  and,  considering  the 
date  of  its  erection,  and  thegeneral 
current  of  taste  at  that  period, 
it  is  entitled  to  all  praise,  and  his 
fame  as  a  classical  architect  may 
be  fairly  and  safely  rested  upon 
its  merits.  The  Infirmary  at 
Glasgow  has  also  been  admired 
for  its  elegance,  but  probably  its 
claims  have  been  greatly  over- 
rated —  the  whole  composition 
wants  breadth.  The  facade  of 
Edinburgh  University  is  not  the 
most  happy  of  his  designs,  either 
for  outline,  or  imitation  of  the 
antique,  yet  some  parts  of  its  in- 
terior are  equal  to  any  thing  he 
ever  did. 

Among  his  mansions,  Luton  is 
the  finest.  Here,  the  patron  and 
the  architect  seem  to  have  been 
guided  by  one  feeling  ;  and  here 
Adam's  fine  taste  in  ornament 
could  be  indulged  without  any 
violation  of  propriety.  It  may 
rank,  even  now,  as  one  of  the 
most  finished  and  classical  resi- 
dences of  its  size  in  England. 

He  was  sometimes  called  upon 
to  give  designs  for  castellated 
and  abbatial  mansions,  but  they 
were  sad  failures.  His  name 
must  be  added  to  the  list  of  those 
architects  whose  fine  Roman  taste 
had  nothing  in  common  with  an 
imitation  of  the  barbarian  struc- 
tures of  the  middle  ages. 

Whether  we  estimate  Adam  by 
the  number  and   importance  of 


his  works,  or  the  influence  which 
their  style  had  upon  the  practice 
an  3  taste  of  his  contemporaries, 
he  was,  without  question,  the 
most  eminent  British  architect  of 
his  time.  It  is  to  him  we  owe 
the  introduction  of  that  light  and 
fanciful  style  of  interior  decora- 
tion which  superseded  the  taste- 
less and  clumsy  manner  of  his 
predecessors,  imitated  from  the 
buildings  erected  by  the  archi- 
tects of  Louis  XIV.  and  XV. 
His  merit  here  was  the  greater, 
as  at  this  period  there  were  few 
or  no  antique  examples  of  ancient 
domestic  Roman  ornament,  to 
which  an  architect  could  appeal 
as  his  authority,  or  follow  as  a 
guide.  His  style,  therefore,  ought 
not,  in  fairness,  to  be  subjected 
to  a  scrutiny  or  comparison  with 
that  founded  on  an  imitation  ot 
Greek  buildings,  of  which  little  or 
nothing  was  then  known,  but  with 
that  of  his  contemporaries  and 
his  models.  It  will  then  be  found 
abounding  in  beauties  of  a  high 
and  original  kind,  and  which,  it  is 
hoped,  will  long  preserve  them  as 
examples  of  a  style  of  arrange- 
ment and  decoration  to  which 
we  would  give  our  unqualified 
admiration,  had  they  been  the 
production  of  an  architect  of  the 
lower  Roman  empire. 

Adam,  James — was  brother  to 
Robert  Adam,  and  his  colleague. 
Whatever  merits  he  possessed  as 
a  designer,  they  are  merged  in 
the  more  brilliant  reputation  of 
his  brother.  He  was  better  cal- 
culated for  a  builder  than  an  ar- 
chitect, and  his  practice  ot*  be- 
coming a  contractor  for  carrying 
his  own  designs  into  execution 
was  an  example  (among  one  or 
two  others)  which  has  not  only 
lowered  the  respectability  of  the 
profession,  but  has  been  the 
means  of  debasing  the  art  itself. 

Adhesion.    A  species  of  at- 

75 


ADHESION. 


traction  exerted  between  the  sur- 
faces of  bodies,  and  which  has 
the  effect  of  connecting  them 
together.  It  is  often  confounded 
with  cohesion,  *or  the  effect  of  a 
force  retaining  the  component 
parts  of  the  same  body  together. 
The  mode  in  which  delicate  steel 
ornaments  are  sometimes  fixed  on 
a  polished  surface  by  a  smart 
blow,  or  a  great  pressure,  is  an 
instance  of  adhesion.  Water  ad- 
heres to  the  fingers,  and  two 
pieces  of  lead  or  brass  to  each 
other. 

The  resistance  which  is  some- 
times experienced  by  bringing 
two  highly  polished  and  perfectly 
flat  surfaces  together,  is  familiar 
to  every  mechanic.  Two  leaden 
balls,  not  weighing  above  a  pound 
each,  nor  touching  on  more  (ac- 
cording to  calculation)  than  -j^th 
of  a  square  inch  of  surface,  have 
lifted  upwards  of  130  pounds 
avoirdupois,  the  balls  being  first 
very  finely  planed  by  the  edge  of 
a  sharp  penknife,  and  then  equally 
pressed  together  with  a  consi- 
derable force  and  gentle  turn  of 
the  hand.  The  force  of  adhesion 
between  two  brass  plates  of  about 
4±  inches  diameter,  and  slightly 
smeared  with  fat  or  grease,  is  so 
great,  as  to  resist  the  force  of  two 
strong  men  to  separate  them. 
Two  cylinders  of  glass,  about 
two  inches  in  diameter,  heated  to 
the  degree  of  boiling  water,  and 
joined  together  by  means  of  melt- 
ed tallow  lightly  put  between 
them,  adhered  with  a  force  equal 
to  130  pounds.  The  adhesion  of 
solids  to  fluids  has  been  better 
investigated  by  experiments,  but 
the  details  are  foreign  to  the  pur- 
pose of  this  work.  Surfaces  of 
different  metals,  for  instance,  ad- 
here to  the  same  fluid  with  very 
different  degrees  of  intensity. 
Gold  adheres  to  a  surface  of  mer- 
cury with  a  force  of  4 16,  while 


copper  adheres  to  it  with  a  force 
of  only  142. 

A  remarkable  distinction  be- 
tween the  effects  usually  attri- 
buted to  friction  and  adhesion 
may  be  seen  from  the  following 
experiment : — Two  bodies,  which 
adhere  together  with  a  force  of 
132  pounds,  when  the  separating 
force  acts  at  right  angles  to  the 
adhering  surfaces,  may  be  sepa- 
rated with  a  force  equal  to  a  few 
ounces,  when  the  forces  act  in 
the  same  line  with  the  surfaces, 
or  so  as  to  make  them  slide  over 
each  other.  Friction  and  adhesion 
are  both  diminished  by  a  motion, 
however  small,  communicated  to 
the  fibres  or  particles  of  the  ad- 
hering surfaces.  Two  brass  cylin- 
ders, requiring  60  or  70  pounds 
to  separate  them,  will  fall  asunder 
with  their  own  weight,  if  the 
edge  of  a  knife  is  drawn  slowly 
along  one  of  their  edges  ;  in  the 
same  manner  that  a  balance  will 
vibrate  when  it  is  poised,  by 
communicating  a  slight  tremor 
to  the  fulcrum  or  beam,  by  draw- 
ing a  sharp  edge  over  it.  A  bolt 
or  a  nail  may  often  be  started  by 
a  slight  blow  let  fall  near  it, 
when  no  mechanical  means  could 
overcome  its  adhesion  by  a  mere 
pressure. 

This  adhesion  of  belts  and 
nails  is  further  influenced  by  co- 
hesion  and  by  friction.  From 
some  woods  a  nail  may  be  drawn 
with  a  less  force  than  others, — an 
effect  well  known  to  the  Romans, 
who  objected  to  the  use  of  cedar 
in  ship-building,  from  its  not 
holding  well  together,  and  being 
apt  to  become  what  is  now  called 
iron-sick.  This  force  does  not 
at  all  appear  to  depend  on  the 
hardness  or  gravity  of  the  wood. 
A  nail  may  be  drawn  from  oak 
easier  than  from  the  abele-tree: 
the  stiffness  and  strength  of  the 
two  are  very  different,  and  also 


ADHESION. 


their  gravity;  and  the  cohesion 
of  oak  is  also  the  greater.  From 
this  effect,  which  may  often  be 
observed  in  other  instances;  it 
would  appear  that  the  phenomena 
can  be  better  understood,  by 
comparing  the  action  to  a  sort  of 
muscular  contraction  of  the  fibres 
of  the  wood,  and  which  is  greater 
when  the  adhesion  takes  place 
across  the  fibres,  than  in  the  same 
direction  with  them. 

The  fact  of  particular  woods 
holding  nails  and  bolts  much 
better  than  others,  is  familiar  to 
every  workman,  but  the  reason 
of  this  has  never  been  investi- 
gated. The  only  experiments  on 
the  subject,  at  all  of  a  practical 
nature,  or  adapted  to  common 
purposes,  are  those  by  Mr.  Bevan, 
in  Gill's  Technical  Repository  for 
March,  1824.  We  copy  them 
here,  as  wishing  to  draw  the  at- 
tention of  other  experimenters  to 
a  subject  apparently  humble,  but 
of  immense  importance  in  every 
kind  of  construction. 

"'The  insertion  of  a  nail  is  ac- 
complished by  destroying  the  co- 
hesion of  the  wood;  its  extrac- 
tion, by  overcoming  the  force  of 
adhesion  and  friction.  We  will 
consider  it  here  solely  as  a  case 
of  adhesion;  fine  sprigs,  4560  of 
which  weighed  one  pound,  TW 
of  an  inch  long,  forced  into  four 
lengths  of  an  inch  into  dry 
Christiana  deals,  at  right  angles 
to  the  fibres,  required  a  force  of 
22  pounds  to  extract  them. 

"  The  same  description  of  nail 
having  3200  in  the  pound,  tVV 
of  an  inch  long,  and  forced  tV<t  °f 
an  inch  into  the  same  kind  of 
wood,  required  37  lbs.  to  ex- 
tract it. 

"  Threepenny  brads,  6 18  to  the 
lb.  weight,  one  and  a  quarter  inch 
long,  forced  half  an  inch  into  the 
wood,  required  58  lbs.  weight  to 
extract  them. 


Cast-iron  nails,  380  to  the  lb. 

weight,  one  inch  long,  driven 
half  an  inch  into  the  wood,  re- 
quired a  force  of  72  lbs.  to  draw 
them  out. 

"  Kivepenny  nails,  139  to  the  lb. 
weight,  required  two  inches  long, 
forced  one  inch  and  a  half  into 
the  wood,  required  a  force  of  320 
lbs.  to  extract  it. 

"  Sixpenny  nails,  73  to  the 
lb.,  two  inches  and  a  half  long, 
driven  an  inch  into  the  wood, 
required  170  lbs.  to  extract  it. 

"  The  same  kind  of  nail  forced 
one  inch  and  a  half  into  the 
wood,  required  327  lbs.  to  draw 
it  out;  and  when  driven  two 
inches,  required  530  lbs.  to  ex- 
tract it.  In  this  last  experiment 
the  nail  was  forced  into  the  wood 
by  a  nail  of  cast-iron,  weighing 
627  lbs.  falling  from  a  height  of 
twelve  inches,  four  blows  of 
which  were  necessary  to  force 
the  nail  an  inch  and  a  half  into 
the  wood.  It  required  a  pressure 
of  400  lbs.  to  force  the  nail  to 
the  same  depth. 

"  A  sixpenny  nail  driven  one 
inch  into  dry  elm,  across  the 
grain  of  fibres,  required  327  lbs. 
to  draw  it  out  by  direct  force; 
driven  end-ways  into  dry  elm,  or 
parallel  with  the  grain,  it  only 
required  257  lbs.  to  extract  it. 

k'  The  same  sort  of  nail  driven 
into  dry  Christiana  deal,  was 
extracted  by  a  force  equal  to  257 
lbs.,  and  by  one  of  87  lbs.  from  a 
depth  of  an  inch. 

M  The  adhesion  of  a  nail,  there- 
fore, driven  into  elm  across  the 
grain,  or  at  right  angles  to  the 
fibres  of  the  wood,  is  greater 
than  when  it  is  driven  with  the 
grain,  or  parallel  with  the  fibres, 
in  the  proportion  of  100  to  78,  or 
4  to  3. 

"  And  under  the  same  circum- 
stances in  dry  Christiana  deal, 
as  100  to  46,  or  nearly  2  to  1. 


AD  H 


ADR 


The  comparative  adhesion  of  nails 
in  elm  and  deal,  is  between  2  and 
3  to  1. 

"  To  extract  a  sixpenny-  nail 
driven  one  inch  into  green  syca- 
more, required  312  lbs.;  from 
dry  oak,  507  lbs. ;  and  from  dry 
beech,  66*  lbs. 

"  A  common  screw  of  one-fifth 
of  an  inch  had  an  adhe^tm  about 
three  times  as  great  as  that  of  a 
sixpenny  nail. 

"  A  common  sixpenny  nail 
driven  two  inches  into  dry  oak, 
would  require  more  than  half  a 
ton  to  extract  it  by  pressure." 

In  making  these  experiments, 
Mr.  Bevan  observes  that  great 
care  was  taken  to  apply  (to  add) 
the  weights  steadily,  and  that 
towards  the  conclusion  of  the  ex- 
periment, weights  not  exceeding 
JO  lbs.,  were  laid  on,  with  a  mo- 
derate interval  between  each  ad- 
dition. 

There  are  few  more  inexpli- 
cable phenomena  in  mechanical 
philosophy  than  those  influencing 
adhesion  and  cohesion.  The 
adhe&ion  has  been  thought  by 
some  philosophers  of  great  ex- 
perience to  arise  from  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air,  an  hypothesis 
shewn  to  be  liable  to  considerable 
exceptions  by  some  experiments 
made  by  Haukesbee  and  others. 

That  there  exists  a  tendency  to 
adhesion  between  all  objects  in 
nature,  absolutely  independent  of 
atmospheric,  and  all  other  pres- 
sure, is  warranted  by  experience ; 
although  this  pressure  is  in  many 
cases  essential  both  to  the  com- 
mencement of  the  adhesion,  and 
lias  considerable  influence  after- 
wards in  determining  its  intensity. 
Haukesbee  found  that  the  in- 
tensity of  adhesion  had  some 
relation  or  proportion  to  the 
number  of  touching  points;  and 
that  this  depended,  in  solid  bodies, 
on  the   degree  in  which  their 

78 


surfaces  were  polished  and  com- 
pressed ;  or  the  effects  of  inter- 
posing glue  or  cement  between 
solids,  to  promote  their  adhesion. 
See  Cement. 

Adit.  The  approach,  or  en- 
trance to  a  building — a  door- 
passage,  or  communication. 

Adits.  Doors  on  the  stairs  in 
ancient  theatres,  whereby  people 
entered  from  the  porticoes,  and 
descended  to  their  seats. 

Adit  of  a  mine.  The  drift,  or 
the  excavation  by  which  the 
mine  is  entered,  and  the  water 
and  ores  are  conveyed  to  the  sur- 
face. They  are  commonly  made 
on  the  side  of  the  hill  towards  its 
base,  and  are  from  four  to  six  or 
seven  feet  high ;  sometimes  cut 
in  the  rock,  or  supported  with 
timber:  the  bottom  of  the  adit 
nearly  answers  to  that  of  the 
shaft,  only  a  little  lower,  to  allow 
the  current  of  water  to  pass 
away  without  the  use  of  a  pump. 
Damps  and  impure  air  are  the 
great  impediments  against  driv- 
ing adits  beyond  twenty  or  thirty 
fathoms,  from  the  necessity  of 
sinking  shafts  to  meet  the  adit 
both  for  air  and  light. 

Adit  is  sometimes  used  also  for 
the  air-shaft. 

Admeasurement.  Adjustment 
of  proportions ;  technically,  an 
estimate  of  the  quantity  of  mate- 
rials and  labour  of  any  kind  used 
in  a  building. 

Adrian.  Publius  iElius,  a  Ro- 
man emperor,  was  born  at  Home, 
seven ty-*?i>  years  after  the  birth 
of  Christ.  His  ancestors  lived  at 
Italica  in  Spain;  at  an  early  age 
he  received  the  name  of  the 
"  Young  Grecian,"  from  his  great 
proficiency  in  that  language.  He 
distinguished  himself  as  a  general 
under  Trajan,  and,  at  the  death 
of  that  prince,  he  was  proclaimed 
his  successor,  by  the  Roman 
legions   in    Syria;   and,  by  his 


ADR 


ADR 


policy  and  prudence,  he  suc- 
ceeded in  gaining  the  confidence 
and  affection  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple. He  visited  almost  every 
part  of  his  empire ;  and  his  jour- 
ney to  the  Roman  province  in 
Britain  was  distinguished  by  the 
erection  of  a  wall,  extending 
from  the  Solway  Firth  on  the 
west  to  Newcastle-upon-Tyne  on 
the  east,  to  secure  the  southern 
part  which  belonged  to  the  Ro- 
mans from  the  incursions  and  in- 
roads of  the  Caledonians.  See 
Adrian  s  Wall. 

On  his  return  to  Gaul,  he  built 
a  magnificent  palace  for  Plotina, 
the  widow  of  Trajan.  In  Spain, 
he  rebuilt  the  Temple  of  Augus- 
tus at  Tarragona.  At  his  visit 
to  Athens,  he  adorned  it  with  so 
many  splendid  edifices,  that  in 
gratitude  the  Athenians  revered 
him  as  the  second  founder  of 
their  city,  and  called  a  part  of  it 
by  his  name.  He  rebuilt  the 
cities  of  Nica?a,  Caesarea,  and 
Nicomedia,  which  had  been  des- 
troyed by  earthquakes,  and  re- 
paired, among  others,  the  tomb 
of  Pompey  the  Great  and  Epami- 
nondas,  and  also  the  city  of  Alex- 
andria, and  built  Antinoe.  In 
the  year  135,  he  returned  to 
Rome,  and  falling  into  a  lingering 
disease,  he  retired  to  Tibur,  and 
there  he  erected  a  magnificent 
villa.  See  Adrians  Villa.  His 
disorder  increasing,  he  was  re- 
moved to  Baiae,  in  Campania, 
where  he  died  in  the  year  A.D. 
138,  after  having  reigned  nearly 
twenty-two  years.  His  ashes 
were  brought  to  Rome,  and  de- 
posited in  a  superb  mausoleum, 
which,  he  had  constructed  in  his 
life-time  on  the  bank  of  the  Tiber. 
See  Adrians  Mausoleum. 

No  prince  ever  erected  so 
many  public  and  private  edifices 

Adrian.  In  his  plans  of  pub- 
lic  improvement,  he  was  com- 


prehensive and  liberal,  even  to 
the  extreme  of  needless  magni- 
ficence and  profusion.  There 
was  hardly  a  province  or  a  city 
on  which  he  did  not  confer  some 
substantial  mark  of  his  regard, 
for  the  convenience  and  comfort 
of  its  inhabitants;  in  repairing  old 
edifices,  building  new  ones,  baths, 
aqueducts,  harbours,  and  forums; 
and  he  expended  large  sums  in 
renovating  and  embellishing  the 
monuments  whioh  had  been  raised 
in  former  times  to  statesmen  and 
heroes. 

Adrian  was  a  poet  and  a  phi- 
losopher, as  well  as  an  architect. 
11  In  him  centred  the  most  opposite 
qualities,  the  most  splendid  vir- 
tues, and  the  most  degrading 
vices.  Profuse  and  liberal  — 
frugal  even  to  avarice — merciful 
in  many  points — but,  in  others, 
a  monster  of  cruelty,  we  shall 
not  be  far  wrong/'  says  Crevier, 
"  if  we  consider  his  vices  as  real 
or  constitutional,  and  his  virtues 
as  fictitious,  prompted  by  an  un- 
measurable  vanity  and  deep  po- 
licy. His  government,  on  the 
whole,  was  for  the  good  of  the 
people*  in  general,  as  this  was 
essential  to  his  safety;  but  his 
personal  conduct  made  him  the 
terror  and  scourge  of  all  who 
were  near  him." 

Adrianeum.  The  tomb  erect- 
ed by  Adrian  at  Rome.  (See 
Mausoleum.) 

Adrianople,  the  second  city 
in  the  Turkish  empire.  "  We  en- 
tered the  city,"  says  Dr.  Macmi- 
chael,  "  by  a  long,  narrow  bridge, 
built  over  the  Tundsha,  which 
falls  into  the  Mariza  at  a  little 
distance  below  the  town  to  the 
south.  Passing  along  narrow 
streets,  darkened  by  wooden  pro- 
jections from  the  opposite  houses, 
we  stooped  under  a  very  low 
ruined  brick  archway,  in  the  wall 
of  the  fortress,  and  alighted  at  a 

79  . 


ADR 


ADR 


place  crowded  with  Albanian 
troops  of  the  Pasha."  The  mean- 
ness of  the  private  buildings  are, 
however,  a  contrast  to  the  mag- 
nificence of  some  of  the  public 
edifice?.  The  mosque  of  Selim 
is  said  to  be  one  of  the  largest 
and  most  beautiful  Mohammedan 
temples  in  the  world.  Its  four 
minarets  are  flutod,  and  are  of  a 
very  elegant  construction.  Mrs. 
Macmichael  was  permitted  to 
see  the  interior.  The  floor  was 
covered  with  carpets,  and  many 
lamps  and  ostrich  eggs  were  sus- 
pended from  the  ceiling  of  the 
immense  dome.  On  one  side 
stood  an  elevated  chair  or  pulpit, 
to  which  a  very  narrow  and  steep 
flight  of  steps  conducted.  In  the 
centre  of  the  mosque  was  a  spring, 
surrounded  with  a  circular  screen. 
The  exterior  court  of  the  mosque 
is  paved  with  large  slabs  of  white 
marble,  and  the  antique  columns 
of  the  cloisters  round  it,  are  of 
various  orders  and  dimensions, 
but  all  of  the  most  costly  mate- 
rials, either  verde  antique,  Egyp- 
tian granite,  or  Cipollino  marble. 
The  next  chief  building  is  the 
famous  mosque  of  Ali  Pacha.  It 
is  a  brick  building,  vaulted  with 
arches,  consisting  of  alternate  red 
and  white  bricks.  A  gate  at  each 
extremity,  and  four  lateral  ones, 
form  so  many  entrances,  and  its 
length  is  about  3U0  paces.  Se- 
pulchral monuments  of  white 
marble,  many  of  which  were 
covered  with  ornamental  canopies 
of  the  same  material,  and  all 
having  a  most  splendid  appear- 
ance, line  the  road  on  each  side 
for  a  continual  distance  from  the 
city. 

Adrian's  Wall.  In  ancient 
Military  Architecture.  A  wall, 
or  mound,  erected  by  the  Em- 
peror Adrian,  across  England, 
beginning  about  three  miles  east- 
ward of  Newcastle,  and  ending 

80 


ten  miles  to  the  west  of  Carlisle, 

measuring  in  length  about  seventy 
miles. 

This  wall  has  passed  by  differ- 
ent names  at  different  times,  and 
in  different  languages.  It  was 
called,  by  ancient  writers,  Vallum 
Barbaricum,  Prcelentura,  Clusnra 
Vallum,  or  Mums;  by  the 
Greeks,  Xomo,  and  Diateixisma  ; 
by  the  English,  the  Picts  Wall, 
or  The  Wall;  and  by  the  Britons, 
Gual  Sever,  Gal  Sever,  and  Mur 
Sever.  The  names  Pretentura 
and  Clusura  being  given  to  it 
on  account  of  its  stretching  out 
against,  and  excluding  the  enemy. 

The  material  of  which  it  was 
composed,  was  earth  taken  from 
the  ditches,  sometimes  mixed 
with  stone;  but  there  is  no 
appearance  of  any  timber  ever 
having  been  used  in  its  con- 
struction. 

It  was  carrjed  from  town  to 
town,  as  much  in  a  straight  line 
as  a  work  of  this  nature  and  ex- 
tent could  be. 

Adrian's  wall  is  sometimes  con- 
founded with  that  of  Severus, 
which  was  built  on  nearly  the 
same,  line,  and  which  appears  to 
have*  been  intended  for  a  more 
permanent  defence  than  that 
built  by  his  predecessor. 

The  defence  consists  of  the 
principal  agger,  or  vallum,  on  the 
brink  of  the  ditch — the  ditch, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  vallum; 
another  agger  on  the  south  side 
of  the  vallum,  and  about  five 
paces  distant  from  it,  which  may 
be  distinguished  from  the  other 
by  the  south  agger,  and  a  large 
agger  upon  the  north  side  of  the 
ditch,  called  the  north  agger. 
This  is  supposed  to  be  the  mili- 
tary way  to  the  ancient  line  of 
stations.  The  south  agger  was 
an  inner  defence,  in  case  the 
enemy  might  beat  them  from 
any  part  of  the  principal  vallum 


ADRIAN'S  WALL. 


or  to  protect  the  Roman  soldiers 
against  any  attack  from  the  pro- 
vincial Britons.  It  is  generally 
somewhat  smaller  than  the  prin- 
cipal vallum,  but  in  some  places 
it  is  larger.  These  four  works 
keep  all  the  way  a  constant  regu- 
lar parallelism  to  each  other. 

In  one  part  of  this  line  of 
Adrian's  wall,  which  is  still  re- 
maining, the  ditch  measured 
nine  feet  in  depth,  and  eleven  feet 
over,  the  top  being  wider  than 
the  bottom,  from  the  sides  slop- 
ing. The  north  agger  was  about 
twenty-four  feet  north  from  the 
ditch,  and  of  the  two  aggers  of 
the  vallum,  one  is  always  de- 
tached about  thirty  feet  to  the 
south  of  the  ditch,  and  the  other 
upon,  or  near  the  very  southern 
edge  of  it. 

it  is  the  opinion  of  some  anti- 
quaries, that  Severus's  wall  was 
built  upon  the  same  foundation 
with  Adrian's,  and  with  regard 
to  some  parts  of  its  line,  this  is  a 
probable  conjecture  ;  for  if  the 
north  agger  has  been  an  old 
military  way,  the  supposition 
of  a  rampart,  and  a  ditch  to 
the  north  of  this  way,  would 
remove  the  difficulty  as  to  the 
soldiers  being  exposed  to  the 
enemy,  whilst  they  were  on  their 
march,  since  then  the  way 
would  have  been  defended  on 
both  sides.  Again,  the  stations 
too,  as  well  as  the  military  way, 
are  generally  (though  not  al- 
ways) included  between  the  two 
walls  and  ditches  (or  between 
the  works  as  they  are  distin- 
guished, erected  by  Adrian  and 
Scverus.)  The  stone  wall  erected 
by  Severus  frequently  lulling  in 
with  the  north  rampart  of  the 
station,  as  the  turf,  or  earthen 
wall  of  Adrian  does  with  the 
southern ;  besides,  this  advanta- 
geous ground  is  often  left  on  the 
north  side  of  Adrian  s  vallum, 
L 


which  in  one  place  is  just  carried 
round  the  south  skirt  of  a  tu- 
mulus, or  small  hill,  making  a 
sudden  turn,  seemingly  with  a 
design  to  avoid  passing  over  it. 
Now  it  is  contended  that  if  this 
were  intended  to  be  the  most 
northerly  fortification,  and  to  be 
a  fence  against  the  northern 
enemies,  this  conduct  seems  to 
offend  against  right  reason,  and 
the  rule  in  ancient  military  build- 
ing, that  care  should  be  taken  to 
have  no  neighbouring  hill  higher 
than  the  fortification,  which  being 
seized  by  the  enemy,  might  be 
turned  to  the  annoyance  of  those 
within  the  line  of  fortification. 
The  southern  prospect  of  Adrian's 
work,  and  the  defence  on  that 
side,  is  generally  better  than  on 
the  north;  whereas  the  northern 
prospect  or  defence  has  been 
principally,  or  only,  taken  care  of 
in  the  wall  of  Severus.  Such 
considerations  have  induced  some 
to  think  that  what  now  goes  by 
the  name  of  Adrian's  Wall,  was 
originally  designed  for  a  fence 
against  any  sudden  insurrection 
of  the  provincial  Britons,  and 
particularly  of  the  Brigantes ; 
whilst  others  look  upon  it  as  a 
fossa  interior,  or  inner  fortifica- 
tion, for  the  soldiers  to  retire  to, 
after  they  had  been  beaten  off  by 
the  northern  enemy  from  their 
principal  vallum :  both  agree 
in  this,  that  Adrian  must  have 
built  a  more  northerly  vallum 
than  those  which  now  bear  his 
name,  and  that  this  must  have 
stood  upon  the  same  tract  where 
Severus  afterwards  erected  his 
wall.  This,  according  to  their 
opinion,  would  render  the  whole 
fortification  regular  and  effective; 
whereas,  without  this,  it  must 
have  been  in  many  places  very 
weak,  and  open  to  the  inroads  of 
the  Caledonians. 

But,  on  the  ( ther  hand,  plausi- 

81 


ADRIAN'S  WALL. 


ble  conjectures  and  speculative 
arguments,  must  give  way  to 
stronger  proofs,  though  not 
quite  decisive,  on  the  other  side  ; 
for  at  this  distance  of  time  we 
cannot  see  into  the  design  of 
the  Romans,  nor  account  for 
every  particular  part  of  their 
system  in  these  erections.  It  is 
probable  that  Adrian's  north 
agger  was  the  most  ancient  mi- 
litary way  leading  from  station 
to  station,  and  that  the  subse- 
quent erection  was  guided  and 
limited  by  it.  as  it  keeps  a  con- 
stant parallelism  to  it ;  the 
north  agger,  considered  as  such 
a  military  way,  appears  to  be 
conducted  according  to  the 
Roman  art  and  rules,  in  every 
part  of  it.  It  is  carried  on  in  the 
shortest  line  from  station  to  sta- 
tion ;  and  this,  without  doubt,  is 
the  true  reason  why  it  runs  so 
much  upon  the  southern  skirts  of 
the  northern  hills — the  shortest 
line  leading  that  way  ;  a  circum- 
stance particularly  remarkable  in 
the  small  hill  now  called  Halton 
Chesters;  the  direct  line  would 
have  led  over  the  hid,  but  to 
avoid  climbing  it,  a  small  turn  is 
made  to  carry  it  round  the  skirt, 
and  it  passes  on  the  south  side 
rather  than  on  the  north,  because 
this  is  the  shorter  and  more 
convenient  way  to  the  station 
towards  which  it  is  tending. 
The  other  parts  of  Adrian's  work 
keep  their  due  distance  and  pa- 
rallelism, bending  exactly  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  north  agger 
does,  and  so  running  at  a  few 
yards'  distance  to  the  south  of  the 
hill.  In  a  word,  the  north  agger, 
or  old  military  way,  keeps  just 
such  a  course,  and  runs  through 
such  grounds  as  one  would  ex- 
pect such  a  Roman  way  should 
do.  And  had  it  been  determined 
that  Adrian's  work  should  ac- 
company this,  and  keep  all  along 


an  exact  parallelism  to  it,  they 
must  then  be  tied  down,  and  the 
work  at  some  places  would  show 
some  irregularities  and  devia- 
tions from  the  usual  manner.  It 
may  be  said  that  thsy  might  at 
least  have  made  the  fortification 
on  the  north  side  of  the  military 
way,  if  there  was  no  other  more 
northerly  defence;  but  it  will 
appear  that  it  was  hardly  prac- 
ticable to  carry  on  the  work  on 
the  north  side  of  th>  way  so  as 
to  be  near  and  parallel  to  it;  and 
such  is  the  situation  of  the  ground, 
that  if  the  Roman  architects  had 
done  so,  the  defence  would  have 
been  generally  weaker  than  it  is, 
running  along  the  very  side  of  the 
hills,  unless  they  :i;d  made  it 
where  Severus's  wall  stands,  and 
where  it  h*s  been  said  Adrian's 
principal  vallum  stood  ;  but,  in 
fact,  Adrian  made  no  vallum 
there. 

Among  all  the  historians  who 
mention  the  building  of  iSeverus's 
wall,  there  is  not  the  least  hint 
to  be  met  with,  of  his  building  it 
upon  the  same  foundation  with 
Adrian's  vallum.  Spartian's  ex- 
pression, "  apud  vallum,"  looks 
the  likest  of  it  of  any,  but  this 
may  be  considered  to  be  "  near" 
to  the  vallum,  with  as  much 
reason  as  upon  it ;  besides,  it 
would  be  more  laborious  and 
expensive  to  build  such  a  wall 
upon  a  ruinous  vallum,  than  to 
erect  it  upon  ground  that  was 
entirely  clear,  even  supposing 
that  the  ideas  of  stability  among 
Roman  architects  would  have 
permitted  their  erecting  a  stone 
wall  upon  the  foundation  of  an 
artificial  earthen  one.  There  is 
likewise  no  appearance  at  present 
of  any  such  vallum,  and  it  seems 
difficult  to  suppose  that  the  agger 
of  earth  has  been  every  where  so 
entirely  removed,  as  to  leave  no 
visible  remains  of  it  any  where 


ADRIAN'S  WALL. 


along  the  whole  tract  of  the  wail. 
Again,  Severus's  wall  passes 
over  large  spaces  where  the  erect- 
ing of  an  earthen  rampart  seems 
almost  impracticable;  sometimes 
k  passes  for  a  considerable  way 
along  the  tops  of  precipices,  and 
sometimes  down  the  steep  decli- 
vity of  a  bare  rock,  and  in  these 
places  there  is  no  ditch  ;  in  one 
place  it  is  carried  through  a  small 
morass,  where  its  foundation  may 
be  helped  with  piles  of  wood ; 
but  Adrian's  work  shuns  it,  and 
runs  at  ten  chains'  distance  from 
it. 

The  constant  parallelism  of 
the  north  aggar — the  ditch  and 
the  two  southern  aggars  of  Adri- 
an's wall,  is  a  sure  indication  of 
their  mutual  relation  ;  but  this 
parallelism  does  not  hold  in  the 
wall  of  Severus:  where  they  are 
most  distant,  there  are  no  visible 
branches  of  any  military  way 
leading  from  the  one  to  the  other, 
whereby  the  communication  be- 
tween them  might  be  more  easily 
preserved:  in  some  places,  as  we 
have  seen,  there  is  a  morass  be- 
tween the  two  walls,  which  must 
make  a  retreat  from  one  wall  to 
the  other  inconvenient,  if  not 
impracticable.  The  military  way 
that  now  follows  Severus's  wall 
is  agreed  to  have  been  made  at 
the  same  time  with  the  wall  it- 
self; if,  then,  Adrian's  principal 
vallum  was  on  the  same  ground 
where  the  wali  of  Severus  has 
stood,  how  comes  it  to  pass  that 
there  has  been  no  military  way 
accompanying  it. 

If  Adrian's  work  is  supposed 
to  have  been  designed  for  a  de- 
fence against  an  attack  from  the 
south,  difficulties  almost  insur- 
mv/jntable  are  raised,  for  some- 
times the  advantageous  ground 
is  left  on  the  south,  where 
it  might  easily  have  been 
otherwise  ordered,  if  their  de- 


sign had  only  been  to  secure 
themselves  against  assailants 
from  the  south,  and  the  course 
of  their  fortifications  had  not 
been  previously  determined  by 
some  other  rule.  In  one  place, 
the  vallum  runs  between  higher 
grounds  on  each  side  ;  besides,  if 
it  were  designed  against  an  ene- 
my from  the  south,  the  ditch  is 
on  the  wrong  side,  being  to  the 
north  of  the  two  ramparts :  and 
why  may  it  not.  be  supposed  that 
the  most  southerly  rampart  either 
was  a  slight  fence  against  an 
attack  from  the  south,  or  an  in- 
terior defence  to  retreat  to,  if  the 
ditch  should  be  carried  by  an 
assault  from  the  north  ?  There 
was  no  occasion  to  draw  such  a 
line  of  defence,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent an  attack  being  made  upon 
the  stations,  for  they  are  stronger 
on  all  sides  than  this  vallum. 
As  far  as  the  old  military  way  is 
concerned  in  the  difficulty,  it 
would  be  better  lessened  by  ob- 
serving, that  there  is  an  inner 
military  way,  which  is  also 
shorter,  that  reaches  half  the 
length  of  the  wall  from  Walwick 
Chesters  to  Carrvoran  in  Nor- 
thumberland, and  probably  as  far 
as  Stanwicks  in  Cumberland. 
Each  end  of  Severus's  wall  is 
continued  beyond  Adrian's:  this 
could  not  be  erected  on  Adrian's 
vallum,  and  there  is  no  diffe- 
rence in  the  appearance  of  the 
work  here  and  in  the  other  parts 
of  it. 

In   one   part  of  the  line  of 
defence,   between    Carraw  and 
Threeppell  House,  the  united  mi 
litary  way  was  eight  yards  broad 
and  about  four   feet    high  ;  in 
tome  places  it  is  much  higher; 
farther   to  the  west,  nine  feet 
broad    or    more.      The  north 
agger  continues  after  the  bepa 
ration  large   and  high,  though 
neither  so  large  nor  so  broad  as 


ADRIAN'S  WALL. 


when  the  two  were  united.  Its 
remains  were  mixed  with  stones, 
and  no  regular  pavement  now 
appears.  Severus's  military  way, 
after  his  parting,  appears  little 
raised,  but  regularly  paved:  near 
this  separation  Adrian's  vallum 
keeps  the  loiv  ground  all  the  way, 
and  far  a  good  space  is  in  a 
narrow  ground  between  two 
hills  ;  while  Severus's  runs  along 
the  very  brink  of  the  precipices, 
which  in  some  places  have  been 
made  steeper  by  art,  in  order  to 
render  them  more  inaccessible. 
They  have  made  no  ditch  to  Se- 
verus's wall,  when  they  had  the 
advantage  of  a  precipice,  nor 
was  there  the  least  occasion  for 
it,  but  in  the  hollow  intervals 
between  the  rocks,  they  have 
often  drawn  a  ditch. 

Adrian's  wall,  as  well  as  that 
of  Severus's,  would  have  been 
incomplete  without  a  chain  of 
forts  built  at  certain  distances, 
so  as  to  preserve  the  communica- 
tion throughout  its  line,  both  for 
succour  in  case  of  attack,  and 
also  to  ,  form  a  sort  of  military 
observatories,  in  which  they  could 
overlook  the  operations  or  mo- 
tions of  their  antagonists.  It  is 
probable  that  this  series  of  forts 
called  stations,  per  lineam  valli, 
placed  quite  across  the  coun- 
try, existed  before  the  construc- 
tion of  this  wall ;  a  mode  which 
was  used  by  Julius  Agrico- 
la.  "  It  is  probable,"  says  Cam- 
den, "  that  in  times  of  peace  the 
frontier  garrisons  were  kept 
Along  the  line  in  castles  and 
cities ;  but  when  they  were  ap- 
prehensive of  the  incursions  of 
their  neighbours,  part  of  them, 
for  the  defence  of  their  own, 
pitched  their  tents  in  the  enemy's 
country,  and  made  excursions 
into  their  quarters,  and  hence 
we  hear  of  stationes  agrarice." 
"  Agricola,"  says  Tacitus,  '«  built 

84 


such  a  row  of  forts  quite  across 
the  country  in  Scotland,  and 
Antoninus  built  his  wall  along 
the  same  tract.  So  Adrian  car- 
ried his  wall  from  fort  to  fort, 
which  had  been  erected  before 
his  time;  and  we  find  the  course 
of  the  wall  directed  as  much  as 
it  well  could  be  from  station  to 
station,  and  making  some  turns 
with  no  other  view  but  to  come 
up  to,  and  fetch  in  a  station. 
Severus's  wall  generally  falling 
in  with  the  north  rampart,  and 
Adrian's  with  the  south,  though 
sometimes  both  the  one  and  the 
other  fell  in  with  the  middle  sta- 
tion. In  some  particular  cases  they 
both  keep  on  the  north  side,  and 
touch  not  the  station  at  alh  It 
is  remarkable  there  is  not  one  of 
those  stations,  which  is  all  of  it 
on  the  north  of  Severus's  wall, 
though  it  is  sometimes  different 
with  Adrian's,  and  the  reason 
for  this  peculiar  arrangement 
might  be,  that  the  stations  were 
stronger  than  Adrian's  vallum, 
and  so  generally  left  without  it. 
But  Severus's  wall  was  made  as 
strong,  or  stronger  than  they, 
and,  therefore,  was  erected  more 
to  the  north,  and  included  them 
all  within  it.  For  an  account  of 
these  stations,  see  Castelium, 
Castramentation. 

The  objection  to  the  north 
agger  being  a  military  wa}',  on 
account  of  its  laying  to  the  north, 
or  enemies'  side,  with  respect  to 
Adrian's  vallum  and  ditch,  may 
be  accounted  for,  if  we  consider 
it  to  have  been  in  existence  before 
that  emperor  began  his  opera- 
tions, and  to  have  run  between 
station  and  station:  it  is,  how- 
ever, within,  or  on  the  south 
side  of,  this  line  of  stations*  Per- 
haps Adrian's  vallum  and  ditch, 
at  the  same  time  that  it  joined 
and  strengthened  the  stations, 
might  also  have  been  designed 


A  D  11 


ADR 


for  a  place  or"  retreat  for  the  sol- 
diers, if  they  should  at  any  time 
be  suddenly  attacked  on  their 
march.  If  the  vallum  of  Adrian 
had  been  carried  on  all  the  way 
on  the  north  side  of  what  is 
here  considered  to  have  been  the 
old  military  way,  it  would,  in 
the  main,  have  been  weaker  as  a 
defence  than  it  now  is;  for.  as 
the  north  agger  runs  very  often 
along  the  south  skirt  of  the  hills, 
so,  if  the  ramparts  and  ditch  had 
been  north  of  it,  they  must  have 
gone  along  the  very  side,  or  de- 
clivity of  the  hill,  leaving  the 
upper  part  of  it  on  the  north : 
they  might,  therefore,  choose  to 
make  the  vallum  stronger,  though 
this  militarv  way  should  be  more 
exposed  to  the  enemy:  the  vallum 
was  to  be  a  constant  fence  to  the 
whole  province,  the  military  way 
was  only  used  on  occasions,  and 
therefore  it  was  advisable  to 
give  the  preference  to  tlie  vallum 
for  strength  and  security,  espe- 
cially, as  has  been  noticed,  that 
this  very  vallum  might  also  be  a 
security  to  the  soldiers  when 
marching;  for,  upon  the  first  ap- 
pearance or  intelligence  of  the 
enemy,  they  might  retire  quickly 
behind  it.  There  do  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  be  any  conve- 
nient passages  for  this  retreat, 
except  at  the  stations, — a  diffi- 
culty which  is  quite  as  great  to 
get  over,  on  the  conjecture  that 
the  north  agger  was  a  rampart 
to  receive  the  first  assault  of  the 
northern  enemy;  for,  if  the  Ro- 
mans were  beaten  off  this,  they 
must,  of  course,  be  precipitated 
into  the  ditch,  as  they  had  not 
means,  at  least  none  now  appear, 
for  passing  it.  The  north  agger 
generally  runs  along  such  ground 
as  is  fittest  for  a  military  way, 
and  .such  as  the  Romans  usually 
made  choice  of;  for  it  enters,  or 
keeps  the  ground  that  is  a  little 


higher  than  the  adjacent,  or  else 
the  skirt  of  a  hilJ  without  climbing 
it ;  by  this  means  the  way  was 
preserved  dry,  and  the  rain  ran 
off  as  it  fell. 

Adrian's  Villa.  Though  far 
inferior  to  his  predecessor  in  vir- 
tues and  great  qualities,  the 
Emperor  Adrian  left,  in  almost 
every  corner  of  the  empire,  splen- 
did proofs  of  his  knowledge,  taste, 
and  love  of  architecture.  1 1  is 
villa,  three  miles  from  Tivoli,  was 
one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
buildings  ever  erected. 

Adrian  seems  to  have  intended, 
to  collect,  in  this  spot,  all  the 
various  excellences  of  the  build- 
ings of  the  numerous  countries 
he  had  visited  : — Kgyptian  eru- 
dition, Asiatic  magnificence,  and 
Grecian  elegance,  were  here 
united  to  recal  to  his  recollection 
those  scenes  which  had,  in  his 
travels,  attracted  his  admiration 
or  wonder.  The  buildings  and 
plantations  appear  to  have  ex- 
tended over  an  area  about  six 
miles  in  circumference  (Winkel- 
man  says  ten)  ;  there  were  pro- 
bably other  edifices  and  gardens 
in  the  vicinity,  which  also  be- 
longed to  him,  if  we  may  judge 
by  inscriptions  found  amongst 
ruins  situated  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance. 

This  gorgeous  villa  was  divided 
into  seven  parts :  the  hyceftm* 
the  Academy,  Pri/laneum,  Egyp- 
tian Canopus,  Pcealc,  Valla/  of 
Tempe,  or  Kl-ysian  Fields — nil 
the  Infernal  Regions. 

The  principal  gate  appears  to 
have  been  placed  towards  the 
Ponte  Lucano,  whence  there  was 
a  pav*d  road  to  the  villa.  On 
entering  the  gate,  there  were 
numerous  buildings,  where,  it  is 
conjectured,  the  military  guards 
attending  upon  the  kmper  >r  were 
lodged. 

The  Puecile  was  an  J™  Station 


ADRIAN'S  VILLA. 


of  the  portico  at  Athens,  so 
named  on  account  of  the  nume- 
rous paintings  with  which  it  was 
adorned.  A  wall,  running  east 
and  west,  divided  this  portico, 
which  protected  those  using  it 
from  the  heat  of  the  sun  at  all 
hours  of  the  day.  Adrian  was 
accustomed  to  assemble  learned 
men  in  this  portico,  and  several 
apartments  adjoining  to  it  were 
dedicated  to  the  prosecution  of 
their  studies — a  temple  stood  near 
it.  Near  this  spot  was  an  oval 
space,  surrounded  with  a  portico, 
and  having  in  the  midst  an  oc- 
tagon temple  with  a  fountain. 
The  frieze  of  this  building  was 
adorned  with  elegant  bas  reliefs 
of  cupids  drawn  by  wolves  and 
swans.  At  a  small  distance  stood 
a  library,  raised  on  a  high  wall, 
with  twenty-five  niches  for  sta- 
tues ;  and  on  an  adjoining  emi- 
nence a  theatre  with  porticoes, 
and  numerous  dressing-rooms  for 
the  actors. 

In  the  southern  division  were 
the  hot  and  cold  baths,  with  the 
different  apartments  usually  at- 
tached to  them,  dressing-rooms, 
galleries  for  v/restling  and  walk- 
ing, decorated  with  sumptuous 
ornaments  of  marble,  stucco,  and 
painting. 

Adjoining  the  academy  was  a 
circular  temple,  dedicated  to 
Apollo  and  the  Muses,  with  habi- 
tations for  the  priests  and  minis- 
ters, with  numberless  schools  and 
houses  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  students,  with  gardens, 
groves,  and  great  abundance  of 
water,  brought  from  a  considera- 
ble distance.  Beside  the  temple 
was  a  menagerie. 

In  the  Lyceum  were  contained 
numerous  restorations  of  Grecian 
buildings — here  were  placed  Xys- 
tus,  and  porticoes  for  the  Peripa- 
tetics— temples  and  groves  almost 
without  number. 


The  part  called  Canopus,  had 
a  temple  dedicated  to  Egyptian 
Canopus.  This  represented  an 
immense  shell,  and  at  the  back  of 
it  was  a  gallery,  and  the  abode  of 
the  oracle.  This  temple  stood 
at  the  end  of  a  valley,  which  con- 
tained a  naumachia,  where  the 
Emperor  used  to  celebrate  games 
in  honour  of  Canopus.  The  wind- 
ing stairs,  which  the  different  spec- 
tators ascended  and  descended 
without  incommoding  each  other, 
have  been  greatly  celebrated. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  valley 
was  a  place  called  the  Infernal 
Regions,  where  streams  were  in- 
troduced, named  Lethe,  Cocy- 
tus,  and  Phlegethon,  with  nume- 
rous buildings  and  paintings,  al- 
luding to  similar  subjects;  and 
also  here  were  habitations  for 
slaves. 

Not  far  from  this  spot  was  a 
division  of  the  villa,  called  the 
Valley  of  Tempe,  with  the  Ely- 
sian  Fields,  where  every  thing 
the  most  beautiful  was  collected, 
and  where  nature  vied  with  art  in 
the  profusion  of  her  beauties. 
This  part  of  the  villa  was  emi- 
nently delightful  and  attractive. 

The  Prytaneum  was  at  the 
southern  extremity,  and  was  built 
in  imitation  of  that  at  Athens, 
which  was  a  court  of  justice,  with 
dwelling-houses  for  the  judges 
and  officers  belonging  to  them. 

When  Adrian  had  completed 
this  wonderful  assemblage  of 
riches  and  magnificence,  he  cele- 
brated the  Encaenia,  and  perform- 
ed a  solemn  sacrifice  to  Hercules. 

These  are  thought  to  have  been 
the  grand  divisions  of  tins  cele- 
brated villa,  which,  in  less  than 
forty  years  after  it  had  been  com- 
pleted, began  to  be  dilapidated, 
iiis  successor  removed  some  of 
the  most  valuable  ornaments,  to 
decorate  the  baths  he  erected  at 
Rome.    Caracalla  also  removed 


ADRIAN'S  VILLA. 


many  at  the  ornaments.  Suc- 
ceeding emperors  following  his 
example,  the  villa  was  stripped 
of  its  decorations,  and  aban- 
doned. 

Of  this  immense  building  there 
are  still  some  considerable  parts 
in  existence,  and  the  foundations 
of  the  greater  part  can  still  be 
traced  on  the  spot — at  one  extre- 
mity are  seen  two  theatres.  In 
one  of  these  buildings  the  exte- 
rior portico  may  be  traced — 
the  rooms  for  the  actors,  and  the 
stairs  by  which  they  ascended  to 
Ihe  theatre  j  the  stage-door,  the 
side  porticoes  of  the  proscenium, 
and  the  orchestra.  The  palcestrum 
forms  a  great  court,  around  which, 
from  the  appearance  of  the  ruins, 
were  porticoes  and  arcades.  At 
the  further  end  is  a  large  recess, 
in  which,  it  is  thought,  the  em- 
peror was  placed  when  he  re- 
viewed his  troops.  A  small  edi- 
fice is  still  nearly  entire,  conceived 
to  be  the  remains  of  a  bath.  All 
the  apartments  of  which  this 
building  is  composed  are  very 
small,  and  are  lighted  from  the 
top.  Their  forms  differ  from 
each  other,  and  many  of  them 
are  exceedingly  singular. 

The  circular  court  of  the  me- 
nagerie is  also  visible,  and  the 
basin  of  the  naumachia,  which 
is  filled  with  the  waters  of  the 
Anio.  Winkelman  says,  that  the 
basin  has  formerly  been  lined  with 
"  Jaune  antique"  marble.  An- 
other square  court  may  be  traced, 
having  a  small  rotunda  at  its  ex- 
tremity, of  which  the  circumfer- 
ence is  formed  by  three  concave 
arches  and  three  convex  arches 
placed  alternately. 

In  another  ruin  are  found  many 
parts  finely  proportioned,  and  the 
tornis  academically  varied.  The 
rums  of  the  Temple  of  Canopus 
overlook  the  naumachia.  In  this 
8pot  were  found  the  scci-horse 


sacred  to  Neptune,  Isis,  Osiris, 
Orus,  the  Ibis,  and  other  hiero- 
glyphics, characteristic  of  an 
Egyptian  building.  In  Kircher's 
time  the  stairs,  constructed  so  as 
to  prevent  those  who  either  as- 
cended or  descended  from  meet- 
ing each  other,  could  be  traced 
At  the  bottom  are  the  ruins  of  a 
grand  niche,  ornamented  with  a 
number  of  smaller  square  niches 
in  its  circumference.  By  what 
has  been  found  in  this  spot,  it 
appears  that  it  was  a  grotto 
adorned  with  cascades.  The  light 
is  admitted  into  this  grotto  in  a 
manner  very  favourable  to  the 
general  effect. 

In  another  quarter,  near  that 
which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  Elysian  fields,  are  some  halls 
almost  perfect.  Above  all,  one 
which  is  called  the  "  Stanza 
d'Adriano ;"  also  the  ruins  of 
grand  staircases,  courts,  colon- 
nades, temples,  and  aqueducts, 
and  a  hippodrome,  or  riding- 
school. 

The  ruins  on  the  north  side 
consist  in  a  court  or  square,  a 
circular  portico,  and  a  quadrila- 
teral temple,  with  a  semicircular 
tribune,  containing  seven  square 
niches. 

The  most  celebrated  of  all 
tnese  rums,  according  to  Win- 
kelman, is  that  portion  named  the 
*  Hundred  Chambers,"  appropri- 
ated for  the  emperor's  guard : 
they  had  no  communication  with 
each  other  except  by  an  external 
gallery  of  wood,  of  which  the 
communication  was  interrupted 
by  a  single  sentinel.  There  is 
the  remains  of  a  round  building, 
which  it  is  supposed  was  occu- 
pied by  soldiers  of  the  body-guard. 
At  each  rising  of  the  arch  were 
two  pannels  upon  the  faces  of  the 
projecting  stones  :  on  one  of  Lhcse 
was  observed  the  initials,  or 
abridged    name,    of   a  soldier, 


AD  V 


A  D  V 


written  in  black,  as  if  with  the 
finger. 

The  plan  of  the  ruins  of  this 
villa  gives  a  clear  idea  of  its  great 
extent :  the  names  marked  on  it 
are  those  which  are  usually  given 
to  the  various  parts  by  antiqua- 
ries. The  dark  shading  distin- 
guishes the  portions  compara- 
tively in  good  preservation,  and 
the  lighter  shading,  or  dotted 
lines,  those  divisions  which  are 
in  a  more  ruinous  state.  Under 
the  word  ceiling  will  be  found 
some  of  the  remains  of  the  interior 
decorations  of  this  gorgeous  pa- 
lace. 

The  site  of  this  villa  has  not 
ceased,  since  the  revival  of  the 
arts,  to  be  a  mine,  from  which  its 
proprietors  have  extracted  im- 
mense numbers  of  the  finest  re- 
mains of  ancient  art ;  and  it  is 
rare  that  the  labour  of  a  new 
search,  or  excavation,  is  not  re- 
warded by  the  discovery  of  some 
of  its  seemingly  inexhaustible 
treasures.  From  this  spot,  the 
principal  European  museums  and 
collectors  are  indebted  for  many 
of  their  most  valuable  antiques. 

Aduar,  Adouar,  Adouard.  A 
kind  of  ambulatory  village  among 
the  Arabs,  and  moved  for  the  con- 
venience of  pasturage  and  water. 
It  has  been  estimated  that  there 
are  upwards  of  thirty  thousand  of 
these  aduars  in  the  kingdom  of 
Algiers  alone. 

Advanced-work.  In  military 
architecture.  A  work  constructed 
beyond  the  covered  way,  or  glacis 
of  a  fortress  $  but  either  near  to 
the  foot  of  the  glacis,  or  at  a  mo- 
derate distance  from  it — not  ge- 
nerally exceeding  250  yards,  in 
order  that  such  work  laving  un- 
der the  protection  of  the  fire  of 
the  fortress  it  may  derive  aid,  in 
case  of  being  attacked  by  an 
enemy. 

The  term  is  used  as  opposed  to 
88 


a  detached  work,  or  one  at  such  a 
distance  (between  800  or  900 
yards)  as  not  to  receive  effectual 
support  from  the  fortress. 

Advance-Fosse.  In  military 
architecture.  A  ditch  thrown 
across  the  esplanade,  or  glacis  of 
a  place,  to  prevent  its  being  sur- 
prised by  the  besiegers.  The 
ditch  sometimes  made  in  that  part 
of  the  lines  or  retrenchments 
nearest  to  the  enemy,  to  prevent 
him  from  attacking  them,  is  also 
called  the  advance-fosse.  This 
defence  should  always  be  filled 
with  water,  otherwise  it  would 
serve  as  a  shelter  to  cover  the 
enemy,  if  he  got  possession  of  it, 
from  the  fire  of  the  battery  or 
fortress  ;  redoubts  and  other 
works  are  usually  constructed 
beyond  the  advance-fosse. 

Advanced-Traverse.  In  mili- 
tary architecture.    See  Traverse. 

Adze,  or  Addice.  A  cutting 
tool,  of  the  axe  kind,  having  its 
blade  made  thin,  or  arching,  and 
set  at  right  angles  to  the  handle. 
It  is  chiefly  used  for  taking  thin 
chips  off  timber  or  boards,  and 
for  paring  away  those  inequalities 
which  the  common  axe,  from  its 
form,  cannot  touch. 

The  greater  proportion  of  tim- 
ber used  in  many  ancient  build- 
ings appears  to  have  been  fashion- 
ed with  this  instrument.  It  is 
still  employed  by  carpenters,  but 
its  use,  from  the  perfection  of 
other  instruments,  is  on  the  de- 
cline :  ship-carpenters  very  gene- 
rally use  it,  and  in  their  hands  it 
is  an  instrument  as  pliable  as  it 
is  effective.  Coopers  find  it  a  con- 
venient tool  for  many  purposes. 

It  is  ground  from  a  base  on  its 
inside  to  its  outer  edge,  and  on  this 
account  the  blade  is  required  to  be 
detached  from  the  handle,  previ- 
ous to  having  its  edge  repaired. 
See  Tool. 

Adytum,  (aduton,  Gr.)  A  re- 


A  D  y  T  U  JUL 


tired  or  sacred  place  in  ancient 
temples,  which  no  one  but  the 
priest  was  permitted  to  enter.  It 
was  usually  dark,  except  when 
illuminated  with  flambeaus,  and 
the  statue  of  the  Divinity  was 
placed  in  it,  to  prevent  its  too 
near  inspection  by  its  worship- 
pers. The  adytum  was  some- 
times a  subterranean  chamber. 
Pausanias,  describing  a  temple 
of  Neptune  in  the  isthmus  of 
Corinth,  mentions  "a  place  under 
ground,  called  an  aduton,  where  it 
is  reported  Portunces  lay  hid.  In 
which  place,  if  any  one,  Corinthian 
or  stranger,  perjures  himself,  he 
will  certainly  die  lor  his  impiety." 

At  the  foot  of  the  hill  of  the 
Acropolis  of  Argos  was  found  one 
of  the  most  curious  tell-tale  re- 
mains yet  discovered  among  the 
vestiges  of  Pagan  priestcraft.  One 
of  the  oracular  shrines  of  Argos, 
alluded  to  by  Pausanias,  laid 
open  to  inspection,  like  a  toy  a 
child  has  broken,  in  order  that  he 
may  see  the  contrivance  where- 
by it  was  made  to  speak  :  a  more 
interesting  sight  for  modern  cu- 
riosity can  hardly  be  conceived 
to  exist  among  the  ruins  of  any 
Grecian  city.  In  its  original 
state  it  had  been  a  temple.  The 
farther  part  from  the  entrance, 
where  the  altar  was,  being  an 
excavation  from  the  rock,  and 
the  front  and  roof  constructed 
with  baked  tiles.  The  altar  yet 
remains,  and  part  of  the  fictile 
superstructure  ;  but  the  most  re- 
markable part  of  the  whole  is  a 
secret  subterraneous  passage  ter- 
minating behind  the  altar,  its 
entrance  being  at  a  considerable 
distance  towards  the  right  of  a 
person  facing  the  altar,  and  so 
cunningly  contrived  as  to  have 
an  aperture  easily  concealed,  and 
level  with  the  surface  of  the 
rock.  This  was  barely  large 
enough  to  admit  the.  entrance  of 


a  single  person,  who,  having  de- 
scended into  the  narrow  passage, 
might  creep  along  until  he  ar- 
rived immediately  behind  the 
centre  of  the  altar,  where,  being 
hid  by  some  colossal  statue,  or 
other  screen,  the  sound  of  his 
voice  would  produce  a  most  im- 
posing effect  among  the  humble 
votaries  prostrate  beneath,  who 
were  listening  in  silence  upon 
the  floor  of  the  sanctuary.  "  We 
amused  ourselves,"  says  the  tra- 
veller, who  discovered  it,  "  for 
a  few  minutes,  by  endeavour- 
ing to  mimic  the  sort  of  solemn 
farce  acted  upon  these  occasions, 
and  as  we  delivered  a  mock  oracle, 
ore  rotundo  from  the  cavernous 
throne  of  the  altar,  a  reverbe- 
ration caused  by  the  sides  of  the 
rock,  afforded  a  tolerable  spe- 
cimen of  the  '  will  of  the  gods,' 
as  it  was  formerly  made  known 
to  the  credulous  votaries  of  this 
now-forgotten  shrine.  There 
were  not  fewer  than  twenty-five 
of  these  juggling  places  in  Pelo- 
ponnesus, and  as  many  in  the 
single  province  of  Boeotia ;  and 
surely  it  will  never  become  a 
question  among  learned  men, 
whether  the  answers  in  them 
were  given  by  the  inspiration  of 
evil  spirits,  or  whether  they  pro- 
ceeded from  the  imposture  of 
priests.  Neither  can  it  again  be 
urged  that  they  ceased  at  the 
birth  of  Christ,  because  Pausanias 
bears  testimony  to  their  existence 
at  Argos  in  the  second  century 
after  Christ :  perhaps  it  was  to 
this  very  shrine  that  his  evidence 
refers." 

At  Delphi  there  was  a  supersti- 
tion that  the  adytum  of  five 
stones  of  the  Temple  of  Apollo 
stood  in  the  middle  of  the  earth, 
and  the  navel  of  the  world  was 
shown  in  the  shrine,  as  it  was 
also  in  the  Holy  Sepulchre  at 
Jerusalem. 

b9 


ADYTUM. 


Amongst  all  that  now  remains 
rf  the  Antiquities  of  Greece, 
vjnere  is  nothing  better  authenti- 
cated, than  the  Hieron  ofTro- 
-honius,  the  site  of  it  being  dis- 
tinctly ascertained  by  the  cavities 
grooved  in  the  rock,  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  votive  offerings. 
2The  only  uncertainty  respects  the 
adytum,  where  the  oracle  was 
supposed  to  reside ;  for  although 
the  mouth  of  this  place  seems 
fery  accurately  to  correspond 
with  the  account  of  it  given  by 
Pausanias,  the  interior  has  never 
been  explored  in  modern  times. 
Every  thing  belonging  to  the 
Hieron  appears  to  exist  in  its 
original  state,  except  that  the 
vows  have  been  removed  from  the 
niches,  wherein  they  were  placed; 
und  that  the  narrow  entrance, 
supposed  to  lead  to  the  adytum, 
is  now  choked  with  stones  and 
rubbish.  The  women  of  Lebadea 
kindle  fires  here  while  washing 
their  linen,  and  the  sides  of  it 
are  consequently  covered  with 
:oot. 

This  aperture  in  the  rock  is 
close  to  the  ground  ;  immediately 
below  it,  in  front  of  the  little  ter- 
race, above  which  the  niches  were 
Cut  for  the  dona  votiva,  a  fountain 
issues  from  several  small  pipes, 
often  out  of  repair,  into  a  bath,  the 
interior  of  which  is  faced  with 
7arge  hewn  stones  and  pieces  of 
marble  ;  here  the  Lebadean  wo- 
men wash  their  linen.  This  bath 
was  used  by  those  who  came  to 
consult  the  oracle  ;  for  these  per- 
sons were  obliged  to  purify  them- 
Eelves,  and  abstain  from  the  use 
of  hot  baths — a  few  paces  from 
this,  is  the  spot  where  the  river 
Hercynia  bursts  forth.  It  rises, 
according  to  Pausanias,  within  the 
cavern.  It  is  from  this  clear,  that 
".he  cavern  and  adytum  were  two 
distinct  things  • — the  first  was  a 
xnall  aperture  within  the  other, 


and  the  appellation  was  applied  to 
the  whole  of  the  chasm,  or  range 
of  precipitous  rocks,  around  the 
place  which  contained  not  only 
the  sacred  aperture  but  all  the 
source  of  the  Hercynia,  and  per- 
haps the  grove  of  Trophonius, 
with  all  its  temples,  statues,  and 
other  votive  offerings.  —  Pau- 
sanias describes  the  stoma,  or 
mouth  of  the  adytum,  as  it  now 
appears,  to  have  been  a  small 
opening  like  unto  an  oven,  and  i* 
was  near  the  terrace  and  floor ; 
for  the  votary  lying  down  was 
thrust  into  it,  with  his  feet  fore- 
most, the  rest  of  his  body  being 
rapidly  hauled  in  afterwards  by 
some  person  or  persons  within 
the  adytum. 

The  most  sacred  part  of  the 
Hieron,  containing  the  narrow 
entrance  to  the  adytum,  and  tin 
receptacles  for  the  offerings,  is  a 
perpendicular  rock  of  black  mar- 
ble. It  faces  the  east.  The  niches 
are  above  the  stoma,  or  entrance 
to  the  adytum,  and  are  12  ir 
number — the  most  capacious  U 
an  entire  chamber  excavated  fron 
the  stone,  of  12  feet  8  inches 
long,  11  feet  3  inches  wide,  and 
8  feet  9  inches  high  ;  this  con- 
tains a  stone  bench  8  feet  9  inchc 
long,  14  inches  wide,  and  IS 
inches  high  ;  immediately  below 
the  chamber,  which  is  elevated 
5  feet  10  inches  above  the  ground 
is  the  stoma  or  sacred  aperture  ol 
the  adytum.  It  is  small  and  low 
and  shaped  like  an  oven,  and  it  is  * 
in  fact  barely  capacious  enough  tc 
admit  the  passage  of  man's 
body ;  the  adytum  itself  could 
not  be  explored  from  the  passage 
being  choked  with  rubbish,  w  hich 
the  traveller  who  discovered  i' 
had  no  means  of  removing.  The 
small  area  in  front  of  the  sacred 
aperture  was  surrounded  by  a  wal 
of  white  stone  not  more  than  twe 
cubits  high,  this  being  all  tlu 


ADYTUM. 


elevation  necessary  to  conceal  it 
from  sight. 

In  the  Parthenon,  a  peplus,  or 
curtain,  was  upon  ordinary  occa- 
sions interposed  between  the  sta- 
tue of  the  goddess  and  the  wor- 
shippers j  "  this  served  to  defend 
the  statue  from  dust  and  mois- 
ture, which  entered  through  the 
hypaethrum  ;  at  the  same  time 
that  it  added  to  the  sanctity  of 
the  goddess  by  preventing  her 
from  being  seen  upon  every  oc- 
casional opening  of  the  door. 
The  enclosed  space  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  adytum,  and  the 
hypaethral  part  of  the  chamber 
the  sanctum.  This  curtain  was 
embroidered  with  the  battles  of 
the  gods  and  giants,  the  warlike 
actions  of  Minerva,  chariot-races, 
and  portraits  of  illustrious  Athe- 
nians. In  the  temple  at  Ephesus 
an  ascending  curtain  was  used, 
but  it  is  probable  that  in  the  Par- 
thenon of  the  Acropolis,  as  well 
as  in  the  temple  at  Olympia,  the 
curtain  was  a  descending  one." 

On  making  an  excavation  in 
the  ancient  city  of  Pompeii,  a 
temple  of  Isis  was  discovered. 
The  outward  appearance  of  this 
building  was  simplicity  itself,  its 
architecture  slight,  and  without 
any  pretensions  to  the  grandeur  or 
solidity  of  those  places  of  worship 
which  were  dedicated  to  the 
great  national  deities.  The  vo- 
taries of  the  Sabine  Isis,  as  she 
is  named  in  an  inscription  still 
fixed  in  the  wall,  were  ambitious 
only  of  erecting  a  small,  neat 
sanctuary,  not  a  grand  fabric,  as 
perhaps  the  earthquake,  which 
did  incredible  damage  in  Cam- 
pania in  the  reign  of  Nero,  had 
affected  their  fortunes  too  sen- 
sibly to  allow  of  a  more  extensive 
undertaking.  The  walls  are  co- 
vered with  ornaments  in  stucco 
executed  in  a  coarse  manner  :  the 
penetrate,  or  adytum  of  the  tem- 


ple, is  a  small  pavilion  raised 
upon  steps,  under  which  is  a 
vault,  that  may  have  served  for 
the  purposes  of  oracular  impo- 
sition. The  statue  of  the  goddess 
had  disappeared  before  the  area 
was  uncovered. 

The  secos  of  Egyptian  temples, 
described  by  Strabo,  appears  to 
have  corresponded  with  the  adu- 
ton  of  the  Greek  shrines.  In 
the  secos  no  representation  of 
the  human  figure  was  permitted 
to  be  sculptured,  but  the  walls 
were  covered  with  symbolical  re- 
presentations of  the  figures  of 
animals.  This  further  appears 
from  a  passage  in  Lucian,  where 
an  observation  is  illustrated  by  a 
reference  to  "  Egyptian  temples, 
which  are  so  beautiful  on  the  out- 
side, but  within  only  contain  re- 
presentations of  monsters." 

The  adytum,  or  holy  of 
holies,  or  sanctum  sanctorum, 
of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem, 
formed  the  smaller  portion  of  the 
tabernacle.  Its  length,  breadth, 
and  height,  were  each  ten  cubits, 
and  it  was  divided  from  the  sanc- 
tum or  holy,  by  a  veil  or  cur- 
tain of  very  rich  cloth,  which 
was  hung  from  four  pillars  of 
shittim-wood  that  were  covered 
with  plates  of  gold.  In  this  re- 
ceptacle was  placed  the  ark  of  the 
covenant.  The  adytum  and 
sanctum  together  formed  the 
tabernacle,  an  oblong  square  30 
cubits  long  by  10  broad  and  10 
high.  The  adytum  had  no  win- 
dow, the  tabernacle  was  lighted 
from  the  spaces  between  the 
columns  at  one  end.  Its  three 
sides  and  roof  were  enclosed  by 
planks  of  shittim-wood,  overlaid 
or  ornamented  with  plates  of 
gold, — over  these  were  thrown 
curtains — the  first  on  the  inside 
of  a  hyacinth  colour,  with  stripes 
of  purple  and  crimson  ;  over  this 
curtain  was  a  curtain  of  goats 


M  D  I 


JR  G  E 


Lair,  to  prevent  the  splendid  co- 
vering beneath  from  being  injured 
by  the  soaking  of  rain.  The 
whole  erection  of  adytum  and 
sanctum  was  so  contrived  as  to 
be  easily  taken  to  pieces,  and  re- 
erected. 

The  excavations  at  Elora  and 
Elephanta  are  also  conjectured 
to  shew  traces  of  an  adytum  j 
and  the  temples  of  almost  every 
Asiatic  divinity  are  furnished  with 
this  distinction. 

t^des.  In  ancient  Roman  ar- 
chitecture. Is  distinguished  from 
temple,  as  being  dedicated  to 
the  worship  of  some  divinity, 
without  a  special  consecration  by 
Jhe  augurs.  They  have  been 
compared  to  chapels.  In  gene- 
ral they  differed  nothing  from 
temples  except  in  their  size  and 
less  expense  of  their  decorations; 
and  an  inscription,  placed  at 
the  entrance,  which  announced 
that  they  had  not  been  formally 
consecrated.  A  great  number 
of  these  buildings  were  spread 
over  the  different  quarters  of 
Rome. 

The  distinction  between  sedes 
and  temple  was  observed  among 
the  earlier  Romans,  but  it  was 
latterly  lost,  and  it  is  now  difficult 
to  assign  a  building  as  belong- 
ing either  to  the  first  or  second 
classes. 

iEmcuLA.  Sometimes  ex- 
presses a  low  and  small  house ; 
at  other  times,  a  building  dedi- 
cated to  some  deity,  considered 
as  a  diminutive  of  the  building 
called  aides ;  a  niche,  or  taber- 
nacle, or  adytum  formed  in  the 
wall  to  enclose  a  small  statue  of 
the  Lares  and  Penates  ;  also  a  vo- 
tive offering  representing  temples, 
and  suspended  in  temples,  and, 
above  all,  in  that  of  Diana,  at 
Ephesus. 

Nothing  gives  a  better  idea  of 
Kdioula,  considered  as  a  dimi- 

V2 


nutive  temple,  than  the  small  cir- 
cular edifice  by  Bramante  in  the 
court  of  the  convent  of  St.  Peter, 
in  Montorio,  or  the  small  monu- 
ment standing  in  the  enclosure 
of  the  temple  at  Pompeii,  to- 
wards the  angle  on  the  right  hand 
on  entering.  Of  the  same  sort 
were  the  eediculae  of  Jupiter, 
Juno,  and  Minerva,  in  the  capitol 
erected  by  Tarquin,  and  standing 
within  the  peribolus  of  the  greater 
temple  or  in  one  of  its  surround- 
ing courts. 

Many  of  the  buildings  pointed 
out  by  antiquaries  as  examples 
of  aediculae  appear  to  be  tombs, 
of  an  unknown  character  ;  such 
as  the  pretended  adicula  ridiculi, 
erected  by  the  Romans,  in  deri- 
sion of  Hannibal's  being  pre- 
vented by  the  cold  weather  from 
advancing  upon  Rome  after  the 
battle  of  Cannae,  which  is  nothing 
more  than  a  tomb  of  the  lower 
ages,  indicated  by  its  interior  ar- 
rangement, and  the  small  niches 
destined  for  the  reception  of  se- 
pulchral urns. 

j^diculus.  Among  ancient 
builders,  the  god  who  was  sup- 
posed to  preside  over  the  erection 
of  buildings,  and  who  was  espe- 
cially diligent  in  watching  over 
their  preservation. 

iEc.ESTA.  Ancient  history,  says 
Wilkins  in  his  splendid  u  Antiqui- 
ties of  Magna  GraBcia,"  refers  the 
origin  of  the  city  of  iEgesta  to  a 
period  near  that  of  the  Trojan 
war.  Elymus  and  iEgestus,  who 
abandoned  Troy,  when  taken  by 
the  Greeks,  planted  a  colony  in 
Sicily,  which  was  visited  by 
^Eneas,  and  joined  by  the  Trojans, 
who  accompanied  him.  This 
colony  was  named  after  its  foun- 
der, Elymus,  and  the  city  received 
its  name  from  iEgestus. 

yEgesta  remained  under  the 
dominion  of  Carthage  until  the 
time  of  Agathocles,  who  plun- 


M  G  E  S  T  A. 


dered  it,  and  changed  its  name 
to  Dieeapolis.  After  his  retreat 
to  Gela  it  reverted  to  the  Cartha- 
ginians. Pyrrhus  afterwards  made 
himself  master  of  it ;  but  when  he 
fled  from  Sicily  it  again  fell  into 
their  power.  Surviving  many  vi- 
cissitudes of  fortune,  it  retained  its 
importance  until  theSaracenic  con- 
quest, which  involving  all  Sicily 
in  desolation  and  ruin,  extended 
its  fatal  consequences  toiEgesta; 
it  was  then  entirely  destroyed. 

A  doric  temple  standing  upon 
the  brow  of  a  craggy  precipice, 
to  the  east  of  the  ancient  bound- 
ary of  the  city,  has  survived 
the  overthrow  of  the  city.  Any 
opinion  as  to  the  period  when  this 
magnificent  monument  of  the 
taste  and  piety  of  the  iEgestans 
was  erected  must  rest  upon  con- 
jecture, unless  it  be  allowed  to  be 
the  temple  mentioned  by  Diony- 
sius  Halicarnas^us  as  that  which 
was  built  by  the  Trojans,  who  re- 
mained in  Sicily  after  the  depar- 
ture of  iEneas.  If  solidity  of 
construction,  and  simplicity  of 
style  and  design,  be  considered  as 
marks  of  antiquity,  this  temple 
may  be  considered  as  of  the  ear- 
liest age.  It  has  six  columns  in 
front,  and  fourteen  in  the  sides, 
including  those  at  the  angles. 
These  columns  are  unlike  every 
other  specimen  of  Greek  archi- 
tecture in  the  island,  inasmuch  as 
they  have  no  flutings,  and  it  does 
not  appear  that  there  ever  was  an 
intention  of  supplying  these  or- 
naments. The  diameter  of  the 
columns  at  the  b;ise  is  about 
6  feet  7  inches,  and  below  the 
capital  about  4  feet  1 1  inches. 
A  groove  is  formed  at  the  bottom 
of  every  shaft,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  made  for  the  recep- 
tion of  bronze  bases.  The  plat- 
form, or  stylobate,  on  which  the 
temple  stands,  is  formed  of  three 
steps  5  the  upper  step  is  sculp- 


tured in  a  somewhat  singular 
manner ;  each  stone  having  a 
projecting  knob,  similar  to  those 
on  one  of  the  walls  of  the  Pro- 
pylaea  at  Athens.  Mr.  Wjlkins 
remarks,  that  it  might  appear 
that  they  were  left  for  the  purpose 
of  assisting  the  raising  of  the 
stones,  were  it  not  that  they  ob- 
serve a  certain  order  of  disposi- 
tion which  would  indicate  that 
something  more  than  mere  con- 
venience was  consulted  in  form- 
ing and  leaving  them.  Some  of 
the  stones  forming  the  upper 
step  having  disappeared  from  the 
intervals  between  the  columns, 
gives  them  the  appearance  of 
standing  on  square  plinths.  All 
the  columns  remain,  and  are 
nearly  entire  ;  the  entablature  has 
suffered  but  little,  and,  excepting 
some  portions  of  the  cornice,  the 
pediment  is  almost  perfect. 

All  traces  of  the  walls  of  the 
cella  have  vanished,  and  the  floors 
of  the  cella,  and  also  those  of  the 
peristyles,  have  been  taken  up  so 
completely,  as  to  expose  the  bare 
rock  on  which  the  temple  is 
founded. 

Fig.  I.,  on  the  plates  marked 
JEgesta,  is  apian  of  the  temple. 

Fig.  II.,  a  geometrical  elevation 
of  the  front  of  the  temple. 

Fig.  III.,  an  elevation  of  its 
peristyle. 

Fig.  IV.,  the  capitals  and  en- 
tablature to  a  larger  scale. 

From  the  similarity  of  the  pro- 
portions of  this  temple  to  those 
of  the  temple  of  Solomon,  it  is 
conjectured,  that  the  same  prin- 
ciples of  construction  were  follow- 
ed in  both:  and,  when  we  in- 
vestigate at  what  period,  and 
under  what  circumstances  they 
were  built,  we  will  find  a  relation 
subsisting  between  them  which  is 
too  particular  and  exact  to  have 
been  the  effect  of  chance.  ./Ecus, 
the  supposed  founder,  lived  twen- 

93 


M  GIN  A 


ty-seven  years  after  the  founding 
of  Solomon's  temple. 

^Egina.  The  gulf  included 
within  the  two  promontories, 
Sunium  and  Scyllaeum,  contains 
several  islands,  of  which  that 
called  jEgina  is  more  remark- 
able, as  containing  some  remains 
of  Greek  architecture  in  its  best 
ages.  The  doric  temple,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  dedicated  to 
Venus,  is  one  of  the  most  chaste 
and  pleasing  examples  of  this 
order,  neither  partaking  of  the 
low  and  heavy  proportions  of  the 
temple  of  Corinth,  nor  of  the  tall 
and  slender  form  of  that  of  Jupi- 
ter at  Nemea. 

In  the  time  of  Chandler,  the 
two  columns,  which  alone  re- 
mained of  this  edifice,  were  en- 
tire, and  then  supported  an  archi- 
trave. The  upper  half  of  one  of 
the  columns  has  fallen,  and  the 
architrave  has  disappeared.  The 
stone  of  which  they  were  com- 
posed, is  of  a  soft  calcareous 
nature,  and  the  total  destruction 
of  the  temple  may  be  as  much 
owing  to  this  cause  as  to  that  of 
the  concussions  of  earthquakes. 

The  temple  of  Jupiter,  Pan- 
hellenius,  after  that  of  Corinth,  is 
probably  the  most  ancient  temple 
in  Greece.  Mount  Panhellenion, 
upon  which  the  temple  stands, 
commands  a  prospect  of  a  large 
part  of  the  island  :  the  temple  is 
placed  upon  a  platform,  that  was, 
in  ancient  times,  supported  or 
formed  by  terrace  walls,  of  regu- 
lar construction,  resting  upon 
others,  which  are  composed  of 
polygon  stones,  and  more  ancient 
in  appearance  than  the  super- 
structure. Its  situation  is  now  far 
from  any  habitation,  and  sur- 
rounded with  shrubs  and  small 
pine  trees.  No  ruin  in  Greece 
is  more  picturesque,  and  the  ap- 
proach to  it  is  exquisitely  at- 
tractive. 

94 


The  temple  originally  consisted 
of  36  columns,  exclusive  of  those 
within  the  cella,  having  6  at  each 
end,  and  12  at  each  side  j  being 
a  deviation  from  the  usual  rule 
of  doric  temples,  which  general- 
ly have,  at  each  flank,  one  more 
than  double  the  number  in  front : 
within  the  cella  were  ten  smaller 
columns,  5  on  each  side,  which 
supported  the  roof ;  the  lower 
parts  of  these  are  still  in  their 
original  position  ;  25  columns  are 
still  entire.  The  greater  part  of 
the  architrave  is  preserved,  but 
the  cornice,  metops,and  triglyphs 
have  fallen.  Many  of  the  columns 
have  been  injured,  by  boring  for 
metal  to  their  very  centre. 

The  stone  of  which  the  temple 
is  composed,  is  soft  and  porous, 
and  was  easily  worked  j  it  was 
coated  with  a  thin  stucco,  which 
must  have  given  it  the  appear- 
ance of  marble.  The  architrave 
was  painted,  and  the  cornice 
elegantly  ornamented  in  the 
same  manner.  Most  of  the  co- 
lumns are  in  several  layers  of 
stones  ;  some  of  them,  however, 
are  single  blocks,  like  those  of  the 
Temple  of  Venus,  and  of  the 
temple  at  Corinth.  In  Greece, 
when  the  columns  are  of  mar- 
ble, it  is  rare  that  they  are  of  one 
piece :  except  the  ionic  pillars 
near  the  monument  of  Lysikrates, 
and  the  two  tnpodal  columns 
above  the  monument  of  Thra- 
syllos,  and  the  single  column  of 
cipolino,  at  Athens.  In  Italian 
temples  the  columns  are  fre- 
quently in  one  piece,  whether  of 
marble  or  other  stone. 

When  the  large  blocks  of  stone 
were  removed,  which  covered  the 
inside  of  the  temple,  the  pave- 
ment of  the  cella  was  found  to 
have  been  covered  with  a  fine 
stucco,  painted  of  a  vermilion 
colour,  and  about  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  in  thickness. 


iE  G  I  N  A. 


The  architecture  of  this  temple 
approaches  nearly  to  tnat  of  the 
hexastyie  hypeethral  temple  at 
Paestum  :  no  remains  have  been 
found  of  the  covering:  of  the  pro- 
naos,  or  of  the  interior  porticoes. 
The  roof  was  probably  worked 
in  marble,  cut  in  the  form  of 
tiles,  as  had  been  first  practised 
in  the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olym- 
pki ;  an  invention  attributed  to 
Byzes,  of  Naxos,  about  580  years 
before  Christ.  The  Tower  of 
the  Winds  and  the  choragie 
monument  of  Lysikrates  at 
Athens, exhibit  some  specimens  of 
this  style,  which  appears  to  have 
been  followed  by  the  Greek 
colonies  in  Italy,  but  not  to  have 
been  practised  or  understood  by 
the  Romans,  who  used  the  Etrus- 
can form  of  construction  ;  orna- 
menting their  brick  buildings 
with  industations  of  stucco, 
painting,  and  basso-relievos, 
moulded  -in  Terra  Cotta. 

The  celebrated  collection  of 
yEgina  marbles,  formed  part  of 
the  decoration  of  this  temple. 
They  were  brought  to  light  by 
Mr.  R.  Cockerell,  and  the  dis- 
covery in  its  importance  has  not 
been  surpassed  by  any  in  modern 
times. 

The  figures  are  conjectured  to 
represent  the  heroes  of  the  Iliad, 
contending  with  the  Trojans  for 
the  body  of  Patroclus.  The  bodies 
of  some  are  naked,  while  others 
are  represented  as  clothed  with 
armour,  or  leather  :  and  their  at- 
titudes are  judiciously  adapted 
to  the  form  of  the  tympanum, 
and  to  the  places  which  they  oc- 
cupied. In  the  opinion  of  anti- 
quaries, they  were  sculptured 
before  the  era  of  the  introduction 
of  the  beau  ideal  in  Greek  sculp- 
ture : —  the  muscles  and  veins, 
anatomically  correct,  exhibit  the 
flexible  softness  of  life,  and  every 
imitation    of  movement    is  in 


scientific  harmony  with  nature. 
"  The  limbs  are  strong,  though 
not  herculean  ;  elegant,  without 
effeminacy :  no  preposterous 
muscular  protuberance,  no  un- 
natural feminine  delicacy  offends 
the  eye — they  are  noble  without 
being  harsh,  or  rigid,  and  com- 
posed with  doric  severity,  min- 
gled with  the  airy  grace  of  youth- 
ful forms.  The  perfection  of  the 
finish  is  quite  wonderful ;  every 
part  is  in  a  style  worthy  of  the 
most  beautiful  cameo." 

The  extremities  of  the  hands 
and  feet  merit  particular  praise. 
In  general,  the  ancients  thought 
that  elegant  fingers  and  nails 
were  essential  ingredients  of  the 
beautiful.  The  high  finish  of  the 
hair  is,  also,  another  peculiarity  j 
some  of  the  curls,  which  hang 
down  in  short  ringlets,  are  of 
lead,  and  still  remain  :  the  hel- 
mets were  ornamented  with 
metal  accessories,  and  the  wea- 
pons were  probably  of  bronze  : 
but  these  have  not  been  found. 
All  the  figures  have  been  painted 
— the  colour  is  still  visible, 
though  nearly  effaced — on  the 
segis  of  Minerva  it  is  still  very 
distinguishable.  The  ground  of 
the  tympanum  was  painted  blue, 
probably  to  indicate  that  the 
action  took  place  in  the  open  air. 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary 
circumstances  connected  with 
these  tympanum  ornaments,  is 
the  sameness  of  countenance, 
and  want  of  expression  in  the 
faces — an  unmeaning  and  inani- 
mate smile  prevails  in  all  the 
faces — even  one  of  the  heroes, 
who  is  mortally  wounded,  and 
supporting  himself  in  a  most 
beautiful  attitude,  is  smiling  at 
death  :  the  conquerors,  and  the 
conquered — the  dying,  and  the 
dead,  have  all  one  expression — 
or,  rather,  none  at  all.  This 
identity  is  conjectured  to  have 

95 


M  G  IS 


jELU 


Deen  designed  on  account  of  some 
religious  prejudice  —  perhaps 
some  archaic,  and  much  venera- 
ted, statue  served  as  a  model, 
from  which  it  might  have  been 
thought  irreverent,  or  inconsist- 
ent to  deviate — for  it  can  hardly 
be  supposed  that  artists,  capable 
of  giving  the  greatest  animation 
and  character  to  the  limbs,  either 
wanted  the  observation,  to  trace 
the  movements  of  the  counten- 
ance, or  the  power  of  fixing  them 
in  marble. 

Candelabra,  made  at  iEgina, 
were  valued,  among  the  an- 
cients, as  highly  as  those,  made  at 
Tarentum.  Those  of  Tarentum 
were  esteemed  for  their  fine 
forms,  of  iEgina,  for  their  finished 
workmanship.  Candelabra,  com- 
bining these  excellencies,  were 
of  the  most  expensive  kind,  and 
it  is  mentioned  by  Pliny,  to  the 
reproach  of  Gegania,  a  rich  Ro- 
man lady,  that  she  had  given 
50,000  sesterces  for  a  candela- 
brum, which  was  the  joint  pro- 
duction of  both  those  celebrated 
manufactories 

The  ceramic  vases  of  the  is- 
land, were  in  equal  estimation, 
and  have  a  lustre  and  polish  equal 
to  those  of  Nola.  Vases  of  va- 
rious colours  are  often  found 
here,  and  are  interesting,  from 
their  fine  forms,  and  great  bril- 
liancy. 

^Egis.  In  decoration.  A  breast- 
plate, or  shield.  The  aegis  of 
Jupiter  and  Minerva,  are  those 
most  usually  seen  on  ancient 
sculptures.  That  of  Minerva  is 
thus  described  by  Homer  :  "  Mi- 
nerva, the  daughter  of  Jupiter 
iEgiochus,  sheathes  herself  in 
armour.  Her  shoulders  she  co- 
vers with  the  aegis,  the  tremen- 
dous aegis,  encompassed  round 
with  terror,  discord,  force,  as- 
sault. In  the  middle  was  the 
gorgon.'s  head,  the  dire  potent 

96 


of  Jupiter,  the  awful  aegis  oearer.** 
The  ornament  distinguishes  kings 
and  military  chiefs  ;  and  the  em- 
perors of  Rome  are  sometimes 
sculptured  as  wearing  the  gor- 
gon's  head  on  the  breast  of  their 
armour.    See  Shield. 

^Egricanes.  Sculptured  re- 
presentations of  the  heads  and 
skulls  of  rams,  which  are  used  as 
a  decoration  on  altars,  friezes, 
&c.  imitated  from  the  custom  of 
suspending  that  part  of  the  ani- 
mals sacrificed  in  front  of  the 
altar ;  or  from  the  friezes  of 
temples. 

iEGYci.  Pointed  stones,  or 
obelisks  consecrated  to  Apollo, 
and  placed  in  the  vestibules,  and 
outside  of  houses,  for  their  se- 
curity. 

iEgyci  were  sometimes  nothing 
more  than  large  stones,  having  a 
square,  or  circular  basis,  ter- 
minating in  a  point.  Sometimes 
the  head  of  Apollo,  or  Mercury, 
was  carved  upon  them  ;  or  a  head 
of  Bacchus,  as  protector  of  the 
highways  :  according  to  some 
authors,  they  served  the  same 
purpose  as  our  direction-posts. 

^Egyptian  Architecture.  See 
Egyptian. 

./Egyptilia.  In  decoration.  A 
species  of  Egyptian  ornaments, 
having  a  light  blue  figure  or 
device  on  a  dark  or  black 
ground. 

./Elamoth.  (Heb.)  A  vestibule. 

tElia  Capitolina.  A  name 
given  by  the  emperor  Adrian  to 
the  new  city  which  he  caused  to 
be  built  near  the  spot  where  the 
ancient  Jerusalem  stood.  Here 
he  settled  a  colony,  and  con- 
secrated a  temple  to  Jupiter  Ca- 
pitolinus. 

./Elurus.  In  Egyptian  orna- 
ment. The  god  cat  j  represented 
sometimes  in  propria  personal, 
and  sometimes  as  a  man  with  a 
cat's  head. 


iE  T  R 


JEmilius  Pons.  One  of  the 
bridges  of  ancient  Rome  j  called 
also  Sublicius,  because  it  was 
built  on  piles. 

JEne,e.  In  ancient  naval  archi- 
tecture. A  ship  armed  for  war- 
like purposes,  with  a  brazen 
prow. 

yEneatores.  In  decoration.  Mi- 
litary musicians,  seen  on  many 
ancient  monuments,  particularly 
on  the  Trajan  and  Antonine  co- 
lumns j  they  are  further  distin- 
guished by  the  particular  name 
of  the  instruments  they  are  repre- 
sented playing  upon. 

iEoLiPiLE.  A  hollow  metal 
ball,  with  a  small  hole  perforated 
in  it,  or  having  a  slender  pipe 
rising  from  it.  This  vessel,  filled 
with  water,  and  placed  on  the  fire, 
produces  a  vehement  blast  of  air. 

The  asolipile  was  applied  to  a 
sort  of  bellows,  to  blow  the  fire, 
where  a  very  intense  heat  was 
required  ;  and  which  it  accom- 
plishes, not  by  expelling  the 
water  it  contains  in  the  form  of 
steam  into  the  fire,  but  carrying 
the  air  between  its  orifice  and  the 
fire  into  contact  with  the  fuel. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  fumi- 
gate, or  scent  rooms,  by  filling  it 
with  perfumed,  instead  of  common 
water. 

It  has  been  applied  as  a  curer 
of  smoky  chimnies  :  by  being 
hung  over  the  fire,  its  vapour 
causes  a  rapid  current  of  air  to  be 
determined  up  the  chimney. 

Dr.  Plott  gives  an  instance 
where  an  seolipile  is  actually 
made  to  blow  the  fire.  The  lord 
of  the  manor  of  Effington,  is 
bound  by  his  tenure  to  drive  a 
goose,  every  new-year's  day, 
three  times  round  the  hall  of  the 
lord  of  Hilton,  while  Jack  of 
Hilton  (a  brazen  image)  blows 
the  fire. 

An  antique  aeolipile  is  described 
in  the  Archajologia,  vol.  xiii.,  p. 
N 


410 :  it  is  made  of  bronze,  in  a 
very  rude  style  of  workmanship, 
and  its  form  is  a  grotesque  imita- 
tion of  a  human  figure.  It  has  a 
hole  at  the  back  of  the  neck,  to 
admit  the  water,  and  a  small  hole 
in  the  mouth,  to  occasion  the 
blast.  For  some  other  uses  of 
the  aeolipile,  see  Stuart's  Descrip- 
tive History  of  the  Steam  Engine. 

^quum.  An  ancient  city  near 
Seign,  in  Morlachia.  Pieces  of 
cornices,  pillars,  and  other  frag- 
mants  of  antique  architecture,  are 
occasionally  found  on  its  site. 

./Erarium.  (From  ces,  ceris,  Lat. 
copper,  that  being  originally  the 
only  metal  used  in  Roman  mo- 
ney.) The  public  treasury  of  the 
Roman  state.  The  Temple  of 
Saturn  was  the  great  cerarium. 

When,  on  account  of  the  in- 
crease of  the  Roman  empire,  the 
part  of  the  temple  appropriated 
to  this  purpose  was  not  sufficient 
to  lodge  all  the  money  and  ar- 
chives of  the  state,  an  appendage 
was  built  to  it,  called  aerarium 
sanctius,  because  formed  in  an 
inner  part  of  the  enclosure,  and 
in  which  was  lodged  the  "  twen- 
tieth," kept  as  a  fund  or  reserve 
for  the  extreme  necessity  of  the 
government. 

tEsymnium.  A  building  erect- 
ed by  zEsymnus,  the  Megarean, 
upon  occasion  of  consulting  the 
Delphian  oracle  how  the  country 
might  prosper,  and  enjoy  the  most 
prosperous  government.  He  re- 
ceived for  answer,  that  it  would 
be  most  likely  to  be  great,  if  it 
followed  the  counsel  of  the  most 
numerous,  and,  conjecturing  that 
the  oracle  referred  to  the  dead, 
he  built  this  monument,  and 
encompassed  it  with  a  council- 
house  ;  and  thus  he  hoped  to 
obtain  for  his  countrymen  wise 
and  prudent  counsel. 

^Etherius.  An  architect,  who 
lived  at  the  commencement  of 

97 


AFF 


AFF 


the  sixth  century,  under  the  reign 
of  Anastasius,  emperor  of  the  east. 
He  was  admitted  to  the  confi- 
dence of  that  prince,  and  held  a 
principal  station  in  his  court.  He 
designed  a  great  many  palaces  for 
the  Greek  nobles  at  Constanti- 
nople ;  and,  among  other  struc- 
tures, he  erected  an  edifice  named 
Chalcis,  within  the  enclosure  of 
the  imperial  palace.  It  is  con- 
jectured that  the  great  wall  be- 
tween the  sea  to  Selimbrya,  to 
hinder  the  inroads  of  the  Scythi- 
ans and  Bulgarians,  was  erected 
under  his  direction. 

JEtoma.  (Gr.)  A  pediment  j 
the  tympanum  of  the  pediment. 
It  was  at  first  given  to  the  ridge 
or  apex  of  the  roof,  and  transfer- 
red to  the  tympanum.  This  part 
was  named  by  the  Greeks  from 
cetos,  an  eagle,  from  a  resem- 
blance in  its  outline  to  an  eagle 
with  its  wings  extended. 

Some  authors  confound  the 
cetoma  with  the  acroteria  of  the 
pediment  ;  the  setiaioi  were  the 
stones  forming  the  facing  of  the 
tympanum ;  probably,  also,  the 
sculptures  which  adorned  it.  See 
Acroterium. 

JEtos.    See  JEtoma. 
Affectation.    In  architectural 
composition.  An  unnatural  or  over- 
strained imitation  or  artifice. 

A  composition  or  a  mansion, 
consisting  of  a  single  mass,  may 
he  contrasted  with  a  variety  of 
lines,  so  as  to  form  a  pleasing 
whole  of  itself ;  but  an  union,  or 
composition  of  several  masses, 
where  every  part  is  so  contrasted, 
produces  an  assemblage  of  artifice 
as  is  in  the  highest  degree  affect- 
ed. "  It  is  the  peculiar  charac- 
teristic of  men  of  genius  to  be 
afraid  of  coldness  and  insipidity, 
and,  in  their  endeavours  to  give 
the  utmost  degree  of  grace,  they 
thus  fall  into  the  most  hateful  of 
all  hateful  qualities,  affectation." 

98 


Poussin,  in  abhorring  this  spe- 
cies of  affectation,  and  that  want 
of  simplicity  which  he  observed 
in  his  countrymen,  has  fallen  into 
the  contrary  extreme  of  an  affect- 
ation of  simplicity. 

When  simplicity  'instead  of. 
being  a  corrector  of  affectation) 
sets  up  for  herself,  that  is,  when 
an  architect  values  himself  on 
this  quality,  such  an  ostentatious 
display  of  simplicity  becomes  as 
disagreeable  as  any  other  kind  of 
affectation.  He  is,  however,  in 
this  case,  likely  enough  to  sit 
down  contented  with  his  own 
work  j  for  though  he  finds  the 
world  to  look  on  his  productions 
with  indifference,  yet  he  consoles 
himself  that  they  have  simplicity, 
a  beauty  of  too  pure  and  chaste  a 
nature  to  be  relished  by  vulgar 
minds.  This  simplicity,  when  so 
very  inartificial  as  to  seem  to 
evade  the  difficulties  of  art,  is  a 
very  suspicious  virtue — an  affect- 
ation. 

The  affectation  of  a  literal 
imitation  of  buildings,  of  any 
style,  often  leads  us  into  the 
greatest  absurdities.  "  One  build- 
er smitten,  forsooth,  with  the 
beauty  of  the  old  Roman  manner, 
raises  himself  a  house,  having  the 
outward  semblance  of  a  temple 
of  some  pagan  god  ;  and  to  ac- 
complish this  whimsy,  he  shows 
a  door,  only,  in  its  best  front;  and 
it  is  well  if  a  pair  of  windows  is  to 
be  seen  in  any  of  the  others;  and 
these,  mayhap,  so  placed,  as  if  he 
were  ashamed  to  show  to  the 
passers  by,  that  he  must  have  the 
sweet  light  of  heaven  to  enliven 
some  pendicle  of  his  dwelling. 
Another,  humbler  withal,  but 
equally  touched  with  the  leprosy 
of  affectation,  aping  his  betters, 
must  needs  garnish  his  thatched 
grange  with  battlements.  A  third 
will  so  beplaster  his  mudwalls 
with  griffins  and  lions,  and  stick 


AG  A 


A  G  A 


crockets  on  pinnacles,  and  pin- 
nacles on  juttings,  that  it  w  ere 
a  hard  matter  to  find  a  space 
ample  enough  to  write  fool  upon, 
in  letters  no  bigger  than  those  of 
the  good  bishop  Latimer's  bible. 
And  a  fourth,  who,  like  the  mole, 
seems  to  live  in  the  world  without 
eyes,  is  contented  to  burrow  in  a 
house,  so  bare  of  becoming  and 
seemly  ornament,  that  when  we 
behold  it,  we  cannot  stay  feeling, 
'  that,  in  truth,  the  afFeetedness 
of  plain  building  is  as  noisome  as 
any  of  the  others.'  " 

Agalma.  (Gr.)  The  ornaments 
upon  a  statue,  or  within  a  tem- 
ple. 

Agamedes  and  Trophonius. 
Two  Greeks,  who  lived  in  the 
year  of  the  world  2600,  are  the 
first  architects  mentioned  in  the 
history  of  their  country.  Some 
authors  feign  that  Trophonius 
was  the  son  of  the  god  Apollo  ; 
but  those  who  have  searched 
further  into  his  history,  say  that 
he  and  Agamedes  were  the  sons 
of  Erginus,  king  of  Thebes.  It 
is  certain,  however,  that  what- 
ever were  their  ties  by  blood, 
that  they  lived  in  very  strict 
friendship,  and  acquired  great 
fame  by  their  joint  productions. 

Among  these  buildings  which 
they  erected  in  different  places, 
two  are  particularly  named.  A 
temple,  consecrated  to  Neptune, 
near  Mantinea,  and  the  famous 
temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delphi.  Ci- 
cero relates  that,  after  they  had 
completed  this  magnificent  build- 
ing, they  prayed  to  Apollo  to 
grant  them,  as  a  reward  for  their 
devotion  and  labour,  some  gift 
which  he  considered  was  the 
most  useful  to  man.  Three  days 
afterwards,  they  were  found 
dead. 

This  does  not,  however,  ac- 
cord with  what  Pausanias  has 
written  on  the  subject.   He  says, 


that  after  finishing  the  temple  of 
Apollo  they  were  employed  to- 
gether on  various  other  buildings, 
and  among  others,  they  construct- 
ed one  at  Libadea,  where  Hiero 
put  his  treasure,  and  this  was  the 
true  cause  of  their  death.  Know- 
ing for  what  purpose  the  place 
was  destined,  they  dexterously 
adjusted  certain  stones  into  the 
wall  in  such  a  manner  that  they 
could  be  easily  withdrawn  and 
inserted  j  and  by  this  means  they 
entered  and  left  the  treasury 
at  their  pleasure.  Hiero,  seeing 
his  treasure  diminish  every  day, 
notwithstanding  the  great  care 
he  had  taken  to  erect  a  secure 
place  in  which  to  deposit  it,  laid 
snares  to  discover  the  robbers. 
Agamedes  and  Trophonius,  not 
suspecting  any  thing,  entered 
the  treasury  as  usual ;  when  Aga- 
medes thrusting  his  hand  into 
one  of  the  chests  containing  the 
money,  he  was  fixed  by  the  snare. 
Trophonius,  despairing  of  being 
able  to  disentangle  his  brother, 
and  to  save  him  from  a  disgrace- 
ful exposure,  and  also  to  extri- 
cate himself  from  the  danger  of 
being  discovered  to  be  an  accom- 
plice, cut  off  his  head.  But  so 
horrid  a  crime,  continues  the 
historian,  did  not  go  unpunish- 
ed j  for  he  had  no  sooner  com- 
mitted it,  than  the  earth  opened 
and  swallowed  the  fratricide 
alive.  Where  he  perished  was 
found  a  deep  cavern,  which,  in 
aftertimes,  was  much  reverenced, 
and  resorted  to  as  the  abode  of 
an  oracle.  Trophonius  not  only 
gave  his  name  to  this  place,  but 
statues,  and  altars,  and  temples 
were  raised  to  his  honour,  and 
sacrifices  were  offered  to  him. 
Set  Adytum. 

Pausanias  relates,  that  in  his 
time  were  seen  at  Thebes,  on  the 
left-hand  of  the  gate  which  is 
called  Electra,  the  ruins  of  a  house 

09 


A  G  A 


AGA 


which  they  say  was  inhabited  by 
Amphytrion,  when  he  fled  from 
Argos,  on  account  of  the  death  of 
Electryon.  The  bed-chamber 
of  Alcmene  in  his  time  was  to 
be  seen  among  these  ruins ; 
which  was  said  to  be  built 
for  Amphytnon  by  Trophonius 
and  Agamedes,  and  that  the 
following  inscription  was  once 
inscribed  upon  it  :  "Amphytrion, 
when  he  designed  to  marry  Alc- 
mene, chose  this  for  his  bed- 
chamber, which  was  made  by 
Ancasius,  Trophonius,  and  Aga- 
medes." 

Agapenor.  A  Greek  archi- 
tect, who  built  the  famous 
Temple  of  Venus,  at  Paphos.  No 
vestiges  of  this  building  are  in 
existence  ;  but  representations  of 
it  are  to  be  found  on  some  ancient 
medals.  On  one  of  these  pieces 
s  seen  a  small  space,  enclosed  by 
a  semicircle,  which  probably  re- 
presents the  area  mentioned  by 
Pliny,  on  which  no  rain  ever  fell. 

Agapitus.  A  Greek  architect. 
Pausanias  mentions  his  having 
seen  a  portico  built  by  this  artist 
among  the  Eliens,  and  which 
bore  his  name  :  this  is  all  that  is 
known  of  him. 

Agate.  A  precious  stone  much 
used  in  decoration,  for  enriching 
cabinets  and  altars.  The  inlaid 
works  in  agate  made  in  Florence 
are  celebrated  throughoutEurope. 

In  a.  d.  1500,  when  the  arts  of 
Italy  may  be  considered  to  have 
been  at  their  highest  point  of 
excellence,  several  artists  had 
settled  at  Florence,  skilled  in 
fashioning  agate  and  rock  crys- 
tal into  cups,  vases,  and  other 
ornaments,  many  of  which  still 
adorn  the  rooms  and  galleries  of 
the  Florentine  nobles,  and  which 
are  now  highly  valued  through- 
out Europe.  These  artists  laid 
the  foundation  of  another  method 
of  employing  agate  in  decoration, 
100 


which  is  still  practised  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  at  Florence. 

Agate-inlaid-work  is  made 
at  a  manufactory  carried  on  at 
the  expense  of  the  grand  duke. 

Agate,  and  other  hard  stones, 
are  cut  into  various  figures,  so' as 
to  form,  when  put  together,  a  flat 
surface  forming  a  representation 
of  shells,  flowers,  foliage,  and 
other  objects.  This  sort  of  pic- 
ture differs  essentially,  and  in 
many  respects,  from  mosaic  :  the 
pieces  of  agate  have  a  considerable 
surface,  and  are  cut  into  the  form 
of  the  outline  of  the  object,  and 
the  colour  of  each  piece  is  not 
uniform  over  its  whole  surface. 
Whereas  in  mosaic  the  pieces  of 
enamel  of  which  it  is  composed 
are  small,  and  all  nearly  of  one 
size  and  form,  and  generally 
square  on  the  surface  ;  and  each 
piece  is  of  one  colour,  but  so 
placed  as  to  represent  the  most 
minute  variations  of  shade  ana 
tint  of  high-finished  pictures. — 
Agate-work  is  better  adapted  for 
simple  designs,  composed  of  out- 
line and  a  few  colours,  without 
a  gradual  blending  of  tints  or 
shades  into  each  other. 

The  stones  chiefly  employed  in 
agate-work  are,  agates  of  a  light 
colour,  for  the  enlightened  parts, 
and  darker-coloured  agates  for 
the  shadows.  Sometimes  the 
same  piece  of  agate  has  a  light 
and  dark  colour  on  different  parts 
of  its  surface,  and  is  used  to  re- 
present a  form  partly  in  light  and 
partly  in  shadow.  Other  stones 
employed  are  chalcedony,  and 
jasper  of  different  colours  j  lapis 
lazuli,  and  other  stones,  suitable 
from  their  hardness,  colour,  and 
polish  :  antique  red  porphyry  is 
often  employed  for  the  ground  of 
the  tables,  or  pictures.  Some 
stones  of  inferior  hardness  are 
also  occasionally  used;  such  as 
antique  yellow  marble,  oriental 


AG  A 


AG  G 


alabaster,  besides  other  substan- 
ces, not  of  the  mineral  class,  as 
mother-of-pearl  shell  and  red 
coral. 

Formerly  pictures  of  buildings, 
such  as  views  of  the  Pantheon, 
of  the  tomb  of  Cecilia  Metella, 
of  about  two  feet  in  length,  and 
also  human  figures,  were  made  in 
this  way;  but  it  was  not  at  all 
adapted  for  these  sort  of  sub- 
jects, from  its  being  impossible 
to  obtain  gradation  of  shade, 
and  the  necessary  details  of  out- 
line ;  so  that,  after  much  labour 
and  expense,  the  effect  of  a  pleas- 
ing imitation  is  as  far  from  being 
produced  as  in  the  most  ordinary 
and  cheapest  engraving. 

The  subjects  now  chosen  ad- 
mit of  a  better  imitation  in  inlaid- 
work — shells,  Hovvers,  vases,  and 
grotesque  foliage — they  are  ge- 
nerally disposed  so  as  to  form 
tables,  and  in  this  way  produce  a 
fine  effect.  Tablets  of  from  four 
to  twelve  inches  are  also  manu- 
factured for  ornaments  topannels, 
&c,  and  sometimes  find  their 
way  into  England,  where  they 
have  often  been  pleasingly  in- 
troduced into  the  decoration  of 
chimney-pieces. 

A  round  table  of  this  kind,  or- 
namented with  grotesque  foliage, 
in  one  of  the  rooms  of  the  Floren- 
tine gallery,  has  been  much  ad- 
mired :  other  fine  specimens  are 
in  the  Pitti  palace,  and  others 
were  in  the  gallery  of  the  Louvre 
during  the  reign  of  Bonaparte. 

The.  agates  and  other  stones 
are  slit  by  a  bow,  with  an  iron 
wire  and  emery,  into  slices  about 
an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick ;  the 
iron  wire  effecting  the  same  pur- 
pose us  the  thin  iron  wheel  of  our 
lapidaries.  The  slices  are  then 
polished,  and  afterwards  they  are 
ut  by  the  wire  into  the  form  re- 
quired, for  the  design  of  which 
the  piece  makes  a  part.    The  dif- 


ferent pieces  that  form  the  picture 
are  put  together,  and  cemented 
on  a  slab  of  sand-stone  half  an 
inch  thick,  which  forms  a  tem- 
porary base.  When  all  the  orna- 
ments of  a  table  are  done,  pieces 
of  antique  red  porphyry,  cut  into 
slices  of  the  same  thickness  as 
the  agates,  are  so  adjusted  as  to 
cover  entirely  the  table  or  pannel 
which  it  is  proposed  to  form. 
Out  of  this  ground  of  porphyry 
pieces  are  cut  by  the  wire,  and 
taken  out  exactly  of  the  form  of 
each  picture  or  ornament ;  the 
pieces  are  then  taken  from  their 
temporary  base,  and  the  por- 
phyry ground  being  cemented  on 
a  slab  of  sand-stone,  of  the  size 
of  the  table,  the  pictures  or  orna- 
ments are  cemented  in  the  vacui- 
ties of  the  ground.  The  cement 
used  is  a  composition  of  wax, 
turpentine,  and  resins. 

Agesistratus.  An  ancient  ar- 
chitect and  civil  engineer,  who 
wrote  upon  the  construction  of 
machines. 

Agger.  In  ancient  military 
architecture.  A  military  road, 
the  middle  part  of  a  military 
road,  formed  into  a  ridge,  with  a 
gentle  slope  both  ways,  to  carry 
off  the  water.  The  agger  had 
also  paths  on  each  side  for  foot- 
passengers,  with  stones  to  mount 
horses  placed  at  every  ten  feet, 
the  ancients  not  using  stirrups. 
At  Pompeii,  there  are  numerous 
mounting  stones  remaining. 

Where  highways  were  in  low 
grounds,  or  between  small  hills, 
the  Romans  raised  them  above 
the  adjacent  land,  so  as  almost 
to  bring  them  on  a  level  with 
the  hills;  some  in  Gaul  were 
raised  10,  15,  and  <20  feet  above 
the  ground,  for  lengths  of  15  and 
18  miles  ;  these  were  called  ag- 
geres.  In  the  middle  ages  they 
were  called  aggeres  calceati,  lat- 
terly causeways. 


AG  G 


AGO 


Agger  is  also  used  for  the 
works  thrown  up  for  the  attack 
or  defence  of  towns  or  camps.  In 
this  acceptation,  it  is  the  same  as 
vallum,  and  corresponds  to  lines, 
terrasses,  cavaliers,  &c.  in  mo- 
dern military  architecture. 

The  agger  was  usually  a  bank 
of  earth,  having  turrets  and 
towers  at  certain  intervals ;  and 
it  was  usually  accompanied  with 
a  ditch.  The  earth  of  which  it 
was  composed  was  strengthened 
«md  bound  by  boughs,  fascines, 
stakes,  ropes,  variously  crossed 
and  interwoven.  In  the  absence 
of  these,  stones,  bricks,  tiles, 
and  sometimes  arms,  utensils, 
and  packsaddles,  were  used  to 
fill  it  up,  and  give  it  stability. 

The  besiegers  used  to  carry 
this  work  nearer  and  nearer  to 
the  walls  of  a  place,  until  at 
length  it  even  reached  the  wall. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  besieged 
set  fire  to  the  materials,  if  of 
ivood  ;  and  sapping  and  under- 
mining it,  if  of  earth ;  and  some- 
times by  erecting  a  counter  agger, 
as  was  done  by  the  Gazans  in  the 
defence  of  their  city  against  Alex- 
ander the  Great.  Vast  aggers 
were  constructed  by  the  Romans 
near  towns,  and  in  places  on 
the  sea-coast,  and  fortified  by 
towers  and  castles.  The  aggers 
made  by  Caesar  and  Pompey  at 
Brundusium  were  of  this  descrip- 
tion. In  fact,  aggers  were  one 
of  the  most  usual  and  effective 
defences  in  ancient  military  af- 
fairs. Tarquin's  agger  was  a 
fence  built  by  that  prince  on  the 
east  side  of  Rome,  to  prevent  the 
incursions  of  the  Latins.  Crimi- 
nals were  precipitated  from  this 
rampart. 

Agger.  Earth  dug  out  of  a 
ditch,  and  thrown  up  on  the 
brink  of  it. 

Agger.  A  wall  erected  against 
the  sea,  or  a  river,  to  keep  them 

102 


within  bounds  ;  a  dike,  dam,  sea- 
wall, &c. 

Agger.  A  mound,  or  funeral 
burrow  raised  upon  graves  j  a  tu- 
mulus. 

Agora.  (Gr.)  A  market,  or 
forum  ;  technically,  the  remains 
of  the  entrance  of  an  ancient 
market  at  Athens.  The  building, 
previous  to  Stuart's  time,  was 
considered  to  have  been  a  temple 
dedicated  to  Rome  and  Augustus. 
Stuart  remarked,  that  the  wall  in 
which  the  door  was  placed  ex- 
tended on  each  side  beyond  the 
lateral  walls  of  the  portico,where- 
as  the  usual  plan  of  temples  is,  a 
rectangular  parallelogram,  and 
their  lateral  walls  are  continued 
without  interruption,  from  the 
antae  of  the  posticus,  or  back 
front.  Besides  this,  the  diameter 
of  these  columns  are  in  a  smaller 
proportion  to  their  height,  than 
the  diameter  of  any  that  are  found 
in  the  ancient  temples  of  this 
order  now  extant ;  which  cir- 
cumstance, considering  the  dis- 
tinction that  Vitruvius  makes 
between  the  proportion  of  those 
columns  which  are  employed  in 
temples,  and  of  those  which  are 
placed  in  buildings  of  inferior 
dignity,  adds  a  considerable 
weight  to  this  opinion. 

It  may  likewise  be  remarked, 
that  there  is  an  appearance  of 
impropriety,  in  supposing  that 
an  edict,  relating  to  the  sale  of 
oils,  was  inscribed  on  the  gate  of 
a  temple.  Neither,  indeed,  did 
Wheeler  and  Spon,  when  they 
conceived  this  to  be  a  temple, 
understand  that  the  inscription, 
which  appears  to  be  an  edict  of 
the  emperor  Adrian's,  was  part  of 
the  building,  but  brought  here 
from  some  other  neighbouring 
ruin  ;  whereas  in  fact,  it  is  in  its 
original  situation.  The  edict, 
however,  could  not  have  been 
placed   in  a  more  appropriate 


AGR 


AGR 


situation  than  on  the  jamb  of  the 
door-case  of  an  agora.  There 
were  two  agoras  at  Athens,  the 
one  called  the  Old,  and  the  other 
the  New  ;  the  first  was  within 
the  walls,  and  the  second  (the 
one  under  consideration)  was 
situated  in  the  suburb,  called 
Eretriaj  they  were  ornamented 
with  monuments  of  the  most  ce- 
lebrated actions  of  the  Athenians, 
and  with  statues  of  those  persons 
who  had  deserved  well  of  the  re- 
public. 

The  first  figure  on  plate  marked 
"  Athenian  Agora"  is  a  plan  of 
this  portico;  A,  the  remaining 
jamb  of  the  door-case,  on  which 
is  inscribed  the  law  of  Adrian ;  B, 
the  transverse  wall  in  which  the 
door  is  placed,  continued  on  each 
side,  and  extending  beyond  each 
side  of  the  portico,  contrary  to 
the  manner  observed  in  temples ; 
C,  lateral  walls  of  portico  ;  D,  the 
antae. 

The  second  figure  is  an  eleva- 
tion of  the  doric  portico.  The 
apex-acroterium  probably  sup- 
ported a  statue  of  Lucius  Caesar. 

The  third  figure  is  a  side  ele- 
vation of  the  portico,  A,  being 
one  of  the  antae. 

The  fourth  figure,  the  capital 
and  entablature;  X,  the  sofFet  of 
the  architrave. 

The  fifth  figure,  capital  of  the 
antae,  and  section  of  the  entabla- 
ture, and  section  of  capital  of  the 
antae,  a  section  of  the  cornice  of 
the  pediment,  in  which  the  mu- 
tales  were  omitted. 

Agra.  A  sweet-scented  wood, 
found  in  the  island  of  Hairtau,  on 
the  coast  of  China.  It  is  used 
by  the  Chinese  cabinet-makers 
for  some  kinds  of  ornamental 
furniture. 

Agra  Coramba.  Another  va- 
riety of  sweet-scented  wood  from 
the  same  island,  and  used  for  the 
same  purposes. 


Agrigentum,  now  called  Gir- 
genti,  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
cities  in  ancient  times  for  the 
beauty  and  number  of  its  temples, 
was  originally  founded  by  a  co- 
lony from  Gela,  108  years  after 
the  building  of  that  city.  It  is 
supposed  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  the  river  Acragas, 
which,  rising  in  the  neighbour- 
ing mountains,  flowed  near  the 
spot  on  which  the  city  was  erect- 
ed. A  century  after  the  migra- 
tion from  Gela,  Theron  esta- 
blished himself  as  king  of  Agri- 
gentum,  and  became  independent 
of  Syracuse. 

The  city  was  besieged  by  the 
Carthaginians,  under  Hamilcar, 
who  was  defeated  with  the  loss 
of  the  greater  part  of  his  army  ; 
and  the  Agrigentines  employed 
their  prisoners  in  erecting  those 
trophies  which  remain  to  this  day 
to  perpetuate  their  glory.  Be- 
fore, however,  many  of  these 
buildings  were  completed,  a  se- 
cond attack  of  the  Carthaginians 
laid  their  city  waste ;  the  sanc- 
tuaries and  temples  were  de- 
spoiled of  their  ornaments,  and 
the  citizens  were  put  to  the 
sword.  Under  Timoleon,  who 
collected  the  citizens  who  had 
fled  to  other  Sicilian  cities  for 
refuge,  its  power  again  began 
to  revive,  but  it  eventually  fell 
under  the  dominion  of  the  Car- 
thaginians, who,  in  the  second 
punic  war  made  it  their  principal 
station.  At  that  time  its  im- 
portance was  destroyed. 

The  site  of  the  ancient  city  is 
well  ascertained  from  its  nu- 
merous ruins  still  in  existence. 
They  are  described  as  laying  in 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  situa- 
tions in  the  island.  At  the  foot 
of  a  range  of  high  and  pic- 
turesque mountains  which  bound 
the  plain,  watered  by  the  A  t  ra- 
gus, a  low  ridge  of  hills  stretches 

103 


AGRIGENTUM. 


from  east  to  west.  The  southern 
sides  slope  gently  towards  the 
river,  while  the  northern  and 
western  fall  more  abruptly  to- 
wards the  Hypsa,  which  here  has 
a  very  diminished  current.  The 
Acragus,  after  winding  in  the 
plain  among  olive  and  carob 
trees,  falls  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean near  the  site  of  what  is 
called  the  ancient  Emporium. 

The  still  and  solemn  calm 
which  pervades  the  extent  of  the 
ancient  city  and  its  environs,  and 
the  olives,  whose  venerable  roots 
have  spread  themselves  over  the 
prostrate  habitations  of  the  an- 
cient Agrigentines,  give  an  addi- 
tional air  of  dignity  and  grandeur 
to  these  noble  edifices,  whilst 
their  imposing  style  of  architec- 
ture tends  to  strengthen  the  im- 
pression which  a  mind  of  genuine 
taste  must  have  imbibed  of  the 
superior  effect  of  simplicity  in 
buildings  devoted  to  the  services 
of  religion. 

The  buildings  of  Agrigentum 
were  celebrated  among  the  an- 
cients for  their  beauty  and  soli- 
dity. After  the  first  defeat  of 
the  Carthaginians  by  the  Agri- 
gentines, when  the  latter,  elated 
by  their  victory,  and  the  riches 
which  it  threw  into  their  power, 
abandoned  themselves  to  the 
most  effeminate  luxury.  It  was 
observed  of  them  that  they  ate  as 
if  they  feared  they  had  only  a 
day  to  live,  and  built  as  if  they 
intended  to  live  for  ever. 

The  finest  Agrigentine  temple, 
and  which  ranked  as  one  of  the 
most  splendid  in  Greece,  was  that 
dedicated  to  Jupiter  Olympus;  and 
the  site  of  which  is  now  distin- 
guished as  that  of  the  temple  of 
the  Giants ;  an  appellation  not 
inappropriate,  with  reference  to 
the  immense  size  of  the  stones, 
with  which  it  has  been  construct- 
ed, or  the  basso-  relievoes  of  its 

104 


fronts,  which  represented  the  fall 
of  the  Titans. 

"  The  temple  of  Jupiter,"  says 
Diodorus  Siculus,  "  is  by  far  the 
most  considerable  in  the  island. 
The  others  were  either  burned 
or  destroyed  in  the  repeated 
sieges  of  the  city.  When  the 
Agrigentines  were  on  the  point 
of  putting  on  the  roof,  war  put 
an  end  to  their  operations,  and 
after  that  time  the  city  was  so  far 
reduced  in  resources,  that  the 
citizens  had  no  longer  the  means 
to  finish  it.  The  length  of  the 
temple  is  340  feet,  and  its  breadth 
60  j  the  height  exclusive  of  its 
basement  120  feet.  The  temple 
is  the  largest  in  the  whole  island, 
and  the  magnitude  of  its  sub- 
structure deserves  particular 
notice.  Two  methods  of  build- 
ing are  practised  by  the  Greeks. 
The  one  allows  of  making  the 
naos  the  whole  width  of  the  tem- 
ple, and  the  other  of  surrounding 
it  with  columns.  Either  method 
is  adopted  in  this  building  for  the 
columns  are  inserted  in  the  walls 
of  the  naos,  appearing  circular 
without  and  square  within,  their 
periphery  without  is  20  feet, 
within  it  is  12  feet.  The  grandeur 
and  height  of  its  porticoes  are 
stupendous,  they  are  embellished 
with  exquisite  sculpture ,  on  the 
east  is  a  representation  of  the 
contests  of  the  Giants,  and  on  the 
west  the  siege  of  Troy." 

The  breadth  of  the  temple,  as 
stated  by  the  Sicilian  historian, 
would  be  very  disproportionate 
to  its  length,  unless  its  plan  were 
arranged  differently  from  similar 
structures  of  the  same  or  previous 
ages ;  the  proportions,  for  in- 
stance, which  at  that  period  were 
usually  observed,  and  are  found 
in  the  temple  of  Concord,  and 
which  is  supposed  to  have  served 
as  a  model  in  the  construction  of 
this  temple    M.  De  St.  Non  at- 


AGRIGENTUM. 


tributes  the  discrepancy  to  an 
error  of  the  copyist  of  Herodotus, 
and  suggests  reading  16'0  feet 
broad,  which  will  make  its  pro- 
portions nearly  the  same  as  those 
of  the  temple  of  Concord. 

It  has  been  supposed  from  the 
width  assigned  by  Diodorus,  that 
the  temple  was  in  antis,  or  of 
that  kind  presenting  only  two 
columns  between  the  antae  ;  but 
this  alteration  will  not  assist  in 
reconciling  the  want  of  propor- 
tion between  the  breadth,  and 
length.  According  to  the  usual 
proportion,  the  width  of  the 
temple  would  have  been  about 
94|  feet  j  and  the  historian  would 
have  termed  the  entrance  parastas 
and  not  stoa,  a  word  never  applied 
by  him  in  any  other  sense  but 
that  of  open  porticoes  with  re- 
lieved columns. 

The  familiar  name  of  "  temple 
of  the  Giants"  is  thought  by  some 
writers  to  have  been  derived  from 
figures  of  giants  which  they  sup- 
pose sustained  the  capitals,  in  the 
manner  of  caryatidae  ;  but  such 
an  extraordinary  deviation  from 
the  usual  form  we  can  not  suppose 
would  have  been  left  unnoticed  by 
so  minute  and  accurate  a  topogra- 
pher as  Herodotus,  and  that  too 
in  a  building  with  which  he  must 
have  been  well  acquainted. 

The  destruction  of  this  colossal 
building  has  been  complete.  "  On 
our  approach  to  the  ruins,  we  see 
them  covered  with  the  produc- 
tions of  the  vegetable  world,  and 
olive  trees  the  growth  of  centuries, 
find  nourishment  for  their  roots 
in  the  depth  of  soil,  which  in  so 
many  ages  has  been  accumulat- 
ing upon  them  :  with  difficulty 
we  are  persuaded  that  such  an 
extensive  circuit  of  hill  and  valley 
can  be  formed  by  the  demolition 
of  a  mere  effort  of  human  exer- 
tions, and  that  nature  has  no  part 
in  causing  the  great  inequality  of 
O 


the  ground  before  us.  Where 
the  ruins  have  fallen  more  en 
masse,  we  still  perceive  appearing 
above  the  soil  the  ponderous 
blocks  which  formed  the  capitals 
and  theepistylia  of  this  vast  build- 
ing. From  these  we  are  enabled 
to  judge  of  the  original  size  of 
the  building,  and  to  determine 
that  the  account  given  of  it  by 
the  historian  is  by  no  means  ex- 
aggerated." 

The  capitals,  of  which  three  are 
remaining,  are  each  formed  of  two 
blocks,  jointed  vertically.  The 
height  of  these  blocks,  compre- 
hended between  the  upper  part  of 
the  ovolo,  and  18  inches  below 
the  fillets,  is  about  5  feet  5 J  inches  j 
their  breadth,  which  included  a 
portion  of  the  intervallation  of 
about  3  feet  1  inch,  is  10  feet  4f- 
inches,  and  their  length  8  feet  4J 
inches.  The  abacus  was  formed 
of  three  pieces,  the  largest  placed 
directly  over  the  centre  of  the 
shaft,  and  nearly  as  wide,  as  the 
upper  diameter  of  the  shaft  is  2 
feet  8  inches  high. 

The  epistylia  were  formed  of 
three  courses  of  stones,  of  une- 
qual height;  in  the  uppermost, 
the  listel  and  guttae,  below  the 
triglyphs,  were  included  :  the 
height  of  these  three  courses  was 
nearly  11  feet.  A  single  triglyph 
was  measured  with  great  accu- 
racy ;  it  was  in  one  stone,  10  feet 

inches  long,  5  feet  10^  broad, 
and  4  feet  10  inches  thick. 

Powerful  mechanical  means 
must  have  been  resorted  to  by  the 
Agrigentines  to  raise  so  many 
enormous  masses  to  so  great  a 
height.  Grooves  have  been  cut 
in  every  block,  probably  to  assis.. 
in  the  fastening  ;  the  stones 
which  form  the  capital  have 
each  two,  5  inches  deep,  ex- 
tending from  top  to  bottom,  and 
continuing  under  the  Capital,  and 
made  to  issue  at  the  centre  of  twc 

105 


AGRIGENTUM. 


flutings.  In  addition,  each  block 
has  four  mortise  holes,  to  admit 
other  parts  of  it.  In  each  side  of 
the  block  of  the  triglyph  are  two 
parallel  grooves  of  a  similar  kind, 
which  unite  in  a  semicircular  form 
at  the  bottom. 

The  Agrigen tines  were  proba- 
bly induced  to  adopt  the  plan  of 
inserting  the  columns  in  the  walls 
from  the  difficulty  of  procuring 
epistylia  of  sufficient  length  to 
reach  from  the  centre  to  centre 
of  the  adjoining  columns.  By 
this  expedient,  the  architrave 
resting  partly  on  the  wall  might 
be  formed  of  three  pieces  of  10 
feet  each  in  length,  instead  of  one 
stone  30  feet  long,  which  appears 
to  have  been  the  distance  between 
the  axis  of  the  columns  in  the 
north  and  south  fronts.  Mr.Wil- 
kins  (Magna  Grcecia,  p.  38,)  did 
not  doubt  but  that  stones  even  of 
that  magnitude  could  have  been 
procured,  after  he  had  viewed  the 
immense  masses,  strewn  over  the 
tract  which  the  ruins  cover,  and 
that  such  probably  were  used  in 
the  east  and  west  fronts,  upon 
which  all  the  powers  of  decora- 
tion seem  to  have  been  employed. 

Diodorus  mentions,  that  a  man 
might  be  hid  in  the  flutings  of  the 
columns.  One  of  these  measured 
by  St.  Non  was  1S|-  inches  long 
in  the  chord  of  the  circle,  and 
about  10j  inches  deep. 

If  the  assertion  of  Diodorus 
may  be  taken  as  correct,  with 
reference  to  the  two  manners 
adopted  by  the  Greeks  in  con- 
structing their  temples,  the  tem- 
ple of  Jupiter  may  be  called  a 
compound  of  the  two,  or  pseudo- 
peripteral  ;  for  the  peristyle  is 
formed  by  the  columns  inserted 
in  the  walls  of  the  naos,  and  the 
columns  of  the  east  and  west 
fronts  were  insulated. 

The  temple  of  Hercules  is  very 
little  less  in  dimensions  than  that 

106 


of  Jupiter  ;  there  are  parts  of  the 
shafts  of  six  columns  remaining 
in  their  places,  and  a  portion  of 
the  wall  of  the  cella,  and  some 
fragments  of  the  sub-basement, 
the  other  parts  present  but  an  im- 
mense mass  of  enormous  blocks, 
piled  and  scattered  about  in  a 
manner  as  if  the  destruction  had 
not  proceeded  from  man,  but  had 
been  accomplished  by  the  convul- 
sion of  an  earthquake. 

The  temple  of  Juno  Lucina, 
situated  at  the  eastern  angle  of 
the  south  quarter  of  the  ancient 
city,  appears  to  have  been  the 
most  beautiful,  although  not  the 
largect,  in  Agrigentum.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury it  was  very  entire,  but  the 
different  shocks  of  earthquakes, 
which  have  convulsed  the  island 
during  that  period,  have  thrown 
down  almost  half  of  the  columns 
of  which  it  was  composed.  In 
1779,  twelve  of  its  columns  were 
standing. 

The  ruins  of  this  fine  building 
have  many  enviable  facilities  for 
its  future  restoration,  the  mate- 
rials have  only  to  be  raised  and 
fixed  in  their  places,  for  the  cor- 
responding stones  could  be  disco- 
vered with  the  greatest  ease. 

The  temple  is  raised  on  a  sty- 
lobate  of  three  steps,  which  were 
continued  quite  round.  On  the 
north,  where  the  ground  falls, 
it  was  raised  upon  a  plinth,  or 
plain  substructure.  The  re- 
mains of  a  court  are  visible  be- 
fore the  eastern  portico.  The 
length  of  the  temple  is  124  feet, 
and  the  breadth  54  feet  7  inches  : 
the  cella  is  48  feet  11  inches 
long,  and  25  feet  5  inches  wide  : 
the  columns,  including  the  capi- 
tal, are  21  feet  2  inches  high,  and 
4  feet  6  inches  in  diameter. 

All  the  columns  on  the  north 
side,  and  part  of  the  entablature, 
are  yet  remaining  entire,  as  are 


AGRIGEtfTUM. 


two  at  the  south-east  angle  j  the 
rest  are  more  or  less  dilapidated, 
and  have  lost,  along  with  their 
capitals,  some  of  the  courses  of 
which  the  shafts  were  composed. 

Two  columns,  one  in  the  north 
and  the  other  in  the  south  front, 
have  entirely  disappeared.  The 
longitudinal  and  transverse  walls 
of  the  cella  are  remaining,  to  a 
certain  height;  that  dividing  the 
cella  from  the  pronaos  seems  to 
have  contained  staircases,  which 
are  sometimes  found  in  great 
temples  for  ascending  to  the 
rooms  over  the  vestibule.  The 
pronaos  and  posticum  had  each 
two  columns  intervening  between 
the  antae,  which  terminated  the 
walls  of  the  cella. 

The  order  is  doric,  and  the 
shafts  are  fluted,  and  the  chord 
of  the  flute  is  about  8^-  inches  ; 
the  columns  are  4  feet  6|  inches  in 
diameter,  at  the  base,  and  3  feet 
4f  inches  at  the  necking,  under 
the  capital  :  the  echinus  is  a 
foot  deep,  and  the  abacus  1  foot 
and  f-  of  an  inch.  The  height  of 
the  epistylia,  including  the  guttse 
and  listel,  is  4  feet  If-  inches, 
and  the  height  of  the  triglyphs 
3  feet  4 \  inches. 

Among  the  finest,  as  it  is  the 
best  preserved  specimen  of  the 
taste  of  the  Agrigentines,  is  the 
temple  of  Concord.  To  the 
veneration  of  the  body  of  Saint 
Gregory,  bishop  of  Agrigen- 
turn,  which  is  buried  in  this 
temple,  is  owing,  in  a  great 
measure,  its  fine  preservation  : 
with  the  exception  of  a  part  of 
the  entablature,  on  one  of  the 
sides  the  building  is  entire.  The 
order  is  peripteral  and  hexastyle 
—the  wall  forming  the  cella, 
being  perforated  with  six  open- 
ings serving  as  windows  to  admit 
light  to  the  inside.  The  style  is 
doric,  without  a  base,  as  in  the 
other  doric  Agrigentine  build- 


ings, and  of  somewhat  short  pro- 
portion, being  22  feet  and  f-  inch 
high,  including  capitals,  and  4  feet 
7§  inches  in  diameter  at  the  base 
The  cella  was  48  feet  2  inches 
long,  and  24  feet  9  inches  wide. 
In  measuring  the  intercolumna- 
tions  small  differences  were 
found,  which  may  have  arisen 
from  the  position  of  the  flutings, 
and  which  might  have  disap- 
peared, by  a  thicker  or  thinner 
coat  of  stucco  with  which  the 
columns  were  incrusted.  As  the 
stone  of  which  these  columns 
are  composed  is  very  porous,  it 
was  well  adapted  to  receive  this 
stucco,  which  was  very  gene- 
rally employed  in  ancient  erec- 
tions, and,  above  all,  in  those 
of  this  city  and  its  neighbour- 
hood. Nothing  can  be  more 
elegant  than  the  general  propor- 
tion, and  taste  of  design  of  the 
edifice,  notwithstanding  the  thick 
proportions  of  its  columns,  which 
are  very  little  more  than  4  dia- 
meters in  height. 

The  restoration  of  this  temple 
to  its  original  design  has  lately 
taken  place,  by  order  of  the 
late  king  of  Naples  ;  and  very 
great  attention  has  been  bestow- 
ed upon  such  repairs  as  were 
deemed  essential  to  its  better 
preservation.  The  temple  being 
originally  open,  it  is  conjectured 
that  the  entablature  over  the 
epistylia  of  the  north  and  south 
fronts  was  removed,  for  the 
greater  convenience  of  fixing  the 
timbers  of  the  roof,  when  it  was 
converted  into  a  church  for 
christian  worship. 

On  the  west  of  the  temple  of 
Concord,  are  some  remains  con- 
jectured to  have  formed  part  oi 
the  temple  of  Hercules, mentioned 
by  Cicero  as  being  near  the 
forum.  Only  part  of  the  shafts 
of  one  of  the  columns  remains  in 
its  original  position.    It  appear4? 

107 


AGR1GENTUM 


to  have  been  larger  than  any 
other  Agrigentine  temple,  ex- 
cepting that  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
pus. 

The  temple  of  iEsculapius  now 
forms  part  of  a  modern  farm- 
house. Of  its  size,  nothing  can 
be  clearly  ascertained  ;  from  two 
half  columns,  and  an  antae  at  the 
west,  it  is  conjectured  by  Mr. 
Wilkins,  that  it  was  a  temple  in 
cutis  ;  the  columns,  like  the  tem- 
ple of  Ju^ter  Olympus,  forming 
part  of  the  wall:  the  entrance 
appears  to  have  been  from  the 
easi,  and  it  is  probable  that  the 
columns  were  insulated.  From 
the  remains  of  the  cella,  at  the 
north-west  end,  there  is  every 
reason  for  supposing  the  temple 
had  not  a  peristyle — and  the  con- 
jecture that  it  was  not  amph- 
prostylos  is  equally  plausible, 
from  the  steps  at  the  west  end, 
beginning  from  the  base  of  the 
columns  ;  the  columns  projected 
rather  more  than  their  semidi- 
ameter  from  the  walls  of  the 
cella  ;  their  diameter  at  a  height 
of  4  feet  6  inches,  was  about  3 
feet  b\  inches,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  antae  22  feet  8  inches. 

That  part  of  the  suburb  of  the  an- 
cient city,  where  this  temple  to 
the  God  of  Medicine  stands,  was 
adjoining  the  burial  place  of  the 
citizens,  while  in  general,  the 
temple  of  this  divinity  was  placed 
without  the  walls  ;  it  is  extraordi- 
nary that  a  more  appropriate  place 
should  not  have  been  found  for 
it,  in  this  instance,  than  among 
graves  and  sepulchres  :  the  tem- 
ple, in  its  general  appearance, 
much  resembles  the  "  Maison 
Carre  "  at  Nismes. 
^  The  temple  of  Castor  and  Pol- 
lux is  a  small  square  edifice,  hav- 
ing pilasters  at  the  angles  j  and 
called,  without  any  apparent 
reason,  the  oratory  of  Phalaris. 
According  to  St.  Non  it  is  of  a 

108 


later  age  than  the  temples  we 

have  described,  from  the  bases, 
which  are  indicated  as  having 
been  added  to  its  doric  columns  j 
Mr.  Wilkins  conjectures  that  the 
order  was  ionic  from  the  bases, 
and  the  method  of  fluting  the 
shaft  being  similar  to  that  em- 
ployed in  this  order.  The  re- 
mains, according  to  him,  (and  he 
is  at  all  times  the  best  authority,) 
consist  of  two  mutilated  columns, 
and  a  portion  of  the  cella.  No 
portion  of  a  capital  could  be 
found,  and  the  mouldings  of  the 
cornice  were  so  worn  that  their 
forms  were  not  to  be  distin- 
guished. 

Another  temple,  but  of  a  still 
more  recent  date,  forms  part  of 
the  Franciscan  convent :  besides 
these,  innumerable  remains  "of 
columns  and  entablatures  are 
scattered  over  the  site  of  the  an- 
cient city,  and  the  labourers  are 
continually  discovering  vases, 
paterae,  and  other  ornaments  of 
Greek  workmanship,  having 
orange-coloured  figures  on  a 
black  ground,  similar  to  those 
found  at  Pompeii  and  Hercu- 
laneum. 

Some  remains  of  the  Piscina, 
constructed  by  the  prisoners 
taken  in  the  battle  of  Himera, 
are  still  visible,  and  also  of  the 
Cloaca  of  Pheax,  constructed  at 
the  same  time  by  the  Carthagi- 
nian captives ;  its  immense  area 
is  now  converted  into  a  garden. 

Other  remains,  indicate  the 
site  of  a  theatre,  and  near  the 
temple  of  Hercules  are  some 
traces  of  a  forum. 

The  building  commonly  called 
the  tomb  of  Theron,  is  a  small 
monument,  remarkable  for  se- 
veral peculiarities,  from  which  it 
has  been  conjectured  by  St.  Non 
to  be  of  a  later  date  than  that 
called  the  fine  age  of  the  Agri- 
gentine  art. 


A  G  R 


AIL 


Its  style  is  a  strange  jumble 
of  the  ionic  and  doric.  The  base 
is  square,  and  the  whole  building 
rises,  in  a  pyramidal  form,  to  the 
height  of  25  feet,  that  is,  from 
the  platform  on  which  it  stands, 
to  the  top  of  the  frieze — the  cor- 
nice is  destroyed,  and  we  have 
now  no  means  of  ascertaining 
how  the  building  was  terminated. 
The  height  of  what  remains  is 
divided  into  two  parts  ;  the  first 
is  a  plain  base,  or  stylobate,  ter- 
minating with  a  cornice,  on 
which  is  placed  the  second  story, 
having  a  fluted  column  of  the 
ionic  order  at  each  angle,  and  in 
the  space  between  the  columns 
is  a  blank  window  ornamented 
with  a  moulded  architrave,  and 
filled  up  with  pannels  cut  into  the 
stone. — The  columns  incline  at 
the  same  angle  with  the  walls, 
and  the  lines  of  the  triglyphs  (for 
the  entablature  is  doric)  con- 
verge also  to  a  point,  which 
would  appear  to  have  been  the 
apex  of  a  pyramid,  of  which  the 
present  remains  form  a  part. 
The  windows,  like  those  of  some 
other  Grecian  buildings,  are  wider 
at  bottom  than  at  the  top,  and  in 
this  instance  the  lines  of  their 
jambs  coincide  with  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  profile  of  the  building. 
Another  peculiarity  is  the  flutings 
meeting  at  an  angle  similar  to 
those  cf  the  doric. — The  capitals 
are  very  much  mouldered,  but  the 
volute,  and  the  echinus  moulding, 
have  been  protected  by  the  pro- 
jection of  the  abacus.  The  cor- 
nice over  the  windows  is  also 
much  decayed  ;  the  building  on 
the  whole  is  in  very  good  pre- 
servation.— within,  it  was  formed 
into  two  stories. 

It  was  undoubtedly  a  place  of 
sepulture,  and  after  the  body  was 
deposited,  the  entrance  was  shut 
up,  and  remained  in  this  state 


until  an  antiquary  searching  for 
vases  had  them  removed. 

From  the  style  of  its  architec- 
ture, Wilkins  (Magna  Gratia, 
p.  36)  classes  it  among  the  most 
ancient  buildings  of  the  Grecian 
city,  and  was  probably  the  tomb 
of  the  prince  whose  name  it  bears, 
as  his  memory  was  cherished 
among  the  Agrigentines,  as  being 
the  most  humane  and  virtuous  of 
the  Sicilian  kings.  To  account 
for  its  inconsistencies,  he  supposes 
it  to  have  been  erected  soon  after 
the  introduction  of  the  ionic  or- 
der, when  an  ignorance  of  its  pecu- 
liarities caused  them  to  overlook 
the  absurdity  of  placing  a  doric 
entablature  on  ionic  columns. 

St.  Non,  and  some  other  tra- 
vellers, whose  opportunities  of 
observation  were  not  so  favour- 
able as  Mr.  Wilkins's,  suppose, 
from  these  inconsistencies,  that 
it  was  erected  in  an  age  posterior 
to  the  siege  of  Agrigentum  by  the 
Carthaginians. 

The  walls  of  Agrigentum  are 
filled  with  places  of  sepulture, 
excavated  in  their  under  part  in 
the  tuffa,  and  even  to  the  depth 
of  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 
which  has  so  weakened  them  as 
to  hasten  their  dilapidation  :  a 
great  number  of  subterranean 
chambers  and  galleries,  spread 
over  the  site,  appear  to  have  had 
a  similar  destination.  The  Laby- 
rinth was  a  grand  series  of  secret 
communications,  surrounding  the 
citadel,  and  was  useful  in  times 
of  warfare. 

Aile  Aisle.  Isle.  Ile.  (Alee, 
Lat.)  wings.  L aisle  de  Veglise, 
(Fr.)  the  wings,  inward  side  porti- 
coes of  a  church ;  the  inward 
lateral  corridors,  which  enclose 
the  choir,  the  presbytery,  and  the 
body  of  the  church  along  its  sides. 

When  a  church  is  divided  in 
its  breadth  into  three  parts,  the 

109 


ALABASTER. 


two  extreme  outward  divisions 
are  called  aisles,  and  the  centre 
division  the  nave  or  middle  aisle, 
although  the  last  seems  impro- 
per— and  "  side  aisle'  seems  a  tau- 
tology. 

The  aisles  are  also  the  inside 
of  the  penthouse,  or  lean-to,which 
is  called  externally  a  wing. 

When  a  church,  in  its  breadth, 
is  divided  into  three  or  five  parts, 
it  is  termed  a  three  or  five  aisled 
church.  The  generality  of  Eng- 
lish churches  are,  however,  three- 
aisled.  The  west  end  of  Durham 
cathedral  is  the  only  English  ex- 
ample of  a  five-aisled  church. 

Air-holes.  Holes  made  for 
the  admission  of  air,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ventilating  apartments, 
or  for  admitting  air  among  the 
timbers  of  floors  and  roofs,  for 
preventing  or  destroying  the  dry 
rot.    See  Dry  rot,  Ventilation, 

Air-trap.  An  opening  for  the 
escape  of  air  from  drains  or 
sewers  or  pipes. 

Alabaster.  Under  this  name 
are  confounded  two  minerals, 
wholly  distinct  from  each  other, 
gypseous  alabaster,  or  compact 
gypsum,  and  calcareous  alabaster. 
Gypseous  alabaster  is  found  of  a 
white,  or  yellowish,  or  greenish 
colour,  semi-transparent,  and  ca- 
pable of  receiving  a  polish.  Sta- 
tuaries distinguish  this  as  alabas- 
ter. When  its  colours  are  dis- 
posed in  bands,  it  is  called  onyx 
alabaster ;  and  when  they  are 
disposed  in  clouds,  it  is  called 
onyx  alabaster. 

Gypseous  alabaster  is  about 
twice  as  heavy  as  water,  its  spe- 
cific gravity  being  1*9.  In  trans- 
parency it  is  superior  to  white 
wax,  allowing  the  light  to  pass 
through  it,  but  not  the  forms  of 
objects.  By  a  slight  calcination 
or  baking,  it  is  converted  into 
plaster  of  Paris, 
no 


It  is  very  easily  worked,  but 
not  susceptible  of  a  very  delicate 
polish,  and  is  formed  by  the  mason 
into  vases,  columns,  tables,  and 
other  ornamental  furniture.  In 
a  church  at  Florence,  thin  slabs 
of  it  are  used  in  the  windows,  in- 
stead of  glass. 

Among  the  ancients,  the  most 
esteemed  variety  came  from  Car- 
mania  and  Upper  Egypt.  The 
alabaster  used  by  modern  Floren- 
tine statuaries  comes  from  Vol- 
terra,  and  other  parts  of  Tuscany. 
It  is  seldom  procured  in  large 
masses,  the  largest  statues  not 
exceeding  two  feet  in  height. 

It  is  easier  to  cut  than  Carrara 
marble,  but  it  is  not  so  durable 
when  exposed  to  the  weather  j 
the  sulphate  of  lime,  which  en- 
ters into  its  composition,  being 
more  easily  dissolved  by  the  rain 
than  carbonate  of  lime,  which 
constitutes  Carrara  marble. 

At  Leghorn  there  is  a  large 
establishment,  where  statues  and 
architectural  ornaments  of  this 
alabaster  are  sold ;  and  from  this 
mart  the  greater  proportion  of 
these  productions  we  see  in  Eng- 
land are  procured. 

When  a  candle  or  lamp  is  put 
into  a  vase  of  this  alabaster,  it 
diffuses  a  mild  and  very  pleasing 
light  j  and  it  is  conjectured  that 
the  ancients  lighted  their  temples 
in  this  manner,  in  order  that  the 
softness  and  weakness  of  the  light 
might  harmonize  with  the  gene- 
ral character  of  the  building. 

The  Derbyshire  alabaster,  of 
which  there  are  splendid  inlaid 
columns  in  the  hall  at  Kcddle- 
stone,  is  of  the  same  kind  with 
the  Tuscan,  but  not  so  pure.  See 
Gypsum.  Mortar.  Plaster. 

Calcareous  alabaster,  or  calc- 
sinter,  is  a  species  of  stalactite, 
composed  mostly  of  carbonate  of 
lime,  and  is  found  of  a  variety  of 


ALABASTER 


colours,  pure  white,  yellowish, 
greenish,  reddish,  bluish  grey. 
It  is  not  quite  so  hard  as  Carrara 
marble,  yet  it  receives  a  good 
polish. 

It  is  considerably  heavier  than 
gypseous  alabaster,  its  specific 
gravity  being  from  2.4  to  2.8 
times  greater  than  water.  Its 
transparency  is  about  equal  to 
that  of  white  wax,  and  it  burns  to 
lime. 

Calcareous  alabaster  is  distin- 
guished into  the  common  and 
oriental,  the  last  division  con- 
taining the  hardest,  finest,  and 
best  coloured  pieces ;  other  dis- 
tinctions are  sometimes  drawn 
from  the  colours  being  in  veins, 
dendritic,  or  in  concentric,  undu- 
lating zones  or  rings  :  from  the 
flowery  form  of  its  veins,  a  va- 
riety is  called  "  Alabastro  fiorito." 
The-specimens  from  Egypt,  Italy, 
or  Spain,  are  reckoned  the  finest, 
the  commoner  sorts  being  pro- 
cured from  Germany  and  France. 
The  Italian  variety  is  drawn  from 
the  quarry  in  blocks,  between  6 
and  7  feet  long,  and  3  feet  in  dia- 
meter :  and  there  is  an  Egyptian 
statue  of  calcareous  alabaster,  at 
Rome,  nearly  8  feet  high  j  and 
two  columns  of  the  same  sort,  19 
feet  high,,  formerly  decorated  the 
vestibule  of  the  Vatican  library. 

Of  the  Egyptian  sort,  the  finest 
comes  from  theThebaid,  situated 
between  the  Nile  and  the  Red 
Sea,  near  to  the  town  of  Alabas- 
tron,  and  is  of  a  yellowish  colour. 

The  Romans  used  the  species 
of  alabaster  brought  from  Egypt 
and  Cyprus,  for  lighting  their 
conservatories.  It  was  much  cm- 
ployed  for  cinerary  and  funereal 
urns,  and  for  perfume  caskets. — 
Some  antique  statues  have  been 
found  composed  of  calcareous 
alabaster,  except  the  heads,  which 
are  sculptured  in  marble,  and 
sometimes  of  bronze. 


It  is  not  generally  agreed  upon 
whether  ancient  writers  did  not 
make  a  distinction  between  gyp- 
seous and  calcareous  alabaster. 
Pliny,  under  the  same  term,  in- 
cludes both  under  the  same  ala- 
bastrites  ;  latter  authors  use  the 
term  alabastrum  for  gypsum,  and 
alabastrites  for  calc-sinter. 

Beautiful  architectural  decora- 
tions, basso-relievoes  of  foliage, 
animals,  figures,  and  even  sta- 
tues, which  have  all  the  deli- 
cacy and  high  finish  of  the  most 
elaborate  compositions,  and  with 
all  the  appearance  of  having  been 
produced  by  the  chisel,  are  form- 
ed in  moulds. 

The  water  of  many  hot,  sul- 
phureous springs  rise  out  of 
the  ground,  of  a  turbid,  wheyish 
colour,  from  the  large  quan- 
tity of  chalk  and  gypsum  which 
is  dissolved  in  it.  As  the 
water  cools,  the  earthy  particles 
are  deposited,  which  line  the  bot- 
tom and  sides  of  the  vessels  in 
which  it  is  contained  with  com- 
pact alabaster.  The  spring  sup- 
plying the  baths  of  St.  Philip,  in 
Tuscany,  is  situated  on  a  moun- 
tain near  Radicofani.  This  water 
is  very  hot  when  it  first  issues 
from  the  ground,  and  contains  a 
great  quantity  of  calcareous  mat- 
ter. Here  a  Dr.Vegni  established 
a  manufactory  of  artificial  ala- 
baster. He  procured  a  collection 
of  plaster  casts  from  the  finest 
Greek  and  Roman  statues  and 
ornaments,  from  which  he  made 
moulds  in  sulphur,  by  pouring  it, 
melted  in  the  common  manner, 
over  the  object  from  which  he 
wished  to  take  an  impression. — 
The  sulphur  mould  is  placed  in  a 
kind  of  wooden  tub,  open  at  top 
and  bottom,  and  made  conical, 
having  the  lesser  end  placed  below. 
This  tub  has  a  false  bottom,  made 
of  slips  of  wood,  laid  crosswise, 
in  order  to  detain  for  a  short  pe- 
nt 


ALA 


ALB 


riod  the  water  which  dashes  upon 
them.  Just  above  this  is  a  row 
of  wooden  pegs,  fastened  to  the 
tub,  around  its  whole  inner  cir- 
cumference ;  on  these  the  mould 
is  supported  j  the  whole  is  then 
placed  under  the  boiling  spring, 
and  enclosed  with  walls,  to  pre- 
vent its  being  agitated  by  the 
wind  j  the  water  thus  dashing  on 
the  moulds,  deposits  its  earth 
upon  them :  in  the  same  manner 
as  in  the  common  mode  used  by 
plasterers  the  liquid  alabaster  is 
made  to  lie  upon  their  moulds. 
The  hardness  and  transparency 
of  the  alabaster  depends  on  the 
degree  of  obliquity  at  which  the 
mould  is  placed,  in  order  to  re- 
ceive the  dashing  of  the  water. 
The  more  vertical  its  position, 
the  harder  is  the  alabaster ;  but 
then  it  is  not  quite  so  white  as 
the  softer  specimens.  To  im- 
prove its  colour,  the  water  is  in 
some  instances  made  to  take  a 
circuitous  course,  in  order  to  al- 
low it  to  deposit  its  grosser  par- 
ticles before  it  arrives  at  the 
mould.  Even  the  softer  casts 
are,  however,  as  hard  as  Carrara 
marble,  and  surpass  it  in  white- 
ness. The  time  required  for  these 
productions  varies  from  one  to 
four  months,  according  to  the 
thickness  which  is  required  to 
support  the  figures  or  basso-re- 
lievoes.  When  this  has  been  at- 
tained, and  the  mould  sufficiently 
filled,  the  mould  is  detached  from 
the  tub,  and  the  incrustation  on 
its  outside  is  removed  by  gentle 
strokes  with  the  hammer  ;  the 
model  is  then  separated  by  the 
usual  means  from  the  mould,  and 
the  brilliancy  of  the  cast  is  com- 
pleted by  brushing  it  with  a  hair 
brush,  and  rubbing  it  with  the 
palm  of  the  hand. 

Vegni  succeeded  in  giving  a 
fine  black  or  flesh  colour  to  the 
figures  thus  formed,  by  putting 

112 


a  vessel  half  full  of  colouring 
matter  into  the  water  before  it 
arrives  at  the  mould  j  and  the 
same  cast  may  have  different  co- 
lours imparted  to  it  by  these 
means,  and  protecting  the  parts 
so  coloured  from  the  other  colour- 
ing matters. 

A  similar  process  of  manufac- 
turing ornaments  and  statues 
(generally  for  religious  purposes) 
is  practised  at  Guanvaselica,  in 
Peru. 

Alabastrites.  (Alabastrites, 
Gr.)  A  box,  or  a  vase,  without 
a  handle ;  also  an  unguentary, 
or  vase,  for  holding  perfumes, 
which,  according  to  Pliny,  was 
so  named  from  the  material  of 
which  the  box  was  made  being 
favourable  for  the  preservation 
of  perfumes.  Pliny  compares 
their  form  to  oblong  pearls. 
They  are  often  seen  as  orna- 
ments on  tombs  and  tomb  stones. 

Alabastrites  were  sometimes 
made  of  lead,  gold,  or  beautifully 
coloured  glass  and  terra-eotta, 
and  common  stone  of  the  country. 

Al^:.  In  ancient  Roman  archi- 
tecture. Recesses  or  alcoves  for 
conversation  or  study,  surround- 
ed on  three  sides  by  seats  ;  their 
thresholds  were  of  mosaic  work. 
According  to  Vitruvius,  when 
the  length  of  the  atrium  was  from 
40  to  50  feet,  the  alae  were  to  be 
two-sevenths  of  this  length;  their 
height  was  equal  to  their  breadth. 

Alba-longa,  (now  Albano.)  An 
ancient  Italian  city,  which  was 
destroyed  by  the  Romans  about 
the  88th  year  of  Rome.  It  rose 
into  some  importance  in  the  time 
of  Pompey,  from  the  circum- 
stance of  being  the  site  of  a  cas- 
trum  prsetorium,  and  the  erec- 
tion of  numerous  villas  by  noble 
Romans  at  the  last  age  of  the 
republic,  and  under  the  empe- 
rors. 

The  remains  of  the  Latin  city 


ALB 


ALB 


can  even  now  be  easily  distin- 
guished from  those  of  the  later 
Roman^edifices. 

Among  the  ruins  of  the  former 
are  enumerated  a  temple  of  Ju- 
piter Latialis,  erected  on  the 
summit  of  Mount  Cavo  by  Tar- 
quin,  in  which  were  assembled 
the  Latin  tribes  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  festivals.  A  mass  of 
immense  blocks  mark  the  site  of 
this  shrine  ;  the  stones  of  which 
have  holes  to  receive  cramps  at 
their  joints  :  several  fragments  of 
cornices  are  also  visible,  and  parts 
of  two  columns,  sufficient  to  show 
that  they  belonged  to  a  Tuscan 
order. 

The  **  Emissario"  of  the  late 
Albano  may  also  be  referred  to 
the  Etruscan  builders.  (See 
Canal.)  And  probably  also  the 
tomb  on  the  Appian  Way,  in  ap- 
proaching Alba,  called  of  the 
Horatii  :  independently  of  the 
manner  of  its  construction,  this 
tomb  has  a  similarity,  both  in  its 
form  and  disposition,  to  that  at 
Clusium,  erected  by  the  Etrus- 
cans to  king  Porsenna  ;  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  mistake  the 
taste  of  this  people  in  architec- 
ture. Some  antiquaries  consi- 
der it  to  be  the  tomb  of  Pompey  ; 
and  it  is  certain  that  the  urn 
containing  his  ashes  was  brought 
into  Italy  by  his  wife  Cornelia, 
and  deposited  in  a  vault  in  his 
Alban  villa;  but  it  is  equally 
certain  that  it  is  impossible  to 
decide  on  the  particular  spot 
which  received  it.  See  Mauso- 
leum. 

Vestiges  of  baths,  supposed  to 
have  formed  part  of  Pompey's 
superb  villa,  are  also  seen  in  the 
garden  of  an  order  of  nuns. 

In  a  vineyard  of  the  Vegna 
Marzelli,  are  ruins  of  an  aque- 
dvct,  and  an  ancient  tomb,  sup- 
posed to  be  that  of  Tullia,  daugh- 
ter of  Cicero.  It  consists  of  three 
P 


stories,  and  wzs  formerly  in- 
crusted  with  marble.  Many  frag- 
ments of  the  incrustation  yet  re- 
main. 

In  the  enclosure  of  the  abbey 
of  St.  Paul  are  remains  of  a 
wall,  built  with  large  blocks  of 
travertino,  of  the  time  of  Pom- 
pey, the  remains  of  baths,  which 
are  conjectured  to  have  been  of 
great  magnitude.  In  a  vineyard 
is  a  ruined  amphitheatre,  of  the 
time  of  Domitian  :  the  first  row 
of  arches  is  in  tolerable  preserva- 
tion j  and  also  a  part  of  an  im- 
mense gallery,  which  has  be- 
longed to  the  palace,  retaining 
some  of  its  ornaments,  which 
are  in  the  style  of  those  of  the 
temple  of  Peace,  at  Rome,  built 
by  his  father,  Vespasian. 

At  Palazzuola  are  the  remains 
of  a  building,  in  fine  preserva- 
tion, traditionally  called  the  tomb 
of  Tullius  Hostilius,  under  whom 
the  Romans  added  Alba  to  their 
dominion. 

Albarum  Opus.  Sometimes 
written  album  opus.  "  A  sort  of 
plastering,  composed  of  pure 
lime,  others  think  that  it  was  a 
whitewash.  That  it  is  a  kind  of 
plaster  is  evident,  for  Vitruvius 
speaks  of  it  as  the  substance  with 
which  they  make  cornices."  He 
says  the  baths  of  Agrippa  were 
incrusted  with  albarum  opus, 
and  that  its  surface  would  bear  a 
polish  almost  as  perfect  as  that  of 
marble.  See  Chunarn.  Cement. 
Stucco. 

"  The  albarum  opus  will  be 
good,"  says  the  same  author,  "  if 
the  limestones  be  of  the  best 
kind,  and  slaked  a  long  time  be- 
fore they  are  used,  so  that  if  some 
of  the  stones  should  be  too  little 
burnt  in  the  furnace,  by  being 
long  macerated  in  water,  they 
may  be  dissolved  and  reduced  to 
one  consistence  j  for  should  the 
lime  not  be  thoroughly  slaked, 

*113 


ALB 


ALB 


but  be  used  fresh,  the  crude  par- 
ticles it  may  contain  will,  when 
it  is  laid,  occasion  it  to  emit  pus- 
tules ;  because  these  particles, 
slaking  when  in  the  work,  dissolve 
and  destroy  the  smoothness  of 
the  stucco.  To  know  when  it  is 
sufficiently  macerated,  and  pro- 
perly prepared  for  the  work,  the 
lime  is  to  be  chopped  with  an 
axe,  in  the  manner  timber  is 
hewn.  If  the  axe  meets  with 
lumps,  it  is  not  well  tempered, 
and  if  the  iron  comes  out  dry 
and  clean,  it  shows  the  lime  to 
be  perishing  and  weak  ;  for  when 
it  is  fat  and  well  macerated,  it 
will  adhere  to  the  iron  like  glue, 
and  this  will  be  a  proof  that  it  is 
well  tempered." 

Alberti  Aristotle,  generally 
called  Ridolfo  Fioraventi,  an  ar- 
chitect and  mechanician,  born  at 
Bologna :  he  nourished  in  the 
16th  century,  and  is  considered  as 
the  most  ingenious  mechanician 
of  his  age.  At  Bologna,  he  is 
celebrated  for  having  removed  a 
steeple,  with  all  its  ornaments 
and  bells,  to  a  distance  of  35 
feet  from  its  former  situation  5 
and  he  removed  another  in  a 
neighbouring  town  to  the  distance 
of  50  feet.  He  was  invited  into 
Hungary,  where  he  constructed  a 
most  ingenious  bridge,  and  nu- 
merous other  works \  and  for  his 
merit  he  was  made  a  knight.  His 
reputation  afterwards  procured 
him  the  patronage  of  the  czar  of 
Muscovy  :  he  erected  several 
churches  for  that  potentate  in  his 
capital. 

Alberti  Leoni  Baptista,  one 
of  the  greatest  Italian  architects, 
was  born  at  Florence  in  1398, 
and  died  in  the  same  city  about 
the  year  147%. 

At  an  early  age  he  was  distin- 
guished for  his  application  to 
study  ;  while  not  yet  arrived  at 
the  age  of  20,  he  had  composed 

114 


a  Latin  comedy  in  so  pure  a  style, 
that  it  was  considered  to  have 
been  an  antique.  At  Bologna,  he 
took  the  degree  of  doctor  of  laws, 
and  was  ordained  priest ;  and  at 
his  death,  he  held  a  canonry  in 
the  cathedral  at  Florence.  He, 
however,  devoted  himself  to  the 
study  of  architecture,  and  is  with 
justice  considered  as  one  of  the 
great  restorers  of  ancient  art,  as 
well  by  his  practice  as  by  his 
writings  ;  he  was  as  expert  in  it 
as  a  fine  art,  as  conversant  in  it 
as  a  science. 

He  measured  many  ancient 
edifices  in  various  parts  of  Italy, 
and  was  the  first  who  constructed 
buildings  from  an  imitation  of 
them  as  models,  following  the 
general  precepts  of  Vitruvius. 
He  wrote  a  treatise  on  sculp- 
ture and  painting  ;  but  he  is  most 
known,  as  an  author,  for  his 
book  on  architecture,  which  is  an 
admirable  commentary  on  the 
work  of  his  guide  and  master. 
Architecture,  however,  was  only 
one  of  the  arts  in  which  he  ex- 
celled ;  for  he  was  an  able  sculp- 
tor and  painter ;  an  expert  philo- 
sopher, a  profound  mathemati- 
cian, no  mean  poet,  and  an  ac- 
complished antiquary.  Generous 
and  disinterested,  Alberti  lived  in 
harmony  with  his  rivals,  and  his 
talents  and  amiable  disposition 
were  celebrated  by  his  contem- 
poraries and  by  poets. 

The  works  of  this  great  archi- 
tect adorn  many  Italian  cities  ; 
at  Florence  he  finished  the  gate 
and  corinthian  loggie,  the  doric 
facade  of  the  palace  Rucellai, 
the  choir  and  tribune  of  the 
church  of  Delia  Nunciata.  At 
Rome,  among  other  things,  he 
repaired  the  fountain  of  Acqua 
Vergine,  and  the  fountain  of 
Trevi.  At  Mantua  the  splendid 
church  of  St.  Andrea,  for  its 
duke   Lodovico    Gonzago ;  at 


ALC 


ALD 


Rimini, he  ornamented  the  church 
of  St.  Francesco ;  and  at  Urbino, 
he  built  a  palace  for  duke  Frederic 
Feltre. 

Alcove.  (El-kauph.  Ar.)  A  re- 
cess in  a  bed-room,  in  which  the 
bed  is  placed.  A  recess  fitted  up 
with  fixed  seats  in  large  apart- 
ments. The  word  is  often  used 
for  bay.  An  ornamental  garden- 
building  for  shade  or  rest. 

Alcoves  appear  to  have  been 
used  by  the  ancients,  in  the  form 
of  niches,  such  as  those  described 
by  Winkleman  in  Adrian's  villa. 
At  Pompeii,  the  front  of  a  tomb, 
which  stands  by  the  road-side,  is 
formed  into  an  alcove  Avith  stone 
seats.  The  use  of  alcoves,  as 
well  as  the  word,  (from  alcoba,) 
seems  to  have  been  more  imme- 
diately derived  by  us  from  the 
Spanish  builders,  and  by  them 
from  their  Arabian  conquerors. 

In  the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  and 
XV.,  the  French  architects  almost 
invariably  constructed  alcoves  for 
the  reception  of  the  state-beds  ; 
and  more  or  less  capacious  to 
contain  the  whole  bed,  or  only 
to  admit  of  a  part  of  it.  Some- 
times the  floor  of  the  alcove  was 
elevated  above  that  of  its  apart- 
ment by  one  or  two  steps,  and  its 
ceiling  was  not  formed  quite  so 
lofty  as  that  of  the  chamber.  In 
rooms  "of  pretension,"  the  plat- 
form was  enclosed  by  a  ba- 
lustrade 3  in  other  cases,  the  al- 
cove was  nothing  more  than  a 
portion  of  the  room  enclosed  by 
a  low  balustrade,  without  any 
other  distinction,  within  which 
the  bed  was  placed  ;  or  it  was 
indicated  by  columns  and  cur- 
tains, without  any  distinction  be- 
ing made  in  the  floor  or  ceiling. 
This  appears  to  have  been  the 
classical  method,  which  is  seen 
in  some  antique  pictures  and 
basso-relievoes,  particularly  that 
called  the  Aldobrandi  Marriage  : 


this  arrangement  is  yet  occasion- 
ally observed  in  Italian  houses, 
where  alcoves  are  common ;  in 
large  rooms  it  is  susceptible  of 
great  magnificence. 

In  some  early  English  pala- 
ces and  mansions,  (Windsor  and 
Hampton-court),  the  beds  are 
occasionally  placed  in  alcoves  j 
but  in  modern  erections  of  almost 
every  dimension  they  are  exclud- 
ed} not  the  least  objection  against 
their  use  being  the  difficulty  of 
properly  ventilating  the  recess. 

The  Turks  place  their  beds  in 
a  sort  of  alcove. 

The  ornaments  of  alcoves  were 
formerly  of  the  most  costly  and 
gorgeous  description  j  generally 
assimilating  to  the  style  of  the 
apartment  of  which  they  formed 
a  portion. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the 
French  architects  have  made  much 
use  of  alcoves  ;  the  best  designs 
for  them  are  found  in  works 
written  by  architects  of  that 
nation.  Le  Pautre's  ornaments, 
in  three  folio  volumes,  contains 
a  variety  of  these  subjects, 
many  of  them  highly  magnificent 
and  well  composed.  Similar  de- 
signs are  also  to  be  found  in 
Blondel's  treatise  on  the  deco- 
ration of  Buildings. 

Alder  Tree  "  is  of  all  other 
the  most  faithful  lover  of  watery 
and  boggy  places,  and  those  most 
despised  weeping  parts,  or  water 
galls  of  forests."  It  is  the  Betula 
alnus  of  botanists,  and  is  a  na- 
tive of  Europe,  from  Lapland  to 
Gibraltar  ;  and  of  Asia,  from  the 
White  Sea  to  Mount  Caucasus. 

There  are  several  varieties  of 
this  tree  :  the  long-leaved  Ame- 
rican alder,  the  white  alder,  the 
black  alder  the  hoary-leaved  al- 
der, the  dwarf  alder. 

The  dwarf  alder  is  a  very  hum- 
ble shrub,  seldom  rising  more 
than   a  foot   high.    The  long- 

ai 


ALDER  TREE. 


leaved  alder  rises  to  30  feet,  and 
preserves  its  leaves  with  us  as 
late  as  December.  The  white  or 
common  alder  grows  to  the  height 
of  35  or  40  feet. 

The  shadow  of  these  trees  does 
not  destroy  the  herbage  beneath 
it  j  and  the  planting  of  them  on 
the  banks  of  rivers  has  been  re- 
commended, to  fortify,  and  pre- 
vent the  mouldering  of  walls, 
from  the  violent  action  of  the 
water,  to  which  they  are  sub- 
jected in  those  situations. 

From  the  experience  of  ages, 
the  wood  of  the  alder  is  found  to 
resist  the  action  of  the  water  j 
and  in  the  Netherlands  it  is 
generally  used  for  piles  for  the 
support  of  buildings  in  wet  and 
boggy  places.  At  Venice  it  is 
in  much  request  for  the  same 
purpose  :  and  the  Rialto-bridge, 
over  one  of  the  canals  of  that 
city,  is  founded  upon  piles  of  this 
wood. 

*"  The  alder,  which  grows 
near  the  banks  of  rivers,  is  a 
wood  not  much  used,  though  it 
has  some  excellent  qualities : 
piles  of  this  wood  being  drove  in 
the  foundations  of  edifices  which 
are  erected  in  marshy  places, 
these,  imbibing  the  humid  ele- 
ment, of  which  their  substance 
least  partakes,  will  endure  eter- 
nally, and  support  the  most  pon- 
derous structures  :  this  wood, 
therefore,  which,  out  of  the 
earth,  can  endure  but  a  short 
time,  will,  if  buried  in  a  watery 
soil,  last  for  ever.  They  may  be 
chiefly  observed  at  Ravenna ;  for 
there  all  buildings,  as  well  public 
as  private,  have  these  kind  of 
piles  in  their  foundations."  In 
another  place,  where  instructions 
are  given  about  the  foundations 
of  buildings,  Vitruvius  says,  that 
if  the  site  is  found  to  be  "  in- 
firm, soft,  and  marshy  to  the  bot- 
tom, then  it  must  be  dug  and 

116 


emptied,  and  piles  of  alder,  olive, 
or  oak  scorched,  are  to  be  driven 
in  by  machines  very  close  to- 
gether, and  the  intervals  of  the 
piles  rammed  with  coal  j  after 
which,  the  substructure  is  to  be 
completed  in  the  most  compact 
manner.'' 

It  is  also  valuable  for  those 
parts  of  pumps,  sluices,  &c.  con- 
tinually under  water.  It  is  used 
for  cart-wheels,  spinning-wheels, 
milk  vessels,  trays,  trenchers, 
and  handles  of  tools.  The  roots 
and  knots  are  in  great  estimation, 
as  furnishing  a  beautiful  wood 
for  cabinets  :  and  the  Scottish 
Highlanders  make  chairs  of  it, 
which  are  very  handsome,  and  of 
as  rich  a  colour  almost  as  maho- 
gany; that  which  has  lain  in  bogs 
is  as  black  as  ebony  :  the  colour 
of  the  wood  is  that  of  a  burnt 
sienna  yellow,  and  the  grain  is 
very  uniform  j  it  has  been  re- 
commended for  models  for  cast- 
ing from  j  but  although  its  sur- 
face is  favourable,  and  being 
easily  worked,  its  other  proper- 
ties unfit  it  for  this  purpose. 

The  cohesive  force  of  a  square 
inch  is  about  from  9,000  to  14,000 
lbs.  ;  its  modulus  of  elasticity 
about  11, 000,000  lbs.  j  and  a  cubic 
foot  of  it,  in  a  dry  state,  will 
weigh  from  45  to  50  lbs. 

The  common  alder  is  about 
as  strong  as  oak,  and  rather  more 
than  -xV  as  stiff,  and  as  tough  as 
oak. 

Alder  was  formerly  much  used 
for  pipes  for  the  conveyance  of 
water  through  pipes  and  dams, 
and  for  conveying  water  from 
springs.  The  poles  from  which 
they  were  made,  run  from  8  to  10 
inches  in  diameter,  and  the  bore 
was  from  4  to  4|  inches. 

The  boring  of  these  pipes  used 
formerly  to  be  a  matter  of  some 
consequence.  To  those  accus- 
tomed to  the  improved  boring 


ALD 


ALH 


machinery  of  the  present  time, 
an  account  of  the  mode  followed 
about  100  years  ago  maybe  inter- 
esting. 

"  The  alder  poles  were  laid  on 
'  horses,  or  tressels,'  of  a  proper 
height,  to  rest  the  augur  upon 
while  they  are  boring  \  the  lathe 
was  set  up  to  turn  the  least  end 
of  the  poles  to  fit  them  to  the 
cavities  of  the  great  end  of  the 
others.  The  lathe  being  set  up, 
and  the  poles  cut  to  the  length 
they  will  conveniently  hold,  viz. 
8,  10,  or  12  feet,  they  turn  the 
small  ends  of  the  poles,  about  5 
or  6  inches  in  length,  to  the  size 
they  intend  to  bore  the  bigger 
ends,  about  the  same  depths,  viz. 
5  or  6  inches  :  this  is  designed  to 
make  a  joint,  to  shut  each  pair 
of  the  poles  together,  the  con- 
cave part  being  the  female  part, 
and  the  other  part  the  male  of  the 
joint.  In  turning  of  the  male 
part,  they  turn  a  channel  in  it, 
or  a  small  groove,  at  a  certain 
distance  from  the  end  ;  and  in  the 
female  part  they  bore  a  small 
hole  to  fit  over  this  channel. 

"  This  being  done,  they  bore 
the  poles  through,  and,  to  prevent 
them  from  boring  out  at  the  side, 
they  stick  great  nails  at  the  end, 
to  be  a  guide  to  them  in  boring 
through,  although  they  usually 
bore  them  at  both  ends,  so  that 
if  a  pole  be  crooked  one  way, 
they  can  bore  it  through,  and  not 
spoil  it. 

"  The  poles  being  bored,  they 
form  them  into  pipes  in  the 
ground,  in  order  to  which  they 
dig  a  trench,  and  prepare  it  with 
clay,  to  ram  them  in  the  female 
part,  which  is  first  bound  with  an 
iron  ring,  to  prevent  its  splitting  ; 
afterwards  they  drive  in  the  male 
part,  till  the  groove  in  it  is  just 
under  the  hole,  and  pour  melted 
pitch  hot  into  the  hole  in  the  fe- 
male part,  which  will  Mow  round 


in  the  groove  which  was  turned 
in  the  male  part :  by  this  means 
the  junctures  are  rendered  very 
staunch  and  close." 

Alder-pipes  laid  in  this  manner 
have  been  taken  up  in  a  sound 
state  after  having  been  in  use 
130  years. 

Aleatorium.  In  ancient  Ro- 
man architecture.  A  rooniin  which 
games  at  dice  were  played. 

Almamra,  or  Medinat  Alhamra, 
the  red  city.  A  fortress  and 
palace  built  by  the  Moorish  kings 
of  Granada,  so  termed,  according 
to  some  Arabian  authors,  from 
the  colour  of  the  materials  with 
which  it  is  built.  By  the  modern 
Spaniards  it  is  called  La  Sierra 
del  Sol,  or  the  mountain  of  the 
sun,  because  by  its  situation  on  a 
high  mountain  it  is  exposed  to 
the  rising  and  setting  sun. 

The  country  surrounding  Gra- 
nada is  most  delightful,  and  for 
the  beauty  of  environs,  the  salu- 
brity of  its  climate,  and  richness 
of  the  country,  the  Arabs  called 
it  the  Damascus  of  Spain.  Few 
places,  indeed,  offer  a  more 
striking  assemblage  of  objects 
deserving  the  attention  of  the 
antiquary,  the  naturalist,  and  the 
artist.  Vestiges  of  Punic,  Ro- 
man, and  Arabian  works,  moun- 
tains pregnant  with  minerals  and 
marbles.  Grand  romantic  scenes 
which  may  invite  the  pencil  of  a 
Poussin  or  Claude.  The  fruitful 
vale  or  paradise,  as  it  has  been 
called,  fronting  the  city,  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  nature,  and  is  com- 
puted at  100  miles  in  circuit.  The 
plain  is  watered  by  numerous 
brooks  and  rivers,  and  in  every 
direction  there  appear  villages 
and  gardens,  which  are  adorned 
by  beautiful  buildings,  trees,  and 
plants,  while  the  circumjacent 
hills  and  mountains,  for  the  space 
of  40  miles,  encompass  the  plain 
nearly  in  the  form  of  a  semi- 

117 


A  L  H  AMR  A. 


circle.  At  the  extremity  of  this 
plain  stands  the  renowned  city  of 
Granada,  which,  with  its  elevated 
suburbs  resting  on  five  hills,  rises 
partly  on  delightful  acclivities, 
and  partly  extends  itself  into  the 
plain,  covered  with  buildings  oc- 
cupied by  a  numerous  population 
Language,  indeed,  can  with  diffi- 
culty describe,  how  happy,  how 
charming  it  is  rendered,  by  the 
softness  of  the  air,  the  mildness 
of  the  climate,  the  bridges  over 
the  river,  the  splendour  of  the 
temples,  and  the  convenience  of 
its  market-places.  The  city  is 
divided  by  the  river  Darro,  which 
flows  from  the  east,  and  forming 
ajunction  with  the  Singaliswaters 
the  whole  plain,  and  which,  like 
the  Nile,  after  being  augmented 
by  numerous  tributary  rivulets 
and  brooks,  swells  into  a  broad 
stream,  and  flows  on  to  Seville. 

In  Granada  there  was  a  garden 
attached  to  every  house,  and 
planted  with  orange,  lemon,  cit- 
ron, laurel,  myrtle,  and  other 
odoriferous  trees  and  plants  whose 
fragrance  purified  the  air,  and 
promoted  the  health  of  its  inha- 
bitants. All  thehouses  were  sup- 
plied with  running  water,  and 
in  every  street,  through  the  mu- 
nificence of  successive  sovereigns, 
there  were  copious  fountains  for 
the  public  convenience,  and  for 
the  performance  of  religious  ab- 
lutions ;  whatever,  in  short,  could 
tend  to  promote  the  convenience 
and  comfort  of  life,  was  here  to 
be  found  in  the  richest  profusion. 
The  houses  in  the  highest  quar- 
ter of  the  city,  which  in  the  time 
of  the  Moors  were  particularly 
elegant,  being  beautifully  orna- 
mented with  Damasquina  work  : 
the  surplus  of  the  abundant  crops 
of  corn  was  deposited  in  immense 
granaries  excavated  in  the  sides 
of  the  mountains.  Granada  had 
20  gates. 

118 


Enjoying  a  still  more  delight- 
ful prospect,  continues  the  Ara- 
bian topographer,  on  the  opposite 
side  there  rises,  as  it  were,  ano- 
ther city — the  Alhamra,  contain- 
ing the  royal  residence.  Here 
are  seen  lofty  towers,  very  strongly 
fortified  citadels,  superb  palaces, 
and  other  splendid  edifices,  the 
view  of  which  fills  the  spectator's 
mind  with  admiration  :  here  a 
vast  mass  of  water,  whose  loud, 
murmuring  noise  is  heard  at  a 
distance,  flows  from  various 
springs,  and  irrigates  both  the 
fields  and  meadows  :  the  outer 
walls  of  the  city  of  Granada 
are  surrounded  by  most  choice 
and  spacious  gardens,  where  the 
trees  are  so  thickly  set,  as  to  re- 
semble hedges,  yet  not  so  as  to 
obstruct  the  beautiful  towers  of 
the  dlhamra,  which  sparkle  among 
the  leaves  like  stars.  No  spot, 
in  short,  is  without  its  orchards, 
vineyards,  and  gardens  ;  and  so 
abundant  is  the  produce  of  fruit 
and  vegetables  reared  on  the 
widely  extended  plain,  that  the 
wealth  alone  of  the  first  princes 
can  equal  their  annual  value. 

The  Alhamra  has  been  com- 
pared to  Windsor  castle,  situated 
upon  the  northern  brow  of  a 
steep  hill,  commanding  an  ex- 
tensive prospect  over  a  beautiful 
country :  the  sides  toward  the 
citadel  are  so  dilapidated,  or  en- 
cumbered with  modern  buildings, 
that  very  few  traces  are  visible 
of  the  ancient  external  walls. 
The  interior  of  the  palace  is  still 
in  good  preservation,  and  attests 
the  romantic  splendour  of  its 
ancient  kings.  Even  in  its  pre- 
sent deserted  state  we  recognise, 
in  its  architecture,  the  rank  of 
the  owner,  the  seat  of  power, 
and  the  gravity  of  the  Arabian 
character. 

The  distribution  of  this  inter- 
esting   edifice   is    simple  and 


ALHAMRA. 


natural  3  the  courts,  which  in  mo- 
dern mansions  are  dull  and  un- 
meaning, are  here  so  contrived  as 
to  seem  a  series  of  apartments,  and 
the  whole  upon  one  plane  through- 
out. Halls  and  galleries,  porti- 
coes and  solumns,  arches,  mo- 
saics, viewed  through  the  spray 
of  falling  waters,  must  have 
formed  a  view  altogether  en- 
chanting j  and,  although  the 
Arabian  architects  were  alto- 
gether unacquainted  with  per- 
spective, the  architectural  ar- 
rangement and  address  is  admi- 
rably adapted  to  make  a  building 
appear  larger  in  its  dimensions 
than  it  really  is.  Instead  of  the 
costly  works  of  classic  art,  the 
Arabian  khalifs  adorned  their 
courts,  and  their  haram,  with  the 
simple  productions  of  nature,  and 
blessed  the  God  of  Mahomet  for 
having  given  them  that  purity  of 
taste  to  enjoy  the  exquisite  pictures 
presented  by  nature  in  all  their 
freshness  and  beauty,  instead  of 
adorning  their  dwellings  with  the 
cold  and  inanimate  copies  even 
from  the  hands  of  masters. 
Water  in  abundance  was  distri- 
buted in  every  part  of  the  palace, 
and  they  were  skilled  in  its  ma- 
nagement :  they  raised  it  in  jets, 
which  dispersed  the  floating  mias- 
mata ;  or  they  made  it  flow  from 
fountains,  and  tempered  the  dry- 
ness and  aridity  of  the  atmo- 
sphere. At  other  times  it  was 
spread  out  in  the  middle  of  a 
court  in  a.large  sheet,  reflecting 
buildings,  fountains,  flowers,  and 
the  "  glorious  sky  of  Granada." 
The  verge  was  bordered  by  white 
marble  flags,  with  long  narrow 
beds  of  roses  ranged  on  either 
side, — a  constant  stream  was 
made  to  flow  in  at  one  side,  and 
out  at  the  other,  keeping  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  on  the  same 
horizontal  plane  with  the  floors, 
"and  as  smooth  and  even  as  the 
I 


glass  floor  of  the  hall  of  audience, 
in  which  Solomon  received  the 
queen  of  Sheba." 

The  doors  are  generally  very 
large,  and  sparingly  introduced. 
Except  in  the  side  of  the  edifice 
towards  the  precipice,  where  the 
prospect  is  magnificent,  the 
windows  are  placed  to  confine 
the  prospect  to  the  interior  of  the 
palace  ;  and,  as  if  the  Arab  archi- 
tect felt  the  full  force  of  the 
beauties  with  which  the  valley  of 
Granada  abounded,  he  ingenious- 
ly gave  his  reason  for  shutting 
them  out,  in  an  inscription  placed 
in  one  of  the  apartments  : — "  My 
windows  admit  the  light,  and  ex- 
clude the  view  of  external  objects, 
lest  the  beauties  of  nature  should 
divert  your  attention  from  the 
beauties  of  my  work." 

The  arabesques,  paintings,  and 
mosaics,  which  are  finished  with 
great  care  and  accuracy,  give  a 
grace  and  importance  even  to  the 
smallest  apartment.  Instead  of 
being  hung  with  tapestry  or 
paper,  or  painted,  they  are 
covered  with  arabesques,  which 
appear  to  have  been  cast  in 
moulds,  and  afterwards  joined 
together,  although  the  joint  does 
not  appear;  the  ornaments,  which 
recede  from  the  eye,  are  illumi- 
nated in  fine  gradations  with 
leaf  gold,  pink,  light  blue,  and 
dusky  purple  ;  the  first  colour  is 
the  nearest  to  the  eye,  and  the 
last  at  the  greatest  distance  from 
it,but  the  general  surface  is  white. 
A  multitude  of  sculptures  of  un- 
equal projection  creates  confu- 
sion 3  an  error  that  is  avoided 
throughout  this  edifice,  where 
the  ornaments  being  produced 
by  incision,  the  artificial  variety, 
produced  by  an  almost  boundless 
repetition,  is  not  rendered  a  mass 
of  confusion  by  the  continuity 
being  broken  or  divided  by  parts 
projecting  from  the  general  sur- 

119 


ALHAMRA. 


face.  In  the  external  parts,  where 
projections  are  necessary  for  the 
strength  of  the  fabric,  the  line  of 
continuity  is  preserved  in  each 
distinct  series  of  parts.  The 
domes  and  arcades  are  formed  of 
artificial  casts,  which  are  almost 
as  light  as  wood,  and  as  hard  as 
marble  j  and  so  perfect  has  been 
the  art  with  which  they  are  com- 
posed, that,  after  a  lapse  of  a 
thousand  years,  they  are  as  per- 
fect as  they  were  on  the  day  in 
which  they  were  constructed. 
The  Arabs,  from  this  specimen, 
appear  to  have  been  well  ac- 
quainted with  the  properties  of 
the  carbonate  of  selenite. 

Porcelain  mosaics,  of  various 
figures  and  colours,  covered  the 
lower  part  of  the  walls  to  the 
height  of  4  feet;  and  it  also  ap- 
pears that  the  floors  and  columns 
were  covered  with  similar  mo- 
saics ; — a  refinement  unknown 
to  their  gothic  contemporaries, 
whose  barbarism  was  contented 
with  halls  skirted  with  mats,  and 
floors  strewed  with  straw  or  with 
bulrushes. 

A  most  curious  and  interesting 
part  of  this  edifice  is  the  baths, 
which  are  still  almost  entire,  and 
are  precious  as  giving  us  inform- 
ation of  the  manner  of  con- 
structing these  buildings  among  a 
luxurious  and  enlightened  people. 
A  drawing  of  them  will  be  found 
among  the  engravings  under  the 
word  Bath. 

Pedraza,  the  historian  ofGrana- 
da,  observes,  ' '  that  no  monarch, 
whether  Christian  or  infidel,  ever 
possessed  a  more  magnificent 
apartment  than  the  Hall  of  the 
Ambassadors  j"  he  might  with 
truth  have  asserted  that  it  is  a 
most  noble  hall,  "*£ind  arched  so 
high  that  giants  might  keep  their 
turbans  on."  The  Hall  of  the 
Two  Sisters,  though  not  so  large, 
displays  more  ingenuity  of  con- 


struction :  the  domes  in  particular 
are  admirable  specimens  of  ar- 
chitecture, and,  as  it  has  been 
stated,  are  in  admirable  preser- 
vation j  notwithstanding  the  ap- 
parent slightness  of  the  construc- 
tion, the  resistance  is  adjusted  to 
the  thrust  with  so  masterly  a 
tact,  that  there  is  not  an  instance 
throughout  the  building  of  a 
sinking,  or  a  fracture. 

The  walls  remain  uninjured, 
except  by  the  hand  of  man. 
The  colours  of  the  paintings,  in 
which  no  oil  has  been  used,  on 
removing  the  particles  of  dust, 
are  found  to  retain  all  their  original 
freshness  and  beauty  ;  the  beams, 
and  wood-work  of  the  ceilings, 
present  no  signs  of  decay.  The 
art  of  rendering  timber  and  paint 
durable,  and  of  making  porcelain 
mosaics,  arabesques,  and  other 
ornaments,  began,  and  ended, 
with  the  Arabs  of  the  Spanish 
khalifat ;  and  spiders,  flies,  and 
all  other  insects,  shun  their  apart- 
ments at  every  season. 

The  wood-work  of  the  floor,  in 
many  parts  of  this  extraordinary 
edifice,  is  of  pine  ;  the  veneering 
work  of  the  ceiling  is,  for  the 
most  part,  of  the  same  materials, 
and  several  parts  of  which,  that 
were  examined  in  1809,  were 
perfectly  sound ;  not  the  slightest 
mark  whatever  of  dry  rot,  worm, 
or  insect,  could  be  observed  in 
any  part.  This  freshness  has 
been  thought  to  be  the  effect  of 
the  trees  being  "  lanced,"  or  de- 
prived of  their  sap  at  the  time  of 
felling;  but  it  also  appears  pro- 
bable, that  the  paint  with  which 
it  is  coated  has  assisted  its  pre- 
servation :  the  first  coat  may  have 
been  white  lead  and  oil,  the  se- 
cond coat  brown,  composed  of 
red  lead  and  carpenters'  glue  j 
upon  this  are  laid  other  colours, 
in  figures  and  foliage,  which  still 
retain  their  admirable  brilliancy, 


ALHAMRA. 


and  particularly  the  white,  which 
is  so  bright  and  clear,  that  the 
roof  of  the  Sala  de  Comares  is 
generally  supposed  to  be  mother- 
of-pearl.  When  bricks  or  tiles 
were  placed  upon  the  wood-work, 
the  Arabians  generally  put  gyp- 
sum in  contact  with  the  timber. 

The  Spaniards  attribute  this 
durability  to  the  timber  being 
coated  with  a  composition  con- 
sisting of  Safne  glue  and  garlic, 
well  pounded  in  a  mortar;  these 
being  mixed  together,  with  the 
addition  of  vermilion,  are  boiled 
over  a  gentle  fire,  until  the  glue 
becomes  as  thin  as  water :  too 
much  or  too  little  boiling  de- 
prives it  of  its  viscous  quality. 
Planks  cemented  with  this  com- 
position are  said  to  adhere  so 
firmly,  as  to  break  at  any  other 
part  except  at  the  joint.  Garlic 
being  noxious  to  worms,  the 
Moors  evidently  mixed  it  with 
their  cement,  in  order  to  prevent 
their  depredations  :  it  is  not  im- 
probable that  it  was  mixed  with 
the  gypsum  used  in  the  Alharnra, 
which  may  account  for  the  stucco 
work  remaining  uninjured  either 
by  spiders  or  insects. 

The  arches  of  the  Alharnra  are 
of  a  pointed  horse-shoe  form  ;  one 
arch  remaining  is  a  parabola. 
The  walls  are  a  mixture  of  clay 
and  small  rubble,  and  of  small 
rubble  stone  and  gravel,  and 
coated  with  the  same  material : 
they  are  about  7  feet  thick,  and 
flanked  by  towers  of  the  same 
material,  18  feet  thick,  and  quite 
solid.  In  the  walls,  braces  or  ties 
are  placed,  chiefly  of  pine  wood, 
which  are  buried  in  the  wall,  but 
are  perfectly  sound,  having  un- 
dergone no  preparation  whatever. 
Where  coarse  gravel  was  em- 
ployed in  the  construction  of  the 
walls,  pieces  of  pine  wuod  were 
inserted  at  certain  intervals ;  when 
soft  clay  was  used,  strands  or 
Q 


twists,  made  of  a  species  of  rush, 
were  put  in  ;  and  in  both  cases 
they  appear  to  have  used  the 
common  Milha  canes,  and  also 
in  their  ceilings  :  when  they  cased 
timber  over  with  gypsum,  they 
twisted  Esparto  cords  round  it, 
to  bind  the  plaster ;  a  practice  still 
retained  among  the  Spaniards  of 
Granada,  who  find  it  of  great  ad- 
vantage to  the  durability  of  their 
walls.  The  Arabs  also  appear  to 
have  driven  nails  into  their  walls 
to  receive  the  plaster,  which  are 
to  be  seen  in  the  Alharnra, ;  but 
they  put  gypsum  or  plaster  of 
Paris  (but  not  lime)  in  contact 
with  the  iron,  which  has  thus 
been  effectually  prevented  from 
corrosion. 

The  bricks  with  which  the 
floors  of  the  more  open  parts 
are  paved,  were  14  inches  long 
and  7j  inches  wide,  and  3 
inches  deep;  the  under  side 
was  divided  in  its  breadth  into 
three  parts ;  the  middle  divi- 
sion was  sunk  about  an  inch, 
forming  a  groove  about  2|  inches 
wide,  1  inch  deep,  and  14  inches 
long.  The  intention  of  forming 
this  cavity  appears  to  have  been, 
to  give  the  bricks  a  bond  in  the 
cement,  an  effect  which  their  pre- 
sent durability  is  shown  to  have 
completely  attained.  Where  the 
brick  pavement  is  laid  over 
boarding,  a  stratum  of  potters' 
clay,  or  bricks  laid  without  mor- 
tar, or  of  gypsum,  is  interposed, 
but  no  lime  comes  in  contact 
with  the  wood  ;  over  this  undeu- 
layer  was  spread  the  cement,  in 
which  the  bricks,  tiles,  marbles, 
flags,  &c.  were  bedded. 

The  entire  length  of  the  en- 
closure of  the  Alharnra  is  about 
2300  feet,  and  its  breadth,  which 
is  nearly  the  same  throughout,  is 
about  600  feet. 

"  The  character  of  the  whole," 
says  a  modern  traveller,  "is  so 

121 


ALHAMRA. 


remote  from  that  of  any  thing 
with  which  we  are  accustomed, 
that  it  produces  un  mingled  sen- 
sations of  pleasure  and  delight ; 
and  this  pleasure  would  be  doubt- 
less enhanced  by  reading,  and 
understanding  with  the  fancy  of 
an  Arab,  the  poetry  displayed  in 
the  friezes,  architraves,  and 
bands,  in  richly  illuminated  Cufic 
and  Asiatic  characters." 

"  We  may  judge,"  says  the 
historian  of  the  Arabian  king- 
doms in  Spain,  what  this  palace 
had  been  in  the  zenith  of  the 
regal  power  of  its  possessors, 
with  the  courts  and  halls,  baths 
and  fountains,  groves  and  gar- 
dens, in  their  perfection.  Its  in- 
habitants vere  sumptuously  robed 
in  fine  linen,  silks,  and  embroi- 
dery, glittering  with  gold  and 
gems  j  they  had  gorgeous  furni- 
ture, of  citron,  sandal,  and  aloes 
wood,  ornamented  with  ivory 
and  mother-of-pearl,  intermixed 
with  burnished  gold  and  cerulean 
blue  j  vases  of  curious  and  costly 
workmanship,  of  porcelain,  rock- 
crystal,  mosaic,  and  sardonyx ; 
rich  hangings,  flowery  carpets, 
couches,  and  pillows  ;  and  the 
whole  was  perfumed  with  the 
precious  frankincense  of  Yamen." 

But,  of  all  this  splendour,  no- 
thing now  remains  but  ruined 
edifices,  uncultivated  fields  and 
gardens.  Granada,  the  capital, 
is  the  skeleton  of  a  city,  where 
nothing  thrives  but  monasteries, 
and  lawyers  surviving  the  ruin 
they  have  created.  The  Alhamra 
is  deserted,  except  on  the  days 
appropriated  to  the  admission  of 
strangers  :  the  want  of  repairs, 
the  frequent  dilapidations,  caused 
by  the  admission  of  rain  and  the 
stagnant  waters,  are  accelerating 
its  destruction.  Thus  dismantled, 
solitary  and  neglected,  without 
the  interposition  of  the  govern- 
ment, a  few  more  years  may  le- 

122 


vel  with  the  ground  the  beautiful 
domes  and  splendid  arcades  of 
the  only  remaining  palace  of  the 
western  khalifs. 

The  approach  is  through  a 
narrow  street,  still  retaining  its 
ancient  name  ;  a  gate  leads  into 
the  outward  enclosure  of  the  Al- 
hamra, the  road  ascending  by  a 
winding  path,  through  a  wood  of 
venerable  elms,  interspersed  with 
other  handsome  trees.  Near  the 
summit  of  the  hill  are  the  remains 
of  a  large  fountain,  erected  by  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  The  prin- 
cipal entrance  to  the  Alhamra 
exhibits  to  great  advantage  the 
massive  architecture  of  anArabian 
citadel. 

The  Gate  of  Judgment,  so 
named  on  account  of  the  ancient 
eastern  custom  of  holding  the 
courts  of  justice  at  the  gates  of 
the  cities,  has  the  horseshoe 
arch,  so  characteristic  of  Arab 
architecture.  The  gate  was  ori- 
ginally constructed  of  white 
marble,  which  has  become  in  the 
course  of  so  many  years  of  a  grey 
or  yellowish  cast.  The  mosaic 
tiling  which  decorates  its  top  is 
about  3  feet4  inches  high;  beneath 
it  is  an  inscription  in  Cufic  cha- 
racters, consisting  of  a  motto  re- 
peated twice,  "  There  is  no  con- 
queror but  God!"  Under  this 
inscription,  upon  the  key-stone 
of  the  arch,  a  key  is  sculptured; 
this  was  a  favourite  symbol  of  the 
followers  of  Mahomet,  and  an- 
swers to  the  cross  among  Chris- 
tians :  among  the  Arabians  its 
attributes  were  similar  to  the  key, 
the  symbol  of  the  church  of 
Rome,  of  opening  and  shutting 
the  gates  of  heaven.  The  door 
of  this  gate  is  of  the  wood  of  the 
palm-tree,  with  iron  bolts.  The 
porch  of  the  Gate  of  Judgment 
has  arches  of  the  crescent  form, 
and  an  open  hand  is  sculptured 
on  the  key-stone,  which  was  a 


ALHAMRA. 


symbol  of  the  omnipotent  hand 
of  God,  and  believed  to  be  a 
powerful  defence  against  the 
enemies  of  the  Koran  ;  and  it 
became  the  symbol  of  union 
among  those  Arabs  who  remained 
in  Spain  after  the  conquest  of  the 
city  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

The  Square  of  Cisterns  encloses 
the  ancient  cisterns  which  sup- 
plied the  palace  and  the  other 
buildings  with  water,  which 
were  kept  constantly  filled  by 
water  brought  from  a  hill,  a  mile 
distant.  The  largest  of  these 
cisterns  is  102  feet  long  and  56 
feet  wide,  the  whole  is  enclosed 
by  a  wall  6  feet  thick  and  arched 
over  :  the  arch  is  47  feet  6  inches 
high  in  the  centre,  and  17  feet 
6  inches  below  the  surface  of  the 
ground.  There  are  two  openings 
built  circularly,  25  feet  6  inches 
asunder,  and  3  feet  6  inches  in 
diameter,  strongly  walled,  and 
the  tube  is  carried  up  3  feet 
6  inches  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  to  admit  air  and  light. 
The  apparatus  for  discharging  the 
water  was  extremely  simple,  a 
brass  cock  fixed  at  the  extremity 
of  a  narrow  subterraneous  re- 
servoir. This  reservoir  is  con- 
jectured to  have  been  constructed 
with  the  intention  of  keeping  the 
water  in  a  constant  state  of  cool- 
ness, which,  in  warm  climates,  is 
esteemed  a  luxury  of  the  greatest 
consequence  :  and  the  ingenious 
manner  in  which  this  is  ac- 
complished, and  the  water  is  fil- 
tered and  kept  pure,  and  at  the 
same  temperature  throughout  the 
year,  is  worthy  of  imitation. 

Advancing  towards  the  interior 
of  the  palace,  according  to  the 
practice  of  the  Moors,  the  orna- 
ments become  more  finished  and 
beautiful ;  a  custom  observable 
even  at  this  day  among  Arabs, 
who  bestow  but  little  external 
ornament  on  their  buildings,  but 


reserve  all  its  riches  to  those 
inner  apartments.  In  the  Hall  of 
the  Baths,  the  arches  spring  from 
very  light  marble  columns,  of  the 
same  kind  with  that  forming  the 
floor.  Mosaic  tilings  reach  up 
to  the  ceiling,  and  the  apertures 
for  ventilation  are  formed  of  per- 
forations in  the  shape  of  a  star, 
and  linpd  with  green,  glazed, 
baked  tiles,  aiding  the  sensation 
of  a  diffusion  of  a  refreshing  cool- 
ness. In  Moorish  palaces,  from 
the  frequency  of  ablution  required 
by  the  rites  of  the  Koran,  the 
baths  became  an  important  part 
of  every  erection  ;  and  in  their 
arrangement  and  decoration  the 
same  differences  of  style  are  ob- 
servable. The  apartments  appro- 
priated to  the  ablutions  of  the 
khalif  and  sultana,  are  finished  in 
a  most  exquisite  style,  and  the 
queen's  bath  is  most  richly  orna- 
mented with  gilding  and  porce- 
lain. The  basins  containing  the 
water  are  of  white  marble,  and  the 
walls  are  covered  to  the  height  of 
the  cornices  with  beautiful  black 
and  white  mosaics.  The  vaulted 
stone  roof  is  perforated  with 
ventilators,  which  admit  a  soft 
and  bland  light  into  this  most 
voluptuous  apartment.  The 
water  was  heated  by  copper 
boilers,  and  conducted  from  them 
between  the  walls  into  the  dif- 
ferent baths  by  means  of  pipes. 

The  Court  of  the  Lions  is  con- 
sidered to  be  one  of  the  most  per- 
fect specimens  of  Moorish  archi- 
tecture in  the  building.  It  is  an 
oblong  quadrangle,  100  feet  long, 
and  50  feet  broad,  surrounded 
with  a  corridor,  formed  of  12S 
columns  of  white  marble,  from 
which  spring  as  many  arches, 
supporting  the  upper  apartments 
of  the  palace;  a  portico,  not  unlike 
some  Gothic  portals,  projects  into 
this  court,  with  a  fine  stuccoed 
Ceiling.    The  floor  of  the  colon- 

123 


ALHAMRA. 


nade  is  laid  with  white  marble  j 
the  columns  are  disposed  irregu- 
larly, sometimes  single,  at  other 
parts  coupled,  and  in  others  in 
clusters  of  three  :  they  are  9  feet 
high,  and  not  more  than  inches 
in  circumference  ;  the  larger 
arches  which  spring  from  them 
are  4  feet  <2  inches  wide,  and  the 
smaller  about  3  feet.  The  capi- 
tals of  the  pillars  vary  in  their 
designs,  each  pattern  frequently 
occurring  in  the  circumference 
of  the  court,  but  not  seemingly 
placed  with  any  design  of  being 
opposite  to,  or  at  equal  distances 
with,  those  of  the  same  model. 
The  dado  of  the  walls  of  this 
court  is  formed  of  a  lining  5  feet 
high,  of  brilliant  yellow  and  blue 
mosaic  tiling,  with  a  border,  con- 
taining the  often  repeated  sen- 
tence, "  There  is  no  conqueror 
but  God,"  in  blue  and  gold.  The 
arches  are  further  ornamented 
with  a  profusion  of  high- finished 
arabesques,  having  no  trace  of 
animal  or  vegetable  forms,  and 
surmounted  with  the  usual  in- 
scription ;  a  highly-decorated 
cornice  runs  round  the  whole 
court.  In  the  centre  of  the  court, 
the  celebrated  Fountain  of  the 
Lions  is  placed.  These  animals 
are  twelve  in  number,  and  sup- 
port on  their  backs  an  alabaster 
basin,  richly  decorated,  and  from 
which  rises  a  smaller  basin.  A 
great  volume  of  water  rose 
through  pipes  into  the  upper 
basin,  which  fell  into  the  larger 
fountain,  and  was  conducted 
through  the  lions'  mouths  into 
the  large  reservoir  of  black  mar- 
ble. From  this,  as  a  fountain- 
head,  the  water  was  distributed, 
by  means  of  marble  channels, 
through  various  apartments.  The 
ancient  work  of  this  court,  which 
is  out  of  reach  of  hands,  is  sharp, 
clean,  arid  white,  and  not  a  spi- 
der's web,  or  insect  of  any  kind, 

124 


could  be  discovered  in  it,  while 
some  of  the  stucco  work  exe- 
cuted by  latter  kings  was  covered 
with  cobwebs  in  many  parts. 
The  wood-work  of  the  Arabs  in 
this  court  is  also  in  good  pre- 
servation ;  while  much  of  that 
which  has  been  placed  here  by 
succeeding  kings  is  fast  disap- 
pearing. 

From  the  Lions'  Court  is  a  pas- 
sage to  the  Hall  of  the  Two  Sis- 
ters, so  named  from  two  beauti- 
ful pieces  of  white  marble  forming 
part  of  the  pavement  on  each  side 
of  the  fountain  ;  they  are  15  feet 
long,  and  7 J  broad,  and  quite 
free  from  crack  or  stain.  The 
walls  are  decorated,  from  the 
pavement  to  the  rise  of  the  arches, 
with  the  usual  elegant  mosaics  j 
the  pannels  between  them  are 
filled  with  a  delicate  ornament, 
which,  at  a  little  distance,  has 
the  appearance  of  a  plain  face ; 
the  ceiling  is  composed  of  stalac- 
tites, in  stucco,  and  finished  in  a 
style  of  great  elegance.  The 
four  balconies  of  this  sumptuous 
apartment  were  appropriated  to 
musicians,  the  women  of  the  ha- 
ram  sat  below,  and  a  jet  d  eau  in 
the  middle  diffused  a  refreshing 
coolness  through  the  hall.  The 
windows  look  into  a  little  myrtle 
garden. 

Opposite  to  this  salais  the  Sala 
de  los  Abencerrages,  so  named 
from  some  noble  Arabs,  who 
were  put  to  death  in  it  by  one  of 
the  kings  of  Granada.  It  appears 
to  have  been  a  central  saloon, 
opening  a  communication  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  palace.  Every 
possible  variety  of  combination 
which  can  be  devised  by  inge- 
nuity and  patience  are  found  on 
the  walls  and  ceiling;  the  lines 
regularly  cross  each  other  in  a 
variety  of  directions,  and  return 
again  to  the  point  from  which 
they  were  first  projected.  The 


ALH 


A  L  I 


extraordinary  designs  are  thought 
to  have  been  produced  by  pour- 
ing prepared  gypsum  into  moulds, 
and  after  it  was  applied  to  the 
walls,  by  painting  them  with  gold, 
azure,  and  purple. 

The  Concert  Room  of  the  Baths 
is  a  lofty  saloon,in  which  the  royal 
family  listened  to  the  concerts  of 
musicians,  stationed  in  an  elevated 
tribune,  while  the  audience  sat 
below  on  rich  carpets.  The  co- 
lumns are  of  white  marble,  and 
the  mosaics  between  the  columns 
are  black,  green,  yellow,  and 
white,  set  in  a  green  border ;  the 
roof  is  covered  with  tiles,  and 
the  wood-work  richly  ornament- 
ed, especially  the  three  lattices  or 
windows. 

The  Hall  of  the  Ambassadors  is 
termed,  by  the  Arabs,  the  Golden 
Saloon,  and  was  appropriated  to 
the  reception  of  ambassadors  ;  it 
is  64  feet  high,  and  36  feet  square  j 
the  materials  of  the  walls  are 
pebbles  and  red  clay,  intermixed  j 
they  are  15  feet  thick  on  three 
sides,  and  on  the  fourth  side 
9  feet  thick;  the  ceiling  is 
composed  of  strong  pieces  of 
larch,  in  admirable  preservation, 
which  are  keyed  and  fastened  to- 
gether in  such  a  manner,  that,  on 
pressing  the  feet  on  the  centre  of 
the  ceiling,  the  whole  vibrates 
like  a  tight  rope.  The  roof  is 
formed  of  a  scantling  of  10  inches 
square  deal,  and  laid  close  toge- 
ther, with  cross  braces  at  the 
angles.  Bricks  are  laid  on  these 
rafters,  and  upon  them  is  a  coat- 
ing of  lime  ;  on  these  are  placed 
the  bricks  and  tiles,  forming  the 
exterior  covering  of  the  roof. 

The  principal  entrance  to  this 
noble  hall  is  through  an  arched 
door,  decorated  with  a  profusion 
of  stucco  arabesques,  in  blue  and 
gold.  The  floor  is  inlaid  with 
mosaics,  and  different  patterns  of 
the  same  kind  of   work  cover 


every  part  of  the  wails  in  figure* 
and  inscriptions,  in  Arabic,  form- 
ed with  porcelain  with  admirable 
skill,  and  which  is  made  to  form 
a  most  harmonious  combination 
with  the  stucco  ornaments.  On 
the  cornices  are  fouud  the  usual 
inscription.  Its  bold,  arched  ceil- 
ing is  adorned  with  almost  innu- 
merable chiligon  mosaics,  knots, 
and  other  ornaments  ;  and  gold, 
silver,  and  azure  purple  are  the 
colours  covering  the  stuccoed 
facets. 

Inscriptions  are  placed  every 
where  ;  and,  indeed,  the  Alhamra 
in  general  has  not  improperly 
been  called  a  collection  of  "  fu- 
gitive pieces."  Over  the  prin- 
cipal door  of  the  Hall  of  Am- 
bassadors is  inscribed :  "  By 
the  sun,  and  its  rising  bright- 
ness j  by  the  moon,  when  she 
followeth  him  ;  by  the  day,  when 
she  showeth  her  splendour ;  by 
the  night,  when  it  covereth  him 
with  darkness  ;  by  the  heaven, 
and  him  who  spread  it  forth, 
by  the  soul,  and  him  who  com- 
pletely formed  it — there  is  no 
other  god  but  God." 

In  an  inscription,  on  a  frieze 
over  the  upper  windows  of  the 
grand  saloon,  the  letters  are  about 
16  inches  high,  and  left  white  j 
the  ornament  light  blue,  and  the 
back -ground  vermilion.  The 
foliage  is  imitated  from  the  small 
caltrops,  indigenous  in  Spain. 

Alioti,  J.  Baptista,  an  Italian 
architect,  was  a  native  of  Fer- 
rara.  In  his  youth,  the  poverty 
of  his  parents  obliged  him  to 
follow  the  employment  of  a  ma- 
son's labourer.  But  in  this  hum- 
ble situation  he  was  fortunate  to 
attract  the  notice  of  a  patron  by 
his  attempts  at  architectural 
composition.  He  studied  geo- 
metry and  the  belles  lettres,  and 
his  subsequent  diligence  amply 
supplied  the  time  he  lost  in  nil 


ALM 


A  L  1 


youth.  He  was  a  party  in  the 
famous  hydraulic  controversy, 
which  arose  on  account  of  the 
measures  for  preventing  the  in- 
undations of  the  provinces  of 
Ferrara  and  Bologna.  He  erected 
a  fortress  at  Ferrara,  for  pope 
Clement  VII.  And  at  Mantua, 
Modena,  Parma,  and  Venice,  he 
was  much  employed  by  the 
nobles  in  their  palaces,  and  also 
in  theatres  and  other  public  build- 
ings.   He  died  in  1630. 

Alipius,  an  architect  who 
lived  in  the  fourth  century,  was 
commissioned  by  the  emperor 
Julian  to  rebuild  the  temple  of 
Jerusalem  ;  but,  according  to  the 
Jews,  when  he  was  laying  the 
foundation,  the  earth  emitted  fire, 
and  destroyed  the  workmen  ! 

Alipterion.  In  ancient  Roman 
architecture.  A  room  used  by  the 
bathers  for  anointing  themselves. 

Alkoranes.  In  Persian  archi- 
tecture. High,  slender  towers,  at- 
tached to  Persian  mosques,  and 
surrounded  with  balconies,  in 
which  the  priests  recite  aloud 
prayers  from  the  Koran  at  stated 
times,  and  announce  the  hours  of 
devotion  to  the  worshippers. 
They  are  often  of  very  fantastic 
shapes,  and  generally  form  the 
principal  embellishments  of  the 
mosque.  They  are  beautiful 
objects  in  the  grouping  of  Per- 
sian scenery. 

Allesi,  G.,  an  Italian  archi- 
tect. He  was  much  employed  at 
Genoa;  and  his  designs  for  the 
Escurial  were  preferred  to  those 
of  all  the  other  artists  who  were 
competitors  on  this  occasion.  He 
was  born  in  a.  d.  1500,  and  died 
in  1572. 

Alley.  (Alice,  Fr.)  An  aisle  j 
any  part  of  a  church  left  open  for 
walking  through  ;  a  passage  in 
towns  narrower  than  a  street ;  a 
walk  in  a  garden. 

Almeurabh.  In  Arabian  archi- 
ll 


tecture.  A  niche  in  a  mosque, 
marking  the  direction  of  the 
temple  at  Mecca,  %)  which 
Mahometans  turn  their  faces  in 
praying. 

Almonry,  Almery,  Aumery, 
Ambrey,  Aumbrey.  (Almonarium, 
Almeriola,  Lat.  Armoire,  Fr.  a 
closet.)  A  cupboard,  closet,  or  re- 
cess, so  called  from  the  hospitable, 
old  custom  of  setting  aside  broken 
victuals  in  a  particular  place, 
to  be  given  as  alms  to  the  poor. 
A  pantry  ;  a  place  where  utensils 
used  for  culinary  purposes  are 
kept;  a  stone  house  near  the 
church,  in  abbeys,  or  by  its 
gates,  with  various  offices,  for 
distributing  the  alms  of  the  con- 
vent, and  for  the  habitation  of  the 
almoner. 

In  Durham  abbey,  in  the 
wainscot  behind  the  altar,  were 
4  grand  almeries,  to  preserve  the 
chalices  and  silver  cruets. 

Alms-house.  A  house  devot- 
ed to  the  reception  and  support 
of  the  poor.  A  house  built  and 
endowed  for  a  particular  descrip- 
tion of  poor  persons,  by  wealthy 
and  charitable  individuals. 

When  our  Anglo-Saxon  kings 
dined,  the  poor  sat  in  the  street, 
expecting  the  broken  meat. 
Alms-houses  were  afterwards 
built  at  the  doors  of  churches 
and  abbey  gates,  for  the  distri- 
bution of  alms.    See  Almonry. 

Altar.  In  ancient  Roman  ar- 
chitecture. A  place  on  which  of- 
ferings or  sacrifices  were  made  to 
the  gods.  It  was  called  bomos  by 
the  Greeks,  in  a  general  sense  ; 
ar<E  and  alt  are  by  the  Romans. 
Some  pretend  to  find  a  different 
meaning  in  the  two  words,  "  arae" 
being  consecrated  to  the  celestial 
and  infernal  deities  promiscuously, 
but  the  "  altaria"  to  the  celestial 
gods  only.  Others  make  a  fur- 
ther distinction.  The  gods  of 
heaven  had  altars  raised  from 


ALTAR. 


the  earth;  the  terrestrial  deities 
had  offerings  made  to  them  on 
the  earth  itself;  and  to  the  infer- 
nal gods  a  hole  was  dug  in  the 
ground.  Porphyry's  classifica- 
tion differs  but  little  from  this. 
He  says,  hearths  (foci)  of  one 
step  high  were  erected  to  the 
terrestrial  deities  and  heroes;  to 
the  infernal  gods  they  dug  holes ; 
and  to  the  world  and  nymphs, 
and  such  like  divinities,  they 
erected  or  excavated  grots. 

The  use  of  altars  must  have 
been  as  ancient  and  general  as 
the  use  of  sacrifices  and  offerings  j 
and  were  erected  in  temples,  por- 
ticoes, peristyles,  in  the  open  air, 
and  on  the  summits  of  mountains. 

The  larger  temples  had  ge- 
nerally three  altars :  the  first 
placed  in  the  sanctuary,  or  ady- 
tum, at  the  foot  of  the  divinity  ; 
the  second  at  the  door  of  the 
temple  ;  the  third  was  portable, 
and  called  anclabris,  on  which 
were  placed  offerings  and  the 
sacred  vases. 

"  Some  altars  were  called,  by 
the  Greeks,  empuroi,  designed  for 
sacrifices  made  by  fire ;  others 
were  called  apuroi,  without  fire  ; 
and  anaimaktoi,  without  blood, 
upon  which  neither  fire  nor  blood 
could  lawfully  be  placed,  but  only 
cakes,  fruits  of  the  earth,  and  in- 
animate things.  Paphian  Venus 
had  an  altar,  which  was  said  to  be 
free  from  blood,  fanaimaktosj  as  it 
was  unlawful  to  offer  animals 
upon  it,  but  not  void  of  fire,  (apu- 
ros,J  for  the  goddess  was  wor- 
shipped solis  precibus  et  igne  puro, 
as  Tacitus  affirms." — Potter. 

And  in  early  times  they  appear 
to  have  been  formed  of  any  ma- 
terial admitting  of  a  convenient 
or  rapid  execution — a  mound  of 
turf,  a  heap  of  stones.  The  altar 
consecrated  by  Jacob  at  Bethel, 
was  merely  the  stone  on  which 
he  rested,  and  that  of  Gideon  was 


of  a  similar  kind.  The  first  altar 
erected  by  Moses  was  made  of 
earth  only. 

The  altar  which  Moses  com- 
manded Joshua  to  build  was  of 
unhewn  stone  ;  Solomon's  was 
of  brass,  but  filled  with  unhewn 
stones ;  that  built  by  Zerubabel 
and  the  Maccabees,  of  rough 
stones. 

Among  the  seven  wonders  of 
the  world,  was  an  altar  at  Delos, 
which  was  made  of  the  horns 
of  animals ;  tradition  report- 
ed that  it  was  constructed  by 
Apollo,  with  the  horns  of  deer, 
killed  in  hunting  by  his  sister 
Diana.  Plutarch  says  he  saw  it, 
and  that  he  admired  the  wonder- 
ful interlacing  of  the  horns  of 
which  it  was  made,  and  that  no 
bond  or  cement  was  used  to 
hold  it  together.  In  the  magni- 
ficent temple  of  Jupiter,  at 
Babylon,  there  was  an  altar  ot 
massive  gold.  The  altars  used  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  were  ot 
bronze,  but  the  greater  number 
of  stone  or  marble,  bricks,  &c. 
Pausanias  mentions  one  of  wood, 
made  so  artfully  as  to  appear  to 
have  been  built  of  stone. 

Some  altars  were  solid,  and 
some  hollow,  from  the  top  down- 
ward, pretty  low,  to  receive 
either  the  libation  or  the  blood  of 
the  victims ;  others  again  were 
made  of  iron  bars  only,  like  that 
on  the  column  of  Antoninus. 

A  grand  altar  for  the  burning 
of  the  sacrifice  is  to  be  seen  at 
the  Pamphili  palace,  at  Rome  ; 
where  h  remarked  the  fireplace, 
on  which  charcoal  was  put  to 
consume  the  victim,  and  other 
passages,  for  the  escape  of  the 
blood. 

Altars  vary  almost  to  infinity 
in  their  forms  and  size,  as  well  as 
in  their  decorations.  Their  shapes 
were  innumerable  :  cubes,  paral- 
lelograms, frustra  of  cones,  of 

1527 


ALTAR. 


pyramids,  and  polygonal  pyra- 
mids, and  portions  of  cylinders, 
&c. 

The  earlier  altars  of  stone,  on 
which  were  placed  fruits,  per- 
fumes, or  such  like  offerings,  were 
probably  small ;  but  when  man- 
kind began  to  show  their  respect 
for  their  divinities,  by  immolating 
living  being",  they  necessarily 
were  formed  of  larger  dimen- 
sions. 

There  was  no  fixed  standard 
for  the  height  of  the  altar,  some 
of  them  not  being  so  high  as  the 
knee,  while  others  reached  to  the 
waist  of  the  sacrificers ;  some 
again  are  higher,  and  especially 
the  round  ones,  so  that  some- 
times an  altar  can  hardly  be  distin- 
guished, on  basso-relievoes,  from 
a  column.  Vitruvius  says,  their 
highest  altars  were  for  Jupiter  ; 
and  Pausanias  relates,  that  the 
altar  of  Olympian  Jupiter  was 
about  22  feet  high. 

Altars  were  ornamented  with  a 
reference  to  the  attributes  of  the 
god  to  whom  they  were  conse- 
crated. 

"  The  most  ancient  altars," 
says  Potter,  "  were  adorned  with 
horns,  the  figures  of  them  upon 
Roman  medals  are  never  without 
horns,  and  the  altars  which  re- 
main of  old  Rome,  have  always 
this  ornament.  Moses  was  com- 
manded to  erect  an  altar  with 
horns ;  these  horns  served  for 
various  uses,  the  victims  were 
fastened  to  them,  and  suppliants 
Hed  to  them ;  some  derive  them 
from  a  practice  of  the  earlier  ages, 
wherein  horns  were  a  mark  of 
dignity  and  power.  The  images 
of  the  most  ancient  gods  and 
heroes  have  horns,  also  on  heads 
of  Persian  kings  j  also  Astarte,  one 
of  the  Phoenician  queens,  used  to 
wear  upon  her  head  bulls'  horns." 

On  some  are  seen  sculptured 
heads  of  animals,  patera  vases, 

128 


instruments  of  sacrifice,  garlands 
of  flowers,  in  imitation  of  those 
with  which  the  victim  was 
adorned.  Other  altars  bear  in- 
scriptions, stating  the  period  and 
occasion  of  their  erection,  the 
motive  and  name  of  the  person 
who  dedicated  it,  and  the  name 
of  the  divinity.  The  finest  altars, 
however,  which  have  reached  our 
times,  are  those  decorated  with 
figures,  representing  the  gods  and 
heroes. 

On  solemn  days,  altars  were 
adorned  with  branches  and  leaves 
of  trees,  giving  to  each  deity  the 
leaves  and  branches  which  were 
sacred  to  him  :  to  Jupiter  the 
beech  ;  to  Apollo  the  laurel  j  an 
olive  to  Minerva ;  the  myrtle  de- 
corated the  altars  to  Venus,  and 
a  poplar  those  of  Hercules  3  while 
those  of  Bacchus  had  the  ivy 
strewed  over  them,  and  Pan  was 
supposed  to  be  pleased  with  the 
leaves  of  a  pine-tree ;  and  these 
were  transferred  by  sculptors  to 
their  works  as  characteristic 
ornaments,  and  peculiar  to  the 
divinity  to  whom  the  altar  was 
consecrated. 

"  Altars  should  regard  the  east, 
and  be  always  placed  lower  than 
the  statue  which  is  in  the  temple, 
that  the  supplicants  and  sacri- 
ficers may  look  upwrard  to  the 
divinity,  and  stand,  as  decorum 
requires,  at  a  different  height  to 
the  god.  The  heights  of  altars 
are  so  adjusted  that  those  of 
Jupiter  and  all  the  celestial  gods, 
may  be  disposed  as  high  as 
convenience  will  admit.  Those 
of  Vesta,  and  the  gods  of  the 
earth  and  sea,  are  situated  lower." 
— Vitruvius, 

It  is  probable  that  they  were 
always  placed  at  that  end  of 
the  temple  opposite  to  the 
entrance,  by  that  means  leav* 
ing  more  room  for  the  sacri- 
fices,  and    causing  the  whole 


ALTAR. 


assembly  to  stand  before  the 
image  of  the  god,  not  partly  be- 
hind it,  and  thus  giving  to  the 
whole  an  appearance  of  more 
dignity ;  and  in  camps  they  were 
placed  before  the  tent  of  the 
general. 

The  ancients  had  little  altars 
in  their  houses,  dedicated  to 
the  Lares  and  Genii,  and  to  the 
Junones,  which  were  the  genii 
of  women  ;  others  were  set  up  in 
the  fields,  and  dedicated  to  rustic 
deities;  these  the  peasants  made  of 
turf.  Sometimes  altars  merely  de- 
noted places  set  apart  for  prayer; 
but  wherever  an  altar  was  erected, 
there  the  god  to  whom  it  was 
dedicated  was  considered  to  be 
more  especially  present. 

A  great  many  sepulchral  stones 
have  been  found,  bearing  the 
name  of  altars  j  and  they  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  used  as  such, 
and  that  libations  were  poured 
upon  them  for  the  souls  of  the 
deceased.  In  some  of  them  there 
are  holes  at  the  top  to  receive 
the  libation. 

Oaths  and  treaties  among  the 
ancients  were  made  at  the  altars  3 
and  when  they  swore,  they  touch- 
ed the  altar,  to  make  it  more 
solemn  :  marriages  were  also 
here  celebrated,  and  friendships 
contracted. 

Altar  of  burnt  offerings  in  the 
Temple  of  Jerusalem.  A  coffer 
of  shittim  wood  covered  with 
brass  placed  before  the  ta- 
bernacle, having  a  fire  continu- 
ally burning  upon  it;  at  its  four 
corners  was  an  appearance  of 
something  like  horns.  In  the 
hollow  was  a  brass  grate  on 
which  the  fire  was  made,  and  the 
ashes  fell  into  a  sort  of  box  or 
drawer;  this  grate  was  suspend- 
ed by  four  chains  or  rings  pro- 
ceeding from  the  horns  of  the 
altar  ;  the  entire  apparatus  was 
movable. 

R 


Altar  of  incense.  A  small  table 
covered  with  plates  of  gold,  on 
which  was  placed  the.  smoking 
censer,in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem 
Altar,  among  Romish  Christians, 
is  a  square  table,  usually  placed 
at  the  east  end  of  the  church,  for 
the  celebration  of  mass. 

It  is  totally  different  from  those 
of  the  pagans  we  have  been  de- 
scribing, and  its  established  form 
has  its  origin  from  the  institution 
of  the  sacrament  having  been 
given  at  a  supper  table. 

"The high  altar,  as  it  represent- 
ed the  church,  had  four  corners, 
because  the  gospel  was  extended 
through  the  four  quarters  of  the 
globe  ;  its  dimensions  are  stated 
by  bishop  Hakewill.  '  Allowing, 
then,  an  altar  of  three  foote  and 
an  halfe  high,  and  a  rising  to  it 
from  the  lower  floor  of  a  foote 
high,  the  height  of  the  awfrar 
from  the  lower  floor  will  be  foure 
foote  and  a  halfe,  or  three  cubits  ; 
which  is  the  measure  required  in 
the  Levitical  law,  and  yet  differs 
little  in  height  from  the  altars  in 
forraine  parts,  or  those  which  are 
yet  standing  with  us,  if  wee  like- 
wise take  their  height  from  the 
lower  floore,  which,  by  reason  of 
the  continued  and  easie  degrees 
of  ascent  to  them,  may  not  un- 
fitly be  counted  their  basis  or 
foote.'  The  authentic  mark  of 
an  altar  table  was  its  five  crosses. 
— As  no  altar  could  be  con- 
secrated without  relics,  there 
was  a  small  stone,  called  '  si- 
gillum  altaris,'  by  which  the 
aperture  for  insertion  of  the  re- 
lics was  closed  up  by  mortar, 
tempered  in  holy  water.  The 
horns  of  the  altar  are  supposed 
to  have  been  called  the  corners. 
Ducange  says,  the  horn  of  the 
altar  is  the  side  where  the  epistle 
and  go.°pel  were  read.  The  d- 
borium,  an  arch  over  the  altar, 
supported  by  four  lofty  columns, 

129 


ALTA  R. 


imitation  of  the  propitiatory, 
which  covered  the  ark  j  it  was 
sometimes  illuminated  and 
adorned  by  tapers.  When  there 
was  no  ciborium,  a  mere  canopy 
was  suspended  over  the  altar  : 
tli is  was  most  common  in  Eng- 
lish churches ;  a  fine  stone  screen 
forming  the  back  of  the  altar,  from 
which  the  canopy  projects.  Cur- 
tains, called  the  tetravelum,  were 
annexed,  and  drawn  round,  that 
the  priest  might  not  be  confused 
by  a  view  of  the  spectators.  Un- 
der this  ciboriu  n  or  canopy  hung 
the  pix,  or  box  of  goldsmith's 
work,  containing  the  host,  com- 
monly called  a  dove,  esteemed 
so  sacred,  that,  upon  the  march 
of  hostile  armies,  it  was  especi- 
ally prohibited  from  theft ;  and 
Henry  V.  delayed  his  march  for  a 
whole  day,  to  discover  the  thief 
who  had  stolen  one.  A  common 
altar-piece  was  a  picture  of  the 
general  judgment,  called  mappa 
tnitndi ;  but  others  occur,  though 
it  is  probable  no  subject  was  ad- 
missible which  was  not  either 
contemporary  with,  or  posterior 
to,  the  passion  of  Christ.  Over 
the  altar  was  put  the  palla,  car- 
ried out  against  fires ;  and  over 
the  pall  the  corporal,  always 
made  of  linen,  according  to  an 
order  of  Sextus  in  a.  d.  133.  The 
antependium  was  a  veil,  which 
hung  before,  as  the  dorsale  did 
behind  it.  Behind,  and  about  the 
altar,  were  posticse  or  beams, 
ornamented,  at  the  great  feasts, 
with  reliquaries  of  ivory  and  sil- 
ver, &c.  The  piscinas,  or  sinks, 
where  the  officiating  priest  emp- 
tied the  water  he  washed  his 
hands  in,  and  where  flies,  (because 
the  emblems  of  unclean  thoughts,) 
and  other  filth  in  the  chalice,  in 
short,  all  consecrated  waste  stuff 
or  that  could  be  so,  were  poured 
out :  it  was  directed  to  be  affixed 
either  to  the  wall  or  pensile,  and 

130 


water  was  furnished  with  a  linen 
pall.  The  lavatory  is  also  called 
the  horn  of  the  altar.  Piscinas 
are  sometimes  double,  sometimes 
single.  Besides  the  piscinas,  were 
the  stalls,  where  the  officiating 
minister  retired  during  parts  of 
the  service  performed  by  the 
choir.  The  sedes  majestatis,  a  seat 
by  the  side  of  the  altar,  in  which 
he  who  is  about  to  celebrate  mass 
sits,  while  some  parts  of  the  ser- 
vice are  sung." 

In  the  infancy  of  the  church, 
and  while  Christianity  was  op- 
pressed and  persecuted,  wood  was 
admitted  into  the  construction  of 
altars,  as  being  more  portable,  and 
convenient  than  any  other  ma- 
terial ;  but,  upon  peace  being 
granted  to  the  christian  world 
by  Constantine,  the  great  altars 
were  erected  of  stone ;  and  the 
council  of  Hippo,  at  which  the 
famous  St  Augustine  was  present, 
forbids  them  to  be  consecrated  in 
future,  unless  of  this  material. 
About  a.  d.  315,  pope  Sylvester 
decreed  that  stone  altars  should 
every  where  be  brought  into  use  ; 
yet  he  suffered  the  old  one  to  re- 
main in  the  Lateran  church,  as  a 
memorial  of  ancient  usage,  where 
at  this  day  it  remains.  The 
wooden  altar  of  the  martyrdom, 
mentioned  by  Erasmus,  in  Can- 
terbury cathedral,  may  have  had 
its  stone  super-altare  inserted,  as 
was  the  custom,  and  in  effect  be- 
came one  of  stone.  The  portable 
altar  was  so  fitted,  and  was,  when 
the  stone  was  taken  from  the 
wood,  deemed  to  have  lost  its 
consecration. 

The  table  forming  the  altar  was 
often  supported  by  a  single  pillar, 
like  those  seen  in  the  undercroft 
chapels  of  St.  Cecilia  at  Rome ; 
at  other  times  they  had  four 
pillars,  similar  to  the  altar  of 
St.  Sebastian,  in  crypta  arenaria: 
but  in  the  first  ages  of  the  church 


A  L  1  A  ft 


the  custom  was  to  place  the 
table  upon  a  tomb,  in  j^emory 
of  the  primitive  Christians  having 
held  their  assemblies  in  the  ca- 
tacombs, and  in  erecting  an  altar, 
great  attention  was  paid  to  enclose 
in  it  the  remains  of  some  saint. 
This  general  form  is  exactly 
preserved  in  catholic  altars, 
even  when  they  are  construct- 
ed with  a  mass  of  wrought 
masonry,  adorned  with  sculptures 
and  other  ornaments. 

These  altars  are  further  classed 
among  architects  into  attached 
or  isolated.  The  attached  altars 
are  generally  placed  against  a 
wall,  the  decorations  of  which 
are  so  managed  as  to  appear  to 
form  the  ornaments  of  the  altar. 
These  are  pictures,  basso-relie- 
voes,  precious  stones,  marble,  dra- 
peries, gilding  and  painting.*"  The 
isolated  altar  has  no  sort  of 
connection  with  any  part  either 
of  the  bftilding  or  of  its  decora- 
tions. The  high  altar  is  always 
isolated,  whether  it  is  placed  at 
the  end  of  a  church  or  in  its 
centre. 

In  catholic  countries.,  the 
situation  of  this  altar  has  been 
much  canvassed  j  those  who 
place  much  importance  on  afford- 
ing to  a  great  number  of  specta- 
tors a  sight  of  the  ceremonies, 
think  that  the  altar  should  be 
placed  in  the  centre.  Others 
again,  who  are  more  anxious  to 
impress  the  spectators  with  the 
solemnity  and  sanctity  of  the 
service,  would  rather  withdraw 
the  altar  from  their  immediate  in- 
spection, and  place  it,  according 
to  the  ancient  method,  at  the  end 
of  the  church,  or  sacrarium,  so 
that  the  distance  of  the  point  of 
view  should  heighten  the  effect 
of  the  splendid  ceremonial. 
These  reasons,  however,  are  not 
those  which  influence  in  a  great 
degree  the  choice  of  the  architect, 


but  rather  the  aptitude  of  the 
two  situations  to  allow  the  most 
favourable  opportunities  for  the 
decorations. 

There  can  be  but  little  ques- 
tion, that,  if  the  position  of  the 
high  altar  ought  to  be  decided  by 
a  reference  to  the  form  of  the 
church,  rather  than  to  a  particu- 
lar situation  admitting  of  some 
facilities  or  caprice  in  decoration, 
its  proper  situation  will  be  in 
the  centre  of  a  church,  having 
transepts  ;  since  it  is  to  this  point 
that  all  the  views  tend  3  a  consi- 
deration paramount  to  all  others. 
In  churches  built  in  imitation  of 
Basilicas,  or  without  transepts,  it 
should  occupy  the  centre  of  the 
hemicycle,  whether  the  choir 
and  stalls  are  placed  before  the 
altar,  or  in  the  circular  part 
forming  the  tribune,  as  is  prac- 
tised in  the  Basilicae  of  Rome 
In  fine,  the  general  aspect  and 
point  of  view  of  the  greater 
number,  ought  to  be  the  sole 
consideration  in  deciding  on  the 
situation  of  an  altar  in  all  churches 

The  desire  to  embellish  the 
altar,  and  to  fix  admiration  by  its 
richness  and  magnificence,  has 
given  rise  to  innumerable  ac- 
cessories and  decorations,  which 
do  not  at  all  times  produce 
the  effect  for  which  they  were 
intended.  The  most  ancient 
altars  seen  at  Rome,  in  the 
Basilicae,  are  surmounted  with 
what  is  called  a  ciborium,  a 
kind  of  small  cupola,  supported 
by  four  columns  ;  to  the  ciboria 
succeeded  the  baldaquin,  which  is 
only  a  more  pompous  and  mag- 
nificent ciborium  :  but  the  word 
is  used  oftener  with  a  reference  to 
the  canopy,  and  its  ornaments,  of 
an  isolated  altar  in  the  centre  of 
a  church,  or  standing  in  a  hemi- 
cycle at  the  end  ;  such  as  those 
in  very  ancient  churches.  The 
attached  altars  are  susceptible  of 

131 


equal,  if  not  greater,  magnifi- 
cence than  the  other,  from  the 
gorgeous  decorations  of  columns, 
paintings,  sculptures,  mosaics, 
and  precious  stones  of  the  recesses 
or  walls,  in  or  against  which  they 
are  placed.  The  altars  situated  in 
a  hemicycle,  as  they  partake  of 
both  characters,  so  their  orna- 
ments are  oftener  misapplied  than 
in  the  others,  forming  a  vast 
frontispiece,  of  which  the  taste, 
and  form,  and  ornaments,  are  at 
total  variance  with  the  other  parts 
of  the  edifice.  In  fact,  this  re- 
mark may  too  often  apply  to  every 
species  of  altar. 

Whatever  be  the  situation  of 
the  high  altar,  its  dimensions 
ought  to  be  considerable,  and  its 
decorations  simple.  Since  the 
figure  of  a  tomb  is  that  which 
accords  best  with  the  received 
usage,  and  with  the  opinion  of 
the  origin  of  the  rite,  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent  a  selection  of 
forms  from  the  most  beautiful 
antique  sarcophagi.  If  the  altar  is 
placed  in  the  centre  of  the  church, 
it  should  be  raised  on  a  grand 
platform,  with  steps  on  every 
side  to  ascend  it,  having  mag- 
nificent candelabra  placed  at  its 
sides,  according  to  the  ancient 
Roman  method,  to  adorn  and 
illuminate  the  enclosure,  and  a 
single  pyramidal  tabernacle  over 
the  altar  ;  the  most  severe  and 
chaste  taste  should  preside  over 
this  holy  decoration,  for  a  gravity 
and  simplicity  ought  to  be  its  cha- 
racteristic j  all  little  ornaments 
and  conceits,  and  prettinesses  of 
every  kind,  ought  to  be  excluded, 
as  dishonouring  the  holiness  of 
the  mysteries,  and  withdrawing 
attention  from  objects  to  which 
it  ought  to  be  directed  and  fixed. 

The  altar  placed  at  the  end 
of  a  church,  is  susceptible  of 
the  most  happy  decoration  ;  but 
it  ought  always  to  have  a  refer- 

132 


ence  not  only  to  the  situation, 
but  to  the  subject.  A  statue  of 
the  saint,  after  whose  name  the 
church  may  be  called,  may  be 
appropriately  placed  at  the  bot- 
tom, over  the  altar,  like  the 
group,  over  the  altar  of  St.  Mary, 
of  flowers,  at  Florence,  or  in  the 
cathedral  of  Notre  Dame,  at  Paris ; 
or  the  altar  of  the  Virgin,  at  St. 
Peter's,  Rome,  which  forms  a 
point  of  view  as  noble  as  it  is  in- 
teresting. A  cross  elevated  over 
the  altar,  surrounded  with  figures 
whose  action  and  expression  ap- 
pear directed  to  this  object,  would 
be  both  in  good  taste,  and  be- 
coming. Rut,  in  the  choice  of 
deccrations  of  all  kinds,  the  sim- 
plest will  be  found  to  be  the 
most  conformable  to  religious 
feeling,  as  well  as  to  the  best 
taste  in  architecture.  This  noble 
simplicity,  which  is  the  very  per- 
fection of  art,  is  totally  opposed 
to  the  usual  decorations  of  mis- 
placed and  distorted  columns, 
niches,  pediments,  cartouches, 
statues,  pedestals  thrown  here 
and  there,  and  other  similar  or- 
naments- 

In  the  Lutheran  churches,  the 
altar  is  also  in  form  of  a  table, 
and  placed  at  the  east  end  of  the 
edifice  j  occasionally  raised  a 
few  steps  above  the  floor  of  the 
building,  and  sometimes  en- 
closed with  a  balustrade,  or 
railing.  Comparatively  speak- 
ing, there  are  but  a  small  num- 
ber in  which  the  taste  for  even 
becoming  decoration  has  been 
shown  in  their  construction. — 
The  greater  simplicity  of  the  re- 
formed worship,  addressing  itself 
more  to  the  understanding  than 
to  the  eye,  has  discouraged,  or 
rather  has  not  encouraged,  any 
decided  attempt  to  add  import- 
ance to  its  ceremonial,  by  the  de- 
corations of  painting  and  sculp- 
ture. 


ALTAR. 


How  far  the  altar,  says  a  cler- 
gyman of  the  church  of  England, 
ought  to  be  ornamented,  is  a 
question  which  has  been  debated 
with  much  warmth  since  the  Re- 
formation. The  Latins,  Greeks, 
and  even  the  Lutherans,  are  ac- 
customed to  adorn  it,  with  more 
or  less  splendour  or  gaudiness, 
according  to  their  taste  and  opu- 
lence. The  church  of  England, 
when  not  overawed  by  the  <:la- 
mours  of  the  sectaries  that  assail 
her  on  all  sides,  is  inclined  to  fa- 
vour this  practice,  while  the  Cal- 
vinistic  school  of  Geneva,  hostile 
to  every  thing  that  delights  the 
eye,  or  flatters  the  feeling  of  a 
polished  mind,  have  either  cast 
the  table  of  the  Lord  out  of  the 
church,  or  stript  it  of  all  its  decent 
accompaniments,  and  abandoned 
it  in  a  corner  to  dust  and  cob- 
web*. But  whatever  a  man's 
opinion  may  be  upon  this  subject, 
he  must  be  very  morose  indeed, 
if  he  find  much  to  blame  in  the 
Roman  altars,  in  the  basilicas, 
which,  unencumbered  with  taber- 
nacles, reliquaries,  statues,  or 
flower-pots,  support  a  cross  and 
six  candlesticks  ;  furniture  which 
is  sulfieient,  without  doubt,  for 
all  the  purposes  of  solemnity, 
and  yet  may  be  endured  even  by 
a  puritan.  The  other  ornaments, 
or  rather  superfluities,  which  are 
too  often  observed  to  load  the 
altars  of  Romish  chwrchrs, 
owe  their  introduction  to  the 
fond  devotion  of  nuns,  or  nun- 
like friars,  and  may  be  tolerated 
in  their  conventual  oratories,  as 
the  toys  and  playthings  of  that 
harmless  race,  but  ought  never 
to  be  allowed  to  disfigure  the 
simplicity  of  parochial  churches 
and  cathedrals. 

In  a  few  recent  instances,  some 
attention  has  been  paid  to  obtain 
a  pleasing  effect,  by  a  pictur- 
esque distribution  of  light  in  the 


recess  in  which  the  altar  or 
communion-table  is  occasionally 
placed. 

The  altars  of  Greek  churches 
are  equally  barren  of  sculptured 
and  painted  ornament  with  those 
of  the  Lutherans,  although,  in 
every  thing  relating  to  the  cost- 
liness of  the  sacred  utensils  and 
vestments,  the  Greek  Christians 
vie  in  splendour  with  those  of  the 
Romish  communion. 

In  the  convent  of  St.  Nioholl 
na  Perrera,  the  churcli  is  loftv 
and  spacious :  the  table  for  the 
sacrament,  as  in  all  other  Greek 
and  Russian  churches,  is  kept  in 
the  sanctuary,  behind  the  altar, 
where  women  are  not  permitted 
to  enter.  "  The  archbishop,"  says 
Dr.  Clarke,  "  who  had  visited  our 
English  church  at  St.  Petersburg, 
observed  that  our  table  was  un- 
covered, except  when  the  sacra- 
ment was  administered ;  a  de- 
gree of  economy  which  he  ex- 
pressed himself  unable  to  com- 
prehend, or  to  reconcile  with  the 
piety  and  liberality  of  the  English 
nation.  What  would  he  have 
said  had  he  beheld  the  condition 
of  the  communion-tables  in  some 
of  our  country  churches  ?  In 
Russia  they  are  always  covered 
with  the  richest  cloth  which  can 
be  procured,  and  generally  with 
embroidered  velvet." 

In  Calvinistic  churches,  the 
name  as  well  as  the  uses  of  an 
altar  are  unknown,  either  as  an 
appendage  or  as  a  decoration. 

Altar-piece.  The  entire  de- 
corations of  an  altar.  A  painting 
placed  behind  the  altar ;  the 
ornamented  mural  partition, 
separating  the  altar  from  the 
presbytery,  or  lady  chapel. 

Altar-screen.  The  back  of 
the  altar,  from  which  the  canopy 
was  suspended,  and  separating 
the  choir  from  the  lady  chapel 
and  presbytery.    The  shrine  or 


A  MB 


AM  B 


tabernacle-work  enclosing  the 
painted  or  sculptured  altar-piece. 

The  peculiar  embellishment, 
so  called  in  English  churches 
built  in  the  middle  ages,  "  has 
its  date  of  introduction  not  an- 
terior to  the  close  of  the  13th 
century.  It  was  first  introduced 
in  the  canopies  of  sepulchral 
monuments  placed  over  tombs, 
upon  which  the  effigy  was  recum- 
bent. These  were  afterwards 
enlarged  into  sacella,  or  burial 
chapels,  for  the.  celebration  of 
obits,  and  where  prayers  for  the 
dead  were  offered  up. 

The  altar-screen  was  generally 
of  stone,  and  composed  of 
the  richest  tabernacle-work,  of 
niches,  finials,  and  pedestals, 
supporting  statues  of  the  tute- 
lary saints.  The  high  altars  of 
Winchester  cathedral,  St.  Alban's 
abbey  and  new  college,  are  fine 
examples  of  this  embellishment. 
During  the  Reformation,  many  of 
these  exquisitely  wrought  altar- 
screens  were  destroyed  or  de- 
faced j  those  that  were  spared 
being  filled  up  with  mortar,  or 
covered  with  wainscot.  In  all 
these  altar-screens  (or  altar- 
pieces)  we  observe  a  door  placed 
on  each  side  the  altar  j  they 
were  used  by  the  officiating 
priests  for  the  purpose  of  re- 
tiring to  change  their  vestments, 
which  were  deposited  in  a  small 
room  behind.  The  statues 
placed  in  the  niches-  were  some- 
times of  silver  or  copper  gilt,  at 
other  times  of  wood,  stone,  or 
marble. 

Alto-relievo.  (Lat.)  High 
relief ;  that  kind  of  sculpture 
which  projects  from  a  surface  to 
which  it  is  attached,  nearly  as 
much  as  if  the  objects  were  iso- 
lated and  perfect. 

Alur,  or  Alure.  {Alter,  Ft.  to 
go.)  An  afffey  j  a  balcony. 

Ambitus.  A  space  round  every 
134 


tomb  which  was  considered  to  be 
sacred.  "  Some  ancient  in- 
scriptions on  tombs  are  male- 
dictions on  those  who  violate  or 
defile  this  sacred  space,  by  un- 
trussing  thereon.  In  the  se- 
pulchre of  Caius  Caelius  there  is 
written,  '  Qui  hie  minxerit  aut 
cacerit  habeat  deos  superos  et  in- 
feros iratos :  to  prevent  which 
profanation  Tremalchius  says  he 
would  leave  it  in  his  will  that  a 
boy  should  look  after  his  sepul- 
chre." 

When  this  term  was  used 
In  descriptions  of  subterranean 
tombs,  it  designated  a  small  niche 
or  excavation  made  in  the  wall 
to  receive  an  urn  or  body.  When 
it  enclosed  the  corpse,  the  mouth 
of  the  niche,  or  excavation,  or 
receptacle,  was  fitted  with  a  slab 
of  marble  or  porphyry,  fastened 
with  iron  cramps,  and  cemented 
with  plaster,  to  prevent  the  exha- 
lations issuing  into  the  streets. 
The  engravings  marked  Ancient 
Roman  Ornament,  are  representa- 
tions of  the  inside  of  ancient  Ro- 
man sepulchral  chambers,  having 
niches  or  recesses,  or  ambites,  both 
for  containing  the  urns  and  those 
for  the  bodies,  which  fill  up  the 
sides  of  the  apartment.  The  tile  or 
slab,  covering  the  opening  to  the 
tomb,  is  shown  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  the  niche.  These  slabs 
were  sometimes  inscribed  with 
the  name,  age,  and  quality  of  the 
deceased  ;  at  oth«r  times  the  in- 
scription was  placed  over  the 
niche,  or  upon  the  urn.  The  re- 
cesses themselves  were  often 
highly  decorated. 

Ambo.  {Amhon,  Gr.  a  rostrum.) 
A  raised  platform  ;  a  pulpit  j  a 
reading-desk  j  a  marble  pulpit  j 
an  oblong  enclosure  in  ancient 
churches,  resembling,  in  its  uses 
and  position,  the  modern  choir, 
in  which  were  performed  some 
parts  of  the  ritual. 


A  M  B  O. 


The  ambones,  it  is  supposed, 
were  sometimes  built  upon  the 
6creen  or  rood-loft. 

Two  ambones,  (or  ambos,)  or 
ancient  pulpits,  are  seen  in  the 
cathedral  of  Salerno,  placed  one 
on  each  side  of  the  nave  before  the 
steps  of  the  chancel ;  they  are 
both  of  marble,  the  largest  is 
covered  with  beautiful  mosaic, 
and  supported  by  twelve  Corin- 
thian pillars  of  granite. 

In  the  basilica-church  of  San 
Lorenzo  at  Rome,  are  two  am- 
bones, ornamented  with  round 
slabs  of  red  porphyry,  and  green 
serpentine  of  the  statuaries,  and 
the  twisted  column  with  gilded 
mosaic  for  supporting  a  large 
wax  candle,  painted  with  foliage 
and  ornaments,  which  is  lighted 
at  Easter  and  other  times,  and 
called  the  paschal  candle. 

The  interior  distribution  of 
the  ancient  basilica?,  and  larger 
churches,  was  into  nave  or  sanc- 
tuary. The  former  comprehend- 
ed the  middle  area  from  the  great 
entrance  to  the  steps,  whose  rise 
led  to  the  latter.  The  eastern 
termination  was  semicircular  j 
the  centre  of  this  circular  recess 
was  occupied  by  the  bishop's 
seat  j  the  presbyters'  thrones 
were  placed  on  his  right  and 
left.  In  front  of  the  presby- 
terium  was  the  high  altar.  In 
the  upper  part  of  the  nave  was 
placed  the  oblong  enclosure,  de- 
nominated the  umbo,  or  chorus 
canonicorum  ;  on  each  side,  and 
generally  attached  to  it,  was  a 
marble  pulpit,  one  for  reading 
the  gospel,  the  other  for  the 
epistle.  Near  the  former  was  a 
pillar  for  supporting  the  paschal 
candle,  still  remaining  in  the 
churches  of  St.  Clement  and  St. 
Paschal  at  Rome.  The  cleri  of- 
ficiated within  the  limits  of  the 
ambo,  as  did  the  presbyteri  in  the 
more  sacred  functions  of  the  altar. 


It  differed  in  one  particular  from 

the  modern  cathedral  choir,  as  the 
people  were  excluded  from  it. 

The  first  mention  of  it  is  about 
a.d.  361,  and  in  a.  d.  705,  an  ambo 
was  reconstructed  in  St.  Peter's 
church  at  Rome.  The  abolition 
of  the  ambo  was  neither  entire 
nor  uniform  at  one  period,  but  it 
seems  to  have  been  taken  away 
gradually,  as  churches  were  re- 
paired or  refitted  ;  as  in  that  of 
St.  Paul's  in  Via  Ostense,  so  late 
as  the  time  of  Sextus  V.  The 
reason  for  removal  has  uniformly 
been  the  gaining  room  in  the  area 
of  the  church,  except  where  re- 
strained by  the  memory  of  some 
obsolete  service  or  custom ;  of 
this  a  circumstance  in  the  history 
of  the  basilica  of  St.  Nereo  is  an 
instance.  Cardinal  Baronius  being 
rector  in  a.  d.  1595,  finding  it  in 
decay,  he  restored  the  ambo  with 
the  presbytery,  confessional,  and 
ambones  for  reading;  or,  as  the 
inscription  expresses  it,  "  that  as 
the  glory  of  God  is  valued, 
nothing  may  be  removed,  chang- 
ed, or  diminished."  The  last 
erected  ambo  in  Rome  is  believ- 
ed to  have  been  that  of  St.  Pan- 
eras,  on  which  the  date  of  a.  d. 
1249  is  visible.  Ciampini  says 
the  ambo  fell  into  disuse  about 
1309. 

The  occasional  veiling  of  the 
cleri  from  the  view  of  the  specta- 
tors, implies  that  the  ambo  was 
not  of  the  extended  proportion 
of  our  cathedral  choir.  None 
of  the  English  churches  having 
come  down  to  our  times  in 
their  original  state,  we  have  no 
direct  evidence  that  the  ambo,  in 
its  ancient  form,  existed  in  Bri- 
tish churches. 

The  sides  or  enclosures  of  the 
ambo  are  conjectured  to  have 
been  low,  the  seats  of  wood 
resembling  those  of  chantries 
in  some  parish  churches,  sur- 

135 


AMP 


AMP 


mounted  with  lattice-work,  and 
occasionally  covered  with  veils. 

Ambrois.    See  Bridge. 

Ambulatory.  (Lat.)  An  alley; 
a  gallery  j  a  cloister  ;  a  sheltered 
place  for  walking  in. 

Amethyst.  A  precious  stone 
of  a  violet  colour,  much  used  in 
cabinets  and  mosaic  work.  Jt 
was  fashioned  by  the  ancients 
into  drinking  vessels,  and  highly 
prized  on  account  of  its  supposed 
virtue  of  preventing  intoxica- 
tion. 

Ammanati,  Barthelemo,  a 
Florentine  architect  and  sculp- 
tor, was  born  in  1511,  and  be- 
came the  pupil  of  Sansovino.  He 
completed  the  palace  Pitti  at 
Florence,  and  designed  the  court. 
He  is  more  generally  known  as 
an  architect,  from  the  bridge  call- 
ed St.  Trinita  at  Florence,  and 
which,  from  its  taste,  stability, 
and  lightness,  is  one  of  the  most 
estimable  modern  productions  of 
that  kind.  He  gave  a  design  for 
the  Jesuits'  college  at  Rome,  of 
which  the  court  and  front  were 
erected.  His  greatest  work  was 
the  Rucellai  palace  at  Rome, 
which  has  been  greatly  admired 
for  the  general  harmony  of  its 
parts,  and  as  exhibiting  some  fine 
proportions  of  the  "  voids  and 
solids."  Ammanati  left  a  book 
in  manuscript  on  decorative  ar- 
chitecture, which  has  unfortu- 
nately been  lost.  He  died  in 
1592. 

Ammiantus.    See  Asbestos. 

Ampheres.  In  ancient  naval 
architecture.  A  small,  long,  and 
narrow  boat  used  by  the  Greeks, 
propelled  by  a  rower  with  two 
oars. 

Amphi  Cupellum.  In  decora- 
tion. A  vase  with  two  bottoms, 
rounding  from  the  bottom  to 
near  the  middle,  where  the  upper 
(or  inner)  bottom  was  soldered 
on. 

136 


Amphipror^j.  In  ancient  naval 
architecture.  Boats  with  two 
prows,  so  made  to  save  time  in 
tacking  about,  or  for  use  in  very 
narrow  channels  or  canals.  "  A 
Peter  boat." 

Amphiprostylos.  (Amphi-pro- 
stulos,  props  or  columns  before 
both.)  A  temple  which  has  a 
portico  in  both  fronts. 

This  word,  says  M.  Quatre- 
mere,  describes  a  particular  kind 
of  temple,  of  which  the  cella  had 
no  external  lateral  corridors  or 
aisles.  The  amphiprostyle  tem- 
ple had  columns,  in  front  called 
pronaos,  those  in  rear  were  called 
posticum,  by  the  Romans.  It  was 
not,  therefore,  a  building  as  usu- 
ally defined,  to  which  a  portico 
or  peristyle,  at  its  two  ends,  was 
peculiar,  for  peripteral  temples 
had  also  two.  There  was,  ac- 
cording to  Vitruvius,  a  grada- 
tion in  richness,  from  those  in 
antse  to  dipteral  and  hypaethral 
temples.  Amphiprostyle  was  the 
third  variety. 

Another  characteristic  of  am- 
phiprostyle temples  was  that  of 
their  porticoes,  consisting  of  four 
columns  only.  Although  Vitru- 
vius does  not  say  so  positively, 
this  distinction  may  be  conjec- 
tured to  be  meant,  when  he  states, 
that  the  amphiprostyle  temple 
differs  only  from  the  prostyle  in 
having  two  columns  at  the  angles 
instead  of  antse. 

It  has  been  remarked,  that  am- 
phiprostyle temples  have  never 
been  erected  by  any  people  but 
the  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Amphitheatre.  (Amphi-thea- 
tron,  Gr.  a  theatre  on  both  sides  ; 
a  portico  and  circus,  where  people 
could  stand  and  see  from  every 
part.)  An  edifice  formed  of  two 
semicircles  united,  in  which  all  the 
spectators,  ranged  on  seats  in  its 
periphery,  saw  equally  well  what 
was  exhibiting  in  the  area  left  in 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


the  centre ;  thus  the  Romans 
also  named  them  "  visoria." 

In  general,  amphitheatres  usu- 
ally consisted  of  a  wall,  pierced 
in  its  circumference  by  two 
or  more  ranges  of  arcades,  hav- 
ing in  the  inside  vaulted  pas- 
sages radiating  from  the  exterior 
arcades  toward  the  arena,  and 
transverse  vaulted  corridors, open- 
ing a  communication  to  every 
part  of  the  edifice.  The  corridors 
and  ranges  of  seats  forming  ellip- 
tical figures  parallel  to  the  outer 
or  exterior  wall. 

In  the  middle  of  the  amphi- 
theatre, occasionally,  there  was  an 
intermediate  corridor,  which  had 
the  same  use  as  those  on  the 
basement,  serving  as  a  common 
landing  place  to  all  the  staircases, 
an  arrangement  to  be  observed 
in  the  amphitheatre  atNismes;  at 
other  times  each  staircase  had 
a  distinct  landing,  without  any 
corridor  of  communication. 

The  four  passages  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  greater  and  lesser  dia- 
meter, were  sometimes  also  made 
wider  than  the  others,  and  being 
intersected  by  the  arched  passages 
a  communication  was  preserved 
with  the  others.  The  avenues  or 
entrances  through  which  the  em- 
peror and  the  other  great  person- 
ages of  the  empire  approached 
their  seats,  were  made  in  the 
direction  of  the  lesser  diameter. 
The  other  two  led  into  the  arena. 

The  people  entered  by  the 
other  radiating  passages,  and  as- 
cended the  stairs  placed  in  them. 

The  area  within,  called  arena, 
was  of  an  oval  form,  around 
which  were  vaults,  where  the 
wild  beast  s  were  kept,  that  were 
to  be  exhibited  in  the  fight. 
These  vaults  or  huts  were  called 
eavea,  a  name  sometimes  applied 
to  the  whole  inside  of  the  edifice. 

The  arena  was  surrounded  by  a 
wall,  upon  which  was  thepodium, 
S 


a  kind  of  box  or  pulpit  projecting 
out  of  the  wall  ;  this  was  adorned 
with  little  columns  and  balusters, 
and  was  the  place  of  the  senators, 
as  also  of  the  magistrates,-  who 
sat  there  in  their  curule  chairs, 
accompanied  with  lictors  and 
other  officers;  also  of  the  patron 
who  was  exhibiting  the  games,  and 
the  Vestal  virgins.  The  podium 
was  12  or  15  feet  high ;  )et  would 
not  the  senators  have  been  safe 
from  the  attacks  of  elephants  and 
lions,  had  their  security  not  been 
further  consulted  by  lattices  and 
gratings  fixed  round,  from  which 
they  could  see  without  danger. 
It  has  also  been  explained,  tiiat 
on  the  border  of  the  podium  were 
large  trunks  of  trees,  so  contrived 
as  to  turn  round  whenever  any 
of  the  animals  attempted  to  jump 
up,  by  which  mechanism  they 
were  thrown  down  again  :  even 
this,  however,  did  not  entirely 
prevent  the  danger  ;  to  remedy 
which,  trenches  or  canals  were 
dug  round  for  greater  security. 

Above  the  podium  were  benches 
or  ascents,  contrived  after  the 
same  manner  as  those  in  theatres. 
In  amphitheatres  there  were  two 
sorts  of  them,  one  higher  and 
broader  than  the  other,  and  car- 
ried quite  round  the  area ;  the 
other  lower  and  narrower,  car- 
ried up  from  the  bottom  to  the 
top  in  right  lines,  and  cutting  the 
several  ranges  of  seats  as  in  the 
theatres,  so  that  they  were  more 
properly  staircases.  There  was, 
however,  this  difference  between 
these  stairs  and  those  of  the  thea- 
tres, that  they  did  not  cut  or  pass 
through  all  the  several  benche3 
andprecinctions,  but  were  carried 
from  the  middle  of  one  to  the 
middle  of  the  other  ;  which  was 
without  doubt  done  to  preven* 
the  trouble  and  inconvenience 
that  might  arise,  had  those  small 
steps  being  carried  quite  through 

137 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


from  the  bottom  to  the  top.  The 
benches  of  Vespasian's  amphi- 
theatre (or  the  Coliseum)  were 
14  inches  high  and  30  inches 
broad  ;  this  great  breadth  was 
contrived  for  the  greater  conve- 
nience of  egress  and  regress,  as 
there  might  be  room  for  those 
who  sat  above  to  set  their  feet 
upon  that  part  of  the  bencli  near- 
est to  them,  without  incommoding 
those  who  were  placed  under  and 
before  them.  The  piecinctions 
were  benches  higher  and  broader 
than  the  rest,  to  distinguish  the 
several  classes  of  spectators,  and 
also  to  make  the  passage  in  and 
out  easier  to  the  great  crowds  of 
people  that  came  to  those  spec- 
tacles. In  the  Coliseum  there 
are  four  precinctions  visible, 
reckoning  that  at  the  top  near 
the  portico  ;  these  precinctions 
were  also  called  baltei  or  belts. 
The  avenues  or  vomitaria  were 
doors  at  the  top  of  the  stairs,  to 
which  the  audience  approached 
through  certain  passages.  There 
were  also  other  steps  contrived, 
for  the  easier  approach  to  parti- 
cular seats,  and  likewise  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  rain  which  fell. 
The  cunei  was  the  space  between 
the  precinctions  and  staircases,  or 
the  benches  distinguished  into 
classes.  This  was  a  later  refine- 
ment, for  in  the  more  ancient 
times  the  audience  sat  promis- 
cuously. In  particular  parts  of 
the  amphitheatre  were  pipes  for 
the  conveyance  of  odoriferous 
liquors,  wherewith  to  perfume  the 
assembly.  Veils  were  also  ex- 
tended over  the  amphitheatre,  to 
screen  the  spectators  from  the 
heat  of  the  sun  ;  when  luxury  had 
Increased,  these  awnings  or  veils 
were  sometimes  made  of  silk  of 
various  colours  ;  and  purple  ones 
wrought  with  gold  are  mentioned 
by  historians. 

The  origin  of  the  games  which 

138 


were  exhibited  in  these  buildings 
have  been  traced  to  the  Etrus- 
cans, as  well  as  the  invention  of 
the  buildings  in  which  they  were 
exhibited.  From  them  the  Ro- 
mans derived  their  taste  for  these 
sanguinary  spectacles,  and  which 
they  introduced  among  every 
people  they  subjected  to  their 
dominion :  thus  we  find  amphi- 
theatres in  every  part  of  the 
Roman  empire  ;  but  it  has  been 
remarked,  that  there  is  no  ex- 
ample of  a  similar  institution  in 
nations  beyond  the  pale  of  their 
conquests. 

But  we  certainly  ought  not  to 
look  for  the  amusements  of  the 
amphitheatre  and  its  sanguinary 
games  among  that  people,  the 
inventors  and  embellishers  of  the 
arts,  and  the  softeners  of  the 
human  character.  The  Greeks, 
at  once  civilized  and  warlike, 
tempered  the  ferocity  of  war  by 
the  pursuits  of  the  arts  and 
philosophy  ;  they  granted  no 
honours  and  opened  no  gymnasia, 
but  for  exercises  calculated  to 
soften  the  spirit  and  to  form  the 
body.  As  long  as  they  remained 
free,  sanguinary  and  cruel  ex- 
hibitions appeared  not  on  their 
stages,  nor  did  they  ever  pay  men 
to  mangle  each  other  with  dex- 
terity or  to  die  with  grace.  Some 
authors,  however,  say,  that  such 
spectacles  were  not  unknown 
in  Ionia  ;  Winkelman  observes, 
that  if  the  fact  were  so,  they 
were  not  of  long  duration.  An- 
tiochus  Epiphanes,  king  of  Syria, 
was  the  first  who  exhibited  these 
ferocious  sports  in  Greece,  but 
he  brought  gladiators  from  Rome. 
These  wretched  victims  of  a  fero- 
cious enjoyment  at  first  excited 
pity  only  and  horror  in  the  minds 
of  the  Greeks;  in  process  of  time 
their  sensibility  became  weaken- 
ed, and  usage  at  last  rendered 
these  horrid  spectacles  familiar. 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


The  first  mention  of  the  com- 
bats of  wildbeasts  inRoman  history 
is  about  the  year  of  Rome  568  ; 
and  twenty  years  afterwards,  Livy 
says,  the  shows  were  celebrated 
with  no  small  pomp,  sixty-three 
panthers,  forty  bears,  besides  ele- 
phants, were  exhibited  :  from  this 
time  they  gradually  increased. 
Marcus  Scaurus  exhibited  one 
hundred  and  fifty  tigers.  Pompey 
exhibited  four  hundred  and  ten 
tigers  and  five  hundred  lions, 
besides  elephant?.  Caesar,  after 
the  civil  war,  exhibited  a  still 
greater  number,  besides  twenty 
elephants,  and  rive  hundred  gla- 
diators on  foot,  and  three  hun- 
dred on  horseback.  These 
games  being  advanced  to  such  a 
pitch  of  magnificence,  a  new  kind 
of  edifice  became  necessary,  in 
which  they  could  be  celebrated 
with  more  convenience  and  plea- 
sure. In  Cicero's  time  they  were 
performed  either  in  the  theatre  or 
circus.  The  circus,  however, 
was  objectionable  on  many  oc- 
counts,  besides  its  danger.  At 
Pompey's  games  the  people  were 
in  danger  from  the  elephants, 
and  Caesar,  to  avoid  the  same  acci- 
dent, had  trenches  dug  round  the 
arena. 

Pliny  gives  an  account  of 
Curio's  amphitheatre  in  his  36'th 
book.  "  All  the  pride  of  Caligula 
and  Nero,"  he  observes,  "  in  their 
buildings  fell  short  of  the  private 
works  of  Scaurus.  This  Scaurus, 
when  he  was  sedile,  caused  a 
wonderful  piece  of  work  to  be 
made,  exceeding  every  thing  of 
the  kind  that  had  been  seen  be- 
fore.— It  was  a  theatre  having 
three  galleries,  one  above  the 
other,  wherein  were  three  hun- 
dred and  sixty  columns  of  marble; 
(a  strange  and  admirable  sight  in 
that  city,  which  in  former  times 
could  not  endure  six  small  pillars 
of  marble  hewed  out  of  the  quarry 
In  Mount  Hymettus,  in  the  house 


of  a  most  honourable  personage, 
without  a  great  reproach  being 
heaped  upon  him  for  it ;)  the  base 
or  nethermost  part  of  the  stage 
wras  all  of  marble,  the  middle  of 
glass,  (an  extravagant  superfluity, 
never  heard  of  before  or  since.) 
As  for  the  uppermost,  the  boards, 
planks,  and  floors  were  gilded ; 
the  columns  beneath  were  38 
feet  high ;  and  between  these 
pillars  there  stood  brazen  statues 
and  images  to  the  number  of  three 
thousand.  The  theatre  itself  could 
accommodate  eighty  thousand 
persons  to  sit  at  their  ease ;  where- 
as Pompey's  theatre,  notwith- 
standing Rome  was  more  popu- 
lous in  his  time,  did  not  contain 
more  than  forty  thousand  specta- 
tors. Concerning  the  other  fur- 
niture of  this  theatre,  rich  hang- 
ings of  cloth  of  gold,  painted 
tablets,  the  most  exquisite  that 
could  be  procured,  players'  apparel 
and  other  stuff  necessary  for 
adorning  the  stage,  there  was 
such  abundance  thereof,  that 
being  carried  back  to  his  country 
house  at  Tusculum,  the  surplus- 
age, over  and  above  the  dainti- 
est part,  which  he  used  daily  at 
Rome,  did  so  raise  the  anger  and 
indignation  of  his  servants  for  his 
profusion  and  monstrous  extrava- 
gance, that  they  set  his  country 
house  on  fire,  and  burnt  as  much  as 
came  to  one  hundred  thousand  ses- 
terces. Surely,  when  I  consider 
and  look  at  the  unnatural  fancies 
of  these  prodigal  spirits,  my  mind 
is  drawn  away  from  my  subject, 
and  I  am  obliged  to  digress  fur- 
ther, and  i.dd  to  this  vanity  of 
Scaurus  an  account  of  as  great 
folly  in  another,  not  in  masonry 
and  marble,  but  in  carpentry  and 
timber,  of  C.  Curio,  who,  in  the 
civil  wars,  lost  his  life  in  the 
cause  of  Caesar.  This  patrician, 
desirous  of  pleasing  the  people 
of  Rome  at  the  funeral  of  hi* 
father,  as  the  custom  then  was, 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


but  seeing  that  he  could  not  outdo 
Scaurus  in  rich  and  superfluous 
furniture,  for  where  could  he  have 
such  a  father-in-law  as  Sylla  ? — 
where  have  found  a  mother  like 
Metella,  who  had  her  share  in  all 
forfeitures  and  confiscations  of  the 
goods  of  outlawed  citizens  ?  And 
where  could  he  find  such  another 
father  as  M.  Scaurus,  the  principal 
person  of  the  whole  city  so  long 
a  time  together,  and  who  parted 
stakes  with  Marius,  in  squeezing 
and  polling  of  the  provinces,  and 
was  the  very  receptacle  and  gulf 
whichswallowedall  their  spoils  and 
pillage  I  And  evenScaur us  himself, 
had  he  all  the  wealth  of  the  world, 
could  not  have  done  as  he  did 
before,  nor  make  the  like  theatre 
again  :  by  reason  that  his  house 
at  Tusculum  was  burnt,  which 
contained  the  costly  and  rare  fur- 
niture and  ornaments  collected 
from  all  parts  of  the  world,  that 
no  man  ever  after  him  was  able 
to  match  the  gorgeousness  of  his 
theatre.  Curio,  I  say,  was  thrown 
upon  his  invention  to  devise  means 
to  surpass  Scaurus  in  novelty,  if 
he  could  not  equal  him  in  splen- 
dour. Curio,  therefore,  caused 
two  theatres  to  be  built  of  timber 
of  great  size,  so  that  they  might 
be  turned  so  as  to  make  them 
approach  or  join  to  each  other, 
or  be  removed  to  a  distance,  as 
he  should  desire,  and  all  by  the 
means  of  one  pivot  apiece,  that 
they  hung  by,  which  bore  the 
weight  of  the  whole  edifice,  the 
balance  being  so  equal,  and  the 
whole  firm  and  safe.  The  con- 
trivance was  arranged  thus  :  that 
in  the  forenoon  he  should  exhibit 
scenical  representations,  when  the 
two  theatres  should  be  placed 
back  to  back,  and  that  when  the 
audience  was  satisfied  with  that 
sort  of  show,  the  theatres  should 
be  turned  about  until  the  ends 
fronted  each  other,  (when  the 
fencers  and  sword-players  were 

140 


to  come  in,  every  man  in  the  au- 
dience keeping  his  place  and 
sitting  still  according  to  his  rank 
and  order,)  until,  by  the  meeting 
of  the  corners  of  these  theatres, 
the  compass  made  a  fair  round 
amphitheatre  ;  and  in  the  middle 
between  them  he  exhibited  to  the 
two  auditories,  now  made  one, 
the  spectacles  of  sword-fighters; 
so  that  in  truth  a  man  may  say 
that  he  carried  the  whole  people 
of  Rome  round  about  at  his  plea- 
sure, and  completely  bound  as  to 
stirring  and  removing :  Of  a  thing 
so  wonderful  it  is  hard  to  judge, 
whether  we  ought  most  to  ad- 
mire the  device,  or  its  author — 
the  workman,  or  the  designer  ; 
but  what  shall  we  say  to  the  folly 
and  hardihood  of  the  people  of 
Rome,  who  trusted  to  such  a 
dangerous  machine,  and  felt  safe 
in  so  frail  an  edifice  ?  Lo  !  here 
was  seen,  the  body  of  that  people 
which  commands  and  rules  the 
whole  earth  ;  the  conquerors  of 
the  world;  the  disposers  of  empires 
and  kingdoms  at  their  pleasure; 
the  givers  of  countries  and  nations 
at  their  will ;  the  vicegerents  of 
the  immortal  gods  under  heaven, 
and  representing  the  image  of 
their  power  to  all  mankind ;  hang- 
ing in  the  air  within  a  frame  at 
the  mercy  of  a  hook,  (or  pivot,) 
and  rejoicing  and  ready  to  clap 
their  hands  at  their  own  danger: 
what  a  cheap  chance  market  of 
men's  lives  was  here  !  What  was 
the  loss  at  Cannse  to  this  hazard, 
that  we  should  complain  of  Can- 
nae ?  How  near  unto  a  mischief, 
which  might  have  happened  by 
the  turning  of  a  hand — the  uni- 
versal state  and  people  of  Rome 
supported  between  heaven  and 
earth,  and  sitting  at  the  mercy 
of  two  pins  or  hooks  !  If  we  well 
consider  this  pageant  we  shall  be 
compelled  to  confess,  that  Curio 
had  all  the  people  of  Rome  to 
perform  a  brave  skirmish  and 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


combat  at  his  father's  tomb. — 
Yet  this  was  not  all ;  for  when 
Curio  perceived  once  that  the 
hooks  of  his  frames  were  stretched 
enough,  and  began  to*  be  out  of 
order,  he  still  kept  his  theatres 
close  together  in  the  form  of  a 
perfect  amphitheatre ;  and  the 
very  last  day  of  the  funeral  so- 
lemnities, he  exhibited  on  two 
stages  placed  in  the  centre,  the 
wrestlers  and  other  champions  $ 
and  then  suddenly  causing  the 
two  theatres  to  be  disjoined,  and 
moved  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
each  other,  he  exhibited  the  fen- 
cers and  sword-players  who  had 
won  the  prizes,  and  so  made  an 
end  of  the  spectacle.  See  what 
Curio  was  able  to  do,  yet  he  wae 
neither  king  nor  Caesar." 

If  this  were  not  the  first  idea 
of  an  amphitheatre,  it  appears 
abundantly  plain  that  about  this 
time  the  want  of  a  place  of  security 
began  to  be  felt,  in  which  the 
hunting  of  wild  beasts,  as  well  as 
gladiatorial  combats,  could  be 
witnessed.  At  the  dedication  of 
his  forum,  Caesar  erected  a  hunt- 
ing theatre  of  wood,  called  an  am- 
phitheatre, because  of'  the  seats 
placed  around  it  without  scenes. 

Pompey's  theatre  was  also  made 
of  wood  throughout.  Augustus 
being  a  great  admirer  of  public 
shows, particularly  of  the  combats 
of  wild  beasts,  (in  one  of  his  exhi- 
bitions three  thousand  five  hun- 
dred of  these  animals  were  killed,) 
had  a  design  to  build  an  am- 
phitheatreentirely  of  stone,  but  it 
was  never  carried  into  execution. 
However,  in  his  time,  Statilius 
Taurus  undertook  the  affair,think- 
ing  that  it  might  be  agreeable  to 
the  emperor  ;  and  he  erected,  at 
his  own  charge,  a  hunting  theatre 
of  stone  In  the  Campus  Martius, 
and  dedicated  it  by  the  combats 
of  armed  men  ;  this,  which 
appears  to  have  been,  compara- 


tively, of  insignificant  dimension, 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  the  reign 
of  Nero. 

From  its  small  dimensions  the 
public  shows  were  yet  exhibited 
in  wooden  amphitheatres.  Cali- 
gula began  another  amphitheatre, 
but  did  not  finish  it.  Nero  built 
a  new  amphitheatre  of  wood  in 
the  Campus  Martius,  and  finished 
it  within  the  year  :  it  was  well 
founded,  of  great  size,  and  firmly 
supported  by  large  beams.  Pliny 
(lib.  xiv.  c.  39.)  says  it  had  a 
beam  of  the  larix  tree,  120  feet 
long  and  c2  broad,  which  was  car- 
ried from  Rhaetia  by  Tiberius' s 
order,  when  that  emperor  caused 
the  bridge  at  the  Naumaehia  to 
be  rebuilt,  and  by  him  shown  for 
a  wonder,  and  preserved  long 
after  as  a  rarity. 

After  the  example  of  Rome, 
other  cities  began  to  erect  amphi- 
theatres. Attilius  built  one 
near  Fidena,  five  miles  from 
Rome  ;  but  at  the  celebration  of 
the  games  the  foundation  and 
beams  gave  way,  and  twenty-five 
thousand  persons  perished. 

Another  very  beautiful  amphi- 
theatre, and  the  largest  in  Italy, 
built  without  the  walls  of  Pla- 
centia,  was  also  of  wood.  Vespa- 
sian at  last  undertook  to  erect 
an  amphitheatre  of  stone,  of 
adequate  dimensions,  which  at  his 
death  was  continued  and  com- 
pleted by  Titus. 

Amphitheatres  are  also  men- 
tioned as  having  been  built  at 
Arezzo,  Florence,  Fiesole,  Adria, 
and  Lucca ;  one  at  five  miles  from 
Palermo,  at  Cassano,  in  Calabria, 
which  is  the  most  entire  of  any  in 
the  kingdom  of  Naples.  AtMin- 
turno,  which  has  an  arena  of  £04 
feet  by  70  feet,  the  building  was 
344  feet  long,  built  of  brick,  and 
situated  near  t'ie  ancient  Lyra  j 
at  Benevento  was  another  of 
stone,  nearly  of  the  same  size. 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


There  are  also  some  remains 
of  an  amphitheatre  at  Alba, 
built  of  Peperino,  which  had  an 
arena  206  feet  long.  That  at 
Capua  was  an  extensive  edifice, 
and  second  only  to  the  Coliseum  at 
Rome,  which  nevertheless  it  far 
exceeded  in  its  exterior  orna- 
ments :  four  orders  of  columns  are 
there  seen.  The  first  exterior 
circuit  was  built  of  stones  of 
great  sizes,  but  the  inside  was 
brick.  The  exterior  face  exhi- 
bited on  each  pillar  in  the  first 
range  the  head  of  a  pagan  deityj  on 
the  top  of  each  pillar  in  the  second 
range  was  a  bust  of  some  god; 
and  on  the  third  range  an  entire 
statue.  These  ranges  of  heads, 
bustoes,  and  statues,  seem  to 
have  comprised  the  whole  pagan 
mythology  and  superstition,  and 
afforded  one  of  the  noblest  pros- 
pects in  the  world  ;  it  had  an  arena 
about  230  feet  long ;  its  entire 
length  was  520  feet. 

The  amphitheatre  of  Puteoli  is 
so  ruined  that  there  is  hardly  an 
ornament  to  be  perceived  in  it ; 
its  arena  was  about  250  feet  long. 
Remains  of  another  amphitheatre 
are  seen  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Casin,  near  Varro's  country  seat, 
but  they  present  nothing  remark- 
able. There  are  also  other  ves- 
tiges of  a  similar  edifice  at 
Otricoli.  At  Catania,  the  am- 
phitheatre was  built  of  brick  and 
great  masses  of  lava.  Agrigen- 
tum  had  also  its  amphitheatre, 
so  had  Syracuse  ;  that  of  Paestum 
was  peculiar  in  its  construction. 

The  amphitheatres  of  Pola, 
Nismes,  Verona,  and  Rome,  will 
be  afterwards  more  minutely  de- 
scribed. 

The  Gauls  had  so  great  a  num- 
ber of  amphitheatres,  that  they 
cou'Vl  vie  almost  with  Italy  itself  in 
them.  There  are  some  remains  of 
one  at  Frejus,in  Provence,  of  which 
t  he  ar  ena  was  2 1 0  feet  long.  Aries 

142 


has  also  some  considerable  remains 
of  an  amphitheatre.  The  re- 
mains of  the  amphitheatre  at 
Autun,  the  ancient  Bibracti,  one 
of  the  langest  and  finest  cities 
in  Gaul,  gives  us  a  noble  idea 
of  that  building.  The  exterior 
circuit  consisted  of  four  orders 
of  architecture,  similar  to  the 
Coliseum  at  Rome.  It  had 
vomitaria,  which  led  to  the  stairs, 
and  disposed  in  a  manner  similar 
to  those  in  that  building. — 
Although  the  precinctum  is  not, 
however,  observable  in  the  ruins 
of  this  amphitheatre,  it  is  by  no 
means  probable  that  so  large  a 
building,  and  having  so  long  a 
gradation  of  steps,  should  have 
been  formed,  in  this  essential 
particular,  differently  from  any 
of  the  others.  Vestiges  of  another 
building,  also  supposed  to  be  an 
amphitheatre,  are  at  Autun. 

Amphitheatres  were  built  at 
Saintesj  and  of  that  at  Bordeaux, 
commonly  called  the  Palace  of 
Gallienus,  the  diameter  was 
226  feet ;  at  Orange  ;  at  Nar- 
bonne  ;  at  Die,  in  Dauphine  j  at 
Cahors,  the  capital  of  the  province 
of  Quercy ;  at  Drenaul  sur  le 
Cher  ;  at  Toulouse ;  at  Lyons, 
at  Vienne,  in  Dauphine  ;  at 
Paris  3  at  Neri,  in  the  Bour- 
bonnois  ;  at  Grand,  in  Cham- 
pagne ;  at  Drevant  and  Bruieres, 
in  Berry ;  at  Valonges,  in  Nor- 
mandy ;  and  another  about  four 
leagues  from  Montargis ;  at  Be- 
sancon,  and  at  Metz.  And  it  is 
supposed  that  Poictiers,  Bourges, 
Rennes,  Marseilles,  and  Treves, 
also  had  their  amphitheatres  ;  but 
probably  these  might  have  been 
of  wood  ;  that  at  Perigeaux  is  of 
squared  stones,  having,  according 
to  Lipsius,  the  longest  axis  of  its 
arena  240  feet,  and  the  transverse 
axis  160  :  and  at  Nice,  the  am- 
phitheatre had  a  single  range  of 
arcades  on  the  outside,  and  eight 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


row  of  seats  on  the  inside.  Behind 
the  uppermost  row  it  is  conjec- 
tured that  wooden  seats  were 
erected.  It  had  fifty  openings  in 
its  periphery,  and  was  about  500 
feet  in  circumference. 

The  amphitheatre  atDoue  Sur 
l'lger,  in  Poitou,  was  excavated 
from  the  side  of  a  mountain, 
without  any  other  sub  or  super- 
structure, and  had  twenty-four 
ranges  of  seats.  The  longest  axis 
of  the  arena  was  236  feet,  and  the 
shortest  about  60  feet. 

Nothing  is  known  of  the  am- 
phitheatre of  Tintiniac,  except 
that  which  is  given  by  Balusius 
in  his  Tutelensian  history :  "There 
was  formerly,  about  a  league 
from  Tule  in  Tintiniac,  a  con- 
siderable city,  some  ruins  of  which 
yet  remain,  and  among  other 
things  the  ruins  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, 200  feet  long  and  150 
feet  broad,  the  dens  and  gaols  of 
which,  that  now  remain,  I  saw  in 
my  youth."  The  place  where  the 
ruins  of  this  amphitheatre  are,  is 
called  "  Les  arenes  de  Tintiniac  5" 
it  may  from  hence  be  conjectured 
that  the  city  was  anciently  called 
Tintiniac,  unless  it  perhaps  be 
Ratiastum  of  Ptolemy. 

Mention  is  made  of  others  in 
Swisserland  at  the  ancient  Aventi- 
cum  Helveticorum,  and  in  the 
same  territory  at  the  ancient  Au- 
gusta Rauracorum. 

The  amphitheatre  of  Hispalis, 
near  Seville,  is  almost  quite  ruin- 
ed ;  this  building  was  preserved 
nearly  entire  until  modern  times, 
when  the  magistrates  of  Seville 
finding  their  city  threatened  with 
inundation,  ordered  it  to  be  de- 
molished, and  the  materials  to 
be  applied  in  building  walls  to 
stem  the  force  of  the  floods.  It 
resembled  that  of  Nismes,  in  that 
the  podium  was  very  large  and 
spacious.  The  gates  that  an- 
swered to  the  podium  are  very 


wide  and  high,  and  through 
these  it  is  probable  that  the  ma- 
gistrates went  to  their  seats. 
They  might  also  serve  for  the 
knights  who  sat  in  the  first  class 
of  seats  above  the  podium.  The 
stairs  are  carried  up  from  the 
podium  to  the  uppermost  seats 
of  the  portico.  Another  was  built 
at  Tarragona  ;  that  at  Morviedro, 
the  ancient  Saguntum,had  twenty- 
six  rows  of  seats  cut  from  the 
rock,  and  was  357  feet  French  in 
diameter  :  it  appears  from  an  in- 
scription to  have  been  constructed 
by  the  inhabitants  of  that  city. 

At  Smyrna  is  an  amphitheatre 
built  of  stone,  still  in  good  pre- 
servation ;  it  contained  30  or  35 
ranges  of  seats  raised  on  three 
grand  arcades,  yet  perfectly  entire. 

An  amphitheatre  was  erected 
at  Sardis,  the  capital  of  Lydiar 
and  another  at  Jerusalem  ;  the 
Corinthians  had  also  a  building 
of  this  kind  ;  and  there  is  mention 
of  another  at  Argos  an  d  at  Melos  j 
the  Hippodrome  at  Constantino- 
ple was  a  species  of  amphitheatre. 

At  Udena,  about  twenty  miles 
south  from  Tunis,  are  the  remains 
of  a  noble  amphitheatre,  about  200 
yards  in  circumference,  taking 
its  extent  from  the  highest  seats 
in  the  galleries  :  it  is  of  an  oval 
shape  ;  the  principal  entrances 
into  it  are  one  at  each  end,  at  the 
bottom  or  ground  floor  of  the 
building,  these  two  entrances 
have  been  very  broad.  There 
are  sixteen  other  entrances  for  the 
spectators,  eight  on  each  side,  per- 
fectly uniform,  and  from  each 
entrance  there  is  a  staircase  to 
ascend  into  the  galleries  5  from  the 
bottom  or  ground  floor  of  the 
amphitheatre,  to  the  lowest  seats 
in  the  galleries,  is  about  30  feet 
perpendicular,  of  solid  wall,  quite 
smooth,  and  well  put  together. 
The  whole  has  been  built  with 
hewn  stone  generally  of  a  lfftige 

143 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


size,  harder  than  our  common 
English  limestone,  and  of  a 
yellowish  colour.  Paul  Lucas 
mentions  another  one  at  Con- 
stantinum  in  Africa. 

At  Caerleon,  the  vestige  of  an- 
tiquity called  "  Arthur's  Round 
Table,"  has  been  supposed  to  ex- 
hibit an  example  of  what  has 
been  called  a  castrensian  amphi- 
theatre. Such  temporary  amphi- 
theatres were  probably  the  only 
ones  used  by  the  Romans  in  dis- 
tant provinces  ;  since  the  more 
pompous  edifices  of  this  kind 
seem  to  have  been  confined  to 
Italy,  France,  Spain,  the  coast  of 
the  Adriatic,  and  the  neighbour- 
ingprovince  of  Helvetia.  Lipsius 
has  given  us  a  list  of  such  of  these 
superb  buildings  of  which  there 
are  any  remains  ;  but  he  omits  all 
mention  of  those  of  the  castren- 
sian kind  ;  and  this  is  the  more 
remarkable,  as  there  is  great  rea- 
son to  suppose  that  the  earlier 
amphitheatres  of  wood  were  but 
the  imitations  of  those  attached 
to  the  camps,  and  formed  on  the 
sides  of  hills  or  vallies.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  Romans  origin- 
ally stood  at  games,  till  luxury 
introduced  sitting;  and  it  is  in 
general  remarkable  that  castren- 
sian amphitheatres  preserve  no 
signs  of  subsellia,  or  seats;  so  that 
the  spectators  must  have  stood  on 
the  grassy  declivity.  No  vestiges 
of  seats  are  observable  in  that  at 
Caerleon,  nor  in  the  more  perfect 
one  at  Dorchester,  nor  in  any 
other  castrensian  amphitheatre 
which  can  be  traced  in  England, 
where  they  certainly  have  been 
very  numerous.  Stukely  men- 
tions one  at  Silchester,  and  ano- 
ther three  miles  from  Pedruth  in 
Cornwall,  —  probably  also  the 
round  entrenchment  betweenPen- 
rith  and  Shap  in  Westmoreland 
is  of  the  same  kind. 

Of  the  ancient  maritime  towns 

144 


(says  Allason)  of  Istria,  Tergeste, 
^Egida,  Parentium,  and  Pola,  now 
known  by  the  names  Trieste,Capo 
dTstria,  Parenzo,  and  Pola,  the 
latter  is  the  only  place  distin- 
guished by  any  remains  of  anti- 
quity that  prove  its  former  im- 
portance, among  these  the  most 
important  is  its  amphitheatre ;  the 
town  must  have  enjoyed  political 
consideration  and  wealth,  for  this 
edifice  was  large  enough  to  contain 
twenty  thousand  persons. 

The  magnificent  Amphitheatre  at 
Pola  is  situated  without  the  town, 
and  is  one  of  the  most  striking, 
beautiful,  and  perfect  monuments 
of  antiquity;  the  majesty  of  its 
mass,  the  delightful  verdure  of  the 
coasts  which  it  crowns,  the  calm 
state  of  the  water  which  ap- 
proaches its  walls,  and  reflects 
its  august  figure,  the  almost  reli- 
gious veneration  which  arises  in 
the  mind  on  viewing  such  splendid 
remains  of  grandeur,  all  conspire 
to  awaken  a  sensation  of  pleasing 
melancholy,  which  words  cannot 
adequately  describe.  The  walls 
of  the  amphitheatre  are  still  en- 
tire, and  its  form  is  suited  to  its 
character,  being  an  ellipsis  whose 
largest  diameter  is  nearly  north 
and  south,  and  measures  about 
436  feet  6  inches,  and  346  feet 
2  inches  on  its  shorter  axis.  In 
the  more  perfect  parts  its  height 
is  97  feet. 

The  longer  axis  of  the  arena 
measured  222  feet  9  inches,  and 
the  shorter  13*2  feet  4  inches. 
The  heights  of  the  stories  are 
marked  on  the  engraving  in  Eng- 
lish feet  and  inches.  The  exte- 
rior is  rusticated,  having  two  or- 
ders of  tuscan  pilasters,  one 
above  the  other,  the  lower  being 
placed  upon  pedestals.  The 
whole  circumference  is  divided 
into  seventy-two  arches,  the  two 
at  the  extremities  being  higher  and 
wider  than  the  rest.    The  height 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


is  divided  into  three  stories,  and, 
by  its  particular  construction, 
displays  an  uncommon  lightness 
and  elegance  of  effect.  The  space 
between  the  contraforti,  as  Serlio 
calls  them,  (though  in  fact  they 
are  two  staircases,  and  so  contriv- 
ed, that  those  who  ascended  one  of 
the  two  flights  in  each  contra- 
forti, could  never  meet  those 
w  ho  descended  in  the  other,)  has 
two  orders  of  voids.  On  the 
western  sides  there  are  four 
ranges  of  voids,  one  above  the 
other;  the  first  consistingof  doors, 
the  next  of  arches,  the  third  also 
of  arches,  and  the  fourth  of  win- 
dows. This  order  remains  unin- 
terruptedfor  fifteen  arches,  when, 
on  account  of  the  rising  of  the 
ground  on  which  the  edifice  is 
built,  the  lower  range  of  voids  is 
discontinued  on  each  side  -}  the 
three  remaining  tiers  are  conti- 
nued on  the  northern,  and  so  as 
to  include  the  great  arch  j  and 
on  the  southern  end,  which  is 
next  to  the  city,  they  include  the 
great  arch,  and  three  arches  be- 
vond  it,  at  which  point  the  hill 
again  rises,  so  as  to  leave  only 
the  two  upper  ranges  of  arches, 
and  that  of  windows;  and  these 
two  ranges  of  arches  form  the 
eastern  side.  The  natural  decli- 
vity of  the  hill,  at  a  small  dis- 
tance from  the  surface,  is  cut  into 
seats  from  the  area  to  the  top  of 
the  second  order,  for  nearly  all  the 
eastern  half  ;  and  the  expense  of 
building  prisons,  corridors,  stair- 
cases, &.c.  is  thereby  saved.  On 
the  other  side  these  were  built 
with  very  thick  and  massive  walls. 

The  parapet,  or  finish  to  the 
other  walls,  is  singular  ;  and  Mr. 
Woods,  who  edited  the  fourth 
volume  of  the  "  Athenian  Anti- 
quities," could  not  find  any  thing 
in  Stuart's  papers  to  justify  the 
supposition  of  any  mouldings  be- 
ing placed  over  it.  The  reason 
T 


for  the  singularity  is  not  appa- 
rent, and  nothing  like  it  occurs 
in  any  other  amphitheatre.  Some 
indications,  the  same  gentleman 
thinks,  favour  the  idea  that  the 
internal  part  of  the  building  was 
of  wood. 

It  is  placed  on  the  western 
declivity  of  a  hill,  which,  a  little 
below  its  surface,  is  solid  rock. 
The  architect  appears  to  have 
availed  himself  of  this  situation, 
to  lessen  the  expense  which  such 
an  erection  must  have  required 
had  it  been  placed  on  level 
ground.  This  circumstance  has, 
however,  in  nowise  diminished  the 
grandeur  of  the  principal  aspect. 

The  whole  is  constructed  of 
Istrian  stone,  which  is  of  a 
very  superior  quality,  and,  both 
in  appearance  and  durability, 
equals  the  finest  marble. 

"  The  style  of  the  building  is  of 
the  age  of  Augustus,"  but  the  or- 
namental details  are  not  in  the 
purest  taste.  They  are  delineated 
with  great  accuracy  in  the  fourth 
volume  of  "  Stuart's  Antiquities 
of  Athens  j"  and  admirable  general 
views  of  this  and  the  other  build- 
ing in  Pola  are  given  by  Allason, 
in  his  "  Antiquities  of  Pola." 

In  the  plate  marked  "  Amphi- 
theatre of  Pola,"  figure  I  is  a 
ground  plan  of  the  amphitheatre  j 
and  figure  2  a  section  of  the 
exterior  wall. 

The  Amphitheatre  at  Verona. 
Writers  are  divided  in  their  opi- 
nions as  to  the  age  of  this  building  j 
some  have  imagined  it  to  be  of 
the  age  of  Augustus,  and  others 
of  Maximian  ;  but  Maffei  thinks 
the  first  date  is  too  early,  and  the 
other  too  late  :  but  of  the  two, 
judging  from  the  style  of  its  ar 
chitecture,  it  is  nearer  to  the  age 
of  Augustus  than  Maximian  j  as 
the  whole  appears  to  have  been 
rather  the  work  of  the  ages 
wherein  the  elegancy  of  the  arts 

145 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


were  prevalent,  than  when  they 
were  not;  besides,  the  tuscan 
order  in  all  the  stories  is  an  in- 
dication of  its  antiquity.  But  upon 
the  whole  the  marquis  is  induced 
to  believe,  that  an  amphitheatre 
wholly  of  stone,  and  of  such  ar- 
chitecture, was  never  built  in  any 
colony  in  Augustus's  time,  before 
any  such  fabric  had  been  erected  at 
Rome  to  copy  from.  The  silence 
of  Pliny  on  this  occasion  is  also 
against  its  being  built  in  his  time. 
In  the  time  of  the  emperor  Gal- 
lienus  it  was  not  only  built,  but 
began  to  be  in  decay  ;  as  many  of 
the  stones  of  which  it  was  com- 
posed are  to  be  found  in  the  walls 
of  Verona,  erected  in  the  time 
of  that  emperor;  among  others 
many  of  the  key-stones,  with  the 
numbers  engraven  on  them,  and 
which  were  placed  over  the  lower 
range  of  arches.  In  one  of  the 
letters  of  Pliny  the  younger,  who 
is  supposed  to  have  died  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Trajan,  it  is  stated  that 
one  Maximus  celebrated  in  Vero- 
na a  solemn  amphitheatrical  show, 
and  that  a  great  number  of  pan- 
thers were  exhibited  on  the  occa- 
sion. Now  in  the  shows  of  Curio, 
and  also  in  those  of  the  Fiden- 
tines,  of  Cecinna  andValens,  men- 
tioned by  Pliny  and  Tacitus, 
there  were  gladiators,  but  no  wild 
beasts.  Judging  from  this,  it 
were  no  improbable  conjecture 
that  this  pile  was  erected  in  the 
age  of  Nerva  or  Domitian,  or  at 
the  latest  in  the  first  years  of 
Trajan,  and  that  the  builders 
imitated  that  of  Rome  built  by 
Vespasian.  It  is  improbable,  how- 
ever, that  a  building  of  this  mag- 
nitude could  have  been  erect- 
ed by  an  emperor,  and  no  notice 
have  been  taken  of  the  circum- 
stance by  historians  ;  nor  could 
it  have  been  erected  by  the 
governor  of  a  province,  as  has 

146 


also  been  supposed,  astherewere 

no  governors,  at  that  time,  in 
Italy,  each  city  governing  itself. 
It  is  probable,  therefore,  that  this 
magnificent  pile  was  built  by  the 
citizens,  as  was  also  that  at 
Capua  :  the  expense  of  such  amaz- 
ing works  was  much  lessened  by 
the  great  number  of  slaves  em- 
ployed therein, and  the  abundance 
of  marble  which  was  to  be  pro- 
cured in  the  neighbourhood. 

The  internal  and  external  form 
of  this  edifice  is  oval  ;  the  length 
of  the  greatest  axis  is  450  Vero- 
nese feet,  and  that  of  the  shortest 
axis  360  feet ;  the  length  of  the 
arena  is  218  feet  6  inches,  and 
the  breadth  129 ;  the  exterior 
circumference  is  1290  feet.  The 
height  of  the  exterior  facade  is 
about  SO  feet,  including  the  6 
feet  now  under  ground  ;  but  it  is 
probable  that  its  height,  when 
perfect,  was  from  110  to!20  feet : 
the  steps  or  seats  remaining  are 
forty-five,  and  twenty-two  thou- 
sand people  can  conveniently  be 
accommodated  with  seats,  allow- 
ing a  foot  and  a  half  to  each 
person.  In  the  profile  of  the 
walls  of  this  amphitheatre  a  con- 
siderable difference  is  remarked 
from  those  of  the  Coliseum  ;  the 
diminution  in  the  thickness  of 
the  walls  being  made  towards  the 
inside,  as  also  that  of  Pola,  while 
in  the  Coliseum  the  diminution 
takes  place  on  the  outside.  See 
engraving  of  section. 

The  arches  of  the  arena  were  in 
number  seventy-two,  at  Nismes 
there  were  only  sixty,  at  Capua 
eighty.  Every  arch  has  its  num- 
ber engraven  on  it,  as  is  seen  in 
the  engraving,  which  numbers 
serve  to  regulate  the  coming  in 
and  going  out  of  a  vast  multi- 
tude of  people.  There  remains 
a  part  of  the  rows  of  the  lower 
pillars,  or  pilasters,  which  from 
the    lloor  to    the  impost  are 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


10  feet  8  inches  in  height,  at 
the  bottom  they  have  a  pave- 
ment about  6  inches  high  ;  the 
capital  (or  impost,  so  called  be- 
cause it  goes  all  round)  is 
one  foot  8  inches  high,  and  the 
projection  8  inches.  The  front 
of  the  pilasters  G  feet  3  inches, 
of  which  measure  the  side  in- 
creases somewhat  more  than 
half  a  foot  •  the  counterfront  is 
not  quite  an  inch  in  the  forepart, 
so  in  proportion  it  is  in  the  other 
interior  parts,  all  of  them  being 
made  to  retire  or  contract  in  pro- 
portion as  they  met  towards  the 
point.  The  counter  pilaster,  or 
the  flat  pillar,  runs  from  the  foot 
of  it  to  the  top,  and  dividing  the 
capital  of  the  pilaster,  helps  to 
support  the  architrave;  it  is  2 
feet  8  inches  broad,  19  feet 
high,  and  does  not  project  quite 
an  inch,  and  about  18  inches 
in  the  capital.  The  breadth,  or 
the  empty  spaces  of  the  arches 
of  the  four  entrances  that  remain, 
is  11  feet  8  inches,  though  this 
varies  in  some  other  parts;  the 
height  of  the  arch  from  the 
pavement  to  the  top  is  18  feet : 
as  those  voids  served  in  place  of 
so  many  gates,  (which,  except 
on  occasion  of  performing  the 
shows,  were  kept  shut,)  on  the 
sides  of  the  pilasters  forming  the 
entrance  are  cavities,  or  rebates, 
in  which  grates,  or  gates,  were 
placed.  The  architrave  above 
the  capitals  is  2  feet  high,  and 
the  frieze  2  feet  2  inches ;  the 
cornice  is  20  inches  high,  and 
projects  about  19  inches.  On 
the  second  range  is  a  fascia,  15 
inches  high,  having  pilasters  12 
feet  2  inches  high  j  and  their  ca- 
pitals measure  20  inches,  and  5 
feet  6  inches  broad.  At  their 
foot  is  a  flattened  stone,  con- 
tinued all  round,  serving  as  a 
parapet  and  fence  to  those 
who  may  have  walked  in  the 


covered  way  of  that   story. — 

The  front  or  breadth  of  the  pilas- 
ters is  5  feet  6  inches;  their  sides 
as  much  :  the  plain  pillar  is  2 
feet.  10  inches  broad,  projecting 
6  inches,  and  is  21  feet  8  inches  ; 
its  capital  20  inches.  The  range 
of  pilasters  supporting  the  arch, 
beside  the  flattened  stone,  are  3 
feet  6  inches  high,  and  8  feet  8 
inches  broad,  and  15  inches  deep  ; 
the  impost  projects  6  inches  ;  the 
width  of  the  opening  between  the 
arches  12  feet  3  inches  ;  the 
thickness  of  the  vault  or  roof 
below,  and  the  flooring,  was 
about  2  feet  2  inches  ;  the  archi- 
trave of  thjs  story  is  19  inches 
high,  the  frieze  21  inches,  the 
cornice  16*  inches.  In  the  third 
story,  the  three  fascia,  or  bind- 
ings, serving  as  a  parapet,  are  5 
feet  high;  the  front  of  the  pilasters 
is  8  feet  8  inches,  the  side  2  feet, 
the  arch  12  feet  8  inches  high, 
the  pilasters  8  feet  high,  the  im- 
post 1  foot  2  inches;  the  plain 
pillars,  placed  perpendicularly 
over  the  others,  are  4  feet  4 
inches  broad,  but  they  lose  them- 
selves from  the  capitals  upwards, 
the  whole  wall  remaining  equal ; 
the  breadth  of  the  opening  9  feet 

inches.  The  elevation  of  the 
arches  and  the  apertures  "  are 
so  well  proportioned,  the  semi- 
circles are  so  well  turned,  the 
stones  hollowed  in  so  masterly  a 
manner,  and  with  such  a  har- 
mony and  fine  disposition  to  the 
eye,  that,  whoever  beholds  it, 
cannot  satiate  themselves  with 
beholding  its  beauty." 

The  engravings  containing  the 
elevation  and  section  of  a  part  of 
the  external  wall  and  profiles  of 
the  mouldings,  are  given,  as  ne- 
cessary to  the  proper  understand- 
ing the  effect  of  the  agreeable 
proportions  of  this  line  building. 
The  details  are  not,  however,  in  ;i 
taste  to  be  used  as  models ;  the  ca- 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


pitals  of  the  upper  range  of  pilas- 
ters are  remaining  ;  but  the  shafts 
either  have  never  been  placed  un- 
der them,  or  they  have  originally 
been  intended  to  form  an  orna- 
mented corbel.  From  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  building,  this  opinion 
is  the  most  probable. 

The  engraving  of  the  ground 
plan,  although  on  a  small  scale, 
will  explain  the  general  arrange- 
ment of  the  radiating  passages, 
the  direction  of  the  seats,  and 
position  of  the  staircases. 

The  Amphitheatre  at  Nismes 
was  large  enough  to  contain 
seventeen  thousand  persons.  It 
is  built  in  an  oval,  form,  and 
measures  about  400  feet  in 
length,  and  320  feet  broad. 
It  has  a  circumscribing  facade 
of  two  stories  of  arcades ;  the 
lower  one  supported  by  pilasters 
and  a  complete  entablature,  the 
upper  one  by  columns,  and  a 
similarly  perfect  entablature ; 
each  arcade  consisting  of  sixty 
arches,  of  which  four  principal 
ones,  at  the  axes  of  the  two  diam- 
eters, form  on  the  base  story  the 
great  entrances ;  the  other  fifty-six 
arches  form  each  a  portico  which 
runs  in  the  line  of  the  radii  to  the 
arena  ;  both  above  and  below,  a 
corridor  crossing  these  porticoes 
at  right  angles  runs  quite  round 
the  building.  On  the  base  story 
a  second  corridor  or  circular 
gallery,  concentric  to  the  outer 
one,  runs  right  round  the  build- 
ing under  the  range  of  seats 
near  to  the  podium  j  there  is  a 
fourth  gallery,  which  being  an 
entresol  placed  nearly  at  an  equal 
distance  between  the  floors  of  the 
two  under  galleries,  and  at  an 
equal  height  between  the  upper 
and  lower  gallery,  is  a  general 
landing-place  to  the  several  stairs, 
and  the  communication  to  the 
aditus  or  vomitaria. 

Both  the  entrances  by  the  por- 

14S 


tal  and  the  portico  diminished  by  m 

regular  decrease  of  height  and 
breadth,  from  the  entrance  at  the 
arch  in  the  facade  to  the  wall  of 
the  podium. 

In  the  engravings  of  this  amphi- 
theatre, in  which  is  a  restored 
section  of  the  seats,  A  marks  the 
base  or  ground  floor,  B  the  second, 
and  C  the  third  ;  M  the  section  of 
the  lower  corridor,  which  runs  en- 
tirely round  the  edifice  ;  P  the 
corridor  going  round  the  upper 
story;  N  the  corridor  going  round 
near  to  the  podium,  where  stairs 
in  the  direction  of  V  ascended  to 
the  podium.  This  was  lighted 
by  an  iron  grating  or  lattice  in 
the  wall  of  the  podium  next  the 
arena.  O,  the  fourth  corridor,  an 
entresol  between  the  two  stories, 
entering  at  the  arch  A,  and  having 
passed  into  the  corridor  M.  The 
spectators  ascended  by  twenty 
steps,  each  9  inches  high  and  12 
broad,  into  the  entresol  O;  this  was 
lighted  by  the  several  passages  or 
vomitaria.  Here  those  specta- 
tors of  the  equestrian  rank  sepa- 
rated from  the  people  at  large, 
and  descended  by  the  stairs  R  into 
the  greater  descent.  The  plebeians 
ascended  from  the  entresol  O  by 
twenty  steps,  such  as  those  at  Q,  in 
the  direction  of  the  line  S,  into 
the  corridor  P  of  the  upper  story 
B  ;  hence  they  ascended  through 
passages  into  the  benches  appro- 
priated to  them  in  the  third  or 
upper  division. 

The  people,  as  we  have  seen 
had  at  their  first  entrance  fifty-six 
arches  by  which  they  entered  intc 
the  corridors  M.  Here  persons 
of  the  senatorial  rank  separated 
from  the  rest,  goingdirectly  by  the 
portico  to  the  corridor  or  gallery 
Nj  and  thence  each  individual  as- 
cended by  one  of  those  staircases 
which  his  ticket  would  point  out 
into  the  podium,  where  he  knew 
his  particular  place  by  his  ticket. 


AMPHITHEATRE 


The  people  and  knights,  each  in- 
dividual knowing  by  his  ticket 
which  of  those  staircases  Q  he 
was  to  ascend  by,  would  enter 
into  the  entresol  O. 

The  arches  of  the  upper  story 
B,  which  open  to  the  upper  gal- 
lerv  P,  were  originally  closed  in 
with  a  breastwork  or  parapet, 
about  feet  high.  Some  of  these 
remain  in  perfect  preservation; 
the  places  of  those  which  are 
gone  are  supplied  with  a  parapet 
of  modern  building.  The  para- 
pets were  of  one  large  flat  stone 
cut  into  a  pannel,  on  which  vari- 
ous designs  were  carved  in  bass- 
relief. 

In  the  present  state  of  the  am- 
phitheatre, filled  with  houses,  it 
looks  like  a  little  walled  town. 
The  arena  has  houses  on  it  ar- 
ranged in  streets>  and  the  three 
galleries,  M  N  O,  are  converted 
into  numerous  miserable  dwell- 
ings. The  houses,  stables,  shops 
which  are  found  in  the  gallery 
all  open  on  the  outside  into  the 
town. — Some  of  the  stairs  of  as- 
cent into  the  gallery  P  remain. 
This  gallery  is  perfect,  unencum- 
bered, and  can  be  perambulated 
as  in  its  original  state.  The 
stairs  Heading  to  the  vomitariaof 
the  upper  division  of  benches, are 
those  by  which  one  ascends  at  this 
day.  The  half  gallery  W  is  also 
in  general  clear.  In  some  parts 
seventeen,  in  others  twelve  of  the 
benches,  reckoned  from  the  top, 
are  complete  and  clear  of  build- 
ings. The  next  are  either  broken, 
or  removed,  or  buried  among  the 
buildings.  The  edifice  is  formed 
of  immense  blocks  of  stone — in 
many  parts  one  entire  stone  runs 
from  arch  to  arch,  and  includes 
not  only  the  impost,  but  the 
column,  all  in  one  mass,  9  feet 
long,  7  feet  wide,  and  between  *2 
and  3  feet  high.    Some  of  the 


stones  forming  the  lintels  are  18 
feet  long. 

The  precise  date  of  its  construc- 
tion is  not  known.  If  built,  as  sup- 
posed, on  the  model  of  the  Flavian 
amphitheatre, it  cannot  date  higher 
than  the  age  of  Titus  ;  and  there 
is  no  period  between  that  and  the 
reign  of  Adrian,  that  can  be  fixed 
upon,  in  which  such  buildings 
were  erected.    Adrian  built  the 
basilica  of  Flotina,  and  the  tem- 
ple of  Diana,  at  Nismes,  which  a 
French  antiquary  thinks  was  pa- 
tronage enough  for  Nismes  in 
one  reign,  and  conjectures  that 
the  erection  of  the  amphitheatre 
might  have  taken  place  in  the 
reign  of  Antoninus,  about  a.  d. 
138.    That  we  are  totally  igno- 
rant of  the  date  of  erection  of  any 
provincial   amphitheatre  which 
has  endured  to  our  times,  is  a 
circumstance  as  singular  as  it  is 
extraordinary.    From  notices  of 
splendid  games  having  been  exhi- 
bited in  this  and  other  amphi- 
theatres, it  has  been  attempted 
to  limit  the  date  of  their  erec- 
tion   between    certain  periods ; 
but  others  think  this  very  ab- 
sence  of  all    historical  notice 
of   the    buildings  themselves, 
(from  their  dimensions,  not  only 
the  largest,  but  the  ornament  of 
the  provinces  in  which  they  were 
situated,)   cannot  be  accounted 
for  in  any  other  way,  than  the 
buildings  from  their  antiquity  were 
so  well  known,  as  to  preclude 
mention  on  the  score  of  novelty. 
The  style  of  their  construction 
absolutely   forbids  entertaining 
the  idea,  that  they  were  erected 
after  the  eras  generally  assigned 
to  them,  even  were  the  means 
of   later    times  commensurate 
to  the  expenses  attending  the 
erection  of  such  gigantic  fabrics. 

The  Flavian  Amphitheatre  oc- 
cupies an  area  of  nearly  six  acres, 

1J9 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


and  from  its  apparent  magnitude 
may  be  said  to  be  the  grandest 
building  in  the  world.  Its  plan 
is  somewhat  greater  than  any  of 
the  Egyptian  pyramids ;  but  on 
the  outside,  the  Coliseum  ap- 
pears of  much  larger  dimension, 
as  it  rises  perpendicularly  nearly 
16*0  feet,  while  the  pyramids  di- 
minish from  their  base. 

Barthelemy  from  a  measure- 
ment calculates,  that  the  external 
wall  only  of  the  Coliseum  would 
have  cost  in  his  time  (1761)  a 
sum  equal  to  £  680,000  ster- 
ling :  labour  was  then  cheap- 
er than  it  is  now  ;  and  the  exter- 
nal wall  may  be  only  a  third 
or  a  fourth  part  of  the  whole 
work.  It  was  begun  by  the 
emperor  Vespasian,  and  finished 
by  his  son  Titus,  about  a.  d.  79. 

Domitian  seems  to  have  re- 
paired the  amphitheatre;  during 
the  government  of  Macrinus  it 
was  greatly  injured  by  lightning. 
Some  inscriptions  lead  to  the 
supposition  that  it  was  also  re- 
paired by  Theodosius  and  Valen- 
tinian,  about  the  end  of  the  4th 
century. 

During  the  persecutions  of  the 
early  Christians,  many  of  them 
suffered  death  on  its  arena.  Aftei 
the  edict  of  Justinian,  which 
banished  all  gladiators  from  the 
empire,  it  was  neglected  ;  and 
afterwards,  as  the  triumph 
of  the  christian  faith  over 
that  of  the  Pagans  introduced  a 
more  merciful  creed,  and  more 
refined  feeling,  the  sports  of  the 
amphitheatre,  and  their  magni- 
ficent arena,  fell  rapidly  into 
decay,  from  which  they  were 
never  again  to  arise.  The  Coli- 
seum thus  abandoned  was  seldom 
mentioned,  until  about  the  12th 
century.  During  the  feuds  of  the 
Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  it  was 
converted   by   the  Frangepani 

150 


family  into  a  fortress  ;  and  here 
pope  Innocent  II.  took  refuge  from 
the  revenge  of  the  triumphant 
party.  In  this  contest  the  Fran- 
gipani  lost  possession,  and  it  fell 
into  the  hands  of  the  Anibaldi 
family,  who  held  it  until  the  year 
a.u.  1311. 

Barthelemy  {Mem.  de  VAcademie 
des  Inscrip.  vol.  xxvii.)  speaks  of 
a  letter  in  the  Vatican,  which 
treats  of  an  agreement  between 
the  Colonna  and  Ursini  families 
in  the  14th  century,  about 
the  right  of  taking  Travertine 
stone  from  the  Coliseum,  as 
well  for  burning  into  lime  as 
for  building.  At  that  period, 
however,  few  building  materi- 
als were  wanted  ;  the  fabrics 
erected  in  those  times  of  anarchy 
were  only  a  few  brick  towers, 
serving  as  fortresses,  and  erected 
upon  the  solid  masonry  of  the 
ancient  buildings.  Rome  being 
then  thinly  peopled,  the  inha- 
bitants poor,  having  neither  arts, 
commerce,  nor  a  regular  govern- 
ment, and  divided  into  factions 
at  war  with  each  other,  the  di- 
lapidations were  for  a  long  time 
inconsiderable,  and  confined  to 
the  interior  of  the  amphitheatre. 

In  1312,  a  bull  feast  was  exhi- 
bited in  the  Coliseum,  in  which 
these  families  were  conspicuous — 
a  circumstance  interesting  in  the 
history  of  the  building,  as  it  is 
probable  that  at  that  time  the 
stone  seats  remained,  which  now 
are  entirely  destroyed.  In  1332, 
it  again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
government  of  Rome.  The  build- 
ing suffered  most  after  the  revival 
of  the  arts,  when  large  palaces 
came  to  be  erected,  for  which  the 
squared  stones  of  the  amphithe- 
atre afforded  a  good  material, 
and  saved  the  trouble  and  great 
part  of  the  expense  of  quarrying 
and  bringing  the  stones  from  the 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


rock  twenty  miles  distant.  The 
nephews  of  Paul  III.,  Farnese, 
employed  the  stones  in  build- 
ing their  palace,  under  the 
direction  of  the  celebrated  Mi- 
chael Angelo  :  the  palace  of 
the  Caneellaria,  by  Bramante, 
was  also  built  with  the  Coliseum 
travertine. 

With  reference  to  this  dilapi- 
dation, it  is  a  favourite  old  wo- 
man's story,  on  the  spot,  "  that 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  stone  was 
carried  away  in  one  night  to  build 
the  Farnese  palace."  But  a  sen- 
sible antiquary  observes,  that,, 
although  there  is  no  doubt  of 
the  fact  of  this  and  many  other 
palaces  having  been  built  from  its 
ruins,  yet,  before  this  could  have 
taken  place,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  show  that  all  "  the  carts 
in  Italy,  at  that  moment,  were 
collected  at  Rome,  and  employed 
on  this  night  in  this  particular 
business." 

The  Coliseum  was  henceforth 
considered  but  as  an  immense 
quarry  ;  the  common  people  stole, 
and  the  grandees  obtained,  per- 
mission to  carry  off  its  materials, 
till  the  interior  was  dismantled, 
and  the  exterior  half  stripped  of 
its  ornaments.  It  is  difficult  to 
say  where  this  system  of  depre- 
dation, so  sacrilegious  in  the  opi- 
nion of  the  antiquary,  would  have 
stopped,  had  not  Benedict  XIV.,  a 
pontiff  of  great  judgment,  erected 
a  cross  in  the  centre  of  the  arena, 
and  declared  the  place  sacred, 
out  of  respect  to  the  blood  of 
the  martyrs,  who  were  butchered 
there  during  the  persecutions. 
This  declaration,  if  it  had  been 
issued  two  or  three  centuries  ago, 
would  have  preserved  the  Coli- 
seum entire — it  can  now  only  pro- 
tect its  remains,  and  transmit  them 
in  their  present  state  to  posterity. 

Round  the  elliptical  circumfe- 
rence of  the  arena,  aitars  or  sta- 


tions of  the  via  crucis  are  placed, 
and  two  or  three  friars  now  live  in 
one  of  the  damp  cells  of  the  ruin, 
to  officiate  and  to  receive  the 
contributions  of  the  charitable. 
The  external  wall  consists  of  the 
calcareous  tufa  ofTivoli,  called 
travertine  stone  ;  but  not  more 
than  a  part  of  its  circumference 
remains  with  the  different  ranges 
of  orders  complete. 

The  exterior  wall  remained 
perfect  till  the  middle  of  the  six- 
teenth century.  A  strong  and 
lofty  buttress  was  constructed  by 
Pius  VII.,  to  support  the  extre- 
mity of  the  remaining  part.  Of 
the  second  wall,  dividing  the  two 
outer  corridors,  which  were 
carried  round  the  building,  about 
the  same  quantity  is  destroyed. — 
This,  as  well  as  the  outside  wall, 
being  composed  of  square  blocks, 
has  been  more  dilapidated  than 
some  of  the  other  parts.  The  in- 
ner portions  of  the  building,  being 
mostly  constructed  with  brick 
and  tile,  ofFering  less  temptations, 
and  fewer  facilities  to  being  car- 
ried off,  are  still  allowed  to  re- 
main. 

Another  source  of  destruction 
has  arisen,  from  what  its  found 
ers  vainly  imagined  would  have 
made  it  more  durable — the  cramps 
of  iron  and  lead,  used  to  bind  the 
stones  together,  have  been  eagerly 
sought  after  and  extracted,  wher- 
ever accessible,  throughout  the 
building. 

"  The  perforations,"  says  Sa- 
lengre,  in  his  "  Thesaurus  Roma- 
nus,"  "  which  are  numerous  be- 
tween the  stones  of  the  piers  in 
the  outer  wall,  appear  to  have 
been  made  for  taking  out  the  iron 
pins  by  which  the  stones  were 
connected.  The  stones  were  laid 
without  mortar,  as  in  the  elliptic 
amphitheatre  at  Pola,  and  other 
Roman  fabrics."  Maffei  observed 
similar  perforations  in  the  stones 

151 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


of  the  Roman  arch  at  Susa,  and 
having  made  a  perforation  in  one 
of  the  stones  that  was  entire,  he 
came  to  an  iron  pin,  run  with  lead 
into  a  cavity  in  the  bed  of  the 
lower  stone.  The  pins  are  some- 
times of  bronze :  these,  and  the 
cavities  for  receiving  them,  are 
drawn  inPiranesi,tom.  iv.  tavola6. 
Some  of  these  perforations  seem 
also  to  have  been  made  for  the 
insertion  of  rafters,  to  support 
the  roofs  of  booths  and  small 
shops,  which  may  have  been 
erected  against  it  during  the  mid- 
dle ages. 

The  form  of  the  Coliseum  is 
that  of  an  oval,  of  which  the 
longer  axis  is  620  feet,  and 
the  shorter  513  feet,  having  its 
height  decorated  by  four  orders 
of  architecture,  the  doric,  ionic, 
Corinthian,  and  composite,  in  the 
series  as  here  named.  The 
columns  of  the  three  lower  orders 
project  nearly  half  their  dia- 
meter, having  the  intervals  be- 
tween them  formed  of  arches,  of 
which  thereare  eighty  in  the  peri- 
phery of  each  story.  The  arched 
openings  of  the  two  upper  stories 
had  originally  statues  placed  in 
them,  the  upper  story  being 
finished  with  pilasters  standing 
over  the  columns. 

The  four  central  openings  were 
the  largest  ;  the  only  one  of 
these  now  in  existence  is  placed 
on  the  north  side,  and  is  said  to 
have  been  the  entrance  -  for  the 
emperor  from  his  palace.  It  is 
about  16  feet  4  inches  in  width  ; 
the  other  radiating  passages  being 
about  14  feet  6  inches  ;  a  portico 
is  conjectured  to  have  been 
attached  to  this  principal  open- 
ing, as  it  is  supposed  to  be  indi- 
cated on  some  ancient  medals. 

The  walls  enclosing  the  stair- 
cases, and  forming  the  supports 
to  the  seats,  are  carried  towards 
four  centres }   nineteen  on  the 

152 


north  and  south  sides,  are  direct- 
ed to  points  placed  on  the  oppo- 
site sides,  at  A  A,  in  the  ground 
plan,  in  the  fourth  corridor,  and 
about  19  feet  8  inches  from  the 
back  of  the  podium. 

On  the  east  and  west  ends, 
fifteen  are  directed  at  each  end 
to  a  point  marked  B,  about  80 
feet  from  the  centre  of  the  arena 
in  each  direction,  excepting  the 
waMs  of  the  central  openings, 
which  are  nearly  parallel. 

Five  corridors,  or  passages, 
were  originally  carried  round  the 
building,  one  side  of  the  fifth 
corridor  being  under  the  podium. 

The  two  outer  corridors  are 
composed  of  open  arches  ;  the 
piers  and  arches  are  of  travertine 
stone.  These  piers  are  deco- 
rated with  a  pilaster,  surmounted 
with  an  architrave  ;  from  this 
spring  the  vaults  of  the  corridors. 
The  vaults  are  composed. of  rub- 
ble and  cement,  and  appear  to 
have  been  turned  upon  boarded 
(or  floored)  centres,  the  marks  of 
the  joints  of  the  boards  appear- 
ing where  the  thin  coat  of  stucco 
is  destroyed.  These  corridors 
were  paved  with  thick  travertine 
stone  ;  this  pavement  ran  round 
the  building  on  the  outside,  and 
was  nearly  6  feet  broad,  and 
was  lower  by  two  steps  than  the 
level  of  the  corridor  ;  from  the 
second  corridor  to  the  third,  the 
pavement  rises  rapidly;  be- 
tween these  passages  are  placed 
the  staircases  to  the  first  story 
over  the  two  outer  corridors. 
These  staircases  are  of  two  kinds : 
in  the  one  the  first  ascent  is  by 
twelve  steps  to  a  broad  landing, 
then  by  other  twelve  steps  to  a 
similar  landing  lighted  by  small 
openings  from  the  third  corridor, 
then  turning,  two  similar  flights 
conduct  to  the  floor  of  the  range 
of  corridors  on  the  first  story  ; 
this  staircase  is  shown  at  number 


AMPHi  T  II  E  A  T  R  E. 


40.  52.  &c.  At  number  42,  in  the 
ground  plan,  a  staircase  com- 
mences from  the  third  corridor, 
which  rises  to  the  same  level  as 
the  other  with  only  one  broad 
landing  midway.  The  walls 
between  these  staircases  are 
formed  by  four  piers  of  traver- 
tine stone,  filled  in  with  piperino 
stones  ;  but  the  horizontal  joints 
of  the  two  occasionally  do  not 
range.  From  the  third  corridor, 
on  the  opposite  side,  a  staircase 
having  twenty-five  steps  conducts 
to  the  lower  range  of  vomitories  j 
and  occupies  the  space  be- 
tween the  third  and  fourth  corri- 
dor ;  this  corridor  was  paved  with 
travertine.  Between  these  cor- 
ridors, the  walls  are  faced  with 
tile  in  regular  courses  ;  the  outer 
pier  forms  a  break,  and  was  left 
of  travertine. 

The  vault  of  the  fourth  corridor 
is  quite  destroyed  ;  from  part  of 
its  pavement  remaining,  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  laid  with 
white  or  veined  marble  about  5 
Inches  thick ;  the  brick  wall  form- 
ing the  arena  has  been  likewise 
cased  with  various  kinds  of  mar- 
ble ;  from  this  a  series  of  marble 
steps  led  to  the  top  of  the  podium, 
and  it  has  been  suggested  that 
three  flights  of  steps  were  placed 
at  the  centre  of  the  north  and 
south  sides,  by  which  the  em- 
peror, and  the  other  distinguish- 
ed persons,  ascended  to  their 
eeats  in  the  podium.  The  open- 
ing in  the  wall,  within  the  fourth 
corridor,  at  40,  45,  and  52,  com- 
municated with  the  passage 
(formed  under  the  podium)  by 
steps ;  the  three  central  radiat- 
ing passages  forming  the  principal 
north  entrance,  appear  to  have 
been  decorated  with  stucco  pan- 
ne! ornaments,  but  of  clumsy 
execution.  Marble  having  been 
used  in  the  walls  of  this,  and  in  the 
fourth  corridor  would  indicate 
U 


that  the  podium  was  in  the  situa- 
tion shown  in  the  ground  plan. 

The  second  story  has  its  cir- 
cumscribing wall  decorated  with 
ionic  columns.  The  corri- 
dor on  the  outside  is  double, 
corresponding  to  that  on  the 
ground  story,  and  vaulted  in 
the  same  manner.  The  inner 
vaults  do  not  rise  so  high  as  the 
outer  ones,  and  they  are  groined  j 
the  mezzanine  story,  or  entresol 
over  it,  ranges  in  height  with 
the  outer  series  of  vaults.  The 
outer  corridor  is  ornamented  with 
pilasters. 

From  the  inner  corridor  there 
is  an  ascent  of  five  steps  to  the 
second  row  of  vomitories,  and 
from  the  inner  range  of  arches, 
forming  the  outercorridor,  twenty- 
five  steps  rise  to  the  third  row  of 
vomitories.  The  approach  to  the 
mezzanine  storyis  by  twenty-eight 
steps  in  the  inner  corridor.  This 
corridor  was  paved  with  very 
small  bricks,  laid  in  the  herring- 
bone fashion  ;  it  had  also  a  drain, 
or  trough,  with  sinkstones  run- 
ning round  its  inner  edge.  The 
outer  corridors,  and  radiating 
passages,  were  also  paved  with 
these  bricks,  some  of  them  had 
a  course  of  travertine  stone  pav- 
ing, about  2  feet  wide,  on  one 
side.  The  walls  were  plastered, 
and  painted  of  a  deep  red  colour; 
some  pedestals  remain  in  the 
outer  arches,  which  are  conjec- 
tured to  have  supported  statues. 
On  this  story,  the  staircases  are 
not  arranged  so  regularly  as  those 
which  are  below  ;  the  four  stair- 
cases on  the  east  and  west  ends 
being  placed  differently  from  the 
rest. 

The  mezzanine  is  lighted  by  a 
number  of  slanting  apertures 
made  at  the  side  of  the  vault, 
which  appear  to  have  been  filled 
with  iron  gratings.  The  sides 
and  vaults  of  this  story  had  a 

153 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


thick  coat  of  plaster,  coloured  of 
a  deep  red ;  the  floor  was  laid  with 
small  bricks,  also  in  the  herring- 
bone fashion  and  the  water  car- 
ried off  by  a  stone  channel.  From 
this  story,  stairs  conducted  to  the 
third  range  of  corridors. 

Two  corridors  run  round  this 
story,  and  there  are  some  indi- 
cations of  the  outer  one  having 
been  groined  :  none  of  the  arches 
remain.  The  inner  wall  is  formed 
of  rubble  and  tiles,  and  this  has 
been  faced  with  slabs  of  various 
coloured  marbles.  It  has  doors 
opening  from  it,  opposite  five 
arches,  into  as  many  correspond- 
ing passages,  having  recesses  be- 
tween them  towards  the  inside. 
The  flights  of  steps  rising  to  the 
seats  above  are  placed  in  the 
inner  corridor,  and  in  the  outer 
corridor  were  the  stairs  to  the 
mezzanine,  formed  in  a  conti- 
nued line,  with  a  broad  landing 
at  half  the  height.  These  corri- 
dors were  paved  with  small  bricks, 
laid  in  with  those  in  the  lower 
corridors,  and  also  having  a  chan- 
nel running  at  their  outer  edges, 
which  communicated  by  perpen- 
dicular tunnels  with  the  horizon- 
tal tunnels  which  carried  off 
the  water  from  those  beneath. 

The  highest  seats  in  this  am- 
phitheatre were  supposed  to  have 
been  formed  of  wood,  and  they 
were  approached  by  stairs,  as- 
cending against  the  outer  wall. 
From  indications  of  these,  a  land- 
ing is  supposed  to  have  been 
formed  by  the  meeting  of  two 
flights  placed  in  opposite  direc- 
tions, and  that  from  this  landing 
a  passage  or  gallery  was  con- 
tinued inwards.  On  the  upper 
range  there  were  staircases  lead- 
ing to  the  parapet  of  the  build- 
ing or  platform,  for  fixing  and 
adjusting  the  velarium  or  covering 
of  the  amphitheatre. 

In  the  wall  enclosing  the  upper 

154 


range  of  seats  were  two  rows  of 
windows  j  the  under  row  is  placed 
in  the  dado  of  the  upper  range 
of  pilasters,  4  feet  3£  inches  in 
height,  and  4  feet  9|  inches  in 
width.  The  upper  row  is  placed 
between  the  pilasters  ;  each  win- 
dow is  6  feet  4  inches  wide,  and 
8  feet  6  inches  high;  a  window  is 
placed  between  every  second  pi- 
laster, the  under  range  being 
placed  between  the  plinths  or 
dadoes  of  the  intermediate  space, 
so  that  the  two  rows  of  windows 
do  not  range  perpendicularly. 

The  horizontal  openings  of  the 
arches  of  the  first  range  of  cor- 
ridors are  14  feet  6  inches,  from 
the  pavement  to  the  soffet  of  the 
arch ;  at  their  middle  point 
23  feet  8|  inches,  and  16'  feet 
3  inches  to  the  upper  side  of 
the  impost  mouldings  the  pier 
is  7  feet  1 J  inches  wide ;  the 
height  of  the  columns  of  this 
range,  including  base  and  capital, 
is  27  feet  3  inches,  and  the  entab- 
lature to  the  upper  side  of  the 
cornice  is  6  feet  9  inches  high  j 
the  columns  are  2  feet  9  inches 
in  diameter.  These  columns  are 
of  the  doric  order. 

The  dado  of  the  columns  of 
the  second  range  from  the  upper 
side  of  the  cornice  of  the  lower 
story  is  6  feet  7  inches  high  ;  the 
height  of  the  columns  is  25  feet 
5  inches,  including  base  and  ca- 
pital, and  their  lower  diameter 
2  feet  10 J  inches,  and  their  entab- 
lature and  cornice  to  its  upper 
side  6  feet  6  inches  high.  The 
openings  of  the  arches  begin  from 
the  upper  side  of  the  dado  j  they 
are  14  feet  7f  inches  wide,  and 
21  feet  9  inches  high  ;  the  piers 
are  of  the  same  width  as  those 
they  stand  upon  ;  the  ^height  of 
the  pier  to  their  impost  moulding 
is  14  feet  8|  inches.  These  co- 
lumns are  of  the  ionic  order. 

The  height  of  the  dado  of  the 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


third  tier  of  columns  is  6  feet  7| 
inches ;  the  columns,  which  are  of 
the  corinthian  order,  are  25  feet  8 
inches  high,  base  and  capital  in- 
clusive, and  2  feet  lOj  inches  in 
diameter ;  the  entablature  to  the 
upper  side  of  the  cornice  is  6  feet 
6*£  inches  high  ;  the  piers  are  the 
same  width  as  those  in  the  story 
beneath,  and  14  feet  3  inches  high 
to  the  springing  of  the  arches  j 
the  openings  are  14  feet7^  inches 
wide,  and  21  feet  5j  inches  high. 

The  dado  of  the  range  of  pi- 
lasters which  crowned  the  build- 
ing is  7  feet  9^  inches  to  the  top 
of  its  cornice,  on  which  was 
placed  a  blocking  course  j  from 
the  upper  side  of  cornice  of  dado 
to  the  under  side  of  the  entabla- 
ture of  the  pilasters  is  31  feet; 
the  pilasters  are  2  feet  lOj  inches 
on  the  face  :  the  entablature  of 
this  tier  was  7  feet  3j  inches  highj 
the  pilasters  ranged  perpendicu- 
larly with  the  columns  of  the  three 
under  stories. 

A  series  of  corbels  ran  all  round 
the  building,  on  which  it  is  sup- 
posed were  placed  poles  or  fast- 
enings for  the  velarium,  which 
covered  the  building  j  their  posi- 
tion, projection,  and  use,  will  be 
better  understood  from  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  engraving  of  the  sec- 
tion and  part  of  the  elevation  of 
this  amphitheatre,  than  from  any 
verbal  description. 

In  the  upper  parts  of  this 
building  particularly,  and  in  ge- 
neral throughout,  the  dimensions 
of  the  pillars,  or  openings,  or 
mouldings,  are  by  no  means  uni- 
form. In  a  building  of  this  enor- 
mous size,  it  would  have  been 
extraordinary  had  the  minutiae 
accurately  corresponded.  The 
proportions  stated  are  those 
collected  from  the  parts  in  the 
best  preservation.  The  style 
of  the  mouldings,  and  their 
proportions,  will  be  so  clearly 


learnt  from  the  engravings  of 
their  sections,  that  a  more  de 
tailed  account  were  superfluous. 
The  section  of  the  outer  wall  will 
show  the  thickness  of  the  piers 
and  walls  in  the  intervals  between 
them  in  the  upper  stories. 

The  cornice  forming  the  para- 
pet of  the  building  is  perforated, 
for  the  purpose,  it  is  conjectured, 
of  inserting  the  timbers,  which 
passed  into  the  grooves  made  in 
the  frieze  and  architrave.  The 
corbels  will  be  observed  to  be 
placed  immediately  beneath  these 
grooves,  on  which,  as  has  been 
stated,  the  masts  rested,  from 
which  was  stretched  the  awning, 
to  protect  the  spectators  in  the 
amphitheatre  from  the  sun  or 
rain. 

The  masonry  of  the  lower  parts 
of  the  building  has  been  finished 
with  greater  care  than  that  far- 
ther removed  from  the  eye.  The 
piers  are  composed  of  huge  blocks 
of  stone,  many  of  which  ex- 
tend the  whole  thickness  of  the 
pier,  and  the  joints  are  secured 
with  metallic  cramps ;  each  ot 
the  arches  is  formed  of  eleven 
blocks,  the  key-stone  and  many 
of  the  others  extending  the  w  hole 
depth.  The  voussoirs,  or  arch- 
stones,  are  held  together  by 
square  projecting  tenons  and 
mortises  in  their  joint-faces  :  these 
are  sometimes  superseded  by 
metal  cramps.  The  inside  of  the 
wall  of  the  upper  story,  forming 
the  back  of  the  upper  range  ot 
seats,  was  faced  with  tiles,  fixed 
in  horizontal  courses,  behind 
which  were  indents  or  grooves, 
containing  circular  pipes  of  earth- 
enware, for  conveying  the  water 
from  the  parapet  3  probably  also 
that  which  ran  from  the  velarium 
or  awning. 

The  building  from  the  level  of 
the  pavement  on  which  the  bases 
of  the  first  range  of  column' 

155 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


were  placed,  an  1  which  formed 
the  floor  of  the  first  corridor  to 
the  top  of  the  parapet  of  the  outer 
wall,  was  157  feet  6  inches  high. 

The  letters  on  the  sections  re- 
fer to  the  details  of  the  orna- 
ments having  the  same  letters  on 
the  accompanying  plates  :  those 
parts  of  the  sections  of  the  walls 
shown  with  a  lighter  tint,  are  of 
piperino  or  travertine  stone ;  the 
darker  parts  show  the  rubble 
filling  in.  In  general,  it  may  be 
remarked  that  the  vaulting  under 
the  seats,  and  in  the  staircases,was 
all  formed  of  rough  rubble  work. 
For  other  details  of  the  construc- 
tion of  this  immense  building,  see 
Colosseum. 

The  podium  was  raised  about 
12  or  15  feet  above  what  is 
generally  considered  to  be  the 
floor  of  the  arena :  on  this,  as 
has  been  already  stated  at  the 
commencement,  were  placed  the 
emperor,  senators,  ambassadors, 
&c.  The  throne,  or  suggestum, 
or  seat  appropriated  to  the  em- 
peror, was  decorated  like  a  pa- 
vilion, lined  with  rich  silks,  and 
gorgeously  ornamented. 

From  the  podium  to  the  top  of 
the  second  story,  the.  seats  were 
made  of  marble,  which  were  oc- 
cupied by  the  knights  or  persons 
of  the  equestrian  rank,  divided 
into  menianaj  or  precinctions ; 
the  lower  ones  being  esteemed 
the  places  of  the  greater  honour. 
Some  of  these  seats  were  covered 
with  cushions,  but  most  usually 
they  were  covered  with  boards. 
The  marble  seats  were  in  the  form 
of  wedges  17  inches  high,  and  cut 
out  for  steps  descending  at  regu- 
lar intervals.  Above  the  second 
story  is  a  wall  perforated  with 
doors  j  above  this  wall  the  seats 
are  supposed  to  have  been  con- 
structed with  wood. 

The  steps  to  the  seats  on  the 
ionic   range   are   of  travertine 

156 


stone,  laid  on  tiles  bedded  in  rub- 
ble ;  their  thickness  is  about  9j 
inches,  equal  to  four  courses  of 
tiles,  upon  which  each  step  rests. 
The  blocks  forming  the  marble 
seats  are  17  inches  high^nd  3 
feet  3j  on  their  upper  side,  be- 
velling on  their  under  side  (from 
a  distance  of  6  inches  from  the 
front  or  rising)  to  a  thickness  of 
3j  inches  ;  they  were  fastened  by 
being  joggled  to  those  both  under 
and  above  them. 

The  method  in  which  the  vela- 
rium was  spread,  might  have 
been  as  follows  :  a  cable  being 
placed  on  the  edge  of  the  podium 
following  the  curve  of  the  ellip- 
sis, and  strong  ropes  being 
attached  to  it,  taking  the  direc- 
tion of  the  radiating  walls  on  the 
plan,  and  passing  through  pullies 
in  the  poles  at  the  top  of  the 
building,  which  were  two  hundred 
and  forty  in  number,  and  resting 
on  the  corbels,  the  whole  might 
be  raised  to  any  height,  but 
would  take  the  inclination  of  the 
seats ;  the  awning,  or  covering, 
being  formed  in  widths  equal  to 
the  distance  of  the  masts  from 
each  other,  was  probably  made  to 
move  on  these  radiating  ropes 
by  rings  attached  to  the  edges  of 
each  width,  and  it  might  be  ad- 
justed at  pleasure  with  slighter 
ropes  to  move  it  in  either  direc- 
tion by  persons  stationed  on  the 
platform  or  parapet.  The  space 
over  the  arena  was  probably  left 
open  as  well  for  air  as  light ; 
marine  soldiers  were  employed 
to  work  the  machinery. 

The  material  of  the  velarium, 
or  awning,  as  has  been  stated, 
was  sometimes  of  silk,  but  it  was 
usually  yellow,  or  iron-red,  wool- 
len cloths.  Nero  once  caused  a 
purple  velarium  to  be  stretched 
across  the  building  representing 
the  heavens,  with  stars  of  gold 
thereon,    and    his  own  image 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


embroidered  in  the  middle,  re- 
presenting the  sun,  driving  a 
chariot. 

Some  Roman  antiquaries  ima- 
gine that  the  arena  was  boarded, 
and  that  the  boards  were  covered 
with  sand  or  earth,  a  conjecture 
more  than  probable,  as  we  know 
that  the  arena  was  removable, 
and  capable  of  admitting  of  sud- 
den and  surprising  alterations. 
Titus  himself,  who  erected  it, 
not  content  with  the  usual  exhi- 
bition of  wild  beasts,  produced 
the  scenery  of  the  countries 
whence  they  were  brought,  and 
astonished  the  Romans  with  a 
display  of  rocks  and  forests. 
Domitian  covered  the  arena  with 
water,  and  exhibited  marine 
shows  and  naval  fights  ;  and  the 
suddenness  of  the  changes  is 
often  noticed  by  historians  and 
poets.  In  succeeding  ages  they 
appear  toliave  improved  on  these 
exhibitions,  and  the  whole  arena 
suddenly  disappeared,  and  there 
arose  from  the  chasm,  forests, 
orchards,  and  wild  beasts.  These 
alterations  of  scene  were  pro- 
duced by  machines  which  were 
called  pegmata,  which  rose  and 
swelled  sometimes  to  a  prodigi- 
ous extent  and  elevation,  and 
again  subsided  into  a  perfect 
level,  or,  perhaps  sinking  still 
lower,  exposed  the  caverns  and 
subterranean  dens  of  wild  beasts, 
which  lay  under  the  arena. 
Sometimes  criminals  were  raised 
on  these  machines,  and  while 
engaged  with  objects  calculated 
to  attract  the  attention,  hurled 
unexpectedly  into  the  dens  of 
wild  beasts  below  and  devoured. 
One  of  these  was  in  the  form  ot 
a  ship,  which,  while  floating  in 
the  amphitheatre,  struck  the 
ground  as  if  wrecked,  and,  open- 
ing, let  loose  some  hundreds  of 
wild  beasts  mixed  with  aquatic 
animals,  till  the  water  was  sud- 


denly let  out,  the  beasts  slain, 
and  the  ship  restored  to  its 
original  form  5  exhibitions  of 
flames  playing  round  the  ma- 
chinery, without  destroying  it, 
have  also  been  described. 

It  has  been  stated  that  in  par- 
ticular parts  of  the  edifice  were 
pipes  for  the  distribution  of  per- 
fumes ;  it  was  a  common  prac- 
tice to  sprinkle  them  in  showers  ; 
but  on  certain  great  occasions 
they  were  allowed  to  flow  in 
great  quantities  down  the  steps, 
or  rather  seats  of  the  amphi- 
theatre. Seneca  informs  us  that, 
for  this  purpose,  pipes  were  con- 
ducted from  the  centre  of  the  arena 
to  the  summit  of  the  amphi- 
theatre :  from  this  we  may  infer 
that  under  the  arena  were  dens 
of  wild  beasts,  reservoirs  of 
water,  sewers  to  carry  it  off, 
spaces  to  contain  the  machinery, 
and  cellars  for  perfumes  and  the 
wine  with  which  they  were 
mixed  ;  and  also,  that  the  sub- 
stratum of  the  arena  was  mov- 
able, and,  consequently,  had  a 
boarded  floor. 

This  conjecture  has  been  al- 
most confirmed  by  modern  dis- 
coveries. When  the  French  had 
possession  of  Rome,  the  arena 
was  excavated,  and  vaults  and 
passages  were  discovered  under 
its  whole  area ;  openings  in 
the  boarded  floor,  in  all  pro- 
bability, communicated  with  the 
cells  beneath.  Unfortunately,  be- 
fore the  excavations  were  com- 
pleted, the  waters  accumulated, 
and,  as  no  precaution  had  been 
taken  for  its  drainage  by  the  exca- 
vators, it  became  stagnant;  and 
rendering  the  air  unwholesome, 
it  was  found  necessary  again  to 
throw  in  the  rubbish  above  the 
walls ;  and  the  arena  is  now, 
probably,  at  its  ancient  level. 
A  fine  view  of  the  walls  under 
the  arena,  as  they  appeared  at 

157 


AMPHITHEATRE. 


the  time  the  excavation  was  most 
complete,  is  given  in  a  collection 
of  antiquities,  edited  by  Taylor 
and  Cressy.  The  details  of  this 
amphitheatre  are  also  given  at 
great  length,  and  with  much 
taste  and  ability,  in  this  public- 
ation. 

The  drainage  of  this  immense 
building  appears  to  have  had 
great  attention  bestowed  on  it : 
a  large  drain  was  carried  round 
the  outside  of  the  building,  which 
received  all  the  water  flowing 
from  the  interior  drains.  An- 
other drain,  30  inches  wide,  is 
carried  round  under  the  second 
corridor  ;  in  this  are  emptied  the 
perpendicular  conduits,  and  the 
water  from  the  third  corridor  j 
its  drain  is  17  inches  wide  and  3 
feet  deep  :  these  tunnels  are  lined 
on  their  sides  with  tile.  Another 
drain  is  placed  on  the  outer  side 
of  the  third  corridor  of  the  same 
width  and  construction,  laid  so 
as  to  empty  itself  into  that  in  the 
third  corridor  :  other  drains  ex- 
tend from  these  in  various  direc- 
tions towards  the  arena. 

Maffei  conjectures  that  there 
was  a  movable  altar  in  the 
arena. 

The  Coliseum  was  large 
enough  to  contain  between  se- 
venty and  eighty  thousand  peo- 
ple 5  that  of  Verona  twenty-two 
thousand. 

Never  did  human  art  present 
to  the  eye  a  fabric  so  well  calcu- 
lated, by  its  size  and  form,  to 
surprise  and  delight.  Let  the 
spectator  first  place  himself  to 
the  north,  and  contemplate  that 
side  which  barbarism  and  ages 
have  spared,  he  will  behold  with 
admiration  its  wonderful  extent, 
well-proportioned  stories,  flying 
lines,  that  retire  and  vanish  with- 
out break  or  interruption.  Next, 
let  him  turn  to  the  south,  and 
examine  those  stupendous  arches 

158 


which,  stripped  as  they  are  of 
their  external  decorations,  still 
astonish  us  by  their  solidity  and 
duration  :  then  let  him  enter, 
range  through  the  lofty  arcades, 
and  ascending  the  vaulted  seats, 
consider  the  vast  mass  of  ruin 
that  surrounds  him,  insulated 
walls,  immense  stones  suspended 
in  the  air,  arches  covered  with 
weeds  and  shrubs,  vaults  open- 
ing upon  other  ruins  ;  in  short, 
above,  below,  and  around,  one 
vast  collection  of  magnificence 
and  devastation  ;  of  grandeur  and 
decay.  Yet  this  stupendous  fa- 
bric was  erected  from  a  part  only 
of  the  materials,  and  on  a  por- 
tion only  of  Nero's  golden  house, 
which  had  been  demolished  by 
Vespasian  as  too  sumptuous  even 
for  a  Roman  emperor. 

Paoli,  an  Italian  author, 
who  has  written  on  the  sub- 
ject of  amphitheatres*  suggest- 
ed the  opinion,  that,  as  am- 
phitheatrical  sports  were  derived 
from  the  Etruscans,  amphithea- 
tres had  also  their  origin  among 
that  people.  That  the  games 
were  exhibited  in  narrow  vallies, 
and  the  audience  was  ranged  on 
the  sides  of  the  surrounding  ac- 
clivities. When  these  sports 
were  exhibited  in  cities,  an  arena 
was  dug  into  the  level  ground, 
and  the  earth  thrown  out  was 
formed  into  a  bank,  having  seats 
of  turf.  The  greater  the  number 
that  was  to  be  accommodated, 
the  deeper  the  excavation  was 
made ;  and  when  the  community 
became  rich  enough,  or  the  games 
began  to  be  held  in  greater  es- 
teem, and  to  be  celebrated  more 
frequently,  the  entire  amphi- 
theatre was  enclosed  by  a  wall, 
and  the  seats  were  formed  of 
wood  and  stone.  Richborough 
and  Caerleon  are  examples  of  the 
earlier  mode,  although  of  un- 
questionably   later    date  j  and 


A  M  P 


AMP 


Paestum  of  what  Paoli  considered 
to  be  a  more  improved  era,  with- 
out resting  his  hypothesis  on 
that  particular  example  being  of 
the  Etruscan  time. 

Paoli's  conjecture,  without 
going  the  whole  length  of  his  in- 
ference, is  exceedingly  plausible, 
and  with  a  greater  seeming  of 
consistency  than  tlkt  of  his  oppo- 
nent's. It  is  by  no  means  pro- 
bable, that  Curio's  amphitheatre 
at  Rome  was  the  first  of  its 
kind,  as  to  a  form  adopted  for 
amphitheatres ;  or  that  the  Fla- 
vian amphitheatre  of  stone  was  the 
model  of  all  those  in  the  provinces.. 
In  fact,  judging  from  the  admir- 
able arrangement  of  this  latter 
building,  it  would  appear  to  have 
been  the  last,  instead  of  the 
first  of  a  series  of  experiments 
— to  have  been  the  ne  plus  ultra 
of  scientific  arrangement  and 
construction  of  a  kind  of  edifice, 
whose  uses  and  decoration  had 
been  long  familiar,  and  deeply 
studied  by  Roman  architects. 
Whether  these  studies  were 
made  on  the  Etruscan  types,  or 
what  has  been  called  a  natural 
amphitheatre,  or  on  those  of  a 
more  artificial  kind,  made  by  ex- 
cavation, and  forming  an  agger, 
or  on  the  wooden  building  under 
the  first  Caesars,  it  is  now  impos- 
sible to  determine;  although  all 
analogies  are  in  favour  of  the  sup- 
position of  an  imitation  of  the 
Etruscan  model.  See  Baltei,  Co- 
liseum, Corridors,  P  reductions, 
Vaults. 

Amphitheatre.  A  name  some- 
times given  to  the  area  of  a 
modern  circus  j  it  is  occasionally 
used,  but  improperly,  for  thea- 
tre j  and  a  lecture  room,  with 
seats  in  its  circumference.  See 
Theatre. 

Amphitheatre.  In  landscape  gar- 
dening. An  elevated  terrace,  hav- 
ing steps  descending  to  a  series 


of  terraces,  formed  on  the  slop- 
ing sides  of  a  hill. 

Ampijithete.  In  decoration.  A 
drinking  cup  of  a  large  size  often 
seen  in  Greek  sculptures. 

Amphora.  {Amphiphoreus.  Am- 
phoreus.  Gr.  A  vase  with  two 
handles.)  An  earthen  jar  with 
two  handles,  (from  this  circum- 
stance also  called  diotce  testa.) 
often  seen  on  medals,  and  among 
the  decorations  of  tombs,  &c.  5 
they  taper  outwards  from  the 
bottom,  which  ends  in  a  point. 

The  ancients  sometimes  built 
them  into  the  floors  of  cellars,  or 
grottoes,  or  surrounded  them 
with  a  wall,  or  supported  them 
with  frames  of  wood  ;  and  they 
were  the  usual  receptacles  in 
which  were  preserved  olives, 
dried  grapes,  oil,  but  especially 
wine.  They  were  generally  placed 
on  their  narrow  end,  but  some 
instances  have  occurred  in  which 
they  were  laid  upon  their  side. 
Under  every  circumstance,  their 
use  was  exceedingly  inconve- 
nient ;  it  required  considerable 
care  to  set  them  properly  ;  and 
nothing  could  be  worse  adapted 
for  removal ;  but  their  use  was 
exclusive  and  general  for  many 
centuries ;  habit,  which  ren- 
dered their  use  familiar,  su- 
perseded reflection.  They  were 
sometimes  made  of  enormous 
size.  Caylus  describes  one  5  feet 
6'  inches  in  diameter,  and  5  feet 
high,  which  was  turned  both  in- 
side and  outside,  with  as  much 
precision  and  delicacy  as  if  it  had 
only  been  a  few  inches  in  di- 
ameter. At  the  villa  Albano, 
there  was  an  amphora  with  a 
capacity  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  gallons. 

Amphorae  manufactured  at 
Chios  and  Samos  were  esteemed 
of  a  better  quality  than  the  Italian 
ones,  and  were  reserved  for  the 
preservation  of  the  finer  and  more 

159 


AMP 


ANA 


precious  wines.    To  prevent  the 

dissipat  ion  of  the  moisture  of  the 
fruits  or  liquids  which  they  held, 
it  was  usual  to  coat  them  over 
on  the  outside  with  a  composition 
of  pitch,  tar,  grease,  and  other 
substances  ;  they  were  closed  by 
a  cork,  over  which  was  spread 
a  similar  composition.  These 
precautions  assisted  to  preserve 
fluids  in  them  for  an  amazing 
length  of  time.  Petronius  men- 
tions some  wine  which  had  been 
kept  a  hundred  years  in  amphorae 
glazed,  and  coated  with  chalk 
and  plaster  of  Paris. 

On  many  of  these  vessels 
which  have  been  discovered  were 
inscriptions  of  the  sort  of  wine 
that  had  been  put  into  them,  and 
the  date  when  they  were  filled  j 
at  Rome  this  was  done  by  in- 
scribing the  name  of  the  consul ; 
in  the  provinces  by  that  of  the 
praetor ;  on  some  found  at  Her- 
culaneum  and  Pompeii,  the  prae- 
tor's name  was  written  with  a  red 
coloured  substance,  and  the  quan- 
tity of  wine  which  the  amphorae 
contained  was  likewise  marked 
on  them  with  colour. 

Amphorae  were  often  appropri- 
ated to  less  dignified  purposes  j 
they  were  placed  in  alleys  and  by- 
streets of  Rome,  that  the  citi- 
zens "  pussent  satisfaire  aux  be- 
soins  pressans  de  la  nature." 
Vespasian  laid  a  tax.  upon  them, 
and  individuals  were  found  to 
farm  these  extraordinary  sources 
of  the  imperial  revenue. 

Amphora  is  sometimes  used 
for  an  Asiatic  bath  ;  and  was  like- 
wise the  name  of  an  ancient  mea- 
sure of  capacity. 

Amphoral.  In  decoration.  A 
crystal  vase,  shaped  like  an  am- 
phora. 

Ampulla.  In  decoration.  A  vase 
with  a  long  neck,  and  having  its 
orifice  so  small  as  to  let  out  the 
liquid  bv  drops  ;  they  were  used 

160 


in  sacrifices,  and  were  the  orna- 
ments of  buffets  and  tables. 

Amula.  In  decoration.  A  vase 
containing  lustral  water  ;  a  com- 
mon form  in  the  sculptures  on 
altars  and  temples ;  those  of 
bronze  are  round,  or  ornamented 
with  laurel  leaves,  about  22 
inches  in  diameter,  occasionally 
with  handles,  standing  on  a  foot  j 
marble  ones  were  grooved,  or 
channeled  like  some  shells,  18 
inches  in  diameter,  supported  on 
feet  fiuted  like  columns. 

Amulet.  In  decoration.  A 
figure,  or  character,  to  which 
are  attached  certain  marvellous 
powers.  The  Egyptian  buildings 
are  covered  with  ornaments  of 
this  nature,  and  among  almost 
every  ancient  people,  their  use 
may  be  said  to  have  been  general ; 
much  of  the  system  of  Greek  and 
Roman  ornament,  and  probably 
every  other  style  of  ornament,  is 
but  a  refined  employment  of 
amuletic  characters. 

Anabathra.  {Anubathra.  Gr. 
A  plank  to  cross  a  rivulet ;  a 
ladder.)  Steps  to  ascend  the 
postscenium,  or  pulpitum  in  Ro- 
man theatres  :  they  usually  were 
made  of  wood,  supported  by 
wooden  posts,  and  attached  to  the 
walls  of  the  theatre.  It  is  some- 
times improperly  written  anaba- 
thrum. 

Anabathra.  Wrought  stones 
formed  like  steps,  and  placed  on 
highways  to  assist  riders  in 
mounting  or  dismounting,  before 
stirrups  were  invented. 

Anaglypha.  {Anaglypho.  Gr 
I  cut  slightly.)  Something  sculp- 
tured, cut,  or  embossed.  The 
word  cameo  is  used  for  anagly- 
pha,  where  the  figures  protrude  ; 
those  stones  whose  figures  are 
sunk  are  now  called  engraved 
stones. 

Anaklyntheria.  (Gr.  Head- 
board of  a  bed.)    A  kind  of  step 


ANC 


A  NC 


to  rest  the  head  upon.  Verus 
had  a  bed,  or  couch,  constructed 
with  four  anaklyntheriae. 

Anclakria.  The  bronze  vases 
reserved  for  the  sacrifices. 

Anclabris.  A  table  or  small 
altar  on  which  were  set  the 
bronze  or  other  vases  for  sacri- 
fice, or  that  part  of  the  offerings 
intended  for  the  priests.  A  small 
portable  altar  on  which  offerings 
of  fruit  or  cakes  were  laid. 

Anchor.  In  Greek  and  Roman 
architecture.  An  ornament  shaped 
like  an  anchor  or  arrow-head,used 
along  with  the  egg  ornament,  to 
decorate  or  enrich  mouldings : 
by  some  they  are  thought  to 
have  a  reference  "  to  the  fire 
which  vivified  the  mundane  egg /' 
and  by  others,  to  be  represent- 
ations of  "  arrow-heads,"  alter- 
nating with  the  stones  or  pieces 
of  metal  shaped  like  "  almonds," 
which  the  ancients  discharged 
from  slings,  of  which  the  fillet 
surrounding  the  "egg"  is  a  re- 
presentation. 

The  "  anchor  and  egg"  orna- 
ment, as  it  is  called,  is  peculiar  to 
the  ionic  and  corinthian  orders  : 
in  two  examples  of  Roman  doric, 
the  Trajan  and  Antonine  co- 
lumns, it  is  also  introduced  ;  but 
these  are  exceptions  to  all  other 
specimens. 

Anchor.  In  decoration.  Those 
which  are  seen  on  ancient  monu- 
ments have  nearly  the  same  form 
as  modern  anchors, only  the  trans- 
verse piece  of  wood, or  the  stock, 
is  wanting  in  all  of  them.  They 
are  generally  two-Huked. 

Axcona.  An  Italian  city 
founder1  by  some  Syracusans, 
who  abandoned  their  country 
during  the  reign  of  Dionysius 
>  I-  the  tyrant,  about  four  hundred 
1  !  years  before  Christ,  was  celebrat- 
ed in  the  classic  ages  for  a  temple 
to  Venus.  "  In  reality,  it  would 
f  be  difficult  to  find  a  situation 
X 


more  conformable  to  the  temper 
of  the  '  queen  of  smiles  and 
sports,'  or  better  adapted  to 
health  and  enjoyment  than  An- 
cona.  Seated  on  the  side  of  a 
hill  forming  a  semicircular  bay, 
sheltered  by  its  summit  from  the 
exhalations  of  the  south,  and 
covered  by  a  bold  promontory 
from  the  blasts  of  the  north, 
open  only  to  the  breezes  of  the 
west,  that  wanton  on  the  bosom 
of  the  waters  which  bathe  its 
feet,  and  surrounded  by  fields  of 
inexhaustible  fertility,  Ancona 
seems  formed  for  the  abode  of 
mirth  and  luxury." 

The  Romans  made  this  delight- 
ful place  their  principal  naval 
station  in  the  Adriatic,  and  built 
a  magnificent  mole  to  cover  the 
harbour,  and  adorned  it  with  a 
triumphal  arch;  this  grand  work 
was  completed  by  Trajan,  and  to 
him  the  triumphal  arch  is  dedi- 
cated :  it  is  still  entire,  though 
stripped  of  its  metal  ornaments. 
The  order  is  corinthian,  and  the 
materials  are  Parian  marble.  The 
form  is  light,  and  the  whole  is 
esteemed  the  best,  if  not  the  most 
splendid,  or  most  massive,  that 
remains  of  similar  edifices.  It 
was  ornamented  with  statues, 
busts,  and  decorations  of  bronze  j 
from  the  first  taking  of  Rome  by 
Alaric,  to  the  revival  of  the  arts, 
it  was  certain  ruin  to  an  ancient 
building  to  be  supposed  to  re- 
tain any  ornament,  or  even  cramp 
of  metal ;  not  only  were  the  ex- 
ternal decorations  torn  off,  but 
the  very  nails  were  pulled  out, 
and  stones  displaced,  and  columns 
overturned,  to  seek  for  bronze  or 
iron. 

This  arch  has  only  one  gate- 
way, and  is  ornamented  with  four 
half  columns  on  each  front,  one 
at  each  side  of  the  gateway,  and 
one  at  each  angle.  The  marble, 
particularly  in  the  front  towards 

161 


ANC 

the  sea,  retains  its  seining  white  j 
the  capitals  of  the  pillars  have 
suffered  much,  and  lost  the  pro- 
minent parts  of  the  acanthus ;  but, 
on  the  whole,  it  is  in  high  preser- 
vation.   See  Arch  of  Triumph. 

The  greater  part  of  the  mole 
still  remains  a  solid  compact,  well 
formed,  of  huge  blocks  of  stone, 
bound  together  by  iron,  and 
rising  to  a  considerable  height 
above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Close 
to  it,  but  much  lower,  is  the 
modern  mole,  adorned  in  like 
manner  with  a  triumphal  arch  of 
the  tuscan  order,  in  itself  not 
beautiful ;  and  when  compared 
with  the  corinthian  arch  that 
stands  almost  immediately  over 
it,  extremely  cumbersome.  The 
architect  was  Vanvitelli,  a  name 
of  considerable  repute  among  ar- 
chitects in  the  last  century.  "  It 
is  diificult  to  conceive  what  mo- 
tives could  have  induced  him  to 
place  an  arch  of  so  mixed  a  com- 
position, and  so  heavy  a  form,  near 
to  the  simple  and  airy  edifice  of 
Trajan,  unless  it  were  to  display 
their  opposite  qualities  by  the 
contrast ;  and  of  course  to  de- 
grade and  vilify  his  own  produc- 
tion. But  ail  modern  architects, 
not  excepting  the  great  names 
of  Michael  Angelo,  Bramante, 
and  Palladio,  have  had  the  fever 
of  innovation,  and  more  than  ten 
centuries  of  unsuccessful  experi- 
ments have  not  been  sufficient  to 
awaken  a  spirit  of  diffidence,  and 
to  induce  them  to  suspect  that, 
in  deviating  from  the  models  of 
antiquity,  they  have  abandoned 
the  rules  of  symmetry  ;  and  that, 
in  erecting  edifices  on  their  own 
peculiar  plans,  they  have  only 
transmitted  their  bad  taste  in 
stone  and  marble  to  posterity." 

An  con.  In  decoration.  A  curved 
drinking-cup  or  horn.  The  arm 
of  a  chair. 

Ancones.  "The  ornaments  de- 

162 


\ 

AND 

pending  from  the  corona  of  ionic 
doorways  against  the  antepag- 
ments;  they  were  likewise  term- 
ed prothyrides.  The  Greek  term 
agkon,  from  which  the  Latin  ancon 
is  derived,  signifies  the  arm  or 
bend  of  the  arm.  Vitruvius  calls 
the  sides  of  aright-angled  triangle 
subtending  the  right  angle — an  - 
cones." The  corners  or  quoins 
of  walls,  cross-beams  or  rafters, 
trusses  or  consoles  j  a  sort  of 
brackets  and  shouldering-pieces, 
apparently  supporting  the  mould- 
ings placed  over  them.  Corbels  ; 
consoles,  or  ornaments,  cut  on 
the  key-stones  of  arches,  serv- 
ing to  support  busts,  or  other 
figures.  The  two  parts  or  branch- 
es of  a  square  which  meet  in 
an  angle  resembling  the  letter 
L.  The  angles  or  flexures  of 
rivers.  A  Carthaginian  prison  or 
dungeon.  See  the  engraving  of 
'f  Ancones." 

Andrea  di  Cione  Orgagna.  A 
poet,  painter,  sculptor,  and  ar- 
chitect, was  born  at  Florence  in 
a.  d.  1329  :  his  designs  for  the 
additions  to  the  ducal  palace  at 
Florence  were  preferred  to  those 
of  all  the  other  artists.  Michael 
Angelo  was  so  much  pleased 
with  this  building,  that  when 
applied  to  by  Cosmo  of  Medici 
for  a  design  to  improve  another 
part  of  the  ducal  palace,  he  ad- 
vised that  the  '<  loge"  of  Andrea 
should  be  continued  round  this 
portion  of  it,  as  he  was  unable  to 
produce  any  thing  finer.  Andrea 
also  revived  the  ancient  practice 
of  joining  marble  and  stones  in 
building  with  brass  cramps  in- 
stead of  using  cement  or  mortar. 
He  died  in  a.  d.  1389 

The  brother  of  this  architect, 
who  practised  as  a  sculptor,  built 
the  tower  and  gate  of  St.  Pietro 
Gattolini. 

Andrea  da  Pisa  was  born  at 
Pisa   m  a.  d.  1270 .    he  was 


AND 


A  N  G 


esteemed  one  of  the  greatest  ar- 
chitects of  his  time.  He  designed 
the  castle  of  Searperio  at  the  foot 
of  the  Apennines  ;  and,  tradi- 
tionally, he  is  said  to  have  de- 
signed the  church  of  St.  John,  at 
Pistoia,  in  1337 :  this  was  a  sort 
of  rotunda,  well  built  for  the  age 
in  which  it  dates  its  erection. 
The  greater  works  of  Andrea  are 
at  Florence,  and  which  he  erected 
under  the  government  of  Walter  ; 
he  enlarged  and  fortified  the 
palace  of  the  duke  :  he  sur- 
rounded Florence  by  towers 
placed  at  equal  distances,  and 
constructed  magnificent  gates  : 
he  designed  a  fortress  for  the 
governor,  but  which  his  expul- 
sion from  the  city  prevented  be- 
ing carried  into  execution.  An- 
drea, however,  continued  to  merit 
the  esteem  of  the  Florentines, 
who  admitted  him  to  the  rights 
of  citizenship,  and  invested  him 
with  some  honourable  offices  in 
its  magistracy.  It  is  said  he  also 
designed  the  arsenal  at  Venice. 

He  had  a  pupil,  whose  works 
are  sometimes  confounded  with 
his,  called  Thomas  da  Pisa,  who 
built  the  cemetery  in  that  city, 
called  Campo  Santo,  and  the 
campanile  of  the  cathedral. 

Andron.  (Gr.  A  hall  for  men. 
A  dining  room.)  An  apartment 
in  Greek  houses,  appropriated  to 
the  men,  which  was  separated 
from  the  gynaecea,  or  that  in- 
habited by  the  women  and  chil- 
dren. It  was  usually  placed  in 
the  outer  or  lower  part  of  the 
house  j  the  gynaecea  was  in  the 
inner  or  upper  part.  A  portion 
of  the  modern  Greek  churches 
allotted  to  the  men. 

Andronicus  Cyrrhestus.  A 
Greek  architect,  born  at  Cerestus, 
in  Macedonia  :  the  date  of  his 
birth  Is  unknown  :  he  is  said  by 
some  to  have  been  the  first  who 
studied  the  winds,  ana  reduced 


them  to  eight  principal  ones. 
He  built  a  tower  at  Athens,  which 
is  thus  noticed  by  Vitruvius : 
"  Some  have  chosen  to  reckon 
only  four  winds  ;  the  east  blowing 
from  the  equinoctial  sunrise  ;  the 
south  from  the  noon-day  sun ; 
the  west  from  the  equinoctial 
sun-setting;  and  the  north  from 
the  polar  stars.  But  those  who 
are  more  exact,  have  reckoned 
eight  winds  ;  particularly  Andro- 
nicus Cyrrhestus,  who,  on  this 
system,  erected  an  octagon  tower 
of  marble  at  Athens  ;  and  on 
every  side  of  the  octagon  he 
wrought  a  figure  in  relievo,  re- 
presenting the  wind  which  blows 
on  that  side ;  the  top  of  this 
tower  he  finished  with  a  conical 
marble,  on  which  he  placed  a 
brazen  triton,  holding  a  wand  in 
his  right  hand  j  this  triton  is  so 
contrived  that  he  turns  round 
with  the  wind,  and  always  stops 
when  he  directly  faces  it,  point- 
ing with  his  wand  over  the  figure 
of  the  wind  at  that  time  blow- 
ing."   See  Clock,  Horologium. 

From  the  style  of  this  build- 
ing it  has  been  supposed  to  have 
been  erected  about  a  hundred 
and  fifty-nine  years  before  Christ. 

Androuet  du  Cerceau,  who 
lived  towards  the  end  of  the  six- 
teenth century,  was  architect  to 
Henry  III.  of  France.  He  built 
the  Pont  Neuf  at  Paris,  the  Ho- 
tels de  Sully,  de  Mayenne,  and 
that  of  the  Fermes  General,  and 
designed  the  fine  gallery,  built  by 
Henry  IV.,  at  the  Tuilleries. 
In  the  latter  part  of  his  life,  he 
emigrated  from  France  ;  the  year, 
or  country,  in  which  he  died,  is 
not  known.  He  was  the  author 
of  several  works  of  great  merit ; 
a  "  Treatise  on  Perspective  j"  a 
"  Description  of  ancient  Roman 
Buildings,"and  some  other  pieces. 

Angei.o  and  August  in  di 
Sienna,  two  brothers,  who  have 


AN  G 


ANG 


left  many  examples  of  their  fine 
taste  in  architecture,  at  Sienna, 
Orvietto,  and  Arezzo  ;  they  were 
the  distinguished  pupils  of  Andrea 
da  Pisa.under  whom  they  studied } 
the  year  of  their  deaths  is  un- 
known. 

Angels.  In  mediceval  archi- 
tecture. Brackets  or  corbels, 
with  the  figures  or  heads  of 
angels.  They  are  often  repre- 
sented as  holding  shields,  scrolls, 
paterae,  and  playing  on  musical 
instruments. 

Angle.  The  opening  or  mu- 
tual inclination  of  two  lines,  or 
two  planes  meeting  in  a  point, 
called  the  vertex,  or  angular 
point.  They  are  classed  into 
rectilinear,  curvilinear,  and  mix- 
ed, or  mixtilinear  angles.  A  rec- 
tilinear angle  has  its  sides  straight 
lines.  In  a  curvilinear  angle, 
the  sides  are  curved  ;  and  an 
angle  having  one  side,  a  right  or 
straight  line,  and  the  other  a 
curved  line,  is  called  a  mixed 
angle. 

Angles  are  also  named  from 
their  magnitude,  into  right  and 
oblique  angles ;  a  right  angle  is 
formed  when  the  sides  are  per- 
pendicular to  each  other,  or  equal 
to  the  fourth  part  of  a  circle,  or 
ninety  degrees,  as  B  A  C.  Oblique 
angles  may  be  either  acute  or 
obtuse,  that  is  greater  or  less 
than  a  right  angle  j  an  acute 
angle,  D  A  B,  is  less,  and  an 
oblique  angle,  E  A  B,  greater 
than  ninety  degrees. 

With  regard  to  their  situation 
among  themselves,  they  are 
called  adjacent  angles,  when  the 
leg  or  side  of  an  angle  being 
produced  beyond  the  vertex,  or 
point  of  the  angle,  forms  a  side 
of  the  adjacent  angle,  as  GFH 
and  H  F  I  j  hence  adjacent  an- 
gles are  equal  to  two  right  angles, 
or  one  hundred  and  eighty 
degrees,  and  are  called  supple- 


ments to  each  other.  Contiguous 
angles  have  the  same  vertex,  and 
one  leg  common  to  both,  as  B  A  D 
B  A  C,  in  which  A  B  is  common  j 
the  vertical,  or  opposite  angles,  are 
such  as  have  their  sides  conti- 
nuations of  each  other,  as  OP 
and  Q  R.  Alternate  angles  are 
those  made  on  the  opposite  por- 
tions of  a  line  which  cuts,  or  is 
divided  by,  two  parallel  lines,  as 
V  and  T,  and  S  and  U. 

Internal  angles  are  those  writhin 
any  figure  made  by  its  sides,  as 
n  o  p  y,  and  external  angles  are 
those  made,  on  the  outside  of  the 
figure  by  producing  its  sides,  as 
i  k  I  m.  Angle  at  the  centre  is 
that  whose  vertex  is  at  the  centre 
of  the  curve,  as  a  b  c ;  and  an 
angle  at  the  circumference  is  that 
whose  vertex  is  in  the  circum- 
ference, d  e  f.  The  sides  of  an 
angle  in  a  segment  meet  the  ex- 
tremities of  the  base,  as  r  t,  and 
its  vertex  s  is  placed  any  where 
in  the  arch  u  v.  Angle  in  a 
semicircle,  an  angle  at  the  cir- 
cumference, as  w  x  y,  standing 
on  the  diameter  w  y.  Angle  of  a 
segment  is  made  by  the  chord  of 
the  arc  z  s,  with  a  tangent  at  its 
point  of  contact,  as  Z  S  B.  Angle 
out  of  the  centre  is  one  whose  ver- 
tex is  not  in  the  centre,  as  D.  An- 
gle of  a  semicircle,  the  angle  made 
by  the  diameter  with  the  circum- 
ference, as  rn  H  a.  Angle  of  con- 
tact, that  made  by  a  curve  line 
and  its  tangent. 

Angles  are  farther  classed  into 
solid,  plane,  and  spherical.  Plane 
angles  are  those  formed  by  the 
inclination  of  two  lines  in  a  plane 
meeting  in  a  point.  A  spherical 
angle  is  that  formed  on  the  sur- 
face of  a  sphere  by  the  inter- 
section of  two  great  circles,  or 
the  inclination  of  the  planes  of 
those  circles.  Solid  angle  is  the 
mutual  inclination  of  more  than 
two  planes,  or  plane  angles  meet- 


ANG 


ANG 


ing  m  a  po  nt,  and  not  contained 
in  the  same  plane 

Angles.  In  military  architec- 
ture. Those  formed  by  the  several 
lines  used  in  fortifying  a  place, 
or  making  it  defensible ;  they 
are  classed  into  real  and  imaginary 
angles.  Real  angles  are  those 
vvhich  appear  in  the  construction  ; 
imaginary  angles  are  those  which 
are  omy  subservient  to  the  pro- 
cesses of  delineation  or  construc- 
tion. Angle  at  the  centre,  that 
formed  by  two  radii  drawn  from 
the  centre  to  two  adjacent  angles, 
as  angle  A  C  B.  Angle  of  the  poly- 
gon, that  formed  by  two  sides  of 
the  polygon,  as  DAB.  Angle  of 
the  triangle  is  half  the  angle  of 
the  polygon,  as  CAB.  Angle  of 
the  bastion,  that  formed  by  the 
two  faces  of  the  bastion,  as  FAG  j 
this  is  sometimes  called  the  flanked 
angle  ;  diminished  angle,  that  made 
by  the  meeting  of  the  outer  side 
of  the  polygon  with  the  face  A  G 
of  the  bastion.  Angle  of  the  cur- 
tain, or  angle  of  the  flank,  in  the 
angle  G  H  I,  made  between  the 
curtain  and  the  flank.  Angle  of 
the  shoulder,  or  angle  of  the 
epaule,  A  G  H,  made  by  the  flank 
and  face  of  the  bastion  ;  angle  of 
the  tenaille,  or  exterior  flanking 
angle,  A  K  B,  made  by  the  two 
rasant  lines  of  defence,  or  faces 
of  the  two  bastions  produced. 
Angle  of  the  counterscarp,  made  by 
the  two  sides  of  the  counterscarp 
meeting  before  middle  of  curtain. 
Angle  flanking  inward,  made  by 
the  Hanking  line  with  the  curtain. 
Angle  forming  the  face  is  that 
composed  of  one  flank  and  one 
fare  ;  angle  of  the  moat  is  that 
made  before  the  curtain,  where 
it  is  intersected.  Re-entering,  or 
re-entrant  angle,  that  whose  ver- 
tex is  turned  inward  towards  the 
place,  as  H  or  I.  Saliant,  or 
sortunt  angle,  that  turned  out- 
wards, advancing  its  vertex  to- 


wards the  field,  as  A  or  G.  Dead 
angle,  a  re-entering  angle  which 
is  not  flanked  or  defended. 

Angle-bar.  In  joinery.  An 
upright  bar  at  the  angles  of  poly- 
gonal windows:  amullion.  See 
Bay-window. 

Angle-brace.  A  pieee  of 
timber  fixed  on  two  sides  of  a 
quadrangular  frame,  forming  the 
area  of  the  frame  into  an  oc- 
tagonal opening  j  the  piece  of 
timber  B  in  the  engraving,  mark- 
ed "Angle,"  is  the  "  angle-brace," 
or  angle-tie  ,  or  diagonal-tie. 

Angle-bracket.  A  bracket 
placed  in  the  vertex  of  the  angle, 
and  not  at  right  angles  with  the 
sides.    See  Bracket. 

Angle-bead.     See  Angle-staff. 

Angle-capital.  In  Greek  ar- 
chitecture. Those  ionic  capitals 
placed  on  the  flank  columns. of  a 
portico,  which  have  one  of  their  vo- 
lutes placed  horizontally  at  an  an- 
gle of  a  hundred  and  thirty-five  de- 
grees with  the  plane  of  the  frieze. 
The  engraving  of  the  capital  of 
the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias,  at 
Athens,  shows  this  angle,  or 
"  horn,"  as  it  is  sometimes  called. 
It  has  been  stated  by  some 
writers  that  this  volute  was  so 
placed  to  correspond  to  the 
ft  other  capitals  upon  the  columns 
ranged  in  the  flank  as  well  as 
in  the  front;"  but  this  is  errone- 
ous, for  the  angle-capital  is  found 
on  buildings  which  had  no  co- 
lumns in  flank. 

Angle-chimney.  A  chimney 
placed  in  the  angle,  or  in  a  side 
formed  at  an  angle  of  an  apart- 
ment. 

Angle-modillion.  In  ancient 
Roman  architecture.  A  modillion 
placed  in  a  direction  parallel  to  a 
diagonal  drawn  through  the 
mitre  of  the  cornice. 

This  mode  of  placing  modil- 
lions  is  never  observed,  exc  pt  in 
buildings  erected  during  the  de- 


A  N  G 


ANN 


eline  of  the  Roman  empire.  See 
Cornice,  Modillion,  Order. 

Angle  of  a  wall,  or  angle  of  a 
budding,  the  point,  or  line,  where 
the  lines  or  planes  of  any  two 
sides  of  a  building  meet. 

Angle  of  repose.    See  Arch. 

Angle  of  vision.  See  Fisual 
Angle. 

Angle-rafter.  In  carpentry. 
A  piece  of  timber  placed  between 
the  inclined  sides  or  planes,  or  in 
the  line  of  concourse  of  the  in- 
clined planes  forming  a  hip  roof. 
The  angle-rafters  are  sometimes 
called  hips,  or  hip-rafters.  In  the 
engraving  marked  "  Angle,"  O 
is  the  angle-rafter. 

Angle-rib.  In  carpentry.  A 
piece  of  timber,  of  a  curved  form, 
placed  between  those  parts  of  an 
arched  ceiling,  where  the  planes, 
if  continued,  would  form  an  an- 
gle, and  corresponding  with  the 
common  ribs,  when  they  are 
placed  in  a  vertical  direction,  or 
to  receive  or  support  them 
when  they  are  in  a  horizontal 
direction. 

Angle-staff.  Angle-bead. 
Staff -bead.  A  piece  of  wood 
placed  vertically,  and  fixed  upon 
the  exterior  or  saliant  angles  of 
apartments,  having  their  hori- 
zontal section  about  three-fourths 
of  a  circle,  when  they  are 
formed  with  a  single  bead ;  when 
formed  with  a  cluster  of  beads, 
the  centre  bead  is  made  some- 
what the  greater,  and  projects  so 
as  to  form  the  angle-bead.  The 
angle-staff  is  fixed  to  the  bond 
timbers,  wood-bricks,  or  plug- 
ging, or  quartering  j  the  plaster 
is  floated  to  them  ;  their  use  is 
to  preserve  the  angles,  which  are 
liable  to  be  broken  when  made 
of  plaster.  In  apartments  of 
elegance,  the  angle-staff  is  some- 
times dispensed  with,  or  is  work- 
ed to  the  same  face  with  the 
face  of  the  wall,  showing  a  rect- 

166 


angle,  when  the  wall  is  plastered. 
— In  some  cases  the  angle-staff 
is  carried  up  to  the  height  of 
7  feet  only ;  and  for  the  ad- 
ditional height,  the  aris,  or  angle 
of  the  wall,  or  break,  is  of  plas- 
ter j  but,  from  the  shrinking  or 
warping  of  the  wood,  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly difficult  to  prevent  the 
joint  being  seen. 

In  some  old  houses  the  angle- 
staffs  were  of  larger  dimensions 
than  those  now  in  use,  and 
made  of  oak,  and  very  carefully 
finished ;  in  many  instances  they 
were  carved  to  represent  a  ribbon 
or  a  leaf  entwining  them,  and  in- 
stead of  being  painted  over  with 
the  colour  of  the  walls,  as  is  the 
practice  at  present,  they  were 
left  of  the  colour  of  the  wood  and 
varnished  ;  sometimes  they  were 
gilt  or  stained  black  to  represent 
ebony  j  the  effect  of  the  two  first 
methods  was  very  handsome. 

Angle-beads,  on  arches,  at  the 
meeting  of  the  spandril  and  cir- 
cular planes,  are  expensive,  and 
unnecessary  3  it  is  seldom  that 
they  are  so  truly  formed  as  they 
ought  to  be,  for  ornaments  ;  and 
in  this  situation  they  are  nothing 
more. 

Angle- stones.  Used  by  some 
authors  for  quoins. 

Angle-tie.  In  carpentry.  Drag- 
ging piece. 

Anglo-saxon  Architecture. 
See  Saxon. 

Angular  Capital.  The  mo- 
dern ionic  capital,  having  the 
four  sides  alike,  and  showing  the 
volute,  placed  at  an  angle  of  one 
hundred  and  thirty-five  degrees 
on  all  the  faces. 

Annular-mouldings.  Gene- 
rally those  having  circular  hori- 
zontal sections 

Annular-vault.  A  vault 
rising  from  two  circular  walls  j 
the  vault  of  a  circular  corridor. 

Annulet.   Small  fillets  having 


A  N  T  A. 


a  circular  horizontal  section. 
The  thin  fillets,  or  listels,  or 
bands,  which  decorate  the  necks, 
or  under  side,  of  doric  capitals. 

The  number  of  annulets  varies 
in  different  capitals  j  according  to 
Vignola  there  are  three  in  the 
doric  examples  of  the  theatre  of 
Marcellus ;  there  are  four  in  the 
capitals  of  the  great  terrjple  at 
Pactum ;  and  in  other  cases 
there  are  five. 

The  proportions  also  of  these 
ornaments  vary  in  different  ex- 
amples as  they  form  a  part  of 
the  capital,  their  profiles  will  be 
found,  and  their  peculiarities 
noticed,  under  the  examples  of 
capitals  given  throughout  the 
work. 

List,  listel,  or  cincture,  are 
used  by  Palladio,  and  fillet,  by 
some  translators  of  Vitruvius,  as 
synonymous  with  annulet ;  a 
commentator  on  Scammozzi  uses 
the  word  supercilium,  and  others 
tinea  ;  eye-brow  ;  square  and  rabbit, 
or  rebate. 

Anxotin^e.  In  ancient  naval 
architecture.  Store  or  provision 
vessels. 

Ansidonia.  An  ancient  Latin 
town  ;  of  which  a  part  of  the 
cyclopean  walls  are  still  remain- 
ing.   See  Cyclopean  Buildings. 

Antta.  (Ante,  Lat.  before.) 
Properly  the  jambs  of  doors,  or 
square  posts  supporting  the  lin- 
tel ;  pillars  forming  the  entrances 
of  edifices  in  general. 

The  Latins  called  the  first  row 
of  vines,  bordering  a  vine-plat, 
antes,  and  it  is  probable  the 
word  passed  from  this  use  into 
architecture. 

Authors  are  not  agreed  in  their 
definition  of  anta.  Chambers 
says  antae  are  pilasters  attach- 
ed to  a  wall  j  Vitruvius  calls 
them  parastatae  when  insulated  ; 
they  are  not  diminished,  and  in 
all  the  Greek  examples,  their 


capitals  are  different  from  the 
columns  they  accompany.  Per- 
rault  considers  antae,  and  paras- 
tatae. ?ne  and  the  same  thing. 
Quatreme?e  -emarks  that  the 
word  antae  better  expresses 
pilasters  or  pillars  showing  a 
small  part  only  of  their  faces  ; 
and  that  parastatae  are  pillars 
which  have  a  projection  of  a 
half  of  their  diameter,  or  show 
two  complete  sides  of  the  square. 
Wilkins  defines  them,  in  general 
terms,  "  square  pilasters,  termi- 
nating the  walls  of  a  temple  j 
the  Greeks  called  the  antae 
parastades" 

There  are,  therefore,  three 
kinds  of  antae,  the  antae  of  por- 
ches., or  jamb  ornaments,  the 
angular  antae,  or  those  showing 
two  faces  on  the  walls  of  a 
temple,  and  the  antae  on  the  pro- 
longed walls  of  the  cella  of  a 
temple. 

"  Generally  speaking,  antae  are 
only  found  in  temples,  applied 
as  wings  to  the  ends  of  the 
walls  of  the  pronaos  ;  their  use 
being  merely  ornamental,  and 
intended  to  obviate  the  crude  and 
unfinished  appearance  which  the 
terminations  of  these  pieces  of 
masonry  would  otherwise  pre- 
sent. As,  therefore,  they  do  not 
belong  to  the  construction,  and 
have  no  necessary  connection 
with  the  original  type,  there  is 
nothing  to  fix  their  form,  and 
none  of  the  permanent  and  essen- 
tial rules  of  the  order  will  be 
violated,  whatever  may  be  their 
composition.  The  Greeks,  there- 
fore, strict  and  systematic  in  their 
method  of  pursuing  the  arts, 
rather  chose  to  treat  the  antae  as 
distinct  objects,  than  _o  confound 
them  with  columns,  to  which 
they  have  no  relation  either  in 
origin  or  destination.  But  con- 
sidered separately,  it  appears  to 
be   admitted,   that  the  Grecian 

167 


ANT  A. 


antae  are  more  beautiful  objects 
than  modern  pilasters.  Much  of 
the  beauty  of  a  column  consists 
in  its  circular  form,  and  the  con- 
trast which  that  offers  to  the 
square  figures  of  the  abacus  and 
the  superstructure  ;  but  on  this 
account  a  pilaster  is  necessarily 
inferior  to  a  column,  and  by 
aping  a  resemblance,  it  only 
challenges  a  comparison  which 
must  be  unfavourable.  It  is  said 
matters  of  taste  do  not  admit  of 
dispute ;  which  is  so  far  just,  that 
though  one  might  bring  argu- 
ments to  prove  to  general  satis- 
faction the  absurdity  of  a  parti- 
cular practice,  we  know  not  how 
its  ugliness  could  be  concluded 
with  equal  force.  To  the  same 
author,  the  pilasters  of  the  orders 
have  always  appeared  decidedly 
ugly ;  and  he  supposed  they 
are  none  of  them  such  composi- 
tions as  an  artist  would  adopt  by 
choice,  if  there  had  been  no  rules 
and  prejudices  on  the  subject. 
The  difficulties  attending  the  use 
of  pilasters  are  still  more  sensibly 
felt  in  the  ionic  and  corinthian 
orders  than  in  the  doric.  In 
those  every  architect  is  aware  of 
the  obstacles  to  be  surmounted, 
and  the  sacrifices  to  be  made  in 
the  lame  attempt  to  accommodate 
the  capitals  to  a  square  plan. 

The  Greeks  applied  capitals  of 
light,  delicate,  and  even  fanciful 
mouldings  to  antae ;  and,  al- 
though the  differences  among 
these  are  considerable,  they  are 
less  than  might  be  expected, 
where  there  were  no  apparent 
rules  to  guide  or  restrain  the 
artist,  and  do  not  take  away  a 
general  resemblance.  Except  in 
one  instance,  that  of  the  Agora, 
the  antae  are  undiminished  •  they 
aie  always  made  less  in  front  than 
the  lower  diameter  of  the  column, 
and  the  lateral  face,  which  does 
not  range  or  correspond  with  any 


column,  is  frequently  not  more 
in  width  than  half  the  front;  and 
in  other  cases  not  even  so  wide. 
It  is  justly  observed  by  sir  Wil- 
liam Chambers,  that  pilasters, 
when  undiminished,  have  in  exe- 
cution an  appearance  of  being 
larger  at  top  than  at  bottom. 
Another  architect  proposed  to 
obviate  this  by  giving  just  so  much 
diminution  as  might  counteract 
the  optical  deception.  It  would 
not  be  easy  to  give  rules  for  this 
slight  correction,  as  it  may  pro- 
bably vary  with  the  absolute 
height  of  the  order ;  and  in  this 
respect  experience  must  b,e_  the 
instructor.  The  antae,  however, 
according  to  the  same  architect, 
ought  to  be  of  the  same  width  at 
the  top  as  the  architrave  which  it 
receives ;  and  he  proposed  a 
general  rule  to  make  the  lower 
part  of  the  anta  a  medium  be- 
tween the  width  of  the  architrave, 
and  the  bottom  diameter  of  the 
column. 

Sir  William  Chambers,  whose 
taste  was  decidedly  not  Grecian, 
gave  the  preference  to  the  Roman 
practice.  The  Greeks,  according 
to  him,  employed  antae  in  their 
temples  to  receive  the  archi- 
traves, where  they  entered  upon 
the  walls  of  the  cell.  These, 
though  they  were  in  one  direc- 
tion of  equal  diameter  with  the 
columns  of  the  front,  were  in 
flank  extravagantly  thin  in  pro- 
portion to  their  height,  and 
neither  their  bases  nor  capitals 
bore  any  resemblance  to  those  of 
the  columns  they  accompanied. 
The  Roman  artists,  if.  disgusted 
probably  with  the  meagre  aspect 
of  these  antae,  and  the  want  of 
accord  in  their  bases  and  capitals, 
substituted  pilasters  in  their 
places,  which,  being  proportioned 
and  decorated  in  the  same  man- 
ner with  columns,  are  certainly 
more  seemly,  and  preserve  the 


ANT 


ANT 


unity  of  the  composition  much 
better."  The  pilasters,  in  Roman 
architecture,  differ  only  from  the 
column  in  being  square  instead 
of  round.  Their  bases,  capitals, 
and  entablatures,  have  the  same 
parts,  with  all  the  same  heights 
and  projections  as  those  of 
columns,  and  they  are  distin- 
guished in  the  same  manner  by 
the  names  of  tuscan,  doric,  ionic, 
composite,  and  corinthian.  A 
rule  in  the  use  of  antae  was 
that  their  projection  should  al- 
ways be  equal  to  that  of  what- 
ever mouldings  were  placed  on 
them. 

In  a  recent  beautiful  edition  of 
sir  William's  essay,  the  editor 
observes,  with  great  truth,  that 
one  of  the  most  objectionable 
practices  of  the  day,  is  the  ser- 
vile imitation  of  the  Greek  antae, 
and  that  it  is  quite  inconsistent 
with  any  regard  to  the  primitive 
types,  from  which  the  Grecian 
architecture  is  supposed  to  have 
originated ;  added  to  this,  their 
application  in  such  very  thin 
laminae  against  the  walls  as  in 
some  pseudo-Grecian  buildings 
about  London,  produces  a  re- 
markably silly  and  sheepish 
effect. 

In  fact  he  might  have  said, 
that  all  buildings  having  Gre- 
cian details,  whether  the  antae 
have  a  "  pasteboard  or  a  Roman 
projection,"  used  as  ornaments 
on  the  face  of  a  wall,  (as  distin- 
guished from  its  end,)  are  abso- 
lute absurdities  ;  and  that  antae, 
decked  out  with  capitals  having 
the  mouldings  or  ornaments  of 
those  peculiar  to  columns,  are 
beyond  all  others  the  most  exe- 
crable of  vandalisms. 

In  the  engravings  of  the  va- 
rious antique  Greek  capitals  of 
columns  throughout  this  work, 
the  capital  of  the  anta  will  be 
found  placed  opposite  to  that  of 


the  columns  ;  and  the  base  of  the 
anta  also  placed  opposite  the  base 
of  the  columns.  See  Parastades. 
Pilaster.  Pillar. 

Anta.  An  insulated  square 
pillar,  without  base  or  capital, 
or  any  other  moulding. 

Antaradus.  An  ancient  Phoe- 
nician city,  of  which  some  re- 
mains are  still  in  tolerable  pre- 
servation near  the  modern  town 
of  Tortosa,  in  Syria.  These  are 
situated  to  the  south  of  a  sandy 
vale,  and  consist  in  some  interest- 
ing remains  of  a  building,  sup- 
posed to  have  been  dedicated  to 
the  worship  of  a  divinity.  A 
court  is  cut  into  the  rock  with  a 
throne  in  the  middle  of  it,  in 
which  there  is  a  seat  on  each 
side ;  the  court  is  enclosed  by  the 
rock  on  each  side,  except  to  the 
north,  where  are  signs  of  two 
entrances  j  the  throne  consists  of 
four  stones,  besides  the  plain 
pedestal,  which  is  also  cut  out  of 
the  rock  ;  one  forms  the  back  of 
it,  another  the  covering,  and 
there  is  one  stone  on  each  side  ; 
the  canopy  is  surmounted  by  a 
cornice  similar  to  those  of  Egyp- 
tian temples.  At  the  two  inner 
corners  of  the  court  there  seems 
to  have  been  a  small  room  j  the 
sides  of  the  entrances  still  re- 
main; "  these  might  relate  to  the 
superstition  of  the  place,  the 
throne  being  probably  built  for 
an  idol  worshipped  in  this  court, 
or  open  temple,  and  it  is  probably 
one  of  the  greatest  and  most  ex- 
traordinary pieces  of  antiquity 
that  is  to  be  seen."  On  the  other 
side  of  the  vale,  (in  which  this 
edifice  is  placed,)  a  little  more  to 
the  east,  there  is  a  sort  of  fosse, 
cut  down  in  the  rock  with  seven 
steps  on  each  side,  extending 
near  a  furlong  in  length  ;  the 
steps  do  not  go  down  to  the 
bottom,  and  the  east  end  seems  to 
have  terminated  in  a  semicircle. 

1G9 


ANTE-CHAMBER. 


At  the  west  end,  the  rock  is  cut 
away  in  such  a  manner  that  one 
may  suppose  there  were  formerly 
some  apartments  there  ;  one  part 
is  cut  into  a  square  area,  from 
which  there  is  a  way  into  the 
valley  directly  opposite  to  the 
court  or  temple  ;  this  place 
probably  was  a  circus.  South  of 
the  court  or  temple,  the  rocks, 
which  rise  higher  in  that  part, 
have  been  worked  like  quarries, 
and  sunk  down  in  many  places, 
possibly  for  reservoirs  of  water. 
There  are  also  in  "different  parts, 
many  walls  cut  out  of  the  rock, 
particularly  in  one  place  almost 
an  entire  house,  the  rock  being 
cut  away  from  it  all  round. 
There  are  many  niches,  doors, 
and  windows  in  this  edifice,  and 
a  wall  of  division  along  the  mid- 
dle, with  a  door  through  it. 
Half  a  mile  to  the  west  are 
sepulchral  towers  : — one  of  these 
is  in  three  stones,  and  another 
is  decorated  with  lions  at  the 
corners  ;  the  basement  of  an- 
other tomb  is  described  as  be- 
ing formed  of  a  pedestal  20 
feet  square,  and  9  feet  high, 
having  an  opening  about  3 
feet  from  the  ground,  by  which 
there  is  an  ascent  to  the  top  by 
three  or  four  steps. 

Ante-chamber.  An  apart- 
ment preceded  by  a  vestibule, 
and  from  which  is  approached 
another  room  called  the  inner 
chamber  or  cabinet ;  the  cham- 
ber that  leads  to  the  chief  apart- 
ment. 

The  anti-thalamos  among  the 
ancients  corresponded  exactly 
with  the  modern  ante-chamber  j 
but  among  the  Greeks  it  was 
separated  from  the  thalamos  by  a 
passage  called  prostas.  It  was  the 
same  as  that  called  procaeton  by 
Pliny,  or  a  room  before  the  sleep- 
ing chamber.  Pliny  says  his  bed- 
room was  joined  to  his  ante-cham- 

170 


berj  yet  Vitruvius  says  this 
was  separated  from  the  bed- 
chamber. It  is  probably  on  ac- 
count of  the  arrangement  being 
an  unusual  one,  that  Pliny  men- 
tions the  circumstance  of  his  bed- 
room adjoining  the  ante-chamber. 

In  modern  buildings,  ante- 
chamber is  not  confined  to  that 
only  which  precedes  a  bed-cham- 
ber, but  that  which  precedes  all 
the  rooms  of  an  apartment.  In 
French  houses,  where  the  rooms 
of  an  apartment  enter  from 
an  eating  room,  this  forms 
the  ante-chamber.  In  their 
mansions,  small  ante-chambers 
separate  the  bedrooms  from 
other  rooms ;  but  it  is  more 
usual  to  call  the  room  through 
which  the  apartment,  or  suite  of 
rooms  is  entered,  the  ante-cham- 
ber. 

The  use  of  these  rooms,  and 
their  decorations,  vary  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  In  Italian 
palaces  the  first  ante-chambers 
are  of  large  dimensions,  are 
almost  always  arched,  and  occupy 
in  height  two  stories.  In  these 
rooms  the  chair  of  state  is  usu- 
ally placed.  In  French  palaces 
the  ante-chambers  are  smaller ; 
the  first  ante-chamber  is  the 
space  forming  the  vestibule  and 
landing-place  of  the  stairs  ;  this 
is  appropriated  to  the  use  of  the 
domestics ;  its  ornaments  are 
simple,  expensive  finishings  being 
here  quite  out  of  place.  It 
is  generally  heated  with  a 
stove  placed  in  a  niche  made 
in  the  thickness  of  the  wall, 
and  the  warmth  is  communi- 
cated from  this  into  the  second 
ante-chamber  j  buffets  are  placed 
in  this  room.  The  second  ante- 
chamber maybe  made  more  orna- 
mental here  those  persons  wait 
who  have  occasion  to  speak  with 
the  master ;  this  chamber  also 
serves  occasionally  as  a  dining 


ANT 


ANT 


room,  or  for  a  "salle  d'assein- 
blee;"  the  style  of  its  decorations 
is  therefore  arbitrary.  The  third 
variety  of  ante-chamber  is  a  kind 
of  small  saloon,  or  ante-cabinet, 
where  people  of  a  certain  distinc- 
tion wait  on  levee  or  state  days 
until  the  saloon  or  cabinet  is 
thrown  open  j  the  style  of  their 
ornaments  may  be  unobtrusive 
and  simple,  but  they  are  some- 
times constructed  in  the  most 
gorgeous  mode  of  decoration. 

Ante -chapel.  That  part  of 
the  chapel  through  which  the 
passage  is  to  the  choir  or  body  of 
the  chapel. 

Ante-mural.  {ante  murus, 
Lat.  before  a  wall.)  Used  as  a 
noun;  an  outer  wall;  a  boundary 
wall  ;  a  palisade. 

Antepagmenta.  The  three 
pieces  constituting  the  frame  of 
a  doorway  5  the  transverse  piece 
was  sometimes  called  antepag- 
mentum,  superius,  and  superci- 
lium.  Pegmata  has  the  same 
meaning;  the  moulded  architrave 
of  a  door. 

The  Greek  words  for  the  ante- 
pagmenta were  stathmoi  and 
vegmata ;  the  transverse  piece 
was  sometimes  distinguished  as 
'eperthura. 

Antependium.  An  awning  or 
veil,  which  was  suspended  over, 
and  before  the  altar  in  mediaeval 
churches. 

Anterides.  In  ancient  archi- 
tecture. Buttresses,  or  counter- 
forts, supporting  a  wall;  arch- 
butants ;  the  Italians  call  them 
speroni,  or  spurs. 

Ante-room.  The  room  through 
which  is  the  passage  to  a  princi- 
pal apartment. 

Antesioma.  In  Roman  furni- 
ture. A  semicircular  table-bed, 
which  when  joined  to  another 
formed  a  round  table. 

Ante-temple.  What  is  now 
called  the  nave  of  a  church. 


Anthemius.  An  architect  of 
the  sixth  century,  was  born  at 
Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor ;  he  was 
selected  by  the  emperor  Justi- 
nian, along  with  Isodorus,  to 
build  the  celebrated  church  of 
St.  Sophia,  at  Constantinople. 
A  vast  building  had  been  con- 
structed on  the  spot  by  Constan- 
tine,  but  its  roof  having  been 
formed  of  wood  it  was  several 
times  destroyed  by  fire,  and  as 
oiten  repaired  by  succeeding 
emperors,  particularly  by  Theo- 
dosius ;  Justinian  undertook  to 
erect  a  pile  worthy  of  the  seat 
of  empire,  and  of  materials 
which  would  ensure  its  stability. 
Justinian  having  lived  to  finish  it, 
is  reported  to  have  said  in  a 
transport  of  joy,  "  I  have  sur- 
passed thee,  Solomon."  Anthe- 
mius was  a  machinist  and  sculp- 
tor, as  well  as  an  architect,  and 
there  still  exists  a  collection  of 
machines  which  is  ascribed  to 
him.  "  He  was  celebrated  for 
contrivances  to  imitate  the  ap- 
pearances and  effects  of  thunder, 
lightning,  and  earthquakes.  His 
biographers  relate  an  anecdote  of 
the  orator  Zeno  having  offered 
some  slight  to  Anthemius  ;  the 
latter,  in  revenge,  constructed 
an  apparatus,  which  was  placed 
near  the  walls  of  Zeno's  house, 
which  emitted  sounds  so  like 
those  preceding  some  earth- 
quake, that  the  orator  in  his 
fear  abandoned  his  habitation. 
Anthemius  on  this  occasion  is 
said  to  have  produced  the  effect 
by  cauldrons  of  boiling  water 
arranged  in  a  peculiar  manner." 

Antics.  In  architecture.  Fan- 
cies having  no  foundation  in 
nature,  as  sphinxs,  centaurs, 
syrens,  representations  of  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  flowers  growing 
on  the  same  stern  ;  grotesque 
ornaments  of  all  kinds,  as  lions, 
and  pards,  with  acantb'is'  tails, 

171 


ANTICS. 


"or  any  other  tails  but  their  own 
proper  onesj"  human  forms  with 
similar  ridiculous  appendages. 

Ornaments,  although  strictly 
natural,  in  an  unnatural  situation; 
as,  caryatidas  of  all  kinds. 

"Antics,  in  construction,  an 
absurd  and  ostentatious  display  of 
art,  such  as  the  leaning  tower  of 
Pisa,  built  by  design  to  appear  as 
if  falling  ;  an  immense  tower,  or 
other  weight,  supported  on  slen- 
der pillars: — in  this  view,  the 
whole  system  of  pointed,  or  go- 
thic  architecture  ;  all  buildings 
erected  in  England,  after  the 
gothic  fashion,  posterior  to  the 
revival  of  Grecian  art  by  Stuart 
and  Revett,  except  as  addi- 
tions to  ancient  buildings,  in  that 
style." 

Antics.,  in  plans,  sacrificing 
symmetry,  and  convenience,  to 
obtain  some  particular  horizontal 
outline,  as  the  palace  of  the 
Escurial,  built  in  imitation  of  the 
gridiron  on  which  St.  Bartholo- 
mew suffered  martyrdom  j  and 
antics  in  decoration,  a  cast  iron 
bridge,  made  like  an  immense 
"  brobdignag  gridiron,"  on  which 
future  saints  may  be  roasted. 

The  villa  Palagonia,  in  Sicily, 
is  an  antic,  from  the  entrance 
gate  to  the  chimney  top. 

' '  This  extraordinary  place  is  ap- 
proached through  a  huge  gate,  on 
the  plinth  of  which  are  fixed  six 
colossal  white-washed  statues  of 
hussards  and  halberdiers,  to  dis- 
pute the  entrance  of  an  avenue 
three  hundred  yards  long,  not  of 
cypresses,  elms,  or  orange-trees, 
but  of  monsters. 

"On  each  hand  is  a  parapet  wall 
loaded  with  more  horrible  figures 
than  ever  were  raised  by  Armida, 
and  all  the  enchanters  of  Ariosto. 
Busts  of  punchinellos  and  harle- 
quins, with  snakes  twisted  round 
them,  the  heads  of  dwarfs  with 
huge    periwigs,  of  asses  and 

172 


horses  with  lacea  cravats  and* 
rutfs,  compose  the  lower  range  of 
this  gallery,  and  at  intervals  of 
ten  yards  are  clustered  pillars, 
supporting  curious  groups  of 
figures  : — some  are  musicians, 
others  pigmies,  opera  heroes, 
old  women  grinning,  lions,  and 
other  beasts,  seated  at  tables, 
with  napkins  under  their  chins, 
eating  oysters  ;  princesses  with 
feathers  and  furbelows,  ostriches 
in  hoops,  and  cats  in  boots.  In 
short,  more  unaccountable  mix- 
tures of  company,  and  unnatural 
representations  of  creatures,  than 
travellers  had  patience  to  note,  or 
memory  to  record  .They  are  luckily 
all  made  of  so  soft  and  perishable 
a  stone,  that  we  need  be  under 
no  apprehension  of  this  collec- 
tion passing  to  posterity  as  a 
monument  of  the  taste  of  the 
eighteenth  century  ,  many  enor- 
mous noses,  and  preposterous 
limbs,  have  already  crumbled  to 
dust.  The  stone-cutters,  that 
made  those  figures,  though  they 
could  barely  trace  out  a  resem- 
blance of  the  human  form,  have 
shown  great  dexterity  in  carving 
curls,  foliage,  and  flounces,  out  of 
such  coarse  materials. 

"  This  avenue  of  Pandemo- 
nium, leads  to  a  circular  court 
before  the  house,  crowded  with 
stone  and  marble  beings,  not  to 
be  found  in  any  books  of  zoology. 
Men,  monsters,  and  animals,  line 
the  battlements  of  the  mansion, 
and  stand  so  thick,  and  in  such 
menacing  attitudes,  that  it  would 
not  be  safe  to  approach  it  in  a 
windy  day.  The  walls  are  cased 
with  basso-relievoes,  masks, 
medallions,  scriptural  subjects, 
heathen  gods,  emperors,  and 
posture-masters  j  some  of  the 
sculpture  is  in  a  good  style 
copied  from  the  antique ;  but 
the  greatest  part  consists  of  such 
figures  as  we  meet  with  in  Dutch 


ANTICS. 


fairs,  representing  the  seasons 
and  the  elements.  Within  doors 
the  same  sort  of  company  pre- 
sents itself  j  but  the  proprietor 
has  for  some  years  past  aban- 
doned this  wonderful  abode,  and 
many  of  its  beauties  feel  the 
wonderful  effects  of  his  absence. 
The  ceilings  of  the  rooms  are  of 
looking-glass,  the  walls  lined 
with  china,  and  with  delf  baubles. 
Monkies  hold  up  the  curtains, 
horses  mount  guard,  and  devils 
wait  at  the  foot  of  the  stairs  ;  the 
ball  room  remains  imperfect, 
though  intended  for  the  chef- 
cfceuvre ;  round  it  runs  a  marble 
bench,  which,  upon  examination, 
is  found  to  contain  a  great  num- 
ber of  night  tables." 

When  the  prince  of  this 
palace  of  folly,  who  squandered 
5640,000  in  these  creations, 
was  asked  in  what  part  of 
the  world  the  originals  of  his 
figures  and  ornaments  were  to  be 
met  with,  he  answered  in  Egypt, 
where,  Diodorus  Siculus  tells 
us,  the  rays  of  the  sun  act  so 
powerfully  on  the  slime  left  by 
the  Nile,  that  it  engenders  all 
sorts  of  uncouth  and  unknown 
forms.  A  learned  traveller  ob- 
serves, that  from  "  referring  to 
Egypt  for  his  types,  it  is  quite 
clear  the  prince  never  had  visited 
England." 

This  favoured  island  yields  to 
no  other  country  whatever  in  the 
number  and  importance  of  her 
architectural  novelties.  The  en- 
tire limits  of  our  dictionary,  we 
believe,  would  hardly  suffice  for 
a  bare  enumeration  of  a  tithe  of 
the  national  trophies  in  this  way. 
The  selection  of  the  following 
example  is  made  more  with  re- 
ference to  the  authority  of  au- 
thors on  architecture,  than  from 
our  own  opinion  ;  indeed  it  were 
threat  presumption  in  any  indivi- 


dual to  place  his  opinion  against 
that  of  so  numerous,  so  saga- 
cious, and  so  scientific,  a  body, 
as  that  which  has  adopted  Mr. 
Emlyn's  order  as  its  own.  "My 
first  notion  of  the  new  order," 
says  Mr.  Emlyn,  a  civil  engineer, 
and  one  of  the  most  influential 
and  distinguished  of  that  pro- 
fession, "  was  formed  in  his 
Majesty's  park  and  forest  at 
Windsor.  On  considering  the 
beauty  of  the  single  trunks  of 
trees,  which  are  believed  to  have 
been  the  origin  of  the  Grecian 
columns,  my  speculations  were 
most  agreeably  diverted  by  the 
frequent  views  of  the  twin  trees, 
which  nature  has  distinguished 
by  the  most  pleasing  and  regular 
variety  ;  and  recollecting  some 
lines  of  Mr.  Ware,  in  which  he 
has  observed,  '  that  there  was 
no  reason  to  say  that  another 
order  should  not  be  invented,  not 
as  being  wanted,  but  as  it  would 
farther  vary  the  system,  and  was 
worthy  to  be  attempted,'  it  ap- 
peared to  him  that  nature  had 
pointed  out  another  kind  of 
column,  deserving  of  imitation, 
hitherto  unnoticed,  and  which 
might  produce  a  sixth  order  of 
architecture,"  or  the  "  Civil  En- 
gineer Okder,"  with  new  pro- 
portions. "  From  hence,"  con- 
tinues this  scientific  engineer, 
"  I  began  to  form  such  as  ap- 
peared to  me  the  most  agree- 
able to  nature,  and  most  suitable 
to  my  design.  From  my  different 
observations  and  trials,  the  twin 
column,  and  entablature  to  it, 
(which  appeared  to  be  of  equal 
strength  with  the  columns  of  the 
corinthian  order  of  the  same 
height,)  from  its  form  and  light- 
ness., I  conceived  might  be 
adopted  with  advantage  in  build- 
ing, as  it  appeared  sufficiently 
solid  and  durable,  and  I  trust  it 


ft 


ANTICS. 


will  not  be  thought  to  carry  with 
it  any  gothic  indecorum. 

"  As  Windsor,"  continues  this 
accomplished  civil  engineer, 
"  had  the  honour  of  an  order 
established  there,  the  most  noble 
order  of  St.  George,  and  as  its 
forest  had  given  me  the  first  idea 
of  the  proposed  column,  I  was 
ambitious  to  wish  to  complete  an 
order  in  architecture  in  confor- 
mity to  the  hints  received,  and 
the  nature  of  that  honourable 
institution.  As  the  doric  order 
was  composed  on  the  system  of 
manly  figure  and  strength  of  ro- 
bust and  Herculean  proportions ; 
the  ionic  on  the  model  of  the 
easy,  delicate,  and  simple  graces 
of  female  beauty,  to  which  the 
corinthian,  on  a  similar  design, 
adapted  a  symmetry  of  more  arti- 
ficial and  complicated  elegance  $ 
this  column  is  composed  on  the 
plan  of  representing  the  particu- 
lar character  of  our  ancient  Eng- 
lish chivalry  in  its  most  illus- 
trious order,  which,  as  a  distinc- 
tion of  peculiar  eminence,  has 
not  become  obsolete,  but  is  still 
considered  as  an  ornament  that 
adds  splendour  to  the  highest 
rank,  and  an  honour  suitable  to 
the  most  eminent  desert.  Its 
knights  and  companions,  united 
by  the  nearest  tie  of  equal  and 
honourable  confraternity, deriving 
from  the  same  source  their 
conjoint  dignity,  the  basis  of 
which  is  the  sovereign  of  the 
garter. 

"  In  pursuance  of  this  double 
idea,  the  conformity  to  the 
natural  object  which  first  occa- 
sioned the  design,  and  the  allu- 
sion to  that  order  of  knighthood, 
the  columns  are  imitations  of 
nature,  often  taken  from  the  twin 
trees,  as  the  capitals  are  from  the 
'plumage  of  the  caps  of  the  heights, 
with  the  ionic  volutes  interwoven 

174 


and  bound  together  in  the  front, 
with  the  star  of  the  order  between 
them,  and  the  supporters  of  the 
arms  of  England  issuing  out  of 
the  foliage  of  the  volute  ;  and  in 
the  profile  of  the  capital  is  a 
'  lion's  snout,'  rising  out  of  a 
rose.  In  the  cleft  between  the 
two  stems,  where  they  divide 
from  the  lower  trunk,  there  is  an 
ornament  introduced,  instead  of 
the  protuberant  bark,  which  some- 
times naturally  forms  a  festoon, 
viz.  the  knight's  shield  and  armour, 
with  the  skin  of  a  wolf  hanging 
down  on  each  side,  and  bending 
down  the  twigs  of  the  tree,  all 
which  together  cap  the  centre  of 
the  trunk  on  both  sides  :  although 
this  animal  was  exterminated 
from  our  island  before  the  insti- 
tution of  the  order  designed  to 
be  the  subject  of  the  leading 
ornaments  of  the  column,  it  will 
not  appear  to  be  unsuitably 
introduced,  as  pointing  to  the 
love  of  exercise  and  public  utility 
combined  with  their  diversions, 
which  distinguished  the  ancestors 
of  the  knights.  The  upper  mem- 
ber of  the  base  is  enriched  with  the 
claws  of  that  animal  rising  out 
among  the  leaves.  The  fluting 
of  the  trunk  is  cabled,  and  the 
cables  hollow,  and  fitted  with 
the  English  arrow,  the  feathered 
end  rising  out  of  each  of  them. 
The  ornament  of  the  frieze,  over 
the  columns,  is  a  plume  of  the 
ostrich  feathers,  a  distinguishing 
mark  of  honour  peculiar  to  the 
prince  of  Wales  ;  the  bottom  of 
them  comes  through  the  upper 
member  of  the  architrave,  and  is 
mixed  with  acorns,  and  tied  with 
a  ribbon.  In  the  metopes  are 
placed  the  great  George  and  collar, 
and  in  a  continued  frieze,  other 
symbolical  ornaments,  as  naval 
and  military  trophies ;  the  mo- 
dillions  are  enriched  on  the  sides 


ANT 


ANT 


with  oak  leaves  and  acorns,  arid  on 
the  bottom  with  mosaic  work. 
The  pannels  in  the  soffet  of  the 
corona,  are  filled  with  helmets, 
stars,  and  roses.  As  a  finish  to 
the  column,  I  have  crowned  it 
with  the  sovereign  of  the  order 
of  St.  George." 

*  As  modern  architects,"  says 
another  civil  engineer  of  great 
eminence,  "  imitate,  without 
reason  or  an  appeal  to  experi- 
ment, the  columns  left  by 
Greeks,  who  constructed  them 
some  thousands  of  years  ago,  or 
by  Romans,  who  lived  nearly 
at  the  same  time,  and  who  were 
unacquainted  with  the  ( refine- 
ments of  modern  analysis  ;'  it  is 
no  wonder  that  their  productions 
are  not  *  scientific,'  and  that  the 
quantity  of  materials  they  con- 
tain far  exceed  the  values  indi- 
cated by  the  latest  '  formula.' 
In  the  '  civil  engineer  order,' 
this  defect  has  been  obviated,  by 
making  the  entire  height  of  the 
order  equal  to  twenty-five  dia- 
meters ;  the  pedestal  is  a  fourth  of 
the  height ;  the  height  of  the 
column  is  seventeen  diameters  and 
two  fifths;  and  the  height  of  the 
entablature  is  three  diameters  and 
four  tenths  :  thus  forming  a  com- 
position admirably  adapted  to 
every  useful  and  ornamental  pur- 
pose, and  peculiarly  fit  for  being 
formed  of  cast-iron ;  that  won- 
derful material,  whose  use  seems 
destined  shortly  to  supersede  the 
stone  and  marble  absurdities  of 
the  antique,  and  thus  to  form 
a  new  era  in  the  history  of 
'  scientific  construction.'  " 

A  xti -cabinet.  In  French 
houses.  A  larg^  apartment  plac- 
ed between  tne  hall  and  the 
cabinet ;  usually  called  the  <f  salle 
d'assemblee." 

Anti-coi  r.  A  French  word, 
occasionally    used    by  English 


authors.  The  approach  to  the 
principal  court  of  a  house  5  they 
sometimes  serve  as  a  communi- 
cation with  the  cellars,  kitchen, 
stables,  &c. 

Anticum.  (Lat.)  A  porch  to 
a  south  door,  as  a  distinction 
from  porticum,  or  porch  to  a 
north  door.  The  space  between 
the  front  columns  of  a  portico 
and  the  wall  of  the  cella,  was  also 
called  anticum;  the  word  is  some- 
times used  improperly  for  anta. 

Antimachides.  A  Greek  ar- 
chitect, who,  along  with  Calles- 
chros  and  Perinos,  began  the  fa- 
mous temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus 
at  Athens,  by  the  command  of 
Pisistratus,  and  which  was  com- 
pleted by  Antiochus  three  hun- 
dred years  afterwards. 

Antinopolis,  or  Antince.  A 
city  of  Egypt,  built  by  Adrian  in 
honour  of  Antinous  his  favourite, 
who  was  drowned  here  when  he 
accompanied  that  emperor  to 
Egypt.  Adrian  instituted  games 
and  divine  honours  to  his  me- 
mory. 

The  town  was  divided  by  two 
grand  streets  45  feet  wide,  and 
about  a  mile  and  a  quarter  long  ; 
these  streets,  forming  a  kind  of 
cross,  had  others,  but  smaller 
streets,  branching  from  them, 
but  of  equal  lengths,  and  in  the 
same  lines.  Along  the  sides  of 
these  two  principal  streets  was 
a  continued  gallery  5  or  6  feet 
wide,  supported  by  stone  columns 
of  beautiful  workmanship ;  so 
that  this  city  was  a  grand  peri- 
style, where  the  passenger  was 
protected  from  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  or  the  coldness  of  the  atmo- 
sphere j  many  of  these  fallen 
columns  are  found  in  several 
parts  of  the  site,  and  some  re- 
mains of  arcades.  Near  the  city 
is  a  place  eight  hundred  paces 
long  by  seventy  wide,  which  was 

175 


ANT 


ANT 


probably  a  circus  where  Adrian 
celebrated  sacred  games  to  the 
memory  of  Antinous  j  this  is 
surrounded  by  immense  blocks 
of  stone,  forming  eight  ranges  of 
seats  rising  one  above  the  other. 
The  city  had  four  grand  gates, 
those  on  the  south  and  west  are 
still  remaining ;  the  south  gate  is  a 
kind  of  triumphal  arch  with  three 
grand  arched  openings,  the 
middle  one  22  feet  (Fr.)  wide, 
and  40  feet  high ;  the  side  ar- 
cades 24  feet  high,  and  about 
11  feet  wide.  The  entire  gate  is 
about  66  feet  high,  and  from  15 
to  20  feet  thick  ;  its  two  facades 
are  adorned  with  eight  Corin- 
thian pilasters,  fluted  from  about 
the  middle  of  their  height  to  the 
base  :  the  volutes  of  the  angle 
capitals  are  so  great  that  the 
Arabs  call  the  erection  the  father 
of  horns.  Opposite  these  pilas- 
ters, at  a  distance  of  five  or  six 
paces,  are  eight  corinthian  co- 
lumns of  white  marble ;  their 
shafts  are  composed  of  five  equal 
pieces,  fluted  from  the  middle  to 
the  base,  40  feet  (Fr.)  high,  and 
14  or  15  feet  in  circumference; 
the  capitals  are  formed  of  two 
stones  each,  7 \  feet  in  diameter. 
The  western  gate  is  nearly  as 
perfect  as  the  southern  gate,  but 
in  a  different  style.  It  has  also 
three  large  arched  passages  ;  the 
middle  one  measured  16  feet  wide, 
and  20  feet  high,  the  two  side 
arches  being  about  half  the  width 
and  height  with  the  others. 
There  is  also  formed  above  the 
gates,  three  grand,  large,  square 
openings,  which  form  a  kind  of 
platform,  that  in  the  middle 
being  larger  than  the  two  others; 
two  stairs,  each  having  fifty  steps, 
are  formed  in  the  walls,  and  con- 
duct to  these  openings  j  this  gate 
is  about  50  feet  in  front,  35  feet 
in  height,  and  45  feet  deep.  The 

170 


remains  of  other  buildings  may 
also  be  traced ;  among  these  are 
some  vestiges  of  a  palace,  which 
appears  to  have  been  of  great 
extent. 

Antioch.  An  ancient  Syrian 
city,  founded  by  Seleucus  Ni- 
cator,  and  named  by  him  after 
his  father  Antiochus.  It  was  one  of 
the  most  considerable  of  the  cities 
of  the  east,  and  was  the  residence 
of  theMacedonian  kings  for  many 
ages,  as  it  became  afterwards  that 
of  the  Roman  governors  of  the 
province  ;  it  was  called,  by  way 
of  eminence,  the  queen  of  eastern 
cities. 

The  walls  of  the  ancient  city  are 
entire  in  many  parts,  and  such  is 
the  solidity  of  their  construction, 
that  the  dilapidations  have  been 
caused  mainly  by  earthquakes. 
The  ancient  city  being  situated 
on  the  summit  and  north  side  of 
two  hills,  and  on  the  plain  which 
is  to  the  north  of  them,  the  walls 
are  built  along  the  heights  of  the 
hills,  and  a  deep  fosse  renders 
the  south  approach  (where  there 
is  no  descent,)  very  difficult. 
These  hills  are  divided  by  a  deep 
narrow  bed  of  a  mountain  tor- 
rent, across  which  is  built  a  wall 
at  least  60  feet  high  ;  about  half- 
way up  on  each  side  of  the  wall 
there  is  a  walk  from  the  road  on 
the  hills ;  the  eastern  passage 
seems  to  have  served  for  an 
aqueduct :  this  wall  is  a  most 
extraordinary  building,  by  which 
the  two  hills  are  joined  above  the 
bed  of  the  torrent,  and  construct- 
ed with  extraordinary  skill.  On 
the  west  side  of  one  of  the  hills 
the  wall  is  built  with  stone,  with 
beautiful  square  towers  at  equal 
distances,  which  consist  of  several 
stories  ;  this  is  thought  to  be  the 
very  wall  built  by  Seleucus,  yet 
there  is  not  the  least  breach  in 
it,  or  sign  of  any.    It  had  no  bat- 


ANTIOC  H. 


tlements,  but  a  walk  all  round  it 
on  the  top, and  where  there  was  any 
ascent  t  he  top  of  the  wall  was  made 
in  steps,  so  that  they  could  go  all 
round  the  city  on  the  walls  with 
the  greatest  ease  ;  and  it  is  also 
probable  that  there  were  such 
steps  on  the  walls,  which  were 
built  up  the  very  steep  precipices, 
where  now  it  is  in  ruins ;  some 
ruins  of  Roman  reparations  are 
seen  on  the  south  side  of  the 
city.  The  towers  are  about 
seventy  paces  apart. 

The  walls  and  towers  are  about 
40  feet  high,  and  6  or  7  feet 
thick,  formed  of  stone  and  lime, 
with  layers  of  brick,  and  crusted 
with  fine  cut  granite  flags,  which 
gradually  diminish  in  size  as  they 
approach  the  top ;  the  towers  are 
more  lofty  than  the  walls  ;  of  a 
quadrangular  form,  divided  into 
three  floors,  one  upon  the  ground 
and  two  above,  the  latter  being 
filled  with  loopholes,  and  some- 
times small  embrasures. 

There  are  few  remains  in  the 
city  of  any  ancient  buildings  j  on 
the  summit  of  one  of  the  hills  are 
the  remains  of  a  citadel,  with 
semicircular  turrets  in  front. 
Vaults  are  constructed  under  it, 
which  are  conjectured  to  have 
been  reservoirs  j  at  the  north- 
east corner  are  also  some  ves- 
tiges of  baths ;  in  addition  to 
these,  the  citadel  was  supplied  by 
another  basin  between  the  cita- 
del and  principal  summit,  fifty- 
three  paces  in  diameter.  Near 
the  foot  of  the  hill  are  the  re- 
mains of  a  large  building  of 
brick,  traditionally  said  to  have 
been  the  palace  of  the  emperors, 
from  the  style,  of  the  fourth  or 
fifth  century. 

The  aqueducts  are  the  princi- 
pal remains  of  antiquity  at  An- 
tioch  ■  the  water  was  derived 
from  a  hill  distant  about  four  or 
live  miles,  and  to  which  numer- 
Z 


ous  lesser  streams  were  con- 
ducted in  channels.  The  water 
was  conveyed  from  this  in  under- 
ground channels  into  a  little 
valley,  thence  it  was  conducted 
on  arches  which  still  remain. 
The  stream  was  conducted  along 
the  sides  of  the  hills  as  often  as 
practicable,  and  carried  over  the 
beds  of  other  waters  by  arches. 
At  a  certain  part  of  the  hill  were 
small  arched  chambers,  or  con- 
duits, whence  water  was  drawn 
for  the  convenience  of  the  various 
parts'  of  the  city  ;  in  one  part  a 
channel  is  cut  through  the  rock 
2  feet  wide,  and  4  or  5  feet  high, 
worked  archways  at  top  ;  there 
was  a  lower  aqueduct  built  by 
the  Syrian  kings,  before  this  one 
was  begun,  which  is  conjectured 
to  have  been  the  work  of  the 
Romans.  In  some  places  the 
lower  aqueduct  had  three  stories 
of  arches,  the  uppermost  joining 
the  channels  on  the  opposite 
sides  of  the  hills.  Many  excava- 
tions are  also  seen  in  the  moun- 
tain, conjectured  to  be  places  for 
burying  the  dead.  There  are  re- 
mains of  three  or  four  ancient 
churches  in  Antioch  ;  one  of  them 
is  called  the  patriarchal  church, 
from  St.  Peter,  or  St.  Paul  hav- 
ing preached,  or  lived,  there. 

The  present  city  of  Antioch  is 
ill  built,  the  houses  low,  with 
only  one  story  above  ground  ;  the 
roofs  are  almost  all  flat,  made  of 
light  rafters  laid  from  one  wall 
to  another,  and  covered  with 
thin  tiles,  which  seem  to  be  con- 
trivances to  make  their  houses 
as  light  as  possible,  that  they  may 
not  sink  into  the  bad  foundation 
on  which  they  are  built,  or  if 
they  should  chance  to  be  thrown 
down  by  the  concussions  of  an 
earthquake,  that  the  inhabitants 
might  not  be  crushed  by  the 
weight  of  the  roof ;  the  walls  are 
neatly  built  of  stone  5  the  houses 

177 


ANTIQUE. 


are  two  stories  high,  have  a 
square  in  the  centre,  and  the 
rooms  are  lighted  by  small 
arched  windows. 

Antique.  A  word  used  by 
architects  to  distinguish  every 
work  of  art  produced  by  Greek  or 
Roman  artists,  between  the  age 
of  Alexander  the  Great,  and  that 
of  the  emperor  Phocas,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, when  Italy  was  overrun  by 
the  Goths  and  Vandals.  The 
word  is  technically  synonymous 
with  beautiful,  most  excellent, 
perfect.  The  phrases,  "  it  is  an 
antique  ,"  "  it  is  not  an  antique  j" 
"  it  is  seen  in  the  antique  ;"  ex- 
press an  admiration  "  tres  raison- 
nable,  quoique  souvent  peu  rai- 
sonnee,"  of  the  works  of  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  ;  and  when 
applied  to  modern  productions 
these  phrases  express  the  degree 
of  resemblance  between  the  style 
and  taste  of  the  modern  work, 
and  those  ancient  remains, 
which  are  considered  to  be  the 
models  which  ought,  or  were 
intended,  to  have  been  imitated. 

Works  of  art  dating  after  the 
sixth  century  are  ancient,  but  not 
antique ;  those  also  are  excluded 
from  the  antique  whose  age  may 
be  anterior  to  that  of  Alexander. 
The  Egyptian  buildings,  although 
of  higher  antiquity,  and  of  consi- 
derable pretensions  to  merit,  are 
not  classed  among  antiques  in  the 
ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term  ; 
neither  are  the  remains  of  art, 
at  any  period  of  any  people  ex- 
cept Greeks  or  Romans,  called 
antiques,  such  as  Persian,  Indian, 
or  Druidical  productions. 

Whatever  causes,  arising  from 
education  or  climate,  may  have 
produced  the  fine  perception  of 
beautiful  forms  which  shines  in 
Greek  productions,  it  is  this  which 
alone  gives  them  their  claim  to  our 
consideration.    The  knowledge 

178 


of  the  antique  is  but  another 
name  for  the  study  of  nature, 
with  this  advantage,  that  in  these 
works  we  have  the  fine  parts  ot 
nature,  or  those  most  worthy  of 
imitation,  alone,  presented  to  our 
observation.  Antique  remains  are, 
therefore,  to  be  considered  as  so 
many  experiments  mode  by  men  emi- 
nently gifted  with  sagacity  and 
penetration,  on  forms  best  calcu- 
lated to  please  the  eye,  and  satisfy 
the  understanding.  In  no  Greek 
building  has  the  one  been  follow- 
ed to  the  exclusion  of  the  other. 

The  study  of  the  antique  on  this 
account  is  considered  to  be  the 
only  path  by  which  an  architect 
can  aspire  to  distinction.  In  this 
study,  the  first  and  greatest  con- 
cern is,  the  choice,  or  selection  o* 
models  which  are  proposed  for 
imitation,  and  the  second,  the 
judgment  to  direct  this  imitation. 

In  the  ages,  for  instance,  to 
which  the  antique  is  limited,  it 
is  natural  to  suppose,  indepen- 
dently of  many  examples  which 
will  occur  to  every  one,  that 
the  style  and  taste  were  by  no 
means  equal;  the  arts  of  the 
antique  time,  like  all  other 
things,  had  their  periods  of 
increase,  of  maturity,  and  de- 
cline. It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  distinguish  between 
works  of  these  eras,  and  to 
aim  rather  at  the  excellence  of 
the  mature  period,  than  to  imi- 
tate that  which  bears  the  impress 
of  infancy  or  old  age.  The 
period  of  the  government  of 
Pericles,  is  the  era  of  the  ex- 
quisite antique  among  the 
Greeks  ;  and  that  of  the  reign 
of  Augustus  among  the  Romans. 
Nothing,  again,  is  more  com- 
mon in  modern  buildings, 
than  to  observe  details  in  the 
finest  antique  taste,  decorating 
compositions,  which,  as  wholes, 
are  absolute  vandals.    No  archi- 


ANT 


ANT 


tect  would  find  it  difficult  to  erect 
a  building  with  all  the  fritter  and 
complexity  of  a  gothic  chapel,  in 
which  every  moulding,  and  orna- 
ment, should  be  drawn  from  the 
most  exquisite  Greek  buildings  ; 
yet  what  taste,  however  depraved, 
would  call  the  monster  antique. 
An  entire  antique  building  may  be 
imitated  with  all  the  fine  feeling  of 
a  Greek  architect,  and  yet  be  ap- 
plied to  a  purpose,  or  placed  in  a 
situation  so  absurdly,  as  to  rank 
no  higher  than  a  boyish  barba- 
rism. The  temple  of  Pandrossus, 
for  instance,  made  a  porch  to  a 
cemetery  with  the  modern  im- 
provement of  making  the  door  in 
the  dado,  and  forming  its  lintel  of 
a  Greek  coffin,  is  on  a  par  with 
Inigo  Jones's  placing  a  classic 
screen  in  Winchester  cathedral. 

The  imitation  of  antique  details, 
or  of  entire  buildings,  do  not  there  - 
fore give  an  architect  a  claim  to  a 
classic  taste.  A  composition  may 
be  in  the  finest  and  purest  antique 
taste,  and  yet  not  possess  a  single 
ornament  or  moulding  which 
could  be  referred  to  any  existing 
Greek  example,  in  fact  be  desti- 
tute of  ornamental  details  of 
every  kind.  Many  of  Poussin's 
groups  are  of  this  character  ; 
but  how  many  compositions  are 
there  by  other  artists,  where 
every  detail  can  be  traced  as 
drawn  from  the  "  purest  well  of 
Athens  undefiled;"  yet  are  no 
nearer  the  antique  than  any  of 
the  works  of  William  of  Wick- 
ham. 

Antiquities.  Technically,  the 
remains  of  ancient  buildings,  or 
works  of  art,  considered  as  in 
classes  ;  or  as  peculiar  to,  or  con- 
nected with,  a  place  or  district. 

Antiquary.  A  person  devot- 
ed to  the  study  of  the  remains  of 
former  times  generally ;  a  collec- 
tor, or  expounder  of  ancient  ob- 
jects. Every  architect  is,  or  ought 


to  be,  an  antiquary  by  profession, 
as  far  as  regards  a  familiarity 
with  that  division  of  antiquities, 
relating  to  the  remains  of  ancient 
art,  for  it  is  only  by  a  persevering 
and  discriminating  study  of  these, 
that  he  can  hope  to  form  his 
taste,  and  direct  his  practice. 

Antiquarium.  (Lat.)  A  room 
or  cabinet  where  ancient  books 
and  vases  were  kept. 

Antiquo-modkrn.  In  some 
dictionaries,  "  the  pointed  style 
of  architecture  generally  under- 
stood by  the  word  gothic." 

Antiquum.  So  named  by  Vi- 
truvius  because  it  was  in  his  time 
the  earliest  known  method  of 
building;  antiquaries  are  not 
agreed  whether  it  means  small 
stones  thrown  into  cement,  or 
large  stones,  among  which 
smaller  were  inserted. 

Antistates.  A  Greek  archi- 
tect, one  of  the  colleagues  of 
Antimachides  in  erecting  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus,  at 
Athens ;  "  the  design  of  this 
Duilding  was  grand  and  magnifi- 
cent, inspiring  reverence,  and 
exciting  admiration."  The  death 
of  Pisistratus  put  an  end  to  the 
work,  and  it  was  ages  afterwards 
before  it  was  finished.  Many 
sovereigns  coveted  the  honour  to 
complete  and  embellish  it;  among 
others  Perseus,  king  of  Macedon, 
and  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  four 
hundred  years  after  Pisistratus, 
employed  Cossutius,  a  Roman 
architect,  to  finish  the  body  of 
the  temple,  and  the  portico.  This 
monument  of  the  piety  of  these 
princes  was  considered  one  of  the 
four  most  famous  Greek  marble 
temples,  the  three  others  being 
that  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  the 
temple  of  Apollo,  at  Miletus, 
and  Ceres,  at  Eleusis.  The 
temple  of  Jupiter  was  depteral, 
and  octostyle  :  in  it  were  placed 
the  statues  of  the  Athenian 
.9 


A  PA 


A  P  A 


colonies.  Two  orders  of  columns, 
one  placed  over  the  other,  and 
ranged  at  a  certain  distance  from 
the  walls  of  the  cella,  surrounded 
the  interior ;  the  middle  was 
open.  The  temple  was  com- 
pleted by  Adrian. 

Antonine  Column.  See  Co- 
lumn. 

Antonius.  A  Roman  noble- 
man well  skilled  in  architecture. 
He  constructed  many  buildings 
*  at  Epidaurus,  in  the  Peloponne- 
sus ;  the  greatest  of  which  was 
a  temple  dedicated  to  all  the 
gods  j  he  erected  others  conse- 
crated to  Apollo  Esculapius. 

Apartment.  (Partimentum, 
Lat.  from  partiri,  to  divide  j  or 
from  a  parte  mansionis,  a  part  of 
the  building.)  A  space  enclosed 
by  walls  and  ceiling,  as  distin- 
guished from  court,  or  area.  A 
set,  or  suite  of  rooms  necessary 
for  the  complete  habitation  either 
of  an  individual  or  a  family. 
Apartments  ;  chambers. 

An  apartment  ought  to  consist 
of  a  hall,  ante-chamber,  chamber, 
closet,  cabinet,  and  wardrobe, 
with  the  usual  offices  for  the  ac- 
commodation of  attendants,  and 
preparation  of  food.  The  houses 
of  the  French  and  Italians  are 
generally  arranged  so  that  many 
families  live  under  the  same 
roof,  each  habitation  is  ap- 
proached by  a  stair  common  to 
the  whole,  and  generally  all  the 
rooms  of  an  apartment  are  placed 
on  the  same  floor.  In  Scotland 
this  arrangement  is  also  still  very 
general,  and  may  probably  have 
been  derived  from  the  French  prac- 
tice. In  England  the  arrangement 
ofthehousesbeingtotally  different 
from  those  of  Italy  or  France, 
the  word  is  nearly  obsolete  in 
this  sense,  and  is  never  used  in 
the  singular,  except  as  synony- 
mous with  a  room. 

An     apartment     in  French 

180 


building  is  divided  into  "apparte- 
ment  de  parade,"  and  *'  apparte- 
ment  prive  j**  the  rooms  of  the  "  ap- 
partement  de  parade"are  of  ample 
dimensions,  and  decorated  with 
magnificence,  for  the  "  reception 
of  distinguished  visitors,  and  for 
holiday  merry-makings."  The 
vestibules,  ante-chambers,  sa- 
loons, galleries,  chambers,  and 
cabinets,  which  compose  an  "  ap- 
partement  de  parade,"  should  be 
ranged  "  en  enfilade,"  and  proper 
care  be  had  to  dispose  their  open- 
ings, so  as  to  allow  the  decorations 
of  the  courts  and  gardens  to  be 
viewed  from  points  where  they 
may  add  variety  or  richness  to 
the  interior  arrangements. 

As  the  dimensions  of  the  "  ap- 
partement  de  parade,"  and  its 
sumptuous  decorations,  do  not 
always  accord  with  domestic 
convenience,  an  "  appartement 
prive,"  or  the  "petit  apparte- 
ment," is  usually  attached  to  the 
state  rooms. 

The  "  appartement  prive"  is 
further  divided  into  l'apparte- 
ment  de  la  dame,"  and  that  "  du 
mari the  divisions  communi- 
cate with  each  other. 

"  The  lady's  apartment  is 
ornamented  with  a  light  and 
tasteful  elegance,  that  of  the 
gentleman  with  more  gravity  and 
pomp ,  the  one  contains  hand- 
some boudoirs,  cabinets  for  dress- 
ing, and  a  bathing  room  j  the 
other  has  cabinets  for  study,  a 
library,  cabinets  for  collections  in 
philosophy  or  the  fine  arts,  and 
a  billiard  room.  Each  of  the 
divisions  is  preceded  by  a  distinct 
vestibule,  entrance-hall,  and  a 
'salle  de  reception  j*  a  bedroom 
with  its  ante-chamber,  and  a  '  lieu 
a  l'Anglaise,'  with  chambers  for 
the  valet  and  femme  de  cham- 
bre;  the  bedrooms  adjoin  each 
other;  the  eating  room  and 
conversation   room   should  be 


API 


A  PI 


common  to  the  two  apart- 
ments, but  each  division  of 
the  ■  appartement  prive'  should 
have  separate  approaches  and 
staircases."  See  Decoration. 
Room. 

AphractjE.  (Aphraktos,  Gr. 
uncovered.)  In  ancient  naval 
architecture.  Long  vessels  with 
one  range  of  oars  without  decks  ; 
but  sometimes  with  beaks  or 
rostra.  They  were  distinguish- 
ed from  cataphractee,  which  were 
close-decked  vessels  j  and  had 
planks  towards  the  poop  and 
prow  for  fighting  from. 

Aperture.  {Apertura,  Lat.  a 
small  open  passage.)  An  open- 
ing through  a  wall,  or  roof,  or 
floor,  of  any  form,  as  doors, 
windows,  chimnies,  drains. 

"  Apertions,"  says  sir  Henry 
Wotton,  "  are  inlets  fur  men  and 
light  ;  they  should  be  as  few  in 
number,  and  as  moderate  in  di- 
mensions, as  may  possibly  consist 
with  other  due  respects,  for  in  a 
word  all  openings  are  weak- 
nesses. They  should  not  ap- 
proach too  near  the  angles  of 
the  walls ;  for  it  were  indeed 
a  most  essential  solecism  to 
weaken  that  part  which  must 
strengthen  all  the  rest." 

Apiary.  (Apiarium,  Lat.  a  bee- 
stand.)    A  bee-house. 

The  simplest  form  of  an  apiary 
is  that  of  a  few  shelves  placed  in 
a  recess  in  a  wall,  with  or  with- 
out shutters,  to  exclude  the  ex- 
tremes of  either  heat  or  cold. 

"  The  scientific,  or  experi- 
mental bee-house,  differs  from 
the  common  one  in  being  formed 
with  doors  or  shutters  behind, 
to  allow  the  hives  to  be  inspected 
at  pleasure.  In  each  variety  small 
holes  about  half  an  inch  high, 
ami  from  2  to  3  inches  wide,  with 
a  broad  fillet  in  front  as  a  landing- 
place,  are  made  in  each  shutter, 
and  opposite  the  door  or  entrance 


to  each  hive  on  the  shelf,  these 
external  openings  have  some- 
times a  projecting  fillet  over 
them  to  throw  off  the  rain  which 
falls." 

In  the  southern  countries,  the 
aspect  which  is  preferred  for  an 
apiary  is  always  to  the  eastward ; 
but  in  England  little  attention 
is  paid  to  the  position  ;  it  is  cer- 
tain, however,  that  this  should 
vary  with  the  climate  of  the 
country,  and  in  this  climate  it  is 
found  that  five  points  to  the 
eastward  or  south  is  the  best. 

In  whatever  position  the  apiary 
is  placed,  it  should  be  protected 
from  the  winds ;  in  England, 
therefore,  a  protection  from  the 
south-west  is  desirable  ;  the  high 
winds  not  only  preventing  the 
bees  from  leaving  the  hive,  but 
they  also  surprise  them  in  the 
fields,  and  often  kill  them  by 
dashing  them  against  the  trees 
and  rocks,  or  into  the  rivers. 

The  hives  of  an  apiary  should 
always  be  placed  in  a  right  line, 
but  should  the  number  of  the 
hives  be  great,  and  the  situation 
not  capacious  enough  to  admit  of 
their  being  placed  longitudinally, 
it  is  more  advisable  to  place 
them  one  over  another,  than  in 
double  rows  upon  the  ground,  or 
bottom  of  the  apiary.  If  the 
hives  are  to  be  placed  in  a  double 
row,  the  apiary  should  be  con- 
structed that  the  kinder  ones 
should  alternate  with,  and  be 
placed  at  such  a  distance  from, 
the  front  ones,  that  when  the 
bees  take  their  flight  no  obstruc- 
tion should  be  offered. 

A  few  low  shrubs  should  be 
planted  round  the  apiary,  but 
these  should  never  be  allowed  to 
rise  to  a  greater  height  than  the 
entrance  to  it.  In  order  to  pre- 
vent the  approach  of  inserts, 
which  are  enemies  to  bees,  the 
apiary  should  be  surrounded  with 

1SI 


API 


APO 


a  small  leaden  reservoir  of 
water. 

The  vicinity  of  great  towns,  or 
chimnies,  is  not  to  be  preferred 
for  an  apiary ;  these  last,  besides 
their  smoke,  which  is  injurious, 
are  also  the  resort  of  swallows 
and  martins,  the  great  enemies 
of  bees. 

An  apiary  should  stand  at  a 
distance  from  walls  and  hedges, 
as  in  this  situation  the  hives  are 
liable  to  be  infested  with  mice 
and  snails  ;  an  open  situation  is 
the  best.  It  should  be  placed 
to  receive  the  rays  of  the  rising  as 
well  as  meridian  sun,  heat  and 
light  appearing  to  be  the  stimu- 
lants to  the  labours  of  bees ;  an 
apiary  placed  so  as  not  to  be 
touched  by  the  sun,  until  some 
hours  after  its  rising,  would  lose 
a  proportionable  part  of  each 
day's  labour.  A  bee  on  leaving 
the  hive  generally  forms  an  angle 
of  about  forty-five  degrees  with 
the  horizon  ;  the  elevation  of  the 
entrance  to  the  apiary  should, 
therefore,  be  made  about  2  feet 
from  the  ground,  in  order  to 
clear  the  bushes  which  surround 
it. 

Apiaries.  Among  the  Romans, 
included  that  part  of  the  garden 
in  which  the  bee-house  was 
placed,  and  which  was  planted 
with  aromatic  herbs  and  flowers  j 
the  collection  of  hives,  or  apiary, 
was  called  "castra  apium."  The 
beehive  was  bell-shaped,  some- 
times of  the  bark  of  the  cork  tree, 
a  part  of  hollow,  osier  twigs, 
pottery,  and  transparent  stone, 
(alabastrites,)  that  the  bees  might 
be  observed  at  work ;  the  hives 
had  movable  coverings,  and 
placed  on  podia,  or  stands,  to 
prevent  the  approach  of  reptiles. 
The  situation  against  a  high  wall 
was  chosen  to  keep  off  the  cold 
winds. 

Apis.    The  figure  of  a  bull  5  a 

182 


common  ornament  in  Egyptian 
architecture. 

An  ornament  resemb.ing  two 
wings,  rounded  with  a  broad 
plate,  or  parasol  often  attached, 
called  aspideion,  or  aspidiske ; 
sometimes  a  moving  triton  was 
affixed  to  mark  the  point  of  the 
wind.  It  was  called  aplason  by 
the  Greeks. 

Aplustre.  In  ancient  naval 
architecture.  "  A  carved  orna- 
ment fixed  to  the  highest  part  of 
the  stern  j  it  is  supposed  to  have 
been  formed  of  various  colours, 
and  to  have  answered  the  pur- 
pose of  a  flag  or  ensign."  See  the 
engraving  marked  Acrostolium, 
for  examples  of  the  aplustre,  or 
aplustrum. 

Apodyterium.  (Apoduein,  Gr. 
to  undress.)  A  room  at  the  en- 
trance of  the  ancient  baths,  or  in 
the  palaestruse,  where  persons 
dressed  and  undressed,  who  were 
going  into  the  bath,  or  to  prac- 
tise gymnastic  exercises. 

In  Nero's  baths  the  apody- 
teria  were  small  square  apart- 
ments near  the  sphseristrum  j 
but  the  apodyterium  of  the  bath 
was  near  the  hypocausium,  and 
consequently  very  warm.  In  the 
baths  of  Titus  this  apartment  was 
oval ;  in  those  of  Domitian  it 
was  a  parallelogram  partitioned 
by  columns,  forming  an  entrance 
on  each  side,  one  to  approach  the 
xystus,  and  the  other  the  vesti- 
bule before  the  apodyterium. 
In  the  thermes,  or  baths,  of  Cara- 
calla  it  was  of  magnificent  dimen- 
sions, and  decorated  with  co- 
lumns ;  it  was  placed  between 
the  xystus  and  the  rotunda  con- 
taining the  warm  bath.  In  the 
baths  of  Diocletian  the  apody- 
terium was  circular,  and  adorned 
with  lofty  columns.  The  Romans 
also  called  this  apartment,  or 
division  of  the  public  baths, 
spoliarum,  and  here   they  also 


APO 


A  Ffl 


anointed  their  bodies  before  they 
resumed  their  habits. 

Apollodorus.  A  native  of  Da- 
mascus, who  flourished  under  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Trajan,  was 
much  employed  as  an  architect 
by  that  prince  in  designing  and 
erecting  his  splendid  buildings; 
his  greatest  work  was  the  bridge 
across  the  Danube. 

Apollodorus  is  celebrated  as 
one  of  the  few  "independent 
architects,"  but  his  practice  has 
been  urged  by  some  of  ano- 
ther stamp  as  a  beacon  to  be 
shunned,  rather  than  a  model  to 
be  imitated.  "  In  good  truth  he 
was  a  right  able  and  expert  ar- 
chitect, but  indiscreet  withal. 
Was  there  not  a  grievous  lack 
of  urbanity  in  his  answer  to  that 
most  powerful  emperor  Adrian? 
'  If  the  goddess  thou  hast  placed 
in  thy  temple,'  quoth  this  master- 
builder  to  the  king,  (who  was 
seeking  his  counsel  on  a  design 
of  his  own  limning,)  'should  wish 
to  rise  and  take  an  airing,  she 
must  break  her  head  on  the 
ceiling.'  Shortly,  thereafter,  the 
potent  emperor  took  the  scorn- 
ful artist's  own  head  from  him." 

Apoteichismus.  (Apoteiko.  Gr.) 
In  ancient  military  architecture. 
A  double  wall  or  rampart  of 
earth,  raised  by  the  besiegers 
close  to  the  place  invested.  The 
inner  wall  preventing  sudden 
sallies  from  the  town,  and  the 
outer  the  approach  of  enemies 
to  the  relief  of  the  besieged, — 
answering  to  the  lines  of  con- 
travallation  and  circumvallation, 
among  modern  military  architects. 

Apothesis.  A  place  on  the 
south  side  of  the  chancel  in  an- 
cient churches,  fitted  up  with 
shelves,  on  which  books,  vest- 
ments, and  other  things  were 
deposited. 

Apotueca.  (Apotheken,  Gr.) 
In  ancient  Roman  architecture.  A 


cabinet,  cupboard,  cellar,  or  store- 
house, in  which  were  kept  oil, 
wine,  and  other  things.  ApO" 
theca-vinarice,  a  garret  exposed  to 
the  sun,  in  which  some  kinds  of 
wine  were  ripened. 

Apophoreta.  A  movable  stage 
or  box  to  carry  relics. 

Apophyge.  Apothesis.  Apophy- 
sis. A  concave  quadrantol  mould- 
ing joining  the  shaft  of  a  column 
to  the  base,  and  connecting  the  top 
of  the  shaft  to  the  fillet  under 
the  astragal  j  the  small  fascia  or 
bend  at  the  top  and  base  of  the 
shaft  of  columns.  The  intro- 
duction of  this  member  is  sup- 
posed, by  a  learned  translator  of 
Vitruvius,  to  have  arisen  from 
the  use  of  iron  rings  with  which 
the  tree-columns  of  early  days 
were  bound  to  prevent  their  split- 
ting ;  the  Greek  word  apophege 
signifies  an  escape  or  remedy. 
Chambers  defines  it  to  be  that 
part  of  a  column  between  the 
upper  fillet  of  the  base,  and  the 
cylindrical  part  of  the  shaft  of  a 
column,  which  is  usually  curved 
into  it  by  a  cavetto. 

Apotheosis.  In  decoration.  An 
ornament  representing  the  ascent 
and  reception  of  some  ancient 
hero,  among  the  gods. 

Appian-aqueduct.  See  Aque- 
duct. 

Appian-way.    See  Road. 

Apsis.  The  bowed  or  arched 
roof  of  a  house,  room,  or  oven. 
The  canopy  of  a  throne.  The 
inner  part  of  ancient  churches 
where  the  clergy  were  seated, 
and  in  which  the  altar  was  placed, 
in  opposition  to  nave,  where  the 
congregation  was  assembled.  It 
is  synonymous  with  concha,  ca- 
mera, presbyterium,  or  what  we 
now  call  choir,  or  sanctuary. 
This  part  of  the  church,  from 
being  built  in  a  circular  arcade, 
or  vaulted,  was  called  aphis  by 
the  Greeks,  and  absi*    or  apsis 

183 


APR 


A  Q  U 


by  the  Romans.  Isidorus  derived 
it  from  the  Greek  work  aptein, 
to  enlighten  as  this  portion  of 
the  church  was  better  lighted 
than  the  other  parts. 

The  apsis,  built  in  a  hemi- 
spherical shape,  consisted  of  two 
parts — the  altar  and  the  presby- 
tery or  sanctuary ;  the  bishop's 
throne  was  placed  in  the  middle 
of  the  semicircle.  The  altar 
placed  at  the  other  extremity, 
towards  the  nave,  was  separated 
from  it  by  a  grating  or  balus- 
trade, and  elevated  upon  a  plat- 
form. 

The  throne  of  the  bishop  being 
anciently  called  apsis,  is  thought 
to  have  given  its  name  to  that 
part  of  the  church  in  which  it 
was  placed ;  but  it  is  more  pro- 
bable that  it  received  its  name 
from  its  situation.  It  is  still 
called  apsis -gradata  from  being 
raised  a  few  steps  above  the  seats 
of  the  priests. 

Apron,  (a  soran,  Sax.)  A  plat- 
form or  flooring  of  plank  raised 
at  the  entrance  of  a  dock,  a  little 
higher  than  the  bottom,  against 
which  the  dock  gates  are  shut. 

In  naval  architecture,  a  piece 
of  curved  timber  fixed  behind 
the  lower  part  of  the  stern,  im- 
mediately above  the  foremost 
end  of  the  keel ;  the  apron  con- 
forms exactly  to  the  shape  of  the 
stern,  so  that  when  the  convexity 
of  the  former  is  applied  to  the 
concavity  iff  the  latter,  it  forms 
one  solid  piece,  which  serves  to 
fortify  the  stern,  and  give  it  a 
firmer  connection  with  the  keel. 

As  the  apron  is  composed  of 
two  pieces  scarfed  together,  and 
used  to  support  the  scarf  of  the 
stern,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
scarf  should  be  at  scnne  distance 
from  that  of  the  stern.  It  is 
formed  of  the  same  thickness 
with  the  keel  of  the  stern ;  but 
its  thickness  is  equal  throughout. 

184 


Sometimes  the  piece  immediately 
under  the  apron  forms  a  curve, 
of  which  the  horizontal  part 
covers  the  dead  wood,  while  the 
vertical  part  corresponds  with 
the  inside  of  the  stern  to  which 
it  is  forged,  making  the  com- 
mencement of  the  apron. 

Apron.  In  plumbing.  See  Flash- 
ing. 

Apron-piece.  In  carpentry.  A 
horizontal  piece  of  timber  in  a 
wooden  double-flighted  stair, 
supporting  the  carriage-pieces 
and  joistings  in  the  half  spaces 
or  landings  :  they  ought  to  be 
firmly  fixed  in  the  wall. — See 
Pitching -piece,  and  Stair. 

Apron-lining.  Injoinery.  The 
facing  of  the  apron-piece. 

Apostoljsum,  or  Apostolium. 
A  church  called  by  the  name  of 
an  apostle. 

Apuleius.  An  ancient  Roman 
architect,  who  built  the  temple 
of  Tarragona,  in  Spain. 

Aquaminarium.    See  Amula. 

Aqueduct.  An  artificial  chan- 
nel made  for  conveying  water 
from  one  place  to  another,  either 
under  ground  or  above  it,  with- 
out employing  any  other  me- 
chanical principle  than  that  water 
will  descend  along  an  inclined 
plane.  A  structure  continuing 
the  line  of  a  canal  for  the  passage 
of  ships  across  rivers  or  vallies. 

The  construction  of  aqueducts 
is  treated  upon  by  Vitruvius  and 
Pliny,  and  their  description  is 
curious,  not  only  as  giving  the 
methods  used  by  the  ancients  in 
those  stupendous  works,  which 
were  considered  to  be  among  the 
greatest  of  the  wonders  of  Rome, 
but  as  indicating  a  knowledge*  of 
some  hydrodynamical  laws,  the 
discovery  of  which  are  usually 
assigned  to  a  much  later  period. 

"Ducts  of  water,"  according 
to  Vitruvius,  were  of  three 
kinds.     Channels   of  masonryf 


AQUEDUCT. 


leaden  pipes,  or  tubes  of  fictile 
ware,  according  to  the  follow- 
ing rules  : — When  channels  are 
used  they  should  be  made  as 
solid  as  possible,  and  the  bed  of 
the  stream  should  have  a  descent 
not  less  than  a  half  a  foot  in  100 
feet,  and  they  should  be  arched 
over,  that  the  sun's  rays  may  not 
touch  the  water.  When  the 
water  arrives  at  the  city  a  cas- 
tellum  or  reservoir  is  built,  and 
a  triple  emissary  to  receive  the 
water  is  adjoined  to  it.  In  the 
castellum  are  three  pipes  equally 
disposed  within  the  adjoined  re- 
ceptacle, so  that  when  there  is 
too  much  water,  it  may  from  the 
side  ones  be  discharged  into  the 
middle  receptacle.  In  the  mid- 
dle chamber  are  fixed  the  pipes 
leading  to  all  the  cisterns  or 
fountains,  in  another  those  to 
the  baths,  which  pay  to  the  peo- 
ple a  yearly  tribute,  and  in  a 
third  those  to  private  houses,  if 
it  be  not  wanted  for  public  use, 
for  they  could  not  return  it  if 
they  might  have  peculiar  ducts 
from  the  spring  head:  this  dispo- 
sition is  established,  because  by 
the  tax  on  that  carried  to  private 
houses  the  state  keeps  the  aque- 
ducts in  repair. 

But  should  mountains  inter- 
vene between  the  city  and  the 
spring  head,  a  subterraneous 
passage  is  to  be  dug  through  the 
earth,  having  the  declivity  of  one 
part  in  two  hundred,  and  should 
the  soil  be  either  gravel  or  stone, 
a  channel  is  to  be  cut  into  it,  but 
walls  are  to  be  built  to  conduct 
the  water  through  the  earthy  or 
sandy  soils.  Wells  also,  or  air- 
holes, are  to  be  made  there,  cut 
from  the  top  of  the  water  channel 
to  the  surface,  for  the  purpose  of 
allowing  the  air  which  might 
accumulate  in  the  aqueduct  to 
escape.  These  wells  are  directed 
2A 


to  be  placed  at  a  distance  of 
120  feet. 

If  the  water  be  conducted  by 
leaden  pipes,  a  castellum  or  re- 
servoir is  first  built  at  the  spring 
head,  then  the  diameter  and 
strength  of  the  pipes  being  suited 
to  the  quantity  of  water,  they 
are  to  be  carried  from  this  castel- 
lum to  that  which  is  in  the  city. 
The  pipes  were  directed  not  to 
be  less  than  10  Roman  feet  in 
length,  and  were  named  from 
the  breadth  of  the  lead  before 
it  was  bent  round  into  the  form 
of  the  pipe. 

The  manner  of  conducting 
water  by  pipes  of  lead  is  thus 
regulated,  if  the  spring  head  had 
a  sufficient  current  to  the  city, 
and  no  higher  hills  intervened. 
The  interval  is  by  walling  raised 
to  a  proper  level,  as  mentioned 
in  the  description  of  channels  of 
masonry,  or  else  a  circuit  round 
may  be  taken  if  not  very  long; 
but  if  there  be  frequent  vallies 
the  courses  are  to  be  directed 
down  the  declivities,  and  when 
arrived  at  the  bottom  a  substruc- 
ture is  to  be  built,  but  not  high, 
that  the  libramentum  (or  level,  or 
counterpoise)  may  be  as  long  as 
possible ;  this  will  be  the  venter. 
When  arrived  at  the  opposite 
declivity,  as  on  account  of  the 
length  of  the  venter  the  water 
swells  gently,  it  is  pressed  up- 
ward to  the  top  of  the  ascent ; 
whereas  if  the  venter  should 
not  be  made  in  the  valley,  nor 
a  substructure  built  level,  but 
should  be  bent,  the  joints  would 
be  broken  and  destroyed.  In 
the  venter  also  columnarice  are 
to  be  raised,  through  which  the 
force  of  the  vapours  may  be 
dissipated.  These  columnariai 
are  supposed  to  have  been  vent- 
pipes  for  the  air,  and  to  have 
been  always  open  at  the  top,  and 

185 


AQUEDU C  J 


to  reach  above  the  level  of  the 
aqueduct. 

It  was  also  not  unusual  when 
the  level  from  the  spring  head 
to  the  city  was  obtained,  to  erect 
a  castellum  at  every  260  actus' 
distance,  that  if  damage  should 
happen  at  any  place,  the  whole 
work  needed  not  be  taken  down, 
and  that  the  defective  place  might 
be  the  easier  found.  But  those 
castellums  are  directed  neither  to 
be  built  in  the  decursions,  nor 
in  the  plane  of  the  venter,  nor 
in  the  pressures,  (or  that  part 
of  the  aqueduct  where  the  water 
rises,  or  is  raised  upward  by  the 
weight  or  pressure  of  the  de- 
scending water,)  nor  in  any  of 
the  vallies,  but  always  on  the 
even  plane.  But  when  it  was 
required  to  conduct  water  at  a 
less  expense,  tubes  of  earthen- 
ware were  made,  having  a  thick- 
ness of  not  less  than  LZ  inches, 
and  these  tubes  were  so  formed, 
that  one  end  being  tongued,  the 
one  entered  the  other  :  —  then 
the  joints  were  cemented  with 
quick  lime  tempered  with  oil. 
In  the  descents  level  with  the 
venter,  a  stone  of  the  red  kind 
is  placed  at  the  angles  so  per- 
forated, that  the  last  tube  of 
the  decursus,  and  first  on  the 
plane  of  the  venter,  may  be 
joined  to  the  stone  ;  so  likewise 
at  the  opposite  acclivity,  the 
last  in  the  plane  of  the  venter, 
and  the  first  of  the  expressure, 
are  to  be  in  the  same  manner 
united  to  the  red  stone.  Thus 
the  tubes  on  the  even  plane,  as 
well  as  those  in  the  decursus, 
will  not  be  split,  for  such  violent 
Vapours  are  apt  to  rise  in  con- 
duits of  water  as  would  even 
burst  through  stone,  unless  the 
water  was  at  first  gently  and 
sparingly  admitted  from  the 
spring,  and  the  bendings  secured 


vvith  ligatures,  or  weights  of 
ballast ;  in  all  other  respects  they 
are  laid  in  the  same  manner  as 
leaden  pipes.  When  first  the 
water  from  the  spring  is  admit- 
ted, ashes  are  sent  before  it,  that 
if  any  cf  the  joints  should  not  be 
sufficiently  cemented,  they  may 
be  stopped  by  the  ashes. 

Aqueducts  of  tubes,  continues 
the  Roman  architect,  have  these 
advantages  : — if  any  damage 
should  happen,  any  person  may 
rectify  it,  and  water  from  earthen 
tubes  is  more  wholesome  than 
that  from  pipes,  as  the  use  of 
lead  is  found  to  be  pernicious ; 
we  should  not,  therefore,  conduct 
water  in  pipes  of  lead  if  we 
would  have  it  wholesome.  The 
taste  also  of  that  from  tubes  is 
better,  as  is  proved  at  our  daily 
meals  ;  for  all  persons,  although 
they  have  tables  furnished  with 
vases  of  silver,  use  fictile  ware, 
on  account  of  the  purity  of  the 
taste. 

If  no  spring  were  to  be  found 
whence  to  supply  an  aqueduct, 
wells  were  dug ;  and  if  no 
water  was  then  met  with,  by 
means  of  signine  work  that 
from  roofs  or  elevated  places 
was  preserved.  In  signine 
work  these  rules  are  to  be  ob- 
served : — first,  the  purest  and 
roughest  sand  is  to  be  provided, 
the  cementum  must  be  of  flint 
stones  broken,  so  as  not  to  weigh 
more  than  a  pound,  and  the  lime 
must  be  the  most  ardent.  It  is  so 
mixed  in  the  pit,  that  five  parts  of 
sand  must  correspond  to  two  of 
lime.  The  cementum  is  to  be 
added  in  the  pit;  with  this  the 
walls  of  the  well,  as  low  as  it  is 
sunk,  are,  by  the  help  of  wooden 
levers  armed  with  iron,  to  be  plas- 
tered. The  walls  being  plastered, 
the  earth  that  may  be  in  the 
middle  is  to  be  taken  out  quite 


AQUEDUCT. 


to  the  bottom  of  the  walls,  and 
the  ground  being  levelled,  the 
pavement  is  to  be  laid  with  the 
same  mortar  to  the  intended 
thickness  ;  if  these  places  be  laid 
double  or  triple,  so  that  the  water 
maybe  filtered  in  passing  through 
them,  it  will  be  rendered  more 
wholesome. 

The  signine  work  is  conjectured 
to  have  been  composed  of  lime, 
and  the  powder  of  tiles  or  bricks. 
Such  a  kind  of  mortar  is  else- 
where mentioned  by  Vitruvius, 
and  directed  to  be  used  in  damp 
situations,  and  the  term  is  sup- 
posed to  be  derived  from  Signia, 
a  town  of  Italy,  where  it  may 
have  been  first  used  or  invented. 

We  have  no  further  description 
of  the  mode  of  forming  ancient 
water-works,  excepting  short 
directions  given  by  Pliny  for 
water  conduits.  If,  says  this 
author,  a  man  would  convey 
water  from  any  head  or  spring, 
the  best  way  is  to  use  pipes  of 
earth  made  by  the  art  of  the 
potter ;  they  ought  to  be  two 
fingers  thick,  and  one  jointed 
within  another  so  as  the  end  of 
the  upper  pipes  enters  into  the 
end  of  the  under  one,  as  a  tenon 
into  a  mortise,  or  a  box  into  the 
lid  ; — these  pipes  ought  to  be 
united  and  laid  even  with  cpjick 
lime  quenched  and  dissolved  in 
oil.  The  least  level  to  carry  and 
command  water  up  hill  from  the 
descent  is  100  feet,  but  if  it  be 
conveyed  by  one  canal  only,  it 
may  be  forced  to  mount  240  feet. 
As  touching  the  pipes  by  means 
whereof  the  water  is  to  rise  aloft, 
they  ought  to  be  of  lead, — this  is 
also  to  be  observed,  that  the 
water  always  ascends  of  itself  at 
the  delivery  to  the  height  of  the 
head  jrom  whence  it  flowed, — if 
it  be  fetched  a  long  distance,  the 
work  must  rise  and  fall  often, 
that  the  level  may  be  still  main- 


tained ;  the  pipes  ought  to  be 
10  feet  long ;  the  pipes  were 
named  from  the  number  of  fin- 
gers' breadth  of  which  the  sheet 
of  lead  was  formed  before  it  was 
turned  into  the  shape  of  a  pipe, 
and  they  were  also  to  be  of  dif- 
ferent thicknesses.  In  every 
turning  and  winding  of  a  hill, 
the  pipe  should  be  five  fingers 
round  and  no  more,  to  repress 
and  break  the  violence  of  the 
water  in  the  current ;  likewise 
the  vaulted  heads  which  receive 
and  contain  water  from  all  the 
sources  meeting  together,  must 
be  of  that  capacity  that  the  sup- 
ply requires. 

In  another  place  he  directs  to 
make  good  cisterns,  which  might 
hold  water  —  that  the  mortar 
that  is  employed  ought  to  be 
made  of  five  parts  of  fine,  pure 
sand  and  gravel,  to  two  parts  of 
the  most  fine  and  binding  lime. 
The  fragments  of  gravel  or  flints 
that  may  be  employed  should  be 
small  and  not  exceed  the  weight 
of  a  pound  a  piece  ;  with  mortar 
of  this  kind  the  bottom,  side 
walls,  and  ends  should  be  coated, 
and  rammed  down  hard  with  iron 
beetles,  or  mallets. 

This  is  the  sum  of  the  inform- 
ation left  us  by  ancient  writers, 
concerning  the  construction  of 
conduits,  and  the  principles  fol- 
lowed by  Roman  architects  in 
erecting  those  aigantic  fabrics, 
some  of  which  still  remain  strid- 
ing across  vallics,  penetrating 
mountains  and  sweeping  immense 
plains,  till  they  meet  in  the  heart 
of  the  city  of  Rome. 

The  first  known  works  of  this 
description  were  at  Phcax,  in  Si- 
cily, which  were  built  of  free 
stone,  and  covered  by  layers  of 
stone  projecting  beyond  each 
other. 

The  Romans,  for  four  hundred 
and    forty-one   years  aftsr  the 

187 


AQUEDUCT. 


foundation  of  their  city,  were 
contented  with  the  turbid  water 
which  they  drew  from  the  Tiber, 
or  that  collected  in  banks,  or 
from  springs.  For  water  derived 
from  this  last  source,  they  mani- 
fested a  strong  partiality,  owing 
to  an  opinion  as  to  its  superior 
salubrity,  and  to  its  great  effi- 
cacy in  the  cure  of  diseases.  The 
attention  of  the  Roman  govern- 
ment appears,  at  a  very  early 
period,  to  have  been  turned  to- 
wards procuring  a  supply  from 
other  sources  5  but  being  ignorant 
of  the  use  of  hydraulic  engines, 
by  which  water  could  be  raised  to 
any  level,  they  accomplished  this 
purpose  by  ascending  to  thesource 
of  the  rivers  in  their  neighbour- 
hood, in  order  to  obtain  the  neces- 
sary elevation  for  supplying  the 
higher  parts  of  the  city,  as  well 
as  from  a  preconceived  notion, 
that  the  purity  of  the  water  was 
deteriorated  in  proportion  to  its 
distance  from  the  fountain  head. 

Frontinus,  a  Roman  author, 
who  had  the  superintendence  of 
the  aqueducts  in  the  reign  of  the 
emperor  Nerva,  has  left  a  trea- 
tise on  these  erections.  From  his 
enumeration  there  were  nine 
aqueducts  which  brought  water 
to  Rome  in  his  time.  The  water 
of  these  varied  in  its  qualities, 
that  of  some  being  preferred  for 
drinking, — of  others  for  bathing, 
— for  irrigating  the  gardens,  or 
cleansing  the  sewers. 

The  Aqua  Appla  was  the  first 
structure  of  this  sort  erected 
at  Rome,  and  was  begun  about 
the  four  hundred  and  forty-second 
year  of  Rome,  or  three  hundred 
and  twelve  years  before  Christ, 
under  the  direction  of  Appius 
Claudius  Crassus,  the  Censor, 
with  whom  was  associated  C. 
Plautius,  who  had  bestowed 
great  care  in  tracing  the  sources 
for  the  supply   of  this  water. 


Through  some  intrigue  of  Crassus, 
Plautius  resigned  his  office  before 
the  works  were  finished,  and 
they  being  carried  on  to  com- 
pletion under  the  sole  superin- 
tendence of  Crassus,  he  had  the 
honour  of  giving  his  name  to  the 
structure.  Appius  is  also  said 
to  have  had  the  period  of  his 
censorship  prolonged  from  time 
to  time,  until  he  had  finished  not 
only  this  aqueduct,  but  the  cele- 
brated Appian-way.  The  Aqua 
Appia  was  brought  from  a  dis- 
tance of  about  11,190  Roman 
paces,  and  was  carried  along  the 
ground,  or  by  subterraneous 
lines,  for  11,000  paces  ;  about 
190  of  which  were  erected  upon 
arches.  Some  minor  springs 
were  conducted  into  its  channel  in 
after-times  by  the  emperors.  Its 
level  was  high  enough  to  supply 
the  more  elevated  parts  of  the 
city,  although  great  part  of  the 
advantage  of  the  elevation  of  its 
source  was  lost  by  giving  too 
great  a  declivitv  to  the  channel. 
It  was  carried  along  the  sides 
of  the  hills,  and  had  less  of  arch- 
work  in  its  construction,  than 
others  that  were  afterwards 
erected. 

The  next  in  order  of  time  was 
the  Anio  Fetus,  begun  by  M.  Cu- 
rius  Dentatus,  about  the  year  of 
Rome  481,  from  the  spoils  taken 
from  Pyrrhus.  The  water  was 
derived  from  the  springs  that 
flowed  into  the  river  Anio,  above 
Tivoli  in  the  mountains.  This 
work  having  been  interrupted 
for  one  or  two  years,  it  was  pro- 
posed to  the  senate  to  complete 
it.  To  Curius,  who  had  com- 
menced the  work,  was  now  asso- 
ciated F.  Flaccus ;  but  the  death 
of  Curius  soon  after  his  second 
nomination,  left  the  glory  of  its 
accomplishment  to  his  colleague  j 
— it  was  about  43,000  Roman 
paces  in  length,  and  in  its  course 


AQUEDUCT 


it  had  2-21  paces  of  substructure, 
and  42,779  paces  under  ground. 

About  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven  years  afterwards,  or  in  the 
six  hundred  and  eighth  year  of 
the  foundation  of  the  city,  the 
works  of  the  Aqua  Appia  and 
Anio  Vetus,  having  gone  into  de- 
cay, and  much  of  their  water  being 
abstracted  by  the  fraud  of  indi- 
viduals, the  praetor  Marcius  was 
appointed,  by  the  senate,  to  re- 
pair the  injuries  and  to  reclaim 
the  water.  But  as  the  enlarge- 
ment of  Rome  seemed  to  demand 
a  greater  supply  than  was  fur- 
nished by  these  two  aqueducts, 
Marcius  was  further  instructed  to 
bring  other  waters  to  the  city  by 
a  conduit  of  larger  dimensions 
than  that  of  either,  of  the 
others,  and  that  this  new  water 
should  be  conducted  to  the 
capitol.  To  accomplish  this, 
a  sum  of  8,400,000  sesterces 
were  decreed  to  Marcius  j  and  as 
the  time  of  his  prefecture  was 
of  too  short  duration  to  bring 
so  stupendous  a  work  to  its 
termination,  it  was  renewed  to 
him  from  year  to  year.  While 
the  works  were  in  progress,  the 
decemvirs  having  consulted  the 
oracle,  reported  that  the  Anio 
Vetus,  instead  of  the  new  water, 
should  be  conducted  to  the  capi- 
tol ;  but  both  at  this  time,  and 
when  the  question  was  renewed 
some  years  afterwards,  the  pro- 
ject of  Marcius  was  adhered  to, 
and  the  Aqua  Marcia  was  car- 
ried to  the  capitol.  This  water, 
which  was  the  most  wholesome 
of  any  conducted  to  Rome,  was 
drawn  from  springs  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Subiaco,  on 
the  Anio,  twenty  miles  above 
Tivoli  in  the  mountains,  and  was 
nearly  61,710  Roman  paces  in 
length ;  nearly  7,463  paces  of 
this  length  were  above  ground, 
the  remainder  54,247  being  sub- 


terranean.  A  length  of  about  463 
paces  was  supported  on  arches, 
where  it  crossed  brooks  and 
vallies. 

To  supply  the  Aqua  Marcia  in 
dry  seasons,  Augustus  conducted 
another  stream  of  equal  goodness 
into  its  channel  by  an  aqueduct 
800  paces  long. 

*'  Of  all  the  waters  in  the 
world,"  saysPliny,"  that  which  we 
call  in  Rome  the  Marcia,  carrieth 
the  greatest  name  by  the  general 
voice  of  the  citizens,  in  regard 
both  to  its  coldness  and  salubrity, 
and  we  may  esteem  this  water 
for  one  of  the  greatest  gifts  that 
the  gods  have  bestowed  upon  our 
city.  In  times  past  it  was  called 
AufFeia :  the  first  that  begun  to 
bring  this  water  to  Rome  was 
Ancus  Martins,  one  of  the  Ro- 
man kings,  and  it  was  afterwards 
finished  by  Q.  Martius  in  his 
pratorship;  compare  the  Virgo 
to  the  Marcia,  and  you  shall  see 
the  vlifference  between  the  cold- 
ness of  the  waters  j  for  look,  how 
cold  Virgo  is  to  the  hand,  so 
much  is  Marcia  in  the  mouth. 
But  long  ago  we  of  Rome  have 
lost  the  pleasure  and  commodity 
of  these  rills,  through  the  ambi- 
tion and  avarice  of  some  great 
men,  who  have  turned  away 
these  waters  from  the  city  where 
they  yielded  a  public  benefit  to  the 
commonwealth,  and  derived  them 
for  their  own  profit  and  delight, 
into  their  manors  and  houses, 
to  water  their  gardens  and  other 
uses." 

Nineteen  years  afterwards,  the 
Aqua  Tepula  was  brought  to 
Rome:  it  also  derived  its  waters 
from  springs  communicating 
with  the  Anio  j  it  was  not  more 
than  2,000  Roman  paces  in 
length. 

In  the  reign  of  Augustus  Caesar, 
Agrippa  collected  some  springs 
and  conducted  them  to  Rome, 

189 


AQUEDUCT. 


by  the  aqueduct  of  the  Aqua 
Tepula ,  but  as  the  latter  water 
flowed  in  a  separate  canal,  it 
preserved  its  name  in  the  distri- 
bution ;  it  was  15,426  paces  long, 
7,000  paces  were  above  ground, 
and  6,4/2  paces  of  this  length 
were  on  arcades.  This  water  was 
named  Aqua  Julia  by  Agrippa. 

Independently  of  the  source  of 
the  Aqua  Julia,  another  stream 
was  found  near  the  same  spot, 
which  was  left  untouched  by 
Agrippa,  as  it  appeared  to  him  to 
belong  to  the  inhabitants  of  Tus- 
culum.  This  water  was  at  first 
distributed  every  alternate  day 
to  the  villas  in  the  neighbour- 
hood ;  but  in  the  course  of  a 
short  time,  the  fountain-keepers 
contrived  to  divert  the  supply 
into  the  channel  of  the  Aqua 
Julia.  To  remedy  this  abuse 
the  use  of  it  was  interdicted,  and 
the  houses  at  Tusculum  were 
supplied  with  it  as  formerly.  In 
the  same  year  of  Rome,  719, 
Agrippa  reestablished  the  almost 
ruined  aqueducts  of  Appius,  of 
Marcius,  and  the  Anio  Vetus,  at 
his  own  expense,  besides  erect- 
ing several  flowing  fountains  in 
the  city. 

The  Aqua  Virgo  received  its 
name  from  the  circumstance  of 
a  girl  having  pointed  out  to  the 
soldiers,  who  were  engaged  by 
Agrippa  in  exploring  the  neigh- 
bourhood, the  sources  of  streams, 
which  were  collected,  and  found 
to  yield  a  great  supply  of  water. 
In  a  small  temple  erected  near 
the  spot,  the  occurrence  was 
commemorated  by  a  painting. 
The  different  springs  were  sur- 
rounded with  a  brick  wall,  and  in 
their  course  were  augmented  by 
the  accession  of  several  streams, 
and  the  united  waters  were  car- 
ried to  Rome  by  an  aqueduct 
about  14,105  paces  in  length,  the 
part  under  ground  12,865,  above 


ground  1,240,  of  this  7 00  paces 
were  arcades. 

The  Aqua  Ahieiina  is  drawn 
from  a  lake  of  the  same  name  by 
an  aqueduct  twenty-two  and  one- 
fifth  Roman  miles  in  length ;  in  this 
distance  it  contained  three  hun- 
dred and  fifty-eight  arcades  or 
arches.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine, 
says  Frontinus,  what  could  have 
induced  a  prince  so  sagacious  as 
Augustus  to  bring  this  water 
to  Rome,  for  it  has  no  good 
quality,  it  is  unwholesome,  and 
was  not  applied  to  any  public 
use :  unless  it  arose  from  his  un- 
willingness to  turn  any  of  the 
salubrious  waters  into  his  nau- 
machia,  to  which  use  he  destined 
the  Aqua  Alsietina,  and  the 
superabundance  was  drawn  off"  to 
water  the  gardens  and  for  similar 
uses.  However,  during  the  re- 
pairs of  some  of  the  aqueducts, 
and  the  consequent  deprivation 
of  water  which  this  occasioned, 
recourse  was  had  to  the  Aqua 
Alsietina — which  was  also  some- 
times called  Augusta — its  aque- 
duct was  22,172  paces  from  its 
source  to  the  city,  and  in  this 
length  358  paces  were  ar- 
cades. 

After  these,  no  other  aqueducts 
were  constructed  at  Rome  until 
the  time  of  Caligula.  At  this 
period  the  seven  existing  aque- 
ducts being  found  inadequate  to 
the  supply  of  the  city,  this  em- 
peror began  the  erection  of  two 
others  in  the  second  year  of 
his  reign  ;  these  were  finished  by 
the  emperor  Claudius  with  great 
magnificence,  and  opened  to  the 
public  in  the  year  803  of  the 
foundation  of  Rome.  The  first 
of  these  aqueducts,  which  was 
drawn  from  the  fountain  Caerulea, 
was  named  Aqua  Claudia,  and  the 
second  Anio  Ncvm,  to  distinguish 
it  from  another  bearing  the  same 
name,  and  which  was  afterwards 


AQUEDUCT. 


called  Anio  Vetus,  or  the  most 
ancient. 

The  source  of  the  Aqua  Clau- 
dia is  two  fine  and  abundant 
springs.  The  water  received  in 
its  course  another  stream  having 
equally  good  qualities,  and  which 
could  be  mixed  with  the  Aqua. 
Claudia  without  altering  its 
qualities.  As  the  Aqua  Marcia 
seemed  equal  to  the  supply  of 
the  district  to  which  it  was  ap- 
propriated, the  Aqua  Augusta 
was  turned  into  the  Aqua  Clau- 
dia; but  in  such  manner,  that  in 
cases  of  emergency  it  could  be 
directed  into  either  the  one  or  the 
other.    See  fig.  14. 

The  Aqua  Claudia  was  46,406 
Roman  paces  in  length,  of  which 
36,230  were  subterranean,  and 
10,176  paces  were  on  arcades 5 
near  the  city  there  was  a  series 
of  arches  491  Roman  paces  in 
length. 

The  Ariio  Novus  was  derived 
from  a  stream  of  the  same  name, 
but  having  its  course  through  rich 
land,  and  traversing  cultivated 
fields, in  times  of  rain,  it  was  mix- 
ed with  great  quantities  of  mud. 
On  this  account  a  purifying  pis- 
cina or  reservoir  was  interposed 
between  the  mouth  of  the  aque- 
duct and  the  river,  in  which  the 
water  reposed  to  clarify,  before  it 
entered  the  channel  of  the  aque- 
duct ;  but  in  spite  of  this  pre- 
caution, as  often  as  it  rained,  it 
was  discoloured  when  it  arrived 
at  the  city.  Another  streamlet, 
whose  waters  were  remarkable 
for  their  transparency,  was  con- 
ducted into  the  Anio  Novus  ;  but 
at  these  seasons  its  advantages 
were  lost  by  the  mixture. 

The  Anio  Novus  was  5S,700 
Roman  paces  in  length,  49,300  of 
which  were  subterranean  ;  of  the 
9,400  pacesof  works  above  ground 
are  6,491  p  ices  of  arches  :  these 
are  more  elevated  than  in  any  of 


the  other  aqueducts,  some  i  f 
them  being  109  Roman  fei« 
high. 

All  these  aqueducts  were  car 
ried  to  Rome  on  different  levels 
and  their  waters  distributed  to 
the  several  quarters  of  the  city  to 
which  their  respective  elevations 
were  the  most  adapted.  The  Anio 
Novus  flowed  on  the  highest  line  ; 
the  next  was  the  Aqua  Claudia. 
The  Aqua  Julia  was  the  third  in 
rank  as  to  elevation  •  the  Aqua 
Tepula  the  fourth,  and  next  to  it 
the  Aqua  Marcia. 

The  Anio  Vetus  was  in  the  sixth 
rank  as  to  its  level,  but  from  the 
height  of  its  source  it  might  have 
been  carried  to  supply  the  high- 
est part  of  the  city — the  Aqua 
Virgo  is  lower,  and  the  Aqua 
Appia  lower  still — the  sources 
of  the  two  last  rising  in  the  Cam- 
pagna  di  Roma  could  not  be  con- 
veyed at  a  much  higher  level. 
The  Aqua  Alsietina,  on  the  lowest 
level  of  all,  was  distributed  in 
quarters  about  the  Tiber  and  in 
the  lowest  places. 

The  point  of  distribution  of  the 
Anio  Novus  above  the  level  of 
the  Tiber  was  15S'88  feet,  that 
of  the  Aqua  Claudia  148*9  feet, 
the  Aqua  Julia  129  4  feet,  the 
Aqua  Marcia  125*4  feet.  The 
Anio  Novus  arrived  at  Rome 
82  5  feet  above  the  same  level, 
the  Aqua  Virgo  34*2  feet,  and  the 
Aqua  Appia  27*4  feet ;  the  level 
of  the  Tiber  being  91*5  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  earlier 
Romans  thus  appear  to  have 
conducted  the  waters  at  a  lower 
level  than  their  successors,  either 
from  an  ignorance  of  the  mode  of 
drawing  the  exact  level,  or  as  a 
precaution,  by  which  they  were 
enabled  the  better  to  conceal  the 
conduits  by  burying  them  in  the 
earth,  that,  they  might  not  be 
destroyed  by  enemies  in  those 
times  when  they  were  often  at 

191 


AQUEDUCT. 


war  with  their  neighbours.  In 
the  time  of  Frontinus,  when 
these  conduits  were  useless 
from  dilapidations  through  age, 
in  place  of  renewing  the  chan- 
nel in  the  old  line,  it  was 
often  conducted  by  ai  cades  across 
vallies  to  shorten  the  lengths  of 
their  courses. 

The  Romans  also  at  all  periods 
gave  a  greater  declivity  to  their 
water  conduits  than  is  practised 
among  the  moderns.  Vitruvius, 
as  it  has  been  stated,  directs  a 
fall  to  be  made  of  half  a  foot  in 
100  feet  of  length.  Scammozi 
says  that  it  was  the  practice  of 
the  Romans  to  allow  a  fall  of  1 
in  500. 

A  modern  engineer  who  mea- 
sured some  of  the  remains  of 
these  buildings  to  determine  this 
point,  states  that  he  found  the 
mean  fall  of  the  ancient  aque- 
ducts, from  the  purifying  pisci- 
nas, or  reservoirs,  to  the  point 
of  distribution,  to  be  0088 
English  inches  to  each  '*  pas 
Roman,"  or  nearly  1  in  663,  and 
that  from  the  source  of  the 
stream  to  the  purifying  reser- 
voirs the  mean  fall  was  0*132 
English  inches  for  each  Roman 
pace,  equal  to  about  58*219  Eng- 
lish inches. 

Thus  the  Anio  Novus,  the  pave- 
ment of  whose  water-channel,  at 
its  arrival  at  Rome,  is  (158*88 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  Tiber 
added  to  91*5  feet)  250*3  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  has  a 
fall  of  5  2  feet  from  the  purifying 
piscina  to  the  point  of  distribu- 
tion at  Rome,  and  a  rise  of  568*7 
feet  from  this  reservoir  to  its 
source,  giving  a  height  of  824*2 
feet  for  the  source  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 

The  Aqua  Julia  delivering  its 
waters  at  220*9  above  the  same 
level,  has  its  source  elevated  to  a 
height  of  333*2  feet,  and  that  of 

192 


the  Aqua  Tapula   about  329  3 
feet. 

The  Aqua  Marcia,  according  to 
Frontinus,  arrives  at  Rome  at  a 
lower  level  than  the  Aqua  Julia, 
but  its  source  is  higher  than  that 
of  the  Aqua  Claudia.  From  the 
point  of  distribution  to  the  puri- 
fying piscina,  is  a  rise  of  51*3 
feet,  and  from  that  to  its  source 
a  rise  of  601*8  feet,  which,  added 
to  the  height  of  its  point  of  dis- 
tribution, gives  867'4  feet  as  the 
level  of  its  fountain  head  above 
the  sea. 

The  Aqua  Virgo,  according  to  the 
same  author,  had  a  fall  of  nearly 
112  5  feet  which  gives  238  2  feet 
for  the  elevation  of  its  source  Fr. 

The  Anio  Fetus  has  been  es- 
timated by  the  same  architect  to 
fall  0  1173  inches  in  a  Roman 
pace  -  this  will  give  593*4  for  the 
height  of  its  source  above  the  sea. 

The  Aqua  Appia,  estimating  by 
a  fall  of  a  line  in  the  Roman  pace, 
gives  210*1  feet  as  the  height  of 
its  summit  level. 

The  Aqua  Alsietina  by  allowing 
1  j  lines  F. for  each  "pas Roman," 
had  a  fall  from  its  source  to  its 
point  of  distribution  of  223  feet 
Fr. 

Six  of  these  waters  emptied 
themselves  into  reservoirs  or 
piscinas  at  a  certain  distance 
from  Rome,  where  they  deposited 
their  sediment,  and  where  their 
quantity  was  determined  by  a  re- 
gister. Three  of  these,  the 
Aqua  Julia,  the  Aqua  Marcia,  and 
the  Aqua  Tepula,  were  conducted 
in  the  same  aqueduct  from  the 
piscina;  the  most  elevated  was 
the  Aqua  Julia,  the  next  the 
Aqua  Marcia,  and  the  third  the 
Aqua  Tepula. 

The  Anio  Novus,  and  the  Aqua 
Claudia,  also  flowed  from  their 
piscinas    on    lofty   arches,   the  i 
Anio   Novus    being   over  the 
other  5  these  two  waters  were 


AQUEDUCT. 


conducted  by  pipes  into  different 
quarters  of  the  city.  The  Anio 
Vetus  was  carried  from  its  puri- 
fying reservoir  on  a  separate 
series  of  arches. 

Neither  the  Aqua  Virgo,  Aqua 
Appia,  nor  Aqua  Alsietina,  were 
furnished  with  piscinas. 

At  this  period  it  would  ap- 
pear, that  after  a  heavy  fall  of 
rain,  the  greater  part  of  the  water 
flowing  into  the  city  by  all  the 
aqueducts,  was  discoloured  by  be- 
ing charged  with  earthy  matters 
even  in  some  of  them  that  were 
pure  and  limpid  at  their  sources. 

This  impurity  was  particularly 
observable  in  the  aqueducts  call- 
ed Anio,  which  were  drawn  from 
a  river,  that  was  sometimes 
turbid,  although  flowing  from  a 
lake  of  great  purity  and  transpa- 
rency ;  this  inconvenience  was 
not  only  felt  during  the  rains  in 
winter  and  spring,  but  during 
summer,  a  season  in  which 
the  limpidity  of  water  is  par- 
ticularly agreeable,  and  was  es- 
sential to  be  preserved ;  indeed 
the  Anio  Vetus  was  always  dis- 
coloured, but  this  was  of  smaller 
consequence  than  in  the  case  of 
the  Anio  Novus,  because  running 
on  a  lower  level.  The  impurity 
of  the  Anio  Novus  was  of  great 
disadvantage,  as  it  discoloured  the 
waters  of  other  aqueducts,  into 
which  it  entered  to  supply  their 
deficiencies  in  dry  seasons  j  be- 
sides, through  the  carelessness  of 
those  who  had  the  direction  of 
the  fountains,  the  Aqua  Marcia, 
among  others,  arrived  at  Rome 
mixed  with  it  ■  this  was  among 
the  most  agreeable  of  any  water 
brought  to  Rome  from  its  cool- 
ness and  transparency,  but  in  con- 
sequence of  the  mixture,  it  was 
employed  tor  baths,  and  sewers, 
and  other  common  uses. 

Nerva,  however,  found  means  to 
purify  the  water  of  the  Anio  Novus, 
2B 


oy  ascending  the  river  to  a  point 
where  it  flowed  over  a  rocky  bed 
only  : — here  a  reservoir  was  con 
structed,  into  which  the  water 
was  admitted,  before  it  was  con- 
ducted into  the  aqueduct.  The 
Aqua  Novus,  which  heretofore 
had  been  one  of  the  worst  at 
Rome,  was  now  equal  to  the 
Aqua  Marcia  in  transparency 
and  coolness,  and  its  source  was 
steady  and  abundant  beyond  any 
of  the  others. 

Nerva  constru«ted  a  number  of 
wells  in  the  courses  of  the  other 
aqueducts,  in  which  the  water 
was  introduced  in  order  to  allow 
the  sediment  to  fall  to  the  bot- 
tom. 

Under  the  reign  of  the  same 
emperor,  other  regulations  were 
established  in  the  general  distri- 
bution of  the  water,  and  a  con- 
siderable increase  was  nominally 
made  in  the  quantity  indicated 
by  the  registers. 

The  Emperor  Nerva  also  classed 
the  aqueducts  as  a  means  to  re- 
medy the  improper  use  of  the 
different  waters :  —  the  Marcia 
was  piaced  in  the  first  rank,  and 
reserved  solely  for  domestic  uses ; 
the  others  were  assigned  to  those 
purposes  for  which  their  qualities 
were  most  proper,  and  the  Anio 
Vetus,  as  being  the  most  impure, 
was  consigned  to  the  common 
purposes  of  the  public  sewers, 
drains,  &c. 

The  quantities  of  water  which 
were  furnished  by  the  nine  aque- 
ducts are  given  by  Frontinus,  from 
a  measurement  at  the  head  of  each 
aqueduct,  except  in  the  cases  of 
the  Aqua  Julia  and  Virgo,  which 
he  states  from  the  quantity  deli- 
vered by  the  registers  : — 

Anio  Vetus    4,398  quinariae 

Aqua  Marcia  4,690 

Aqua  Virgo  2,624 

Aqua  Julia  1,36*8 

Aqua  Claudia  4,607 

193 


a  w  u  is  l)  U  C  T. 


Anio  Novus  4,738  quinarise. 
Aqua  Alsietina  is  not  stated, 
although  the  quantity  was  con- 
siderable :  however,  the  quantities 
delivered  as  bv  the  public  regis- 
ters did  not  amount  to  more  than 
14,018  qui  nana?,  the  remainder 
being  surreptitiously  abstracted 
by  fraudulent  individuals.  This 
diminished    quantity  has  been 
stated   as  equal  to  27,743,100 
English  cubic  feet,  which,  esti- 
mating the  population  of  ancient 
Rome  at  a  million,  which  it  is 
thought  probable  it   never  ex- 
ceeded, gives  no   less  than  50 
cubic  feet  daily  for  the  supply  of 
each   inhabitant  j    yet  this  was 
not,  probably,  more  than  the  half 
of  the  entire  quantity  which  was 
conveyed  by  aqueducts  to  the 
city.      The   abundance  of  the 
supply  will  best  appear  from  a 
comparison  with  that  of  London. 
In  1790  this  was  estimated  as 
equal  to  2|-  millions  of  cubic  feet 
daily,  and  now,  through  the  rival- 
ship  of  different  companies,  it  may 
amount  to  nearly  4  millions  of 
cubic  feet,   a   supply  which  is 
found  to  be  sufficiently  ample 
for  all  the  uses  of  a  luxurious 
population,  equal  in  number  to 
that  of  ancient  Rome, — yet  the 
supply  of  the  latter  was  nearly 
seven  times  greater,  estimating 
by   the    reduced  quantity,  and 
double    that   by  the   true,  and 
prodigiously  greater  than  that  of 
Paris,  where  the  whole  quantity 
distributed  among  six  hundred 
thousand  inhabitants  does  not  ex- 
ceed 294,000  cubic  feet,  scarcely 
half  a  cubic  foot  to  each  person. 

Notwithstanding  this  prodigi- 
ous abundance  of  water  supplied 
by  the  aqueducts,  and  which 
Strabo  compares  to  rivers  fiow- 
ingalong  the  streets,  and  through 
the  sewers,  and  that  from  these 
■almost  every  house  had  a  water- 
pipe  and  cistern,  constantly  sup- 
194 


plied,  the  use  of  well  or  spring 
water,  would  appear  always  to 
have  been  considerable.  Formany 
hundred  years  afterwards,  during 
the  siege  of  Rome  by  Vitigis, 
those  citizens  who  were  far  from 
the  river,  after  the  aqueducts 
had  been  destroyed  by  the  be- 
siegers, are  related  to  have  had  a 
copious  supply  from  the  wells. 

We  learn  from  Frontinus,  that 
these  buildings  were  subject  to 
very  rapid  dilapidation,  and  that 
the  expense  of  preserving  them 
in  proper  repair  was  very  great. 
These  were  occasioned,  he  says, 
by  age,  by  the  cupidity  of  the 
proprietors  of  land  through  which 
the  aqueducts  were  conducted, 
by  the  violence  of  tempests,  or 
by  the  giving  way  of  imperfect, 
orinsufficient  erections.  This  was 
the  greatest  evil  in  the  more  re- 
cent constructions ;  and  from  en- 
forcing in  a  particular  manner, 
that,  as  a  general  rule  in  the  choice 
of  materials,  the  employment  of 
tuffa  in  the  wall  of  the  piers  was 
to  be  avoided,  on  account  of  its 
being  liable  to  be  crushed  under  a 
great  weight,  we  may  infer  that 
was  no  uncommon  occurrence. 
The  aqueducts,  or  that  part  of 
them  which  was  conducted  on 
arcades,    suffered  considerably 
from    storms — more  especially 
the  parts  which  were  constructed 
on  the  flanks  of  mountains  ;  but 
those    portions    demanded  the 
greatest  care  which  were  formed 
on  arches  under  which  a  river 
flowed.    The  subterranean  parts 
were  the  easiest  to  keep  in  order, 
as  they  were  neither  subject  to 
the  action  of  the  frost,  nor,  what 
was  of  almost  greater  effect,  to 
the  action  of  intense  heat. 

A  considerable  source  of  re- 
pair arose  from  the  adhesion  of 
the  sediment  to  the  sides  and 
bottom  of  the  water  channels,  and 
which  formed  a  hard  and  thick 


AQUEDUCT. 


crust  which  greatly  obstructed 
the  passage  of  the  water  ;  and  by 
considerably  raising  its  level, 
occasioned  breaks  in  the  channel 
which  not  only  destroyed  it,  but 
also  the  sub-erections  of  every 
kind  to  which  it  approached. 

The  reparations  of  every  kind 
were  if  possible  suspended  during 
the  summer  season,  as  at  that 
time  the  supply  of  water  was  the 
most  necessary — the  spring  and 
autumn  were  the  working  periods. 
This  was  particularly  observed  in 
forming  masses  of  masonry — for 
a  moderate  temperature  was 
found  to  be  of  advantage,  as  per- 
mitting all  parts  of  the  masonry 
to  be  laid  with  that  humidity 
which  was  considered  to  be  es- 
sential to  the  proper  solidity  of 
the  work — a  burning  sun  being 
esteemed  by  Roman  masons,  as 
hurtful  to  mortar  as  the  action 
of  frost — above  all,  it  was  a  rule 
to  provide  before  beginning  any 
reparation  every  thing  that  could 
be  required  on  the  spot,  and  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  ensure  a 
rapid  execution. 

To  preserve  these  stupendous 
erections  from  dilapidation,  Agrip- 
pa,  who  was  the  first  national 
superintendent,  formed  a  class  of 
slaves  which  was  solely  employed 
on  the  reparations — this  at  first 
consisted  of  two  hundred  and 
forty  individuals — at  the  death 
of  Agrippa  the  tribe  was  be- 
queathed to  Augustus,  who  trans- 
ferred his  right  in  them  to  the 
public.  Claudius  established  an- 
other company  of  "  Fountaineers," 
during  the  erection  of  his  aque- 
duct; this  amounted  to  about  four 
hundred  and  sixty  persons.  These 
tribes  were  composed  of  different 
classes  of  individuals — comptrol- 
lers, keepers  of  the  castellum, 
inspectors,  paviors,  stuccoers, 
and  other  workmen;  a  part  of 
these  were  lodged  near  the  city, 


in  order  to  execute  with  promp- 
titude those  alterations  which, 
without  being  extensive,  de- 
manded instant  attention — otliv,^ 
were  stationed  near  the  reser- 
voirs or  castella,  or  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  public  shows, 
to  supply  wat3r  to  any  point 
where  it  might  be  more  par- 
ticularly wanted,  and  their  main- 
tenance was  paid  by  the  public, 
by  a  rate  on  domains  and  houses. 

The  first  figure  in  the  plate 
marked  "  aqueduct "  represents  an 
arch  of  the  Aqua  Claudia,  the 
width  between  the  piers  is  19'4 
feet,  the  width  of  the  piers 
14*5  feet,  their  thickness  10*7 
feet,  their  height  50*7  feet;  the 
diameter  of  the  arches  is  20*5 
feet,  the  entire  height  of  the 
aqueduct  62  4  feet.  The  water 
channel  is  5'8  feet  deep  and  4**2 
feet  wide. 

The  arcades,  however,  are  not 
equal,  varying  from  18  feet  to 
27  ;  their  width  seems  to  vary  in 
proportion  to  their  elevation. 

The  brick  arches  shown  in 
figures  2  and  3,  are  those  con- 
structed by  Nero  to  conduct  the 
Aqua  Claudia  near  the  temple  of 
Claudia.  The  space  between  the 
piers  is  263  feet,  the  width  of 
the  water  channel  is  IT  feet,  its 
height  4*8  feet,  the  thickness  of 
the  arch  is'  1*6  feet,  and  the 
thickness  of  the  pier  is  5*6  feet. 

Figures  4  and  5  are  part  of  the 
arcades,  supposed  by  Fabretti 
to  be  the  remains  of  an  aque- 
duct, which  he  names  Alexan- 
dria, because  it  was  constructed 
by  Alexander  Severus.  The  fi- 
gure 4  is  in  the  Pantano  marshes, 
the  water  channel  shown  in  sec- 
tion, 2  9  feet.  Above  the  vous- 
soirs  runs  a  projecting  fillet  of 
brick. 

Figures  6  and  7  are  two  ranges 
of  arcades  faced  with  brick,  sup- 
ported by  square  piers  95  feet. 

m 


AQUEDUCT. 


The  space  between  the  piers  is 
12  feet,  the  arching  bricks  are 
2  feet  long.  In  this  part  the 
water  channel  is  2£  feet  wide. 

Figures  8  and  9,  an  elevation 
and  section  and  plan  of  part  ot 
the  aqueduct  of  the  Aqua  Marcia. 
The  channel  is  2£  by  f>g  Roman 
feet,  and  the  walls  l\  feet  thick 
on  each  side;  the  outer  face  of 
the  wall  marked  B  is  in  col- 
latino  stone  of  a  red  colour,  the 
part  marked  C  of  stone  from 
Tivoli,  the  rest  of  the  work  being 
formed  of  the  stone  called  "  di- 
gabino." 

Figures  10  and  11  are  a  plan 
and  section  of  an  ancient  reser- 
voir, attached  to  a  cistern  near 
Rome  of  rubble  masonry  faced 
on  the  outside  with  small  un- 
hewn masses  of  tufFa,  and  lined 
on  the  inside  with  a  very  hard 
cement,  with  the  angles  rounded, 
both  at  the  sides  and  bottom. 
Its  dimensions  are  29  feet  l£ 
inches,  Fr.  by  28  feet  8§  inches, 
Fr.;  the  water  flows  into  it  through 
a  pipe  at  x  y,  and  passes  into  a 
cistern  W.  In  order  to  strength- 
en the  walls  of  the  reservoir  and 
to  counteract  the  pressure  of  the 
water,  counterforts,  of  a  length 
proportioned  to  the  height  of  the 
walls,  have  been  formed  on  three 
sides,  having  the  intervals  on  the 
horizontal  section  formed  of  a 
portion  of  a  circle. 

The  figures  12  and  13  represent 
the  plan  and  section  of  another 
reservoir,  covered  by  a  semicir- 
cular arch,  supported  on  three 
sides  by  walls  strengthened  by 
counterforts  formed  like  niches; 
this  was  also  formed  as  repre- 
sented by  the  former  figure,  with 
revetments  of  rough  stones,  and 
coated  with  cement  on  the  inside ; 
a  semicircular  hole  was  made  in 
the  centre  of  one  of  the  niches, 
to  give  light  to  the  reservoir. 
The  water  entered  through  a 

106 


leaden  pipe  at  C.    As  the  use  of 

these  reservoirs  was  to  purify  the 
water,  it  is  probable  that  orifice 
of  the  pipe  by  which  it  entered 
was  placed  near  the  bottom  of 
the  cistern,  so  that  the  intro- 
duction of  the  impure  water  would 
not  affect  that  on  the  surface, 
from  which  part  it  was  proba- 
bly drawn  off  by  the  opening  D. 

Figure  14,  a  section  of  thelower 
part  of  a  cistern  of  two  stages. 
It  is  divided  into  three  com- 
partments separated  by  reticu- 
lated masonry  and  banded  by 
long  bricks.  H  an  opening 
about  2  feet  wide,  faced  with 
brick,  by  which  the  water  rose 
to  the  upper  stage.  F  F,  open- 
ings for  the  purified  water  to 
flow  into  the  canal  of  the  aque- 
duct; the  bottom  of  this  channel 
is  6  French  feet  above  the  pave- 
ment, the  opening  in  the  com- 
partment, g.As  on  a  lower  level 
than  that  of  the  centre. 

The  figure  15  represents  a  pu- 
rifying reservoir  formed  in  two 
stages,  which  is  conjectured  to 
have  served  for  the  Aqua  Virgo 
by  Fabretti,  although  Frontinus 
remarked,  that  in  his  time  this 
water  had  no  piscinas.  A,  the 
aqueduct,  which  conveys  the 
stream  into  the  upper  channel  C, 
the  opening  by  which  it  descend- 
ed to  the  under  chamber.  E  an 
opening  communicating  with 
the  compartment,  G  an  opening 
through  which  the  water  ascend- 
ed to  the  chamber  H,  and  L 
the  opening  by  which  it  again 
entered  the  water  channel.  K 
is  an  orifice  through  which  the 
sediment  was  abstracted. 

These  useful  and  stupendous 
erections  were  not  solely  con- 
fined to  the  capitol ;  few  cities  of 
any  note  in  the  Roman  provinces 
appear  to  have  been  without  one 
or  more  aqueducts.  Among  those 
important  from  their  magnitude 


AQUEDUCT. 


and  fine  state  of  preservation, 
may  be  reckoned  those  erected  in 
Gaul. 

The  aqueduct  at  Nismes  is  pro- 
bably one  of  the  earliest  that  was 
constructed  by  the  Romans  out 
of  Italy.  Its  origin  is  attributed 
to  Agrippa,  who  was  invested  by 
Augustus  with  the  government 
of  this  city,  which  had  become  a 
Roman  colony.  Flattered  by  the 
attentions  of  the  citizens,  Agrippa 
made  their  city  his  place  of  re- 
sidence, and  which  he  adorned 
with  new  city  walls  and  magni- 
ficent baths.  Those  who  sup- 
pose that  the  object  of  the  aque- 
duct was  to  conduct  water  to  the 
amphitheatre  only,  instead  of 
being  appropriated  to  the  domes- 
tic uses  of  the  inhabitants,  have 
not  regarded  with  attention  the 
peculiarities  of  its  construction. 
The  simplicity  and  unornamented 
style  of  its  architecture,  perfect, 
however,  in  its  proportions,  and 
just  in  every  point  of  its  design, 
marks  the  very  character  of  these 
works  of  Agrippa.  The  waters 
about  the  colony  of  Nemausus 
from  the  disturbed  state  of  the 
springs  in  winter  and  spring, 
from  the  muddied  flow  of  the 
torrents  in  times  of  flood,  and  the 
deficiency  of  the  streams  in  times 
-"of  drought  and  summer,  were 
precarious,  unhealthy,  and  in- 
sufficient ;  a  colony  so  placed 
would  be  left  very  imperfect, 
nay  defective,  without  the  means 
of  obtaining  salubrious  water  j 
accordingly  we  find  an  aqueduct 
and  fountain  at  Nisrnes,  bringing 
a  constant  and  copious  supply 
unmixed  with  any  of  the  streams 
or  rivers  that  might  spoil  it.  To 
avoid  this  it  was  brought  from 
the  mountains,  excluding  all 
communication  with  the  waters 
of  the  country  through  which  it 
passed,  and  where  it  became 
necessary  to  pass  the  deep  valley 


in  which  the  river  Gardon  runs, 
it  was  conducted  across  that 
valley  by  a  bridge  of  two  stages 
of  arcades  at  a  height  of  150  feet 
above  the  ordinary  level  of  the 
river,  that  is,  measuring  to  the 
top  of  the  second  range  of  ar- 
cades, which  perfected  Agrippa' s 
erection,  the  water  being  con- 
ducted on  the  top  of  the  second 
arcade.  The  third  story,  part  of 
which  is  now  remaining  raised 
upon  a  range  of  arcades,  has  been 
thought  to  be  a  building  of  a  very 
different  age  from  the  two  main 
ranges  both  in  its  materials,  in  its 
structure,  and  proportions  ;  and 
even  in  the  placing  of  its  parts,  it 
does  not  correspond  with  the  old 
original  bridge  on  which  it  was 
erected.  The  style  of  the  archi- 
tecture is  also  said  to  be  very 
different,  and  very  inferior  to  the 
rest.  Although  an  adventitious 
addition,  it  is  cleai  ly  Roman  work, 
probably  cf  a  much  later  age. 

The  length  of  this  aqueduct,  as 
far  as  discovered,  is  about  six 
French  "lieues  de  poste,"  in  a 
direction  resembling  a  horse- 
shoe, and  derives  its  water  from 
the  springs  of  Eure  and  Airau, 
near  the  village  of  Uzes.  The 
Pont  du  Garde  is  in  the  middle  of 
its  course  ;  the  greater  part  of 
the  ancient  line  can  now  be  traced, 
and  much  of  what  remains  is  in  a 
fine  state  of  preservation.  The 
observation  made  with  regard 
to  the  parts  of  the  aqueducts  of 
Rome  which  were  underground, 
being  in  the  best  state  of  repair, 
applies  with  still  greater  force  to 
the  aqueduct  at  Nismes — the  sub- 
terranean parts  being  even  now 
in  perfect  preservation.  The 
line  was  carried  along  the  sides  of 
the  hills,  which  were  occasionally 
perforated  to  shorten  the  distance 
and,  where  necessary,  the  lesser 
vallies  were  crossed  by  the  erec- 
tion of  small  bridges,  or  arcades 

197 


AQUEDUCT. 


preserving  the  level  of  the  aque- 
duct. The  greater  portion  of  the 
excavated  part  has  been  cut 
through  the  stone  strata  of  which 
the  hills  are  composed,  in  some 
pkees  at  a  distance  of  about  13 
feet  beneath  the  surface. 

The  Pont  du  Garde  is  that  part 
of  the  aqueduct  of  Nismes  which 
traverses  the  deep  valley  in  which 
runs  the  Gardon  or  Garde  be- 
tween the  mountains  near  Vers 
and  St.  Bennet. 

This  part,  considered  even 
alone,  is  one  of  the  grandest  erec- 
tions made  by  the  Romans  in 
Gaul.  The  first  row  of  arcades, 
beneath  which  runs  the  Gardon,  is 
composed  of  six  arches,  the 
second  row  has  eleven  arches, 
and  the  third  range  has  thirty- 
five  ;  all  these  arches  are  semi- 
circular, springing  from  piers, 
more  or  less  high : — it  was  upon 
the  third  range  that  the  water 
channel  was  formed  according  to 
some  antiquaries,  and  we  have 
adopted  their  suggestion  in  the 
figure. 

According  to  the  measure- 
ments of  a  French  engineer, 
the  height  of  this  aqueduct- 
bridge  is  about  48  metres  above 
the  low  water  level  of  the  river. 
Its  length  on  the  level  of  the 
moulding,  terminating  the  first 
range  of  arcades,  is  171'%%  metres, 
and  269'\  metres  on  the  level  of 
the  moulding  terminating  the 
second  story. 

The  total  height,  according  to 
the  same  author,  is  48*77  metres, 
namely,  20*12  metres  for  the  first 
range,  2015  metres  for  the 
second  range,  and  8  23  metres 
for  the  third  range  to  the  top  of 
the  flags  covering  the  water 
channel;  the  width  of  the  bridge 
is  636  metres  at  the  first  range, 
4*56  meties  on  the  second,  3'6 
metres  on  the  third,  forms  a  con- 
siderable offset  on  each  stage  ;  the 

198 


five  piers  of  the  first  range  of  ar- 
cades were  formed  with  salient 
angles  or  bees.  The  division  of 
the  arches  on  the  first  and  second 
stories  is  the  same  ;  the  middle 
arch  of  the  first  range,  under 
which  the  river  passes,  is  the 
centre  of  the  entire  aqueduct,  is 
24*52  metres  in  diameter,  three 
on  each  side  are  19  20  metres, 
and  the  others  15*55  metres.  All 
the  arches  on  the  third  range  or 
story  are  equal,  being  4  55  metres 
in  diameter  ;  the  piers  of  the  first 
and  second  series  of  arches  are 
4  55  metres  in  front  j  those  of 
the  third  range  vary  according 
to  the  diameter  of  the  arches  of 
the  range  beneath  them •  four 
arches  of  the  third  range  cor- 
responding with  the  middle  or 
water  way  of  the  lower  story. 

As  the  two  mountains  forming 
the  valley  of  Gardon  are  not  of 
equal  height  at  the  points  in  the 
line  of  the  aqueduct,  that  on  the 
left  side  of  the  river  being  lower 
than  the  level  of  the  aqueduct, 
while  the  right  side  is  more  ele- 
vated, the  conduit  on  one  side 
is  carried  onwards  by  continuing 
the  third  range  of  arches,  and  on 
the  other  side,  the  range  termi- 
nates in  the  side  of  the  moun- 
tain. 

The  Pont  du  Garde  is  con- 
structed entirely  with  hewn  stone: 
no  rubble  work  is  introduced 
even  into  the  filling  up  of  the 
piers  or  spandrils  of  the  arches. 
The  masonry  has  been  finished 
and  put  together  without  lime, 
or  any  other  kind  of  cement,  and 
owes  its  stability  to  the -mass  of 
each  block,  and  the  precision  of 
the  faces  in  their  beds  and  joints. 
The  canal  of  the  aqueduct  is  in 
fact  the  only  part  which  is  not 
constructed  with  hewn  stones — 
being  made  with  a  sort  of  jointed 
rubble  on  the  outer  and  r.nner 
faces  of  the  canal,  but  of  the  com- 


t 


AQUEDUCT. 


jnon  rubble  in  the  filling  up. 
This  work,  where  the  cement  has 
not  been  sparingly  used,  forms  a 
mass  absolutely  impenetrable  to 
any  passage  of  the  water.  The  in- 
side facings  of  the  walls,  and  the 
bottom  hollowed  in  the  form  of 
an  arc  of  a  circle,  were  covered 
with  a  coat  of  cement  of  5  centi- 
metres in  thickness,  composed  of 
quicklime,  fine  sand,  and  pulve- 
rized bricks.  This  cement  is  at 
the  present  day  of  a  consistence 
equal  to  that  of  the  hardest  and 
most  compact  stone,  and  without 
the  slightest  crevice  or  flaw  to  be 
any  where  seen  in  it. — This  first 
coat  of  cement  was  covered  with 
a  second  layer  of  mastic  very  fine, 
of  a  millimetre  in  thickness,  and 
of  a  deep,  dark,  red  colour.  The 
width  of  the  canal  between  the 
outer  coats  was  1  metre  22  centi- 
metres, and  its  height,  1  metre  22 
centimetres. 

The  general  declivity  of  the  bed 
of  the  aqueduct  was  about  4  cen- 
timetres for  100  metres. 

The  aqueduct  has  been  con- 
structed with  the  same  care 
throughout  its  great  length,  the 
only  difference  being  that,  in  the 
parts  exposed,  the  aqueduct  was 
covered  with  slabs,  and  in  the 
subterranean  it  was  covered  with 
a  semicircular  arch,  of  a  species 
of  rubble  roughly  squared  in  the 
joints,  of  60  centimetres  in  thick- 
ness. 

In  examining  the  water  chan- 
nel, a  stony  concretion  is  observ- 
able, adhering  to  the  cement  on 
the  sides  and  bottom.  This  pe- 
trifaction is  nearly  29  centime- 
tres thick,  and  from  this  it  ap- 
pears, that  the  general  height  of 
the  stream  of  water  in  the  chan- 
nel was  about  1  metre  and  40 
centimetres. 

This  interesting  monument  of 
ancient  Roman  magnificence,  was 
demolished  at  its  two  ends  some 


time  about  the  beginning  of 
the  fifth  century  by  the  barba- 
rians who  then  besieged  Nismes  j 
and  who,  by  this  means,  endea- 
voured to  force  the  citizens  to  sur- 
render. It  remained  in  this  state 
until  the  beginning  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  when  the  due  de 
Rohan,  in  order  to  make  a  pas- 
sage for  his  artillery,  perforated 
the  piers  of  the  second  arcade, 
and  by  some  other  operations  di- 
rected to  the  same  end,  the  Pont 
du  Garde  was  rapidly  falling  to 
pieces.  Considerable  rents  in 
the  walls,  and  deviations  from  the 
perpendicular,  exciting  public  at- 
tention, the  provincial  states  took 
the  matter  into  consideration,  and 
by  aseries  of  judicious  repairs, they 
succeeded  in  restoring  this  orna- 
ment of  Lana  uedoc  to  the  state  in 
which  it  was  before  the  dilapida- 
tions of  the  due  de  Rohan. 

In  1/46,  the  project  of  building 
abridge  near  the  site  of  this  aque- 
duct was,  fortunately  for  its  fur- 
ther stability,  modified  so  as  to 
be  built  adjoining  to  it.  M.  Pe- 
tot  proposed  to  form  this  bridge 
on  the  eastern  face  of  the  Pont  du 
Garde,  and  rigorously  following 
the  dimensions  of  the  piers  and 
arches  of  the  ancient  aqueduct, 
this  was  shortly  afterwards  erect- 
ed, and  the  part  marked  A,  on  the 
section  across  the  Pont  du  Garde 
in  the  plate  marked  Aqueduct, 
shows  it. 

Fig.  2,  a  section  taken  in  the 
length  of  the  aqueduct.  Fig.  3, 
its  plan.  Fig.  6,  a  small  plan  of 
the  bridge  ;  and  fig.  7  represents 
on  a  larger  scale  the  details  of  the 
water  way,  or  canal  of  the  aque- 
duct :  a  is  squared  rubble  stones. 
b  b,  two  courses  in  hewn  stone, 
forming  a  plinth  or  bed  for  the 
slabs,  c,  which  were  laid  on 
them.  The  dotted  lines,  d  d, 
show  the  petrifaction  adhering  to 
the  side  of  the  water  channel. 


AQUEDUCT. 


Aqueduct  at  Lyon.  Nothing 
gives  us  a  higher  idea  of  the  an- 
cient splendour  of  the  city  of 
Lyon  {Lugdunum)  under  the  em- 
perors, than  the  remains  of  its 
ancient  buildings,  temples,  pa- 
_aces,  amphitheatres,  nauma- 
chias,  baths,  and,  above  all,  its 
aqueducts,  erected  during  the 
reigns  of  Augustus,  Tiberius,  and 
Claudius,  to  supply  that  part  of 
the  ancient  city  with  water  which 
was  situated  on  the  heights.  The 
most  ancient,  that  erected  by  the 
troops  of  Marcus  Antoninus,  drew 
Us  waters  by  two  branches,  from 
the  group  of  hills  called  in 
modern  times  Mont  d'Or :  this 
stream  having  been  found  inad- 
equate for  the  proper  supply  of 
even  the  highest  division  of  the 
city,  a  second  aqueduct  was 
constructed,  which  drew  its  water 
from  the  Loire.  The  third  aque- 
duct was  formed  under,  to  con- 
duct water  to  the  highest  part 
of  the  city,  on  which  was  erected 
the  palace  built  by  the  empe- 
ror Claudius.  Remains  of  other 
minor  aqueducts  built  in  the  same 
age  are  on  the  same  construction, 
the  arches  and  parts  apparent 
being  of  the  masonry  called  by 
the  ancients  opus  reticulatum.  A 
fourth  aqueduct,  formed  along 
the  bank  of  the  Rhone,  appears 
to  have  been  the  source  from 
which  the  lower  city  received  its 
supply  of  water ;  and  from  its  re- 
mains there  is  little  question  but 
that  it  also  was  constructed  by 
the  Romans.  The  Claudian  aque- 
duct, being  that  which  has  most 
attracted  the  attention  of  anti- 
quaries, will  be  described  more  in 
detail. 

The  body  of  the  work,  that  is, 
the  arcades  that  carried  the  aque- 
duct across  the  vallies,  is  built 
of  masses  of  rubble  stone  and  ce- 
ment, faced,  as  has  been  stated, 
with  the  opus  reticulatum.   In  this 

200 


instance,  this  kind  of  work  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  formed  by 
laying  a  bottom  of  brick,  of  two, 
three,  or  four  layers,  then  a  cais- 
son of  wooden  sides  was  applied 
to  it,  and  fixed  thereon.  The  cais- 
son was  first  lined  w  ith  the  squared 
stones  which  were  to  form  the 
face  ;  the  middle  was  then  filled 
with  rubble  stones,  into  which  a 
liquid  cement  of  lime,  fine  gravel, 
and  water,  beaten  up  to  a  perfect 
degree  of  incorporation  in  its 
liquidness,  so  as  to  become  a 
binding  cement,  was  poured,  and 
in  that  state  entered  into  every 
interstice  of  the  rubble  work. 
This  operation  being  repeated, 
the  whole  was  wrought  into  one 
incrusted  rock,  harder  than  either 
of  the  materials  themselves  sepa- 
rately were.  One  can  conceive, 
says  a  learned  antiquary,  how  a 
careful  beating  together  of  these 
materials  had  the  effect  of  creat- 
ing so  binding  a  cement,  since 
we  know  from  our  own  practice 
that  puddling  earth,  fine  gravel, 
and  water  together,  form  a  lining 
for  a  canal  that  becomes  imper- 
vious to  water  when  once  settled  j 
and  it  was  probably  from  this 
puddling,  and  not  from  any  secret 
as  to  the  materials  of  the  mortar 
not  now  known,  that  this  an- 
cient cement  owed  its  cohesive 
strength.  When  this  square  was 
set,  the  sides  of  the  caisson  were 
tfiken  off,  and  another  layer  of 
bricks  was  then  laid,  and  so  ano- 
ther caisson,  and  so  on.  The 
bricks  used  in  this  construction 
were  1  foot  9  inches  long,  1  foot 
broad,  and  1|  inches  thick  ;  the 
cement  of  one  of  the  aqueducts 
at  the  bottom  is  6  inches  thick, 
and  1|  thick  on  the  sides  :  about 
2  feet  above  the  floor  of  the 
canal  were  fixed  on  each  side 
cramps  of  three  lines  square,  at 
Q\  feet  distance  from  each  other. 
The  utmost  breadth  of  the  piers 


AQUEDUCT. 


of  the  aqueduct  of  Chaponost, 
which  carried  a  canal  of  8  feet 
tfroad  by  6  feet  high,  is  not  more 
than  6  feet,  while  the  breadth  of 
the  aqueduct  which  passed  over 
the  river  Baunan,  and  which  has 
no  canal,  is  LZ4  feet  broad,  con- 
sisting of  two  piers,  each  5  feet, 
supporting  an  arch  14  feet  in 
diameter. 

M.  Delorme,  in  his  account, 
(Seances  de  CAcademle,  1759,) 
traced  three  of  the  aqueducts  of 
ancient  Lugdunum  to  their  source, 
in  three  several  tracks  of  many 
miles  each.  He  examined  their 
general  level,  and  the  level  of 
each  part,  as  they  ran  above  and 
under  ground,  along  the  sides  of 
the  mountains  and  sides  of  vallies ; 
and  over  the  bridges  where  they 
passed  the  vallies,  he  observed 
the  apparent  care  which  the  archi- 
tects of  these  edifices  took  to 
avoid  the  building  of  works  enor- 
mous in  bulk, height,  and  expense, 
by  carrying  the  walls  up  into  the 
narrower  and  shallower  parts  of 
the  vallies.  Where  smaller  bridges 
would  serve,  and  where  they 
could  carry  the  waters  over  a 
bridge  by  a  rectilinear  canal,  they 
always  built  up  bridges  to  that 
level ;  but  where  that  would  be- 
come too  high,  and  yet  where  a 
bridge  was  necessary,  they  built 
bridges  of  a  height  sufficient  to 
carry  the  water  over  in  syphons 
of  easy  curvature. 

The  sources  of  supply  of  the 
aqueduct  of  Mont  de  Pile,  were 
from  the  waters  of  the  river  Gierre, 
from  the  rivulet  of  Sauon,  and  pro- 
bably from  the  river  Tanon,  to 
which  were  joined  those  of  the 
rivulet  Laugoneau ;  after  these 
waters  were  united  in  one  stream 
at  the  aqueduct  bridge  of  the  little 
Varizelle,  they  make  a  long  detour 
on  the  side*  of  the  mountains  and 
hills,  till  they  arrive  at  the  vallies 
which  they  must  pass ;  vet  here 
2C 


they  are  seen  trained  along  the 
sides  of  these  vallies,  until  they 
come  to  situations  which  aie  not 
so  deep  or  so  wide.  It  is  then  that 
the  architects  built  bridges  across 
the  vallies,  over  which  to  con- 
duct the  waters,  either  in  recti- 
linear canals,  or  in  syphons  ;  had 
this  latter  precaution  not  been 
taken,  the  construction  of  such 
bridges  would  have  been  of 
necessity  so  high  as  to  become 
enormous  both  in  work  and  ex- 
pense j  yet,  notwithstanding  all 
these  precautions,  there  were  in 
the  aqueduct  which  takes  its 
sources  in  Mont  Pile,  and  deter- 
mines at  the  gate  St.  Irenee, 
nine  bridges  earning  aqueducts, 
and  three  calculated  to  carry 
syphons. 

The  ninth  is  in  a  very  deep  and 
wide  bottom,  on  the  heights  of 
Soncieu.  The  aqueduct,  when 
it  arrives  at  this  bottom,  is  ter- 
minated with  a  reservoir  at  the 
south  edge  of  the  valley  of 
the  river  Garon.  The  mode  by 
which  the  water  passed  this  pro- 
found chasm,  was  by  causing  it 
to  flow  from  a  reservoir  on  the 
one  side,  in  leaden  pipes  bedded 
in  the  sides  of  the  valley  along 
part  of  the  descent;  it  then  flowed 
in  continued  pipes  of  the  same 
sort,  bedded  on  a  bridge,  whose 
top  course  was  built  in  a  descend- 
ing or  reversed  curve ;  having 
thus  passed  over  this  bridge, 
when  they  came  at  a  certain 
height,  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  valley,  they  were  protruded 
up  in  pipes  bedded  as  before  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  valley, 
and  the  water  was  delivered  into 
another  reservoir  on  the  top  of 
this  opposite  hill,  called  the  reser- 
voir of  Chaponost.  From *t his  re- 
servoir the  water  entered  into  the 
aqueduct  of  Chaponost,  whlck 
runs  under  ground  along  the  wes£ 
side  of  the  village.    It  emerges 

201 


AQUEDUCT. 


on  the  north,  and  flows  over  a 
bridge  composed  of  ninety  arches, 
of  which  more  than  sixty,  in  De- 
lorme's  time,  were  remaining ; 
this  was  terminated  by  a  reservoir, 
whence  the  water,  in  like  manner 
as  before,  descended  by  pipes  into 
another  valley,  and  in  part  passed 
it  and  the  river  Baunan  over  a 
bridge  of  a  reversed  curvature, 
and  mounted  again  on  the  oppo- 
site side,  there  entering  a  second 
reservoir  at  St.  Foi. 

The  waters  flowed  hence  in  a 
canal,  carried  by  a  bridge  for 
some  way  above  ground,  and  then 
became  subterraneous,  and  con- 
tinued thus  along  the  heights  to 
a  point  near  the  gate  of  St.Irenee. 
Here  another  reservoir  was  situ- 
ated ;  hence  the  waters  flowed  in 
leaden  pipes,  which  descended 
into  the  fosse  of  St.  Irenee,  and 
passing  along  the  bottom  of  it, 
rose  again,  and  emptied  them- 
selves into  a  reservoir,  built  near 
a  spot  which  can  be  traced  in  the 
walls  of  the  city,  at  the  Mall  of 
Fourviere,  ahove  the  gate  of  Trion, 
On  the  south  side  of  a  square 
tower.  These  pipes  were  not 
carried  across  this  ditch  and  vaP.ey 
upon  a  bridge,  as  has  been  stated 
by  some  authors ;  there  are  not 
the  least  vestiges  of  such  j  but 
they  were  bedded  on  a  massive 
course  of  masonry.  This  aque- 
duct has  a  course  of  more  than 
thirteen  leagues  j  its  distance,  in 
a  right  line,  is  about  eight 
leagues,  and  its  descent  from  the 
bridge  of  the  little  Varizelle  to  the 
Fouviere,  is  3**Q  feet. 

Delorme  next  describes  the 
nature  of  these  reservoirs  placed 
on  each  side  of  those  vallies, 
across  which  the  waters  were 
passed*  in  syphons  over  a  bridge 
of  reversed  curvature.  The  one 
is  for  holding  up,  or  receiving, 
and  thence  emitting,  the  waters 
which  are  to   be   conveyed  in 


pipes ;  and  the  other  is  to  receive 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  for 
distribution  to  the  succeeding 
canal. 

The  emitting  reservoir  of  the 
Garon  aqueduct  bridge  is  placed 
upon  a  quadrangular  tower  14 
feet  long,  and  A\  feet  broad.  The 
wall  of  the  side  next  the  valley 
is  pierced  at  9  feet  above  the 
bottom  of  the  reservoir,  with 
nine  overtures,  nearly  oval,  of  12 
inches  in  height,  and  10  in  width. 
The  piers  of  the  walls,  between 
these  openings,  were  7  inches 
thick.  It  was  through  these 
openings  that  the  waters  passed 
out  of  the  reservoir  by  as  many 
leaden  pipes,  which  descended 
into  the  valley  in  part  along  the 
sides,  and  in  part  over  arches 
rampant,  that  is,  arches  whose 
successive  tops  formed  an  inclin- 
ed plane,  which  declivity  was  so 
regulated  as  not  to  have  too  sud- 
den a  descent.  Hence  they  passed 
to,  and  over  the  bridge,  and  rose 
again  on  the  opposite  side  in  the 
same  manner,  and  were  inserted 
in  the  wall  of  another  receiving 
reservoir.  This  receiving  reser- 
voir differed  from  the  emittmg 
one  only  in  this,  that  M;  held 
the  waters  flowing  towards  the 
bottom  of  its  basin,  and  the 
emitting  one  poured  them  out 
from  the  upper  part,  about  3  feet 
from  the  bottom,  so  that  while  the 
water  rose  in  the  emitting  reser- 
voir to  3  or  4  feet,  that  in  the  re- 
ceiving one  would  not  rise  more 
than  2  feet.  The  nine  leaden 
pipes,  through  which  the  water 
flowed,  had  each  S  inches  dia- 
meter in  the  clear  ;  the  thickness 
of  the  lead,  of  which  they  were 
composed,  was  about  1  inch. 

Delorme  also  mentions  a  cir- 
cumstance in  this  syphon-aque- 
duct, which  has  given  rise  to 
much  discussion  among  those  who 
have  examined  the  subject  -f  he 


AQUEDUCT. 


states  that  these  syrhon  pipes, 
after  having  descended  about  75 
feet,  each  divided  itself  into  two 
branches,  and  that  thus  the  waters 
are  carried  ttte  rest  of  the  course 
over  the  bridge  in  eighteen  pipes, 
and  until  they  rise  again,  on  the 
opposite  side,  to  a  height  of  about 
70  feet,  at  which  point  they  are 
again  united,  and  the  waters  pass 
on,  and  enter  the  receiving  reser- 
voir in  nine  pipes. 

In  opposition  to  this  opinion  of 
Delorme,  another  eminent  archi- 
tect, who  examined  the  aqueduct, 
thought  that  the  receiving  and 
emitting  reservoirs  had  the  same 
number  of  pipes ;  and  that  the 
nine  pipes  which  proceeded  from 
the  one  to  the  other,  preserved 
the  same  dimension  throughout. 

Delorme  also  says,  that  the 
water  in  the  emitting  reservoir, 
was  higher  by  1  foot  than  that  in 
the  receiving  one  ;  bubM.  Villar, 
a  man  of  science  resident  at  Lyon, 
took  the  level  and  found,  as 
might  have  been  expected,  that 
the  water  in  the  receiving  re- 
servoir was  higher  by  at  least  12 
inches  than  that  in  the  emitting 
reservoir. 
'To  construct  these  individual 
aqueducts,  says  another  architect, 
the  Roman  architects  began  by 
forming  a  trench  5  feet  wide,  and 
10  feet  deep,  having  a  uniform 
slope  of  one  foot  (Fr.)  for  a  hun- 
dred toises.  In  this  trench  they 
formed  the  aqueduct  or  water 
channel  of  masonry,  keeping  the 
same  dimensions  in  the  parts  ex- 
cavated from  the  rock,  as  in  those 
which  were  cut  into  the  clay  or 
gravel  soil. 

The  bottom  of  this  trench  was 
laid  with  masonry,  a  foot  (Fr.) 
thick ;  on  this,  two  walls  were 
erected,  each  \\  feet  thick,  and  5 
feet  high,  and  leaving  a  space  be- 
tween them  of  2  feet,  which  form- 
ed the  canal  for  the  passage  of  the 


water  5  this  space  wan  enclosed 
on  the  top  by  a  semicircular  arch 
a  foot  thick,  and  then  covered 
with  a  layer  2  feet  thick  of  earth. 
The  bottom  of  the  canal  had  a 
coat  of  cement  6  inches  thick, 
and  a  coat  of  1^  inches  on  the 
sides,  which  reduced  the  intervals 
between  the  walls  to  21  inches. 
The  angles  were  formed  by  the 
sides  and  bottom  rounded  by  ce- 
ment. The  walls  were  construct- 
ed with  small  rough  stones,  from 
3  to  6  inches  in  thickness,  laid  in 
a  bed  of  mortar,  so  that  no  void 
was  left  between  the  pieces.  It 
would  appear  that  the  use  of 
stones  larger  than  6  inches  was 
avoided,  as  the  walls  formed  of 
small  stones,  well  bedded  in  mor- 
tar, formed,  in  the  estimation  of 
the  ancient  Lyonese  architects, 
masses  of  greater  compactness, 
than  those  built  with  larger 
pieces. 

The  builders  also  used  gravelly 
sand  for  this  kind  of  masonry  in 
preference  to  fine  sand,  which  is 
proper  only  for  the  cement  j  and 
when  they  were  obliged  to  use 
the  finer  sand,  they  took  care  to 
mix  it  with  pulverized  bricks,  a 
practice  adopted  also  in  cases 
where  coarse  sand  was  mixed  in 
abundance:  lime  burnt  from  good 
stones  was  used  with  unsparing 
profusion. 

The  cement  employed  for  the 
sides  and  bottom  of  the  aqueduct 
was  composed  of  pieces  of  brick 
the  size  of  peas  for  the  first  coats, 
and  somewhat  finer  for  the  finish- 
ing plaster.  That  on  the  bottom 
of  the  canal  is  made  of  pieces  as 
large  as  nuts,  and  in  many  places 
the  size  of  eggs  ;  the  composi- 
tion was  made  with  lime  fresh 
slaked.  That  which  contributed 
to  make  good  cement,  as  well  as 
good  mortar,  in  their  opinion, 
both  in  the  one  and  the  othrr 
was  the  effectual  mixing  of  the 

203 


AQUEDUCT. 


ingredients,  so  as  that  the  mass 
should  be  all  of  the  same  temper, 
which  is  known  when  the  com- 
position was  of  the  same  colour 
throughout. 

In  the  aqueducts  not  built  in 
the  earth,  the  walls  are  from  22 
to  24  inches  thick,  the  exterior 
faces  formed  of  reticulated  work, 
the  lozenges  being  from  3  to  6 
inch.es  square,  without  any  course 
of  bricks.  The  arch  of  the  water 
channel,  where  it  was  not  covered 
with  earth,  was  somewhat  curved 
to  throw  off  the  rain,  but  yet  so 
flat  as  to  serve  for  a  road  of  com- 
munication between  the  reser- 
voirs, and  within  the  aqueduct, 
and  wrhich  was  entered  through 
iron  doors  placed  in  the  arch  of 
the  reservoir,  and  also  in  that  of 
the  one  or  two  places  of  the  arch 
channel  aqueduct  bridge.  The 
subterranean  channels  had  similar 
entrances  like  square  pits,  the 
mouths  of  which  were  elevated 
2  or  3  feet  above  the  surface  of 
the  ground  they  were  driven 
into. 

The  entrance  of  the  water  into 
the  aqueduct  was  regulated  by  a 
vane,  or  sliding  valve  of  a  certain 
dimension,  as  only  a  certain  quan- 
tity was  allowed  to  flow  into  each 
branch.  This  does  not  appear  ever 
to  have  exceeded  21  inches  of 
elevation,  which  was  sufficient  to 
fill  all  the  syphons  ;  without  this 
precaution  the  volume  of  water, 
which  might  have  risen  to  4  feet, 
would  have  been  too  great.  It  is 
probable  that  the  regulating  vane 
or  sluice  could  be  raised  or  lower- 
ed at  pleasure  to  allow  for  the 
increase  of  head,  and  that  the 
superfluous  quantity  was  at  times 
permitted  to  flow  into  some  other 
channel. 

Where  the  aqueduct  was  carried 
above  ground,  it  was  built  on  a 
footing  of  masonry  6  feet  thick, 
even  where  the  elevation  above 

204 


the  surface  did  not  exceed  6  or  7 
feet ;  but  when  it  was  greater, 
arches  were  formed,  and  also 
piers,  when  the  elevation  was 
considerable  ;  on  this  elevation 
depended  the  span  of  the  arches, 
the  thickness  of  the  pi^rs,  and 
their  height.  For  an  opening  of 
18  feet  in  height  the  width  is  12 
feet,  and  the  piers  6  feet,  sustain- 
ing  a  semicircular  arch  ;  when 
the  inequality  of  the  surface  did 
not  allow  the  piers  to  have  an 
equal  height  of  18  feet  to  each 
opening,  the  piers  were  shortened, 
and  the  other  parts  remained  of 
the  same  general  dimensions. 
The  piers  of  the  arches  in  some 
places  are  rather  less  on  the  face 
than  6  feet,  varying  from  5  feet 
8  inches  to  6  feet  j  and  in  other 
cases  they  are  7  feet  9  inches. 
The  arcade  which  conducts  the  i 
water  into  the  reservoir  called  St. 
Irenee,  is  £1  feet  high,  its  width 
is  the  half  of  this,  and  the  faces 
of  the  piers  are  7  feet  9  inches. 
As  the  upper  part  containing  the 
canal  is  only  6  feet  thick,  there  is 
an  offset  of  6  inches  on  each  face 
at  the  impost  of  the  arches.  (See  I 
engraving  of  "Aqueduct  at  Lyon," 
fig.  1.)  On  this  offset  there  is  a 
projection,  or  pilaster,  10  inches 
thick,  and  3  feet  wide,  which  acts 
as  a  counterfort,  to  strengthen 
the  sides  of  the  water  channel. 

The  foundations  of  the  piers 
having  the  smallest  elevation  are 
sunk  between  3  and  4  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
between  6  and  S  feet  for  those  of 
the  greatest  height. 

All  the  different  supports  of 
the  aqueduct  are  of  the  same  kind 
of  masonry,  formed  of  small  rough 
squared  stones,  laid  in  a  thick  bed 
of  mortar,  with  the  apparent  faceJ 
of  reticulated  work.  This  kind 
of  masonry  was  bound  at  every  4  j 
feet  of  its  height  by  two  courses 
of  "  great  bricks,"  each  bncK 


AQUEDU  C  T. 


being  22  inches  square,  and  2 
inches  thick.  The  angles  of  the 
piers  formed  of  small  square  slabs 
of  stone  offered,  in  many  in- 
stances, an  insufficient  resistance 
to  the  lozenge  masses  which  they 
terminated,  and  their  displace- 
ment has  been  apparently  the 
main  cause  of  the  ruin  of  the 
greater  number  of  the  piers  ;  for 
these  have  been  formed  by  a  sort 
of  encasements  of  the  thicknesses 
of  4  feet  of  the  opus  reticulatum, 
without  being  properly  bonded 
by  stones  large  enough  at  the 
quoins.  The  arches  are  semicir- 
cular, the  arch-stones  are  slabs 
(thick  slates)  of  stone,  3  inches 
thick,  alternating  with  a  "  great 
brick  j"  the  extrados  of  the  arch  is 
finished  by  a  row  of  bricks,  which 
forms  a  fillet.  On  this  fillet  is 
laid  a  double  horizontal  row  of 
bricks,  which  runs  through  the 
entire  length  of  the  aqueduct, 
without,  however,  forming  any 
projection.  It  is  upon  these 
bricks,  as  a  pavement,  that  the 
water  channel  is  laid  or  bedded. 

Of  the  arcades  forming  that 
part  of  the  aqueduct  called  Lan- 
goneau,  only  seven  piers  remain, 
and  these  of  the  common  reticu- 
lated masonry.  The  valley  be- 
tween Soucieu  and  Chaponost  is 
about  200  feet  deep.  Five  ranges 
of  arcades,  placed  one  over  the 
other  for  a  length  of  400  toises, 
conducted  the  water  across  the 
valley  ;  the  valley  through  which 
the  river  D'Izeron  flows,  between 
Chaponost  and  St.  Foi,  is  nearly 
300  feet  deep,  and  was  crossed  by 
'  a  series  of  arcades  having  eight 
ranges  in  height.  The  third  valley, 
formed  by  the  small  hill  of  St. 
Foi  and  that  of  Fourvieres,  had 
three  ranges  of  arcades. 

These  prodigious  substructions 
j  must  have  occasioned  an  outlay 
i  so  enormous,  as  under  almost  any 
;  circumstances  would  have  com- 


pletely arrested  the  completion  of 
the  undertaking ;  and  the  more 
so,  as  these  vallies  were  neither 
all,  nor  the  greatest,  across  which 
the  water  had  to  be  conducted. 
The  resources  of  the  architects 
here  become  conspicuous  in  their 
substitution  of  leaden  pipes  form- 
ing syphons  already  described, 
which  were  laid  at  an  expense 
comparatively  trifling  to  what 
must  have  been  incurred  by  fol- 
lowing the  other,  and  more  usual 
method. 

In  describing  the  passage  of  the 
valley  of  the  Garon,  the  aqueduct 
arriving  at  the  summit  of  the  hill, 
was  stated  to  deliver  its  water 
into  a  tank  or  reservoir  placed  in 
a  square  tower. 

This  reservoir,  14  feet  long  by 
4-J-  feet  wide,  is  7  feet  high  to  the 
summit  of  its  arch  ;  the  walls  are 
4-J-  feet  high  to  the  springing  of 
the  arch,  and  2  feet  3  inches  thick. 
The  arch  is  pierced  in  the  centre 
by  an  opening 2  feet  square,  which 
serves  as  a  passage  into  the  re- 
servoir. The  bottom  is  lined  with 
a  coat  of  cement  6"  inches  thick, 
with  a  curve  at  the  angles  of  con- 
course of  the  sides  and  bottom  ; 
there  were  two  ranges  of  iron 
rods  about  -i-  inch  in  diameter,  to 
strengthen  the  walls,  and  probably 
also  to  serve  as  a  kind  of  stair  by 
which  to  descend  into  the  reser- 
voir. 

This  syphon  bridge  (see  en- 
graving) is  disposed  in  the  same 
manner,  and  has  the  same  pio- 
portions  as  the  other  arcades ; 
the  width  of  the  arches  being 
18  feet,  and  the  height  of  their 
opening  36  feet;  but  this  part 
is  somewhat  different  from  the 
others  from  its  width,  which  is 
24  feet,  and  by  its  piers  appa- 
rently terminating  at  the  impost 
or  springing  of  the  arches,  form- 
ing an  elevation  of  considerable 
elegance,  and  a  covered  passage 

205 


AQUEDUCT. 


under  the  bridge.  The  arcades 
pierced  in  the  piers  for  this  road 
or  gallery,  are  4  feet  wide,  and 
21  feet  high,  their  arches  being 
formed  of  vou3Soirs  of  thin  stone, 
alternating  with  great  bricks  j  the 
facing  is  of  reticulated  masonry, 
and  being  built  with  black  and 
grey  pieces,  has  much  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  chess  board.  How- 
ever, these  openings  having  weak- 
ened too  much  the  higher  piers, 
the  builders  were  under  the 
necessity  of  strengthening  some  of 
them  by  counterforts  of  the  same 
sort  of  masonry.  Two  arcades  in 
the  valley  of  Baunau  fell  in  1757, 
from  this  precaution  not  having 
been  taken;  from  these  piers,  after 
their  fall,  it  was  observed  that  the 
arches  were  divided  into  compart- 
ments in  their  depth  by  voussoirs 
formed  of  a  double  row  of  great 
bricks. 

The  cpiantity  of  water,  accord- 
ing to  Delorme,  which  was  fur- 
nished by  this  aqueduct  in  twenty- 
four  hours,  was  1,323,000  cubic 
feet.  (Fr.)  This  author,  how- 
ever, did  not  appear  to  have  made 
any  corrections  for  the  diminution 
of  velocity  on  account  of  friction, 
and  other  circumstances  affecting 
the  motion  of  fluids  ;  after  these 
have  been  made  to  bear  on  his 
calculation,  the  quantity  has  been 
estimated  as  not  being  greater 
than  about  172,800  cubic  feet. 

The  receiving  reservoir  for  the 
valley  of  Baunau  is  18  feet  long, 
and  6  feet  wide.  It  was  pierced, 
according  to  Delorme,  with  twelve 
openings  for  as  many  syphons  ; 
this  increase  in  the  number  of 
pipes  being  made  on  account  of 
the  valley  being  deeper  than  that 
of  the  Garon;  and,  as  he  thinks, 
that  as  the  pressure  increases, 
while  the  depth  is  augmented, 
that  the  architects  multiplied  the 
number  of  syphons  to  divide  this 
force  by  diminishing  their  diame- 

206 


ter  in  proportion.  A  circum- 
stance which,  if  accurate,  would 
clearly  decide  that  the  difference 
between  the  weight  and  the  pres- 
sure of  water  was  unknown  to  the 
Roman  architect.  The  rest  of  the 
syphon  bridges  are  similar  to  that 
of  the  Garon.  There  is  now  no 
vestige  of  the  emitting  reservoir 
of  St.  Foi.  The  receiving  reser- 
voir of  St.  Irenee  is  also  much  di- 
lapidated, and  also  that  of  Sou- 
cieu.  Delorme  conjectured  that 
its  side  was  pierced  for  a  smaller 
number  of  syphons  than  that  of 
Soucieu  ;  but  these  pipes  were  of 
a  greater  diameter  than  those  of 
the  others,  as  appears  by  the  parts 
at  present  in  existence ;  and  De- 
lorme thinks  that  the  emitting 
reservoir  was  like  the  receiving 
tanks  which  are  seen  near  the  wall 
of  the  city  of  Lyon,  and  conduct- 
ed the  water  by  an  aqueduct  to 
the  reservoir  now  called  the  Mai- 
son  Angelique.  This  reservoir 
was  also  furnished  with  the  usual 
opening.  Delorme  further  ob- 
served, that  the  emitting  reser- 
voirs had  an  opening  at  a  height 
of  4j-  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
pavement,  to  turn,  if  required,  the 
flowing  water  to  the  bottom  of 
the  tower,  and  to  facilitate  their 
cleanings  and  reparations. 

The  great  reservoir  of  the  Mai- 
son  Angelique,  the  bottom  of 
which  is  now  buried  in  the  ground, 
was  supported  by  a  series  of  vaults 
separated  by  partition  walls  2-Jr 
feet  thick.  Five  of  these  vaults 
are  still  entire.  They  are  semi- 
circular, built  of  small  rough 
squared  stones,  with  courses  of 
bricks  in  the  voussoirs  in  each  10* 
inches  ;  and  they  appear  to  have 
been  laid  without  mortar.  A  fall 
or  step  of  H  feet,  arched  to  a 
height  of  4  feet,  is  still  seen  in  a 
wall  7-r  feet  thick.  The  water 
here  descended  by  a  well  or  tank 
H  feet  square,  which  joins  the 


AQUEDUCT. 


south  side,  where  it  has  a  thick- 
ness of  more  than  10  feet. 

Decolonia  (in  his  Histoire  Lit- 
teraire  tie  la  Ville  de  Lyon,)  says, 
that  thirty  leaden  pipes,  of  from 
15  to  20  feet  in  length,  marked 
by  the  initials TI.CL.CAES.(Tibe- 
rius  Claudius  Caesar,)  were  found 
in  this  part.  He  had  no  know- 
ledge of  the  reservoir  discovered 
bv  Delorme,  to  which  it  is  pro- 
bable these  pipes  belonged,  and 
in  which  they  were  used  for  dis- 
tributing the  water  to  the  build- 
ings and  gardens  of  the  palace  of 
the  emperor  Claudius. 

The  fig.  1,  in  the  engravings 
marked  "  Aqueduct  of  Lyon,"  is 
an  elevation  of  one  of  the  syphon 
bridges.  Fig.  2,  its  plan.  Fig.  3, 
part  of  one  of  the  arcades  on  a 
larger  scale.  Fig.  4,  an  exterior 
view  of  the  perforations  in  the  re- 
servoir for  the  syphon  pipes.  Fig. 
5,  the  plan  of  the  reservoir  ;  and 
fig.  b\  its  section  and  fig.  7,  a 
section  of  one  of  the  ancient  lead 
pipes,  showing  the  thickness  of 
the  stony  incrustation  on  the  in- 
side. A,  is  the  solder  which  se- 
cured the  joint. 

The  Aqueduct  at  Metz  was  also 
built  by  the  Romans  when  this 
city  was  included  in  their  domi- 
nion ;  but  it  is  impossible  to 
decide  what  epoch  should  be  as- 
signed for  its  erection.  We  read  in 
the  "  History  of  the  City  of  Metz," 
that  the  Roman  legions  were  ex- 
pelled from  it,  about  the  year  of 
Christ  70.  As  the  retreat  of  the 
Romans  was  succeeded  by  trou- 
bled and  hostile  periods,  it  ap- 
pears probable  that  the  date  of 
the  construction  of  the  aqueduct, 
as  well  as  that  of  the  other  grand 
!  buildings  of  the  Romans  in  this 
neighbourhood,  reached  to  a  re- 
mote period — probably  that  of  the 
reign  of  the  first  emperors — per- 
haps to  that  period  when  the  le- 


gions of  Caesar  held  possession  of 
Gaul. 

The  chief  water  which  this 
aqueduct  conducted  into  Metz, 
was  taken  from  the  valley  above 
Gorze,  now  named  les  Bouillons. 
It  is  conjectured  that  the  waters 
of  the  valley  were  collected  into 
a  basin,  from  which  it  flowed  into 
the  aqueduct  in  this  spot  con- 
structed under  ground. 

The  water  channel  in  general 
was  6  feet  deep,  and  3  wide,  and 
laid  on  a  course  of  masonry  of 
small  unhewn  stones  laid  in  a  bed 
of  mortar.  Its  thickness  was  pro- 
portioned to  the  solidity  of  the 
ground  over  which  it  was  carried. 
In  those  parts  where  the  bottom 
was  considered  to  be  sound  and 
firm,  it  was  not  made  more  than 
a  foot  thick.  The  inner  faces  of 
the  walls  forming  the  water  chan- 
nel, were  built  of  small  wrought 
stones,  nearly  of  the  same  size, 
and  placed  in  regular  courses. 
These  stones  were  about  7  or  8 
inches  on  the  side,  and  3  inches 
high  in  front,  and  about  a  foot 
long.  Those  on  the  outer  face 
were  rough  chiselled.  The  wall 
on  the  side  of  the  mountain  had 
a  greater  or  less  thickness,  as  it 
had  to  support  a  greater  or  less 
thrust  of  the  earth.  In  portions 
of  it  where  this  thrust  was  trifling, 
its  thickness  varied  from  1  to  2 
feet.  The  arch  which  encloses 
the  water  channel  was  semicircu- 
lar. The  voussoirs  were  about  a 
foot  square  in  the  joints,  and  2 
inches  thick  towards  the  intrados, 
and  three  inches  at  the  extrados. 
The  arch  was  covered  with  a 
course  of  common  rough  mason- 
ry 7  or  8  inches  thick.  To  pre- 
vent the  percolation  of  the  water 
into  the  piers  or  substructure,  the 
inside  was  lined  with  cement  2 
inches  thick  on  the  sides,  and  ?» 
inches  on  the  bottom. 

207 


AQUEDUCT 


The  water  channel  is  still  pre- 
served entire  between  the  "Mou- 
lin de  Gorze"  and  that  town,  pass- 
ing under  the  houses  forming  its 
principal  street  for  a  length  of  150 
toises.  At  leaving  Gorze,  its  di- 
rection is  along  the  top  of  a  hill, 
until  it  meets  the  highway  to 
Metz,  a  distance  of  350  toises. 
From  that,  to  procure  a  uniform 
slope,  the  Roman  architect  was 
obliged  to  follow  the  windings  of 
a  small  valley  for  48S  toises. 
Here  it  was  conducted  across  by 
a  small  aqueduct  bridge.  After 
making  another  quick  bend,  it 
keeps  the  slope  of  another  part  of 
the  hill,  occasionally  appearing 
above  the  surface.  Here  are 
traced  the  remains  of  a  foun- 
tain, which  is  supposed  to  have 
collected  some  subsidiary  stream  5 
its  further  course  till  it  reaches 
Metz,  is  somewhat  more  di- 
rect. 

In  following  its  course  for  6,286 
toises,  (the  distance  between  its 
summit,  and  where  it  meets  the 
river  Moselle,)  it  has  a  fall  of  29 
feet  6  inches,  which  gives  a  de- 
clivity of  two-thirds  of  a  line  for 
each  toise  of  length.  At  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  aqueduct  is  a  cis- 
tern, (rig.  1,  on  engraving  marked 
"Aqueduct  of  Metz,")  28*  feet 
long,  by  21*  wide,  into  which  the 
water  is  conducted  from  the  wa- 
ter channel.  The  part  BED  is 
backed  by  the  mountain,  and 
forms  an  arc  of  a  circle  of  which 
the  cord  is  2U-,  and  the  sine  7* 
feet.  The  opposite  side  is  square. 
The  walls  are  3*  feet  thick  on 
the  sides  BC,  and  3  feet  on  the 
other  parts.  They  are  built  of 
small  stones  laid  in  mortar  mixed 
with  cement.  The  outside  and 
inside  faces  are  of  stones  of  the 
same  size,  but  roughly  wrought 
on  their  faces  and  beds,  and  laid 
in  regular  courses ;    the  inside 


face  having  a  coat  of  cement 
about  half  an  inch  thick. 

In  the  centre  of  the  reservoir 
is  a  basin  14  feet  long,  by  9*  feet 
wide,  and  1  foot  deep,  surrounded 
by  a  banquette  6  feet  broad  on 
three  sides,  and  9  feet  broad  on 
the  other.  This  banquette  is 
formed  with  large  wrought  stones, 
and  finished  towards  the  basin  by 
triangular  bricks  from  8  to  10 
inches  on  the  face,  and  6  inches 
at  the  end. 

In  the  centre  of  the  circular 
part  of  the  reservoir  is  placed  the 
opening  of  the  aqueduct.  Its 
height  from  the  under  side  of  the 
arch  to  the  bottom  is  5  feet  8 
inches, and  3  feet  wide.  Ataheight 
of  about  8  feet  in  the  angle,  is 
another  opening  of  a  canal  of  dis- 
charge, 5  feet  1  inch  by  2  feet  10 
inches.  It  forms  an  angle  with 
the  wall  of  about  80°. 

On  the  side  opposite  to  the  cir-  j 
cular  wall  of  the  reservoir,  and 
rising  from  the  bottom  of  the  ba- 
sin, is  this  wall,  dividingthe  water 
channel  through  the  length  of  the 
bridge,  about  12  inches  thick. 
This  wall  would  appear  to  have 
been  entirely  composed  of  trian- 
gular bricks,  coated  on  two  sides 
with  cement  an  inch  in  thickness. 
The  water  channels  are  not  quite 
equal,  one  being  2  feet  8  inches 
wide,  and  the  other  2  feet  4 
inches.  The  reservoir  was  pro- 
bably covered  by  an  arch,  having 
voussoirs  of  stone  placed  in  the 
herring-bone  fashion,  the  upper 
ends  of  which  were  about  4  feet 
square.  The  intrados  was  coated 
with  a  thickness  of  3  inches  of  ce- 
ment, and  painted  in  fresco.  On 
the  outside  it  was  covered  with  a 
roof,  constructed  with  two  sorts 
of  tiles  ;  those  now  called  antique 
tiles,  made  flat  with  ledges,  and 
the  others  circular,  to  cover  the 
joints  of  the  former. 


AQUEDUCT. 


Part  of  a  base  of  a  column,  in 
which  was  a  niche  containing  a 
figure  much  mutilated,  was  found 
near  this  spot,  which  is  conjec- 
tured to  have  been  a  nymph — 
probably  that  to  which  the  water 
was  dedicated,  and  placed  in  the 
reservoir. 

The  basin  in  the  bottom  of  the 
reservoir  is  supposed  to  have  been 
formed  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  greater  part  of  the 
sediment  of  the  water  which 
might  be  deposited,  from  find- 
ing its  way  into  the  aqueduct  j 
and  that  it  was  withdrawn  from 
this  part  from  time  to  time,  as  it 
accumulated. 

The  remains  on  the  side  of  Ars, 
approaching    the    Moselle,  are 
much  more  dilapidated  than  that 
part  on  the  other  side,  near  the 
village  of  Jouy.  At  some  distance 
from  the  reservoir  are  two  arches 
much  ruined  ;  a  little  further  on  a 
1      part  of  a  pier  and  five  arches. 
1      The  remains  at  Jouy  consist  of 
;:     seventeen  arches.  The  first  seven 
i!     are  entire :   the    remainder  are 
t     more  dilapidated.     This  bridge, 
"     joining  the  two  mountains,  sepa- 
*     rated  by  a  valley  of  560  toises, 
lfi     had  a  declivity  of  12  feet,  10 
a     inches,  and  7  lines,  which  gives  a 
lit!     fall  of  nearly  3  lines  for  each  toise 
to     in  length.     The  channel  at  the 
i !     top  was  10  feet  10  inches  wide,  di- 
m     vided,  as  has  been  already  stated, 
%     by  a  wall  of  triangular  bricks  18 
til     inches  thick,  (see  figure  7in  Metz 
jiff!     aqueduct  j)  thus  forming  a  double 
k     canal,  apparently    for  the  pur- 
atfi     pose  of  allowing  the  water  t  j  flow 
fct     into  one,  while  the  other  might 
Oi  i  be  repairing. 

iltii  1     All  the  inside  work  is  of  com- 
sort  I  mon    small    stones    bedded  in 
ifyf  I  mortar.     The  facing  stones  are 
ail  f  wrought  in  their  beds,  and  chi- 
ftt!   1  seiled  on  their  faces,  placed  in  re- 
gular courses  :   the  one  3  and  4 
inches  high  alternately.    All  the 
2D 


arches  are  of  the  same  construc- 
tion, and  of  the  same  proportions. 
The  opening  of  the  one  on  the 
side  of  Jouy  is  57  feet  high,  the 
diameter  of  the  arch  17|  feet,  and 
each  face  of  its  pier  14  feet. 

The  prodigious  height  to  which 
these  arcades  must  have  been  car- 
ried, if  the  aqueduct  bridge  con- 
sisted of  only  one  range  of  ar- 
cades, has  given  rise  to  an  opi- 
nion, that  it  was  composed  of  two 
ranges  of  arcades,  like  the  Pont 
du  Garde. 

At  the  extremity  of  this  bridge 
on  the  side  of  Jouy,  a  second  re- 
servoir was  found,  constructed  in 
a  very  different  manner  from  that 
shown  in  the  former  figures.  It  is 
completely  circular,  forming  a 
kind  of  well,  having  a  diameter 
12f  feet.  The  outside  walls  are 
3  feet  thick.  In  the  middle  is  a 
basin  6^  feet  in  diameter,  having 
a  banquette,  3  feet  broad,  and  4 
feet  10  inches  in  height,  running 
round  it.  This  banquette  is  built 
of  squared  masonry,  to  a  height 
of  4  feet  10  inches  above  the  bot- 
tom of  the  basin.  The  remain- 
ing height  is  of  the  usual  mason- 
ry, coated  with  cement  2  inches 
thick.  The  double  water-duct  is 
formed  by  dividing  the  channel 
by  an  lS-inch  wall,  as  in  the  other 
reservoir.  The  bottom  of  both 
of  the  channels  is  1  foot  4  inches 
above  the  bottom  of  the  basin. 
The  height  of  the  arch  is  5  feet 
6  inches,  and  the  channels  are 
coated  in  the  inside  with  cement 
to  the  height  of  2£  feet.  In  the 
upper  part  of  the  banquette,  op- 
posite the  openings  into  the  aque- 
duct, is  another  banquette,  1  foot 
9  inches  deep,  and  13  inches 
broad.  It  is  conjectured  to  have 
conducted  some  neighbouring 
stream  into  the  reservoir.  Its 
sides  and  bottom  are  coated  -with 
cement  2  inches  thick.  The 
water-duct,  through  which  the 


AQUEDUCT. 


water  flows  to  the  city  of  Metz, 
is  5  feet  3  inches  high,  and  3  feet 
2  inches  wide:  its  pavement  is 
not  more  than  9  inches  above  the 
level  of  the  banquette.  Opposite 
to  this  passage  is  another,  by 
which  to  descend  into  the  reser- 
voir. See  fig.  5,  which  is  a  plan, 
and  fig.  6*,  which  is  a  section  of 
this  reservoir. 

The  total  length  of  this  aque- 
duct, reckoning  from  the  "Mou- 
lin de  Gorze"  to  its  point  of  dis- 
tribution, is  11,373  toises.  The 
total  declivity  is  68  feet  5^ 
inches,  giving  a  fall  of  nearly  •§-  of 
a  line  for  each  toise  in  length. 

It  is  thought  that  the  aqueduct 
was  carried  along  the  summit  of 
the  hill  on  which  the  citadel  was 
placed,  and  that  there  it  flowed 
into  a  cistern,  from  which  it  was 
distributed  according  to  the  mode 
in  use  among  the  Romans.  A 
part  being  appropriated  for  the 
supply  of  the  public  fountains, 
another  for  the  baths,  and  a  third 
portion  was  conducted  into  the 
houses  of  individuals,  who  paid 
a  certain  rate,  which  was  devoted 
to  the  repair  of  the  aqueduct. 

M.  Lebrun  made  some  experi- 
ments to  ascertain  the  velocity  of 
water  in  this  channel,  the  mean  of 
which  gave  a  current  flowing  156 
feet  8  inches  each  minute  :  and  he 
estimated  that  1,067|  cubic  feet  of 
water  were  furnished  every  minute. 
Another  series  of  experiments, 
made  by  the  same  military  archi- 
tect, when  the  stream  was  much  re- 
duced by  the  great  drought  of  the 
preceding  summer,  gave  684  cu- 
bic feet  per  minute. — The  mean  of 
the  two  is  nearly  876  feet,  equal 
to  1,259,000  cubic  feet  each 
day,  a  quantity  sufficient  for  the 
supply  of  a  much  greater  popula- 
tion than  we  can  imagine  ever  to 
have  been  collected  at  Metz. 

The  Aqueduct   at   Evora  was 

among  the  public  buildings  raised 
210 


by  Quintus  Sertorms,  when  he 
made  himself  master  of  this  dis- 
trict about  eighty  years  before 
Christ.  It  is  still  in  excellent  pre- 
servation, and  the  piers  are  9  feet 
broad  by  4|  feet  thick  j  the  arched 
space  is  13j  feet  wide,  being 
equal  to  the  breadth  and  thick- 
ness of  the  pier  added  together  : 
at  intervals,  buttresses  are  super- 
added to  the  piers,  "  the  better 
to  secure  the  arcuation.'  The 
whole  is  formed  of  irregular  stone, 
except  the  arches,  which  are  of 
brick. 

The  castellum  is  the  most  per- 
fect of  the  kind  existing,  and 
remarkable  for  its  fine  propor- 
tions, and  elegant  decoration  j  its 
plan  is  circular,  and  its  greater 
diameter  12|  feet,  independent  of 
the  surrounding  columns,  which 
are  eight  in  number,  of  the  ionic 
order.  In  each  intercolumniation 
is  a  niche  with  a  striated  or  con- 
chal  head,  and  an  aperture  is 
formed  in  one  of  them  to  give 
access  to  the  inside  of  the  struc- 
ture. The  second  story  is  de- 
corated with  ionic  pilasters,  be- 
tween which  are  apertures  for 
ventilation  5  the  top  is  crowned 
with  a  hemispherical  dome.  In 
the  centre  of  the  building  is  a 
small  reservoir,  from  whence  tubes 
were  conveyed  to  the  different 
fountains  and  cisterns. 

The  acroteria  and  depressed 
parapet  of  this  monument,  are 
singular  deviations  from  the  usual 
employment  of  these  members. 
It  is  probable  that  each  acroterium 
was  formerly  crowned  with  a  vase, 
the  remains  of  one  being  still 
visible  ;  and  from  the  fragment  of 
a  pedestal,  to  be  seen  in  one  of  the 
niches,  it  is  probable  either  a 
statue  or  a  vase  decorated  each 
aperture. 

The  whole  is  constructed  of 
brick,  incrustfcd  wit  h  cement  of  so 
hard  and  durable  a  subfita-^e,  that 


AQUEDUCT. 


few  parts  of  it  appear  to  have 
failed  by  the  natural  decay  through 
age  ;  and  considering  that  it  was 
built  seventy  years  before  the 
Christian  era,  it  may  be  considered 
one  ot  the  most  interesting  monu- 
ments of  Roman  art  in  existence. 
See  Castellum. 

The  Aqueduct  at  Carthage,  con- 
structed by  the  Carthaginians 
during  their  prosperity,  was  con- 
ducted for  a  length  of  seventy 
miles,  over  mountains,  and 
through  vallies ;  considerable  re- 
mains of  it  are  still  seen.  Near 
Udena,  there  is  an  arcade  consist- 
ing of  above  a  thousand  arches, 
where  it  had  been  conveyed  across 
a  valley  ;  some  of  these  arches  in 
the  middle  of  the  valley  are  above 
100  feet  high.  In  building  this 
work,  they  made  use  of  a  strong 
cement,  which  is  as  durable  as 
the  stones  themselves,  though 
these  are  of  a  harder  nature  than 
our  English  limestone  of  a  yellow 
colour.  The  water  channel  is 
coated  with  cement  of  such  ex- 
traordinary tenacity,  that  in  some 
places,  flakes  of  it  have  fallen 
from  the  wall  in  lengths  of  up- 
wards of  100  feet,  yet  still  adher- 
ing together  ;  the  conduit  is  6 
feet  high  within,  and  4  feet  wide, 
arched  to  a  point. 

At  Ariana,  a  village  four  miles 
from  Tunis,  other  remains  of  this 
structure  are  found,  but  not  in 
quite  so  perfect  a  condition  ; 
where  the  channel  was  conveyed 
through  a  mountain,  at  every 
sixty  yards,  vertical  tunnels  have 
been  made  from  the  channel  to 
the  surface  of  the  mountain ;  these 
arc  4  feet  in  diameter,  and  very 
neatly  walled  with  hewn  stone, 
and  the  wall  is  continued  to  a 
height  of  4  feet  above  the  surface, 
and  to  prevent  any  thing  falling 
in,  the  stones  are  very  neatly 
rounded  at  top.  The  masonry  of 
the  aqueduct  throughout  is  of 


beautiful  execution,  and  in  some 
places  still  remains  as  perfect  as 
when  it  was  erected  ;  from  some 
marks,  it  is  conjectured  that  a 
part  of  it  had  been  repaired  by 
the  Romans. 

A  subterraneous  aqueduct  sur- 
rounds the  town  of  Morocco,  20 
feet  below  the  surface,  and  from 
which,  at  every  hundred  yards, 
pipes  of  brick -work  branch  off, 
and  convey  the  water  into  the 
wells  of  the  different  houses. 
Over  each  of  these  branches  are 
excavations  from  the  surface, 
through  which  persons  descend 
to  repair  any  injuries  below  ■  this 
aqueduct  is  now  much  out  of  re- 
pair, and  neglected. 

The  Aqueduct  at  Bourgas.  There 
remains  in  the  valley  of  Bourgas, 
near  Constantinople,  three  aque- 
ducts, which  conduct  the  water 
destined  for  the  supply  of  that  ca- 
pital. The  most  remarkable,  as 
well  for  its  fine  proportions  as 
for  the  solidity  of  its  construc- 
tion, is  traditionally  asserted  on 
the  spot  to  have  been  built  during 
the  reign  of  the  emperor  Justi- 
nian. 

This  aqueduct  bridge  traverses 
a  strait  and  deep  valley.  Its 
height  is  about  108  feet  at  its 
base.  Its  length  does  not  ex- 
ceed 70  toises  or  420  feet  ■  but  at 
the  level  of  the  water  channel  it 
is  nearly  120  toises. 

The  part  forming  the  centre  of 
the  aqueduct  is  composed  of  two 
stages  or  ranges  of  arcades,  each 
of  four  great  pointed  or  gothic 
arches.  Those  of  the  lower  range 
are  8  toises  and  4  feet  in  diameter, 
and  7t  toises  high :  the  arches  of 
the  second  range  are  narrower, 
their  width  not  exceeding  64- 
toises,  and  6  toises  and  1  foot 
high.  The  piers  separating  the 
lower  arches  are  6>3r  toises  on  the 
face.  Those  forming  the  lower 
series  are  pierced  at  o  height  a 


AQUEDUCT. 


little  above  the  impost  of  the 
arches,  by  small  arcades  1  toise 
and  5  feet  wide  j  the  piers  of  the 
second  range  having  similar  open- 
ings placed  over  those  of  the 
lower  range,  2£  toises  wide. 

In  the  elevation,  the  piers  are 
strengthened  by  counterforts  on  a 
triangular  basis,  so  as  to  form  a 
salient  angle  or  bee.  These  are 
further  scarfed  in  their  height  so 
as  to  terminate  on  the  face  of  the 
Avail  on  each  range,  and  to  reduce 
the  thickness  of  the  wall  to  3  feet 
6  inches  instead  of  3  toises. 

Above  the  first  range  of  arcades 
the  aqueduct  is  formed  through- 
out its  length  into  a  passage,  hav- 
ing an  opening  of  4  feet,  which 
serves  as  a  gallery  of  communi- 
cation between  one  side  of  the 
valley  and  the  other.  This  is 
connected  to  the  roads  by  stairs 
or  inclined  planes,  which  termi- 
nate the  inner  passage  at  both 
ends.  The  aqueduct  is  prolonged 
to  the  right  and  left  by  small  ar- 
cades, which  carry  the  water  along 
the  crest  of  the  eminences. 

In  the  engravings  marked  "Aque- 
duct at  Constantinople,"  fig.  1  is 
an  elevation  of  the  aqueduct  at 
Bourgas.  Fig.  A,  part  of  the  same 
on  a  larger  scale,  is  a  section  of 
the  bridge  through  the  key-stone 
of  the  large  arches  j  and  fig.  B, 
is  a  section  through  the  key-stones 
of  the  small  arches  formed  in  the 
piers. 

Near  Santa  Maura,  in  the 
Ionian  islands,there  are  remains  of 
an  aqueduct  of  2§  feet  wide,  and 
nearly  a  mile  long,  from  which 
it  was  conducted  by  earthen  pipes 
into  the  fortress.  It  is  tradition- 
ally ascribed  to  Bajazet :  it  is  now 
applied  to  the  purpose  of  a  bridge. 

The  Aqueduct  of  Spoletto  was 
built  about  the  year  741  by  Theo- 
doric,  king  of  the  Goths,  to  form 
a  communication  with  Spoletto, 
which  stands  on  the  top  of  a 

212 


mountain.  It  is  formed  of  ten 
grand  arches,  each  66  feet  10| 
inches  diameter,  supported  on 
piers  10  feet  thick ;  the  middle 
arches,  under  which  flow  the 
rivulet  of  Maragia,  are  about  308 
feet  high  j  about  the  bridge  is 
the  aqueduct  for  supplying  Spo- 
letto with  water.  This  monu- 
ment is  admirable  from  the  skill 
shown  in  its  construction,  and  the 
boldness  of  its  design.  It  is  built 
of  a  very  hard  and  durable  stone, 
and  is  now  in  excellent  preserva- 
tion :  its  length  is  6714-  feet,  and 
its  width  41  feet.  It  may  also  be 
given  as  an  instance  of  the  use  of 
pointed  arches  nearly  five  hundred 
years  before  their  appearance  in 
English  building,  and  which,  in 
lightness  of  proportion,  exceeds 
any  example  of  gothic  building 
which  could  be  pointed  out  in  the 
most  delicate  tabernacle  work  of 
the  highest  and  most  florid  period 
of  the  gothic  style.  It  is  further 
remarkable  as  an  instance  of 
pointed  arches  constructed  by  the 
Goths,  who  have  been  considered, 
by  many  antiquaries,  to  have  no 
claim  to  their  invention,  or  even 
to  their  use.  See  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture. 

The  prince  Biscaris  Aqueduct  in 
Sicily,  was  constructed  at  the  sole 
expense  of  a  nobleman  of  that 
name,  over  the  river  St.  Paul. 
The  aqueduct,  which  conveys  a 
salubrious  water  into  the  domains 
of  this  family,  also  serves  as  a 
road  across  the  valley.  ,It  is 
composed  of  thirty-one  arcades ; 
the  largest  one  is  formed  in  the 
gothic  manner,  84  feet  wide,  or 
120  Sicilian  palins,  under  which 
passes  the  river. 

The  length  of  the  bridge  is 
nearly  254  feet  long,  and  its 
height  112  feet;  the  passage,  ot 
road,  is  formed  on  the  top  of  the 
first  row  of  arches,  and  the  water- 
duct  is  placed  on  the  upper  tier. 


AQUEDUCT. 


The  Aqueduct  of  Segovia  con- 
tains one  hundred  and  fifty-nine 
arch e 3,  and  extends  about  740 
yards  3  where  it  crosses  the  val- 
ley it  is  somewhat  more  than  94 
feet  high.  The  city  is  built  upon 
two  hills,  and  in  the  valley  which 
separates  them,  a  great  part  of 
the  inhabitants  would  be  deprived 
of  water  but  for  this  edifice.  This 
boon  was  conferred,  according  to 
the  local  antiquaries,  by  Trajan, 
who  erected  the  aqueduct,  and 
which  is  still  in  excellent  preser- 
vation. Upon  a  level  at  its  origin 
with  the  rivulet  which  it  receives, 
and  supported  at  first  by  a  single 
stage  of  arcades,  which  are  not 
more  than  three  feet  high,  it  pro- 
ceeds to  the  summit  of  a  hill  at 
the  other  extremity  of  the  city,  and 
gradually  increases  in  height  in 
proportion  to  the  declivity  of  the 
ground.  In  its  highest  part,  a 
bridge  has  been  thrown  across  an 
abyss.  It  has  two  branches,  which 
form  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  city. 

At  the  commencement  of  this 
angle,  it  becomes  a  grand  object 
— its  two  rows  of  arcades  rise  ma- 
jestically above  each  other,  and 
the  spectator  is  surprised  at  its 
gigantic  height  with  the  light- 
ness of  its  piers.  It  has  stood  six- 
teen hundred  years,  and  its  solidity 
seems  inexplicable,  when  the  sim- 
plicity of  its  construction  is  more 
closely  examined,  It  is  built  of 
square  stones,  laid  in  courses, 
without  external  appearance  of 
mortar ;  and  some  of  its  arches 
are  built  in  the  pointed  form. 
Probably  these  have  undergone 
repair,  either  by  the  Goths  or 
Moors,  when  they  had  possession 
of  the  country.  "  Miserable  mo- 
dern houses  are  fixed  against 
some  of  the  pillars  of  the  aque- 
duct, seeking  a  support  in  these 
proud  remains  for  their  own  weak- 
ness, and  degrade  the  monument 
which  supports  them.     A  small 


convent,  exhibiting  some  pitiful 
architecture,  is  placed  at  the  an- 
gle formed  by  its  two  branches." 

The  Aqueduct  of  Los  Canos  de 
Carmona  conveys  water  from  a 
hill  where  it  rises  in  springs  near 
the  town  of  Alcala,  at  a  distance 
of  about  eight  miles  from  Seville. 
It  is  a  matter  of  dispute  whether 
this  be  a  Roman  or  Spanish-Ara- 
bian work,  but  to  an  accurate  ob- 
server, it  appeared  to  contain  a 
mixture  of  both  styles  j  probably 
originally  constructed  by  the  Ro- 
mans, and  afterwards,  as  the  works 
decayed,  repaired  by  the  Moors. 
The  arches  composing  it  are  of  a 
different  construction,  some  re- 
sembling the  Roman,  and  some 
the  Moorish,  which  last  approach 
to  the  horse-shoe  form,  and  ter- 
minate within  the  perpendicular 
that  supports  them.  The  arches 
are  12  feet  in  diameter,  and  the 
arched  opening  30  feet  high. 
These  varying  in  height  accord- 
ing to  the  level  of  the  ground  over 
which  the  aqueduct  is  carried,  the 
water  is  conducted  in  an  open  ca- 
nal on  the  top  of  the  arches,  and 
forms  a  constant  stream  3  feet 
wide,  and  2  feet  deep,  and  is  es- 
teemed excellent.  A  part  of  it  is 
received  into  a  large  reservoir 
near  the  gate,  and  the  remainder 
is  conveyed  by  pipes  to  the  Al- 
cazer,  public  fountains,  and  the 
houses  of  individuals.  The  entire 
length  of  the  aqueduct  is  com- 
posed of  brick  and  mortar.  Re- 
mains of  a  similar  erection  of  great 
extentare  still  existingnearToledo. 

Many  of  the  arcnes  of  the  aque- 
duct which  conveyed  water  to  the 
ancient  city  of  Acipinio,  are  also 
remaining  near  old  Ronda,  with- 
out any  mixture  of  Moorish  addi- 
tions. They  are  about  16*  feet  in 
diameter,  and  28  feet  high,  and 
the  water  channel  was  formed  on 
the  top.  The  reservoir  at  Ronda 
under   the   Dominican  convent 

213 


AQUEDUCT. 


was  supplied  with  its  water  by 
the  aqueduct.  The  reservoir  is 
on  a  level  with  the  Guadiaro.  It 
is  descended  by  means  of  three 
hundred  aad  fifty  steps.  The  ca- 
vern is  hollowed  into  spacious 
saloons,  the  roofs  of  which  are 
formed  into  domes  of  prodigious 
height;  formerly  the  whole  was 
filled  with  water.  There  having 
been  no  necessity  of  late  years  to 
resort  to  this  resource,  the  ca- 
verns are  neglected,  and  are  go- 
ing so  fast  to  decay,  that,  in  a  few 
years,  they  will  be  filled  with  the 
rubbish  which  falls  from  the  roofs. 

The  Aqueduct  of  Tarragona 
brings  water  to  the  city  from  a 
distance  of  seven  leagues,  and  in 
its  route  traverses  a  deep  ravine, 
which  is  700  feet  wide,  and  100 
feet  high. — The  aqueduct  bridge 
has  twTo  ranges  of  arcades,  the 
lowest  consisting  of  eleven  arches, 
and  the  upper  of  twenty-five.  It 
is  not  considered  to  be  of  a  higher 
era  than  that  of  the  occupation  of 
the  country  by  the  Moors. 

The  Aqueduct  in  the  Plain  of 
Anover,  formed  by  Philip  V.,  is 
seven  leagues  long  :  it  derives  its 
water  from  the  river  Jamara,  and 
was  constructed  for  the  purpose 
of  irrigation.  Within  the  last 
thirty  years  it  has  been  suffered 
to  fall  into  decay,  and  is  now  so 
ruined  as  to  have  become  useless. 

The  Aqueduct  of  Almasora  con- 
ducts water,  for  the  same  purpose 
as  that  of  Anover,  into  the  plain 
of  Castellon,  from  the  river  Mi- 
jures.  It  is  a  tunnel,  almost  the 
whole  distance  from  S.  Quieteria 
to  Almasora,  cut  through  a  lime- 
stone rock.  Its  formation  has 
been  attributed  to  the  Ro- 
mans and  Carthaginians,  and  to 
the  Moors  ;  but  the  opinion  of 
an  able  Spanish  antiquary,  assigns 
it  with  great  probability  to  a  later 
period  ;  it  having  been,  in  his 
opinion,  constructed  by  Jayme  el 


Conquistador,  about  a.  d,  1240 
"In  comparison  with  this  magni- 
ficent work,  how  contemptible  is 
the  Mountain  Percee,  in  Langue- 
doc,  for  which  Louis  XIV.  re- 
ceived so  much  fulsome  adula- 
tion »!'■ 

In  many  other  parts  of  Spain, 
especially  the  southern  provinces, 
are  found  numerous  fountains  and 
reservoirs  of  water,  covered  with 
arches,  and  conducted  in  chan- 
nels to  distant  points,  as  well  for 
the  supply  of  the  inhabitants  as 
for  irrigation,  attributed  to  the 
patient  industry  of  the  Morescoes, 
when,  with  equal  probability,  they 
might  be  ascribed  to  the  Romans 
— to  the  Carthaginians — or  to 
the  more  ancient  inaabitants  of 
the  Peninsula. 

The  Aqueduct  of  Lisbon  has  been 
long  admired  for  the  excellence 
of  its  construction,  and,  in  point 
of  magnitude,  is  not  inferior  to 
any  similar  edifice  which  the  an- 
cients have  left  us.  That  part  of 
it  situated  in  the  valley  of  Alcan- 
tara, about  a  mile  from  Lisbon, 
consists  of  thirty-five  arches,  by 
which  the  water  is  conveyed  over 
a  deep  vale  formed  by  two  oppo- 
site mountains.  The  dimensions 
of  it  in  the  deepest  part  of  the 
valley  are  as  follows :  height  of 
the  arch  from  the  ground  to  the 
intrados,  230  feet  10  inches  ;  from 
the  vortex  of  the  arch  to  the  ex- 
trados,  exclusive  of  the  parapet, 
9  feet  8  inches ;  from  the  extra- 
dos  to  the  top  of  the  ventilator, 
23  feet  4  inches  ;  making  a  total 
height  from  the  ground  of  263 
feet. 

Span  of  the  principal  arch  107 
feet  8  inches;  breadth  of  piers  of 
the  principal  arch  28  feet;  and 
thickness  of  the  piers  in  general  23 
feet  S  inches. 

The  arches  on  each  side  of  the 
principal  one  diminish  in  breadth 
as  the  piers,  whereon  they  rest, 


AQUEDUCT. 


decrease  in  height  with  the  decli- 
vity of  the  ground  ;  they  do  not, 
however,  decrease  by  any  regular 
progression,  neither  are  the  curves 
employed  in  the  arches  of  one 
kind  ; '  fourteen  of  them  being  in 
the  gothic,  or  pointed  style,  the 
rest  are  semicircular  ;  a  variation 
adopted  by  the  architect,  Manuel 
dal  Maga,  from  an  apprehension, 
that  making  the  five  principal 
arches  semicircular,  he  would 
considerably  add  to  the  expense. 
In  the  rest  of  the  edifice  much 
judgment  has  been  displayed  j  no 
part  of  it  has  failed,  or  appears  to 
have  received  the  least  injury 
from  earthquakes. 

Over  the  arches  there  runs 
a  vaulted  corridor  9  feet  6  inches 
high,  by  5  feet  broad  internally. 
A  continued  passage  runs  through 
the  centre  of  it,  for  the  people 
who  constantly  attend  to  keep 
it  in  order,  and  a  semicircular 
channel,  or  conduit  of  13  inches 
diameter,  at  each  side,  through 
which  the  water  is  conveyed.  It 
is  worthy  of  remark,  that  these 
channels  are  laid,  not  in  an  inclin 
ed  direction,  as  in  other  aque- 
ducts, but  horizontally  ;  to  com- 
pensate for  this,  a  small  depres- 
sion is  made  at  certain  intervals, 
by  which  the  water  is  impelled 
along  the  horizontal  line  ;  a 
manner  supposed  by  the  natives 
to  require  less  declension  in  con- 
veying water,  than  an  inclined 
line.  There  are  two  thorough- 
fares for  foot  passengers  along 
the  aqueduct,  one  at  each  side  of 
the  corridor,  which  is  5  feet  wide, 
defended  by  a  stone  parapet. 
From  some  remains  of  the  Ro- 
mans on  this  spot,  it  is  supposed 
they  either  had,  or  attempted  to 
construct,  an  aqueduct  in  this 
situation. 

The  modern  Romans  are  partly 
indebted  for  their  profuse  supply 
of  water  to  the  magnificence  of 


their  renowned  ancestors.  Dur- 
ing the  anarchy  of  the  middle 
ages,  when  the  most  estimable 
works  of  antiquity  were  dilapi- 
dated by  the  wantonness  of  barba- 
rians, the  aqueducts  did  not  es- 
cape the  general  destruction  ;  and 
Rome  which  a  few  centuries  before 
had  rivers  of  water  flowing  in 
her  streets,  drew  her  supply 
from  unwholesome  springs,  or 
marshes.  A  precarious  supply 
had  at  times  been  occasionally 
derived  by  repairing  an  ancient 
conduit,  but  neither  the  re- 
sources of  the  state,  nor  the  skill 
of  individuals,  were  equal  to  the 
undertaking  of  a  permanent  repa- 
ration. It  was  not  until  the  pon- 
tificate of  Nicolas  V.,  that  a  re- 
storation of  an  ancient  aqueduct 
was  attempted  :  the  Aqua  Appia 
was  then  begun,  and  the  work 
continued  by  Sextus  IV.  was  com- 
pleted by  Pius  IV.  in  1568. 

At  this  period  the  three  chan- 
nels by  which  water  of  the  re- 
stored conduit  arrived  at  Rome, 
were  conducted  into,  and  distri- 
buted from,  a  reservoir  without 
any  architectural  ornaments.  Cle- 
ment XII.  began  its  decoration 
on  the  side  of  the  modern  Palais 
Conti  from  the  designs  of  Nicolo 
Salvi.  This  beautiful  monument 
and  masterpiece  of  its  author  was 
finished  under  Benedict  XIV.  and 
received  the  name  of  Trevi,  from 
the  water  being  conducted  into 
its  basin  by  three  channels,  and 
also  from  its  position  at  the 
meeting  of  three  streets.  Of 
the  three  modern  aqueducts  the 
Aqua  Virgine  is  accounted  the 
most  salubrious,  and  best  adapted 
for  culinary  purposes.  The  pipes 
of  this  water  are,  on  this  account, 
sold  at  a  higher  price  than  the 
others,  by  the  apostolic  charac- 
ters. 

The  aqueduct  which  furnished 
in  the  time  of  Frontinus  2,504 

215 


AQUE 

: 

quinaires,  now  furnishes  nearly 
65,782  cubic  metres  in  twenty-four 
hours,  and  this  quantity  is  distri- 
buted by  seven  principal  conduits 
into  thirteen  public  and  thirty- 
seven  common  fountains. 

The  present  Aqua  Felice  is  part 
of  the  water  of  the  ancient  Aqua 
Claudia  and  Aqua  Marcia,  united 
with  some  other  springs  collected 
under  the  pontificate  of  Sextus  V. 
The  stream  begins  from  the 
Campo  Colonna,  situated  to  the 
left  of  the  Palestrina  road,  four- 
teen Roman  miles  from  Rome, 
and  enters  the  city  through  that 
remarkable  ancient  remain,  called 
the  monument  of  the  Aqua  Clau- 
dia. This  water  follows  a  course 
approaching  to  that  of  the  Aqua 
Marcia  and  Aqua  Claudia,  but  is 
on  a  lower  level  than  either,  as  its 
sources  are  not  so  high  up  the  Anio. 
All  the  waters  of  which  the 
Aqua  Felice  is  composed,  were 
united  by  Urban  VII.  in  one 
immense  reservoir,  and  several 
smaller  ones,  whence  they  were 
conducted  into  the  conduit  by 
an  aperture  named  fistola  urbana, 
formed  in  a  block  of  marble.  Ac- 
cording to  Fontana  this  stream  is 
equal  to  a  hundred  superficial 
<e  onces  d'eau." 

The  quantity  of  water  has  been 
estimated  at  20,537  cubic  metres 
in  twenty-four  hours,  distributed 
in  sixteen  public,  and  eleven  com- 
mon fountains. 

The  fountain  from  which  its 
water  is  distributed  to  the  city,  is 
adorned  with  a  statue  of  Moses 
striking  the  rock,  and  two  other 
figures  with  four  ionic  columns  of 
granite,  and  two  Egyptian  lions 
of  basalt,  which  formed  part  of 
the  ancient  decoration  of  the  Pan- 
theon. Its  name  Felice,  is  derived 
from  Felice  Peretti,  which  was 
that  of  the  family  of  Sextus  V. 

The  Aqua  Paola.  In  1694,  the 
cardinal  Orsini  having  proposed 

216 


DUCT. 

to  the  papal  government  to  bring 
water  from  the  lake  Bracciano 
(anciently  Alsietinus)  to  Rome,  in 
the  ancient  channel  of  the  Aqua 
Alsietina,  the  architect  Paglia  ex- 
amined the  levels,  and  stated  that 
a  sufficient  quantity  of  water  could 
be  obtained  and  directed  into  the 
channel  as  projected  by  the  car- 
dinal. Permission  was  accord- 
ingly given  to  the  Orsini  family 
to  commence  operations,  on  con- 
dition of  furnishing  about  a  third 
part  of  the  water  for  the  supply  of 
one  of  the  new  public  fountains, 
and  dividing  with  the  apostolic 
chamber  the  revenue  which  would 
arise  from  the  disposal  of  the 
remainder. 

The  cavalier  Bernini  having  the 
direction  of  the    new  fountain 
before  St.  Peter's,  and  wishing  to 
ascertain  by  means  which  appear- 
ed to  him  less  exceptionable  than 
those  employed  by  Abbe  Paglia, 
whether  the  quantity  which  had 
been  stated,  as  being  at  his  dis- 
posal, could  be  obtained,  or  de- 
pended upon,  committed  the  ex- 
amination of  the  levels  to  his  bro- 
ther, who  gavehis  opinion  against 
the    practicability  of  obtaining 
that  quantity  which  the  cardi- 
nal anticipated,  on  account  of  the 
small  declivity  of  the  channel  of 
the  aqueduct,  and  the  variations 
in  the  level  of  the  lake  itself.  The 
pope  having  directed  new  experi- 
ments and  observations   to  be 
made,  it  was  found  that  although 
the  level  of  the  lake  was  about 
l£  palms  above  the  surface  of  the 
ancient  reservoir  which  fed  the 
aqueduct,    that    this  additional 
head  was  insufficient  to  produce 
the  velocity  to  furnish  the  supply 
which  was  considered  to  be  de- 
sirable.   To  obtain  this  velocity 
a  weir  or  dam  was  erected  across 
the  mouth  of  the  lake  to  preserve 
its  waters  at  the  proper  height, 
and  the  usual  means  of  regulating 


AQUE 

the  head,  and  disposing  of  the 
superfluous  water  by  sluices,  was 
resorted  to.  The  aqueduct  now 
received  the  name  of  Aqua  Paola, 
from  the  name  of  the  pontiff, 
(Paul  V.)  in  whose  reign  it  was 
Drought  to  Rome. 

The  quantity  of  water  furnish- 
ed by  this  aqueduct  is  estimated 
at  about  94,184  cubic  metres  in 
twenty-four  hours. 

Thus,  from  the  three  modern 
aqueducts,  not  less  than  180,500 
cubic  metres  of  water  are  daily 
introduced  into  Rome  ;  yet  the 
want  of  cleanliness  is  remarkable 
in  every  street  and  corner  of  the 
city.  The  water  is  not  conveyed 
t/y  pipes  into  the  upper  floors  of 
houses,  but  into  a  common  foun- 
tain in  their  courts.  In  order  to 
raise  it  to  these  stories,  a  strong 
iron  wire  is  fixed  with  one  end 
above  the  fountain,  and  another 
above  the  window  j  a  bucket  is 
made  to  slide  along  this  wire, 
having  a  rope  attached  to  it  by 
which  it  is  let  down  into  the 
fountain,  and  passed  over  a  pulley 
above  the  window ;  the  end  of 
the  rope  is  held  by  the  person  in 
the  window,  and  when  the  bucket 
is  filled,  he  draws  the  rope  and  it 
slides  along  the  wire  as  a  guide 
until  it  arrives  at  the  window, 
where  it  is  disengaged  by  the  at- 
tendant. 

The  Aqueduct  of  Caserta,  one  of 
the  most  magnificent  modern 
works  of  the  kind  in  Europe,  was 
commenced  in  1753,  by  order  of 
the  king  of  Naples,  to  bring 
water  from  some  springs  at  a  dis- 
tance of  nine  miles,  rising  at  the 
base  of  the  mountain  Taburno,  to 
the  palace  which  he  had  recently 
built  at  Caserta.  These  being 
united  with  some  smaller  streams 
in  their  route,  crossed  the  river 
Faenza,  on  an  aqueduct  bridge  of 
three  arches,  and  continues  its 
course  across  the  valley  of  Duraz- 
2E 


DUCT. 

zano  by  a  bridge  of  nearly  the 
same  dimensions  j  after  a  short 
detour,  it  traverses  the  deep 
valley  between  the  mountains 
Longano  and  Tifata,  by  an  aque- 
duct bridge  of  1,618  feet  long,  and 
178  feet  high,  formed  of  three 
stages  of  arcades  placed  the  one 
over  the  other.  See  engraving 
marked  Aqueduct  of  Caserta. 

The  under  range  is  composed 
of  nineteen  arches,  the  second 
range  has  twenty-seven  arches, 
and  the  third  forty-three.  The 
width  of  the  bridge  is  20  feet 
between  the  outer  walls  of  the  * 
arcades  ;  the  counterforts  project 
6  feet.  The  width  of  the  arches 
is  20  feet. 

Above  the  first  range  of  ar- 
cades the  thickness  of  the  wall  is 
12  feet,  and  the  projection  of  the 
counterforts  6  feet.  The  coun- 
terforts rise  to  the  summit  of  the 
aqueduct,  and  on  the  third  story 
of  arcades  the  intermediate  piers 
are  strengthened  by  pilasters  5 
feet  9  inches  wide,  having  a  pro- 
jection of  14  inches.  The  passage 
formed  in  the  piers  above  the 
first  and  second  ranges  of  arcades 
is  4  feet  wide.  The  water  chan- 
nel is  3  feet  8  inches  wide,  and 
about  2  feet  5  inches  high. 

The  length  of  the  aqueduct, 
from  the  point  in  which  the 
water  is  introduced  to  that  where 
it  emerges,  is  21,133  toises  j  the 
declivity  is  not  more  than  4  0,  of 
the  length  about  of  a  line  each 
toise,  in  place  of  lj  line  per  toise, 
which  is  found  in  Roman  works, 
or  about  7j  times  less.  The  ar* 
chitect  who  affected  to  give  so 
small  a  slope  to  the  water  chan- 
nel, did  not  seem  to  be  aware 
that  as  the  velocity  of  the  current 
is  as  the  square  of  its  head,  or 
summit  level,  that  in  making 
this  7^  times  less,  he  could  only 
procure  the  fifty-sixth  part  of 
the  water,  which  reduces  to  % 

217 


AQUEDUCT. 


trifling  amount  the  quantity  fur* 
nished  by  the  magnificient  erec- 
tion. 

The  reservoir,  placed  1,600 
toises  from  the  palace,  is  400  feet 
above  the  level  of  its  court,  and 
is  426  feet  5  inches  under  the 
source.  If  he  had  given  a  fall  to 
his  water  channel  of  a  line  each 
toise,  or  B+4-,  he  would  have  had 
in  the  whole  length  a  fall  not 
more  than  147  feet,  in  place  of 
26  feet  5  inches ;  and  this  decli- 
vity would  have  reduced  the 
height  of  the  reservoir  to  279 
feet  5  inches  above  the  level  of 
the  court  of  the  palace,  a  height 
amply  sufficient  for  all  the  uses 
and  ornament  of  the  gardens ; 
and  he  would  have  had  six  or 
seven  times  more  water  from  the 
increased  velocity  given  by  the 
additional  slope  of  the  water  way. 

The  subterranean  constructions 
are  even  more  considerable  than 
those  above  ground.  Tunnelling 
has  been  resorted  to  five  times, 
the  first  near  the  district  called 
Prato  through  the  tuff  a,  for  1,100 
toises  the  second  at  Ciesco 
through  free  stone  for  950  toises ; 
the  third  in  the  side  of  the  moun- 
tain Erose,  through  rock  and 
earth  for  a  distance  of  350  toises  5 
also  through  rock  at  Gerzano  for 
5/0  toises,  and  at  Caserta,  through 
the  mountain,  for  230  toises. 

To  give  air  and  light  to  these 
subterranean  channels,  shafts  or 
vertical  funnels  10  feet  in  diameter 
at  bottom,  and  4  feet  at  top,  and 
many  of  them  250  feet  deep,  were 
sunk  from  the  surface  of  the 
ground  to  that  of  the  aqueduct. 

In  the  engraving  marked  Aque- 
duct of  Caserta,  fig.  1,  is  a  general 
view  of  the  great  aqueduct  bridge 
at  Caserta  ;  fig.  2,  parr,  of  the  same 
building  on  a  larger  scale  5  fig.  3, 
a  section  on  the  same  scale  with 
fig.  2  5  and  fig.  4,  a  horizontal  sec  - 
tion of  the  same  parts. 

218 


The  Aqueduct  of  Caslellana  was 
partly  constructed  on  an  ancient 
Roman  road  leading  toCastellana. 
This  road  is  about  180  toises 
long,  5  wide,  and  its  greatest 
height  does  not  exceed  20  toises. 
It  is  perforated  in  the  middle  of 
its  length  by  nine  arches,  of  which 
three  are  13;-  toises  in  diameter, 
and  the  other  10  toises  at  the 
piers  are  strengthened  by  coun- 
terforts. The  water  duct  placed 
above  the  arches  of  this  ancient 
bridge,  is  supported  by  a  range 
of  arcades,  of  which  the  entire 
height  is  a  little  less  than  8  toises  j 
the  perforations  are  3  toises  wide. 

The  figure  marked  Aqueduct  of 
Castellana,  is  an  elevation  of  this 
building,  looking  up  the  stream 
which  Hows  under  it. 

The  Aqueduct  of  Montpelier  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  works 
of  the  kind  in  France.  It  con- 
ducts the  waters  of  St.  Clement, 
and  of  Boulidou,  to  Montpelier. 
It  was  designed  by  M.  Pitot,  a 
French  architect  of  great  fame, 
and  was  completed  by  him  in  a 
period  of  a  little  less  than  thirteen 
years. 

It  is  formed  by  two  ranges  of 
arcades  ;  the  under  ranges  are  26 
feet  wide,  and  70  in  number ; 
the  piers  11  feet  4  inches  square 
on  their  horizontal  section.  The 
arches  of  the  second  range  are 
smaller,  and  are  so  arranged  that 
three  of  them  are  contained  in  the 
space  occupied  by  the  larger  ones 
beneath  ;  their  width  is  8  feet  5 
inches,  and  their  piers  4  feet  over 
the  front  of  the  bridge ;  the 
greatest  height  of  the  aqueduct  is 
86  feet. 

The  work  is  entirely  composed 
with  wrought  masonry,  and  at  the 
point  of  distribution  of  the  water 
is  a  reservoir,  or  chateau  d'eau, 
decorated  with  columns.  The 
quantity  of  water  flowing  to 
Montpelicr     does    not  exceed 


AQUEDUCT. 


46.080  cubic  feet  in  twenty-four 
hours. 

The  Aqueduct  of  Arcueil.  The 
emperor  Julian,  having  built  a 
palace  on  the  site  which  is  now 
occupied  by  the  college  of  Sor- 
bonne,  and  the  hotel  de  Cluny, 
constructed  an  aqueduct  8,000 
toises  long,  to  convey  to  the 
palace,  and  the  baths  which  ad- 
joined it,  the  waters  found  at  the 
villages  of  Louan,  Montjean, 
Chilli,  Vuissous,  and  the  neigh- 
bouring districts. 

This  aqueduct  being  greatly 
dilapidated  during  the  ravages  of 
the  Normans,  the  Roman  works 
were  abandoned,  and  for  a  period 
of  eight  hundred  years  the  waters 
which  they  had  conveyed  were 
lost  to  the  inhabitants  of  Paris. 

In  1608,  during  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  operations  were  begun 
by  the  direction  of  the  minister 
Sully,  to  collect  the  waters  of 
the  plain  of  Rungis,  and  for  the 
formation     of    the  necessary 
water  channels  and  aqueducts  :  in 
1612,  these  were  carried  on  with 
vigour,  and  new  levels  were  laid 
down  for  the  conveyance  of  the 
water  to  Paris.    The  works  were 
finished  in  1634,  but  the  quantity 
of  water  did  not  exceed  55  square 
inches.   This  was  but  a  small  por- 
tion of  the  water  carried  to  Paris 
i  by  the  Roman  aqueduct ;  a  de- 
ficiency  occasioned  by  a  grant 
:  made  by  Louis  XIV.  to  a  marquis 
:  d'Effiat,  of  the  right  to  the  an- 
f  cient  conduits  and  aqueducts  in 
i  the  plain  of  Chilli  and  Vuissous, 
forming  part  of  the  marquisate. 
i  In  order,  therefore,  to  augment 
the  quantity  of  water,  it  was  ne- 
i  cessary  to  unite  the  conduits  pro- 
,  ceeding  from  Chilli  and  Vuissous, 
with  those  of  the  plain  of  Rungis. 
Several  improvements  by  some  en- 
i  terprising  individuals  were  made, 
as  well  in  the  original  construc- 
tions, as  in  opening  some  new 


sources  of  supply  about  a.d.1665 
In  1780,  an  individual  named  Lu- 
cas, observing  with  regret  that  the 
Roman  conduits  were  abandoned 
as  useless,  had  levels  taken  of  the 
lands  through  which  they  were 
carried,  by  which  it  was  demon- 
strated that  the  water  could  still  be 
conveyed  into  the  reservoir  in  the 
plain  of  Rungis  :  operations  were 
commenced  to  carry  his  project 
into  effect,  but  the  work  w  as  given"" 
up  at  the  commencement  of  the 
revolution. 

The  waters  of  the  present 
aqueduct  are  conducted  into  an 
arched  reservoir,  called  the  Grande 
Quarre  de  Rungis,  from  which 
they  are  conducted  across  the 
valley  d'Arcueil  by  an  aqueduct 
bridge,  and  are  carried  thence  to 
the  observatory  at  Paris  by  a  sub- 
terranean channel. 

From  the  reservoir  at  Rungis 
to  the  bridge  at  Arcueil,  is  3,670 
toises  with  a  fall  of  43  feet  2 
lines.  At  the  summit  of  the 
bridge  is  a  reservoir  which  re- 
ceives the  water,  and  in  which 
they  are  guaged  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  the  increase  or 
diminution  of  the  quantity  which 
takes  place  between  Rungis  and 
Arcueil.  Proceeding  from  this, 
they  traverse  the  valley  by  the 
bridge  j  this  to  Paris  is  2,937 
toises  with  a  fall  of  11  feet  6 
inches,  and  3  lines,  giving  the  en- 
tire length  6,627  toises,  with  a 
fall  of  54  feet  6  inches  7  lines. 
The  stream  is  again  guaged  in 
the  reservoir  at  Paris,  whence 
it  is  distributed  in  pipes  to  the 
public  fountains,  and  to  private 
houses. 

Fig.  1,  on  the  engraving  mark- 
ed Aqueduct  of  Arcueil,  is  an  ele- 
vation of  part  of  the  aqueduct 
bridge  called  Arcueil,  and  by 
which  the  water  is  carried  over 
the  valley,  between  the  village  of 
that  name,  and  that  of  Cacti  ai*. 

219 


AQUEDUCT. 


The  arches  aie  24  feet  wide,  and 
vary  in  their  height  by  the  ine- 
qualities of  the  ground  line.  Fig. 
2,  plan  of  the  aqueduct.  Fig.  3, 
section  through  the  middle  of  the 
arches,  showing  the  water-duct  j 
%  banquette  is  formed  on  each 
i'ide  of  the  channel  for  walking 
♦n.  This  was  the  original  construc- 
tion throughout,  but  as  this  was 
.51  many  cases  found  to  be  incon- 
venient, in  the  restorations  which 
have  from  time  to  time  been  made 
in  the  bridge,  the  banquette  is 
formed  in  the  manner  shown 
•n  fig.  4.  Those  parts  of  the 
tqueduct  formed  during  the  re- 
gency of  Mary  de  Medicis,  have 
been  constructed  with  great  care, 
and  are  still  in  excellent  preser- 
vation j  these  are  uniformly  of 
wrought  stones. 

Aqueduct  of  Maintenon.  In  1680, 
Vauban  and  Lahire  conceived  the 
project  of  bringing  the  waters  of 
the  river  Eure  to  Versailles. 

The  results  of  levels  made  to 
ascertain  the  altitude  of  the  point 
of  supply  gave  110  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  marble  court  of  the 
chateau  de  Versailles,  a  distance 
of  nearly  60,000  toises.  The 
works  commenced  in  1684,  were 
interrupted  four  years  afterwards. 
The  first  portion  of  the  length 
was  about  24,000  toises  from  the 
point  of  supply  to  the  aqueduct 
de  Maintenon,  and  was  carried 
along  the  surface  of  the  ground  ; 
in  this  distance  it  was  to  be  car- 
ried across  five  vallies.  The  se- 
cond portion  was  the  aqueduct  de 
Maintenon,  constructed  of  mason- 
ry, 23,000  toises  long.  The  bridge 
had  three  ranges  of  arcades,  the 
lowest  range  consisting  of  forty- 
seven  arches,  stretching  in  length 
to  500  toises,  the  second  story 
was  composed  of  one  hundred 
and  ninety-five  arches,  stretching 
2,070  toises  :  the  third  range  had 
three  hundred  and  ninety  arches 
220 


in  length  of 2,070  toises  ;  its  great- 
est heightwould  have  been  220 feet. 
The  third  ipart  of  the  aqueduct 
from  the  bridge  of  Maintenon,  to 
l'Etang  de  la  Tour,  was  13,875 
toises.  The  water  channel  was 
formed  in  this  length  of  different 
embankments  of  earth,  varying  in 
its  height  with  the  ground  over 
which  it  was  carried  from  l'Etang 
de  la  Tour,  to  the  reservoirs  con- 
structed on  the  height  of  Satovy: 
it  was  to  be  carried  in  trenches, 
or  by  subterranean  work,  with  a 
fall  of  74  feet  in  19,000  toises. 

In  1780,  the  following  parts  of 
this  stupendous  undertaking  had 
been  proceeded  with. 

The  taking  the  wyater  by  the 
Pont  Gouin,  and  the  trench  for 
the  aqueduct  from  the  same 
point  to  Berchieres,  a  length  of 
20,000  toises,  was  in  a  consider- 
able state  of  forwardness.  The 
embankment  of  earth  for  642 
toises,  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  Berchieres  to  the  valley  of 
the  same  name  had  also  been 
finished,  and  was  then  in  ag:ood 
condition.  The  aqueduct  which 
was  proposed  by  Vauban  to  be 
built  on  three  ranges  of  arcades 
to  traverse  the  valley,  had  never 
been  commenced.  Beyond  the 
valley  of  Berchieres,  an  embank- 
ment prolonged  its  course  toward 
the  aqueduct  of  Maintenon,  for 
3,000  toises  on  the  Berchieres' 
side,  and  was  44  feet  above  the 
general  level  of  the  ground ;  and 
on  the  Maintenon  side,  it  was  as 
much  as  64  feet :  2,000  toises  re- 
mained of  the  embankment  at  this 
height,  the  remainder  being  about 
half  of  that  elevation.  The  part 
of  the  aqueduct  bridge,  traversing 
the  valley  of  Maintenon,  had  only 
the  first  row  of  arcades  finished. 
The  embankment  at  Hondreville 
was  finished,  with  the  exception 
of  an  opening  to  be  made  through 
the  forest  of  Ivelines,  for  about 


A  Q  U 


AR  A 


2,000  toises,  but  the  height  did  not 
require  to  be  greater  than  between 
14  and  20  feet,  according  to  the 
inequalities  of  the  ground.  The 
part  called  the  Etang  de  la  Tour, 
being  the  first  stage  that  furnish- 
ed water  to  Versailles,  as  far  as  the 
reservoir,  situated  on  the  hill  Go- 
bert,  was  in  very  good  condition. 

The  waters  of  the  aqueduct 
were  intended  to  be  collected  into 
four  reservoirs,  constructed  on  a 
hill  situated  about  2,000  toises 
from  Versailles.  Their  area  was 
equal  to  sixteen  arpens,  and  had 
a  depth  of  12  feet  excavated. 

The  declivity  of  the  channel, 
from  the  point  where  the  water 
was  introduced  into  the  aqueduct 
at  the  Pont  Gouin,  was  found  to 
be  75  feet ;  the  reservoirs  were 
40  feet  above  the  court  of  the  pa- 
lace. 

In  1788,  some  idea  was  enter- 
tained of  proceeding  with  this  gi- 
gantic work,  but  shortly  after- 
wards, the  lands  through  which 
the  aqueduct  passed  were  sold, 
and  a  part  of  the  embankments 
filled  up,  and  a  greater  part  of 
the  aqueduct  of  Maintenon  was 
demolished.  This  circumstance 
is  exceedingly  to  be  regretted,  as 
from  some  accurate  levels,  the 
aqueduct  had  a  summit  height, 
sufficient  to  have  allowed  the  sur- 
plus water  to  have  been  conduct- 
ed to  St.  Cloud  and  Paris. 

In  the  engraving  marked  Aque- 
duct of  Maintenon,  fig.  1,  shows 
an  elevation  of  part  of  the  en- 
tire composition  ;  the  first  range 
of  arcades  being  all  that  was 
finished.  Fig.  2,  is  a  section. 
Of  this  first  range  of  arcades,  there 
are  now  only  a  few  arches  in  ex- 
istence, and  so  rapid  has  been  the 
dilapidation,  that  it  is  probable, 
in  a  few  more  years,  not  a  vestige 
will  remain  of  this  work,  equal  in 
conception  and  in  execution  to  any 
of  the  similar  works  of  theRomans. 
In  the  de&cription  of  the  acme- 


ducts  of  Lyon,  Nismes,  Metz, 
Spoletto,  Bourgas,  Caserta  Castel- 
lana,  Montpelier  Maintenon,  and 
the  three  modern  aqueducts  at 
Rome,  the  measures  mentioned 
are  those  of  France,  of  which 

Inches  English. 


The  millimetre  =  0  03937 
A  metre  ==  39*3710 

A  toise  =  76*7360 

A  foot  =  12*7893 

A  line  =    0  08S8 

An  inch  =  1*0657* 

Arabesque,  (Fr.)  a  building 
after  the  manner  of  the  Arabs. 
Ornaments  used  by  the  same  peo- 
ple in  which  no  human  or  animal 
figures  appear,  representations  of 
these  being  forbidden  by  the  ko- 
ran.  Sentences  from  the  koran 
introduced  as  ornaments  to  build- 
ings or  apartments,  occasionally 
interwoven  with  foliage  and  geo- 
metrical figures.  Intricate  lineal 
compartments,  and  chiligon  mo- 
saics which  adorn  the  walls,  ceil- 
ings, and  floors  of  Arabian  build- 
ings. The  term  is  synonymous 
with  moresque,  (which  see.) 

Arabesque  is  sometimes,  but 
improperly,  used  to  denote  a  spe- 
cies of  ornament  composed  of 
capricious,  fantastic,  and  imagi- 
nary representations  of  animals 
and  foliage,  and  works  of  art, 
much  employed  in  the  decoration 
of  walls  and  ceilings  by  the  Ro- 
mans, during  and  after  the  reign 
of  Nero,  and  probably  at  an 
earlier  period  by  the  Greeks,  who 
may  have  derived  it  from  the  ori- 
entals. Count  Caylus  says  it  was 
brought  from  Egypt,  adopted  by 
the  Greeks,  and  received  among 
the  Romans  in  the  age  of  Augus- 
tus. These  ornaments  have  been 
sometimes  called  grotesques,  after 
the  Italian  name  grotesca,  (which 
see)  given  from  examples  of  this 
style  of  ornament,  having  been  dis- 
covered ornamenting  some  (now) 
subterranean  buildings  or  grottoes. 
By   some    antiquaries  these 

221 

See  Supplement. 


AR  A 


A  R  A 


ornaments  have  also  been  call- 
ed romanesques.  Another  au- 
thor, whose  eminence  in  art 
entitles  his  opinion  to  great  con- 
sideration, called  these  produc- 
tions bizaresque,  as  involving 
no  theory,  and  being  expressive 
of  the  general  character  of  the 
style,  and  ranged  them  into  the 
periods  in  which  the  taste,  or  sub- 
jects underwent  an  alteration  : — 
Egyptian — Etruscan — the  Nero- 
nian  period — that  of  Diocletian — 
of  Constantine — the  gothic  and 
Saracenic  periods,  and  that  intro- 
duced by  the  northern  mediaeval 
architects — the  revival  of  the 
style  by  the  prince  of  the  Ro- 
man painters  in  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury, and  of  which  his  specimens 
in  the  Vatican  may  be  considered 
as  the  perfection,  until  the  period 
of  the  decline  of  the  RafFaelesque 
taste  in  the  productions  of  the 
French  artists. 

Ancient  walls  were  painted  from 
the  earliest  periods,  and  pan- 
nels  of  rooms  with  flowers  in  the 
centre  are  found  at  Thebes. 
Pausias,  the  Sicyonian,  introduced 
the  custom  among  the  Greeks. 
These  paintings  appear  tohave  been 
varnished  by  an  encaustic  process. 
A  Roman,  according  to  Pliny,  was 
the  inventor  of  Roporography ,  or 
fantastic  slender  columns,  formed 
of  parts  of  animals  and  flowers, 
common  at  Pompeii,  and  imitated 
in  the  divisions  of  modern  paper- 
nangings.  The  grotesque,  or  fan- 
tastic representation  of  animals  and 
men,  also  borrowed  from  Egypt,  is, 
according  to  Caylus,  purelyRoman. 

Arabesques,  properly  so  called, 
appear  to  have  been  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Moorish 
conquerors  of  Spain  ;  and  from 
this  point,  it  is  probable,  that  their 
use  was  diffused  in  the  neigh- 
bouring countries.  There  are 
numerous  points  of  resemblance 
betwe  en  arabesque  ornaments  and 
those  decorating  what  are  now 


called  gothic,  or  pointed  style, 
buildings  in  France  and  England, 
and  some  curious  specimens 
in  Portugal.  The  only  works 
which  can  be  referred  to  by  the 
architect  for  examples  of  these 
buildings,  are  those  by  the  Mur- 
phys,  father  and  son.  "  The  Ara- 
bian Antiquities  of  Spain,"  by  the 
late  J.  Cavanah  Murphy,  an  ho- 
nour to  the  age  which  produced  it, 
contains  numerous  specimens  of 
pure  arabesque  ornaments. 

Arabian  Architecture.  Va* 
rious  and  remote,  says  the  author 
of  the  "  History  of  the  Spanish 
Arabs,"  were  the  sources  whence 
the  Arabians  derived  their  notions 
of  the  arts.  Some  rudiments  of 
the  arts  of  surrounding  nations — 
the  Egyptians,  Syrians,  Chaldeans, 
and  Persians,  were  in  all  proba- 
bility introduced  among  them  by 
commercial  intercourse  at  an 
early  period,  but  these  germs 
continued  to  be  like  their  dreary 
deserts,  unimproved  and  unculti- 
vated. Secluded  by  situation  in 
a  great  degree  from  intercourse 
with  the  neighbouring  countries, 
they  acquired  in  a  state  of  lawless 
independence  habits  averse  from 
the  cultivation  of  the  arts  and  sci- 
ences. Previously  to  the  time  of 
Mahomet,  it  is  certain  that  they 
possessed  only  a  scanty  know- 
ledge of  the  arts,  and  before  the 
institution  of  Islamism,  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  extremely  defi- 
cient in  the  art  of  building,  even 
in  the  beautiful  country  of  Ye- 
man.  Yet  in  this  province  were  si- 
tuated the  most  ancient  and  popu- 
lous of  the  forty-two  cities  of  Ara- 
bia, enumerated  by  Abulfeda,  of 
which  Sanna  and  Merab  were  the 
most  distinguished. 

Sanna  the  capital,  was  cele- 
brated for  its  lofty  towers ;  and, 
by  Abulfeda,  is  compared  to  Da- 
mascus. Merab,  which  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Roman  legions  un- 
der JLlius  Gallus,  is  said  to  have 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


been  six  miles  in  circumference, 
and  was  famous  for  its  vast  reser- 
voir, formed  by  a  narrow  valley  be- 
tween two  ranges  of  hills,  and  a 
day's  journey  in  length.  Into  this 
flowed  the  waters  of  six  or  seven 
small  rivers.  The  narrow  entrance 
of  the  valley  was  shut  up  by  a 
solid  wall  of  hewn  stone,  50  feet 
in  height ;  on  which  many  of  the 
inhabitants  erected  dwellings,  and 
in  which  three  flood-gates  were 
erected  one  above  another,  to  re- 
gulate the  distribution  of  the  wa- 
ter over  the  valley  ;  but  "  God," 
says  the  Nubian  geographer,  "  be- 
ing highly  displeased  with  their 
great  pride  and  insolence,  sent  a 
mighty  torrent  by  night  which 
swept  away  the  whole  city,  toge- 
ther with  many  neighbouring 
towns  and  people."  Niebuhr, 
however,  says  the  destruction  of 
this  celebrated  dam,  arose  from 
neglecting  to  repair  the  mound. 
When  the  Sabaean  kingdom  de- 
clined, the  neighbouring  fields 
being  no  longer  watered,  became 
waste  and  barren,  and  the  city  was 
thus  left  without  the  means  of 
subsistence. 

One  of  the  most  distinguished 
,  architects  of  ancient  Arabia,  ac- 
cording to  the  same  author,  was 
Sennamar,  who  is  supposed  to 
have  been  a  Chaldean  by  birth. 
By  him  were  erected  forNoman  al 
Aouar,  the  tenth  king  of  Hira,  the 
castles  or  towers  of  Sedir  and 
•  Khawarnak,  celebrated  among 
the  Arabians  as  having  been  one 
of  the  wonders  of  the  world. 
With  such  skill,  it  is  said,  were 
these  buildings  erected,  that  a 
single  stone  tied  together  each 
entire  structure,  and  what  was 
equally  miraculous,  the  colour  of 
the  stones  with  which  the  walls 
are  built,  changed  (camelion  like) 
several  times  in  the  course  of  the 
'  day.  The  fate  of  the  architect 
A.'as  remarkable,  and  gave  rise  to 


the  Arabian  proverb,  "the  reward 
of  Sennamar."  To  compensate  him 
for  his  labour,  the  sovereign  made 
him  very  splendid  presents,  but 
considering  afterwards  that  Sen- 
namar might  erect  similar  towers 
for  his  enemies,  and  fearing  also 
least  he  should  discover  the  key- 
stone of  the  building,  he  com- 
manded him  to  be  precipitated 
headlong  from  its  summit  into 
the  ditch  that  surrounded  it. 

Of  the  monuments  of  ancient 
architecture  in  Arabia  few  have 
been  preserved,  and  the  best  ac- 
counts are  uncertain  and  unsatis- 
factory. The  supposed  houses  of 
the  people  called  Thamud,  't  is 
said,  are  still  seen  in  the  excava- 
tions of  rocks  ;  but  of  the  seven 
ancient  temples,  in  which  the 
Arabs  worshipped  their  idols,  that 
called  the  Caaba  at  Mecca  is  the 
only  one  that  has  survived  the  de- 
solations of  time.  This  quadran- 
gular building  is  24  cubits  long, 
23  broad,  and  27  high.  A  door  on 
the  east  side  and  a  window  admit 
the  light;  the  double  roof  is  sup- 
ported by  three  octangular  pillars 
of  aloes  wood,  and  a  spout  for- 
merly of  wood,  but  now  of  gold, 
discharges  the  rain  water.  The 
munificence  of  a  king  of  the  Ho- 
merites,  who  reigned  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  years  before  the 
christian  era,  covered  this  holy 
temple  with  striped  cloth  and  fine 
linen,  and  made  keys  for  its  gate. 
This  decoration  was  continued  by 
the  successor  of  Mahomet,  and 
the  modern  veil  of  black  silk 
fringed  with  gold  is  annually  re- 
newed by  the  Turkish  emperor. 
Since  the  promulgation  of  the 
koran,  the  Caaba  is  the  fixed  point 
(or  kibla)  of  the  horizon,  to 
which  the  Moslems  in  every  part 
of  the  world  turn  their  faces  when 
they  pray.  It  is  now  encompass- 
ed by  a  spacious  quadrangle,  the 
work  of  successive  khalifs,  con- 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


sisting  of  porticoes  and  apart- 
ments for  the  accommodation  of 
the  pilgrims  who  resort  to  it  from 
various  parts  of  the  east.  But 
the  tombs  of  the  eighty  descend- 
ants of  Mahomet,  and  of  his  wife, 
no  longer  excite  the  veneration  of 
the  Moslems.  They  were  le- 
velled by  the  Wahabees  in  1S03, 
who,  however,  spared  the  Caaba, 
and  its  surrounding  buildings. 

Whatever  knowledge  of  the 
arts  the  Arabians  acquired  in  the 
ages  subsequent  to  Mahomet, 
they  owed  to  the  people  whom 
they  subdued  from  the  Indus  to 
the  Nile,  during  the  ten  years' 
reign  of  Omar,  the  second  khalif, 
who  died  a.d.  644.  The  victo- 
rious Moslems  reduced  to  obedi- 
ence thirty-six  thousand  cities  or 
castles,  destroyed  four  thousand 
churches,  or  temples  of  the  Chris- 
tians, and  erected  fourteen  hun- 
dred mosques,  for  the  exercise  of 
their  religion.  Immediately  after 
the  surrender  of  Jerusalem,  Omar 
founded  a  small  mosque,  the  first 
perhaps  which  was  erected  out  of 
the  precincts  of  Arabia,  upon  the 
site  of  the  ancient  temple.  By 
succeeding  khalifs  it  was  greatly 
enlarged  and  embellished,  and  ac- 
cording to  D'Anville,  its  circum- 
ference is  nearly  a  Roman  mile, 
being  215  toises  in  length,  by  172 
in  breadth.  This  edifice  among 
the  Arabians  was  reckoned  to  be 
second  only  to  the  magnificent 
Mezquita  at  Cordova. 

With  the  extension  of  their  em- 
pire and  religion,  the  Arabians 
appear  to  have  acquired  a  greater 
relish  for  the  arts,  and  on  the 
commencement  of  the  Ommiad 
dynasty  of  khalifs,  a  taste  for 
their  cultivation  began  to  show 
itself  among  the  nation.  When 
the  first  khalif  of  that  race  be- 
gan his  reign,  he  removed  the 
seat  of  empire  from  Medina  to 
Damascus,  and  laying  aside  the 

224 


ancient   frugality  of    the  more 
ancient  princes,  he  assumed  the 
magnificence  of  an  Asiatic  mo- 
narch.   During    his  reign,  and 
that  of  his  successors,  Damascus 
was  enlarged  and  adorned  with 
numerous   and    splendid  public 
buildings,  among  which  the  great 
mosque,  founded  by  Alwalid  I.  is 
particularly  celebrated.     He  at- 
tached to  it  the  beautiful  church  of 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  here  he 
erected  for  the  first  time  a  lofty  mi- 
naret, and  during  many  years,  he  ex- 
pended a  great  part  of  his  revenue 
in  embellishing  these  erections. 
This  appendage  was  an  innova- 
tion in  the  style  which  has  since 
almost  become  its  characteristic. 
Nothing  can  be  more  light  and 
graceful  than  the  general  effect  of 
these   towers,    and  the  pointed 
arches  with  which  these  indentical 
towers  are  decorated,  give  still 
greater  importance  to  the  erec- 
tions of  this  khalif  in  the  history 
of  the  origin  of  what  has  been 
named  "  Gothic,  or  Pointed  Archi- 
tecture."    His  love  for  architec- 
ture induced  him  to  add  consi- 
derably to  the  mosque  of  Medina, 
and  to  enlarge  and  adorn  that 
built  by  the  khalif  Omar,  upon 
the  site  of  the  temple  of  Solomon 
at  Jerusalem.    One  of  the  gene- 
rals of  this  prince,  after  passing 
the  Oxus,  and  taking  the  city  of 
Samarcand,  built  a  superb  mosque 
upon  the  spot  which  had  hitherto 
beeen  dedicated  to  the  worship  of 
heathen  idols. — The  example  of 
the  commanders  of  the  faithful 
was  imitated  by  the  governors  of 
the  provinces:   the  artificers  of 
Damascus  and  Heliopolis  of  Chal- 
cis,  and  Antioch  of  Jerusalem,  j 
Tyre  and  Caesarea,  were  enlisted  j  J 
in  the  service  of  the  state,  and  the 
arts  of  Syria  and  Palestine  became  i 
familiar  and  in  request  among  the 
native  hordes  of  the  Desert. 
But  the  reigns  of  the  khaliffr 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


of  the  house  of  Al  Abbas  were 
most  propitious  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  fine  arts  among  eastern 
Arabs.  The  seat  of  empire  which 
had  been  removed  by  the  first  of 
the  Ommiad  dynasty  to  Damascus. 

;  was  transferred  by  the  second 
khalif  of  the  dynasty  of  the  Abas- 
sides  to  the  western  frontiers  of 
Persia  ;  and  Bagdad,  founded  by 
Almansur,  in  a.  d.  762,  continued 
for  five  centuries  to  be  the  splen- 
did capital  of  the  eastern  khalifs. 
In  the  structure  and  decoration  of 

;  this  city,  neither  labour  nor  ex- 
pense were  spared,  and  the  details 
of  the  gorgeous  magnificence  of 
the  khalif  s  palace  would  almost 
exceed  the  ordinary  limits  of  be- 
lief, were  they  not  authenticated 
by  contemporary  and  ocular  tes- 
timony. 

Egypt  and  Africa  early  yielded 
to  the  victorious  arms  of  the 
Moslems,  yet  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  Arabians  founded  any  edi- 
fices between  Alexandria  andCeuta 
before  their  invasion  of  Spain,  ex- 
cept the  citadel  of  Cairaen  (or 
Cairo)  founded  by  the  victorious 
general  Akbah.  After  various  re- 
verses, this  city  became  the  seat 
of  learning  and  empire  under  the 
Fatimiteline  of  khalifs,  who  in  the 
'tenth  century  founded  the  new  city 
of  Cairo,  and  affected  to  rival  the 

1  .splendour  and  fame  of  the  Bagdad 
princes  in  the  magnificence  of  their 
buildings,  and  in  their  patronage 
of  the  arts.  Numerous  vestiges 
of  their  ancient  buildings  are  still 
to  be  found  at  Cairo,  and  among 
the  stately  edifices  with  which  it 
Lfi  adorned,  the  great  mosque  may 
be  mentioned,  which  is  accounted 

j  :he  most  sacred  and  magnifi- 
cat in  Barbary,  and  said  to  be 
supported  by  five  hundred  co- 
umns  of  granite  porphyry  and 
Numidian  marble. 

In  arts  and  sciences,  the  Arabs 
)f  the  west  were  not  inferior  to 

I  2F 


those  of  the  east:  the  buildings 
erected  by  the  Ommiad  khalifs  of 
Spain  rivalled  those  of  Damascus, 
Bagdad,  and  Cairo,  even  in  the 
days  of  their  greatest  splendour. 
The  superb  magnificence  of  the 
mosque  at  Cordova,  of  the  city 
and  palace  of  Azzahra,  he  pa- 
laces of  the  Alhamra  and  El  Gene- 
raliffe,  are  equal  to  any  thing  re- 
corded of  the  most  splendid  cities 
of  antiquity. 

Almost  all  of  their  towns  were 
placed  in  fine  or  romantic  situa- 
tions, and  not  a  few  were  of  re- 
markable construction.  The  town 
called  Zahara,  in  Spain,  is  nearly 
inaccessible,  the  only  path  to  it 
being  on  one  side  of  the  moun- 
tain on  which  it  is  placed.  The 
streets  and  houses  are  scooped  out 
of  the  solid  rock;  the  descent 
down  the  precipices  of  the  backs 
of  the  habitations  which  are  close 
to  its  edge,  is  at  least  1200  feet. 
In  other  instances,  their  masonry 
was  almost  as  durable  and  stable 
as  their  excavation — the  remains 
of  the  admirable  bath  near  Cintra, 
both  in  style  and  execution,  are 
equal  to  the  finest  masonry  of 
Greek  buildings. 

But  in  reviewing  the  vari- 
ous remains  of  Arabian  art,  con- 
tinues the  historian  of  the  wes- 
tern Arabs,  it  is  a  circumstance 
worthy  of  remark,  that  no  peo- 
ple ever  constructed  so  many  superb 
buildings,  who  extracted  fewer  ma- 
terials from  the  quarry.  From 
the  Tigris  to  the  Orontes,  from 
the  Nile  to  the  Guadalquiver,  the 
buildings  of  the  first  conque- 
rors were  raised  from  the  mate- 
rials of  ruined  fortresses,  castles, 
and  cities.  Modian  and  Babylon 
furnished  materials  for  the  public 
and  private  edifices  of  Bagdad — 
the  dismantled  towns  and  temples 
of  Syria  might  suflice  to  raise  the 
mosques  and  palaces  of  the  Om- 
miad khalifs.  In  Egypt,  Old  Cairo 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE 


was  transformed  into  the  new  city 
of  that  name,  and  the  land  was 
strewed  with  vestiges  of  the  mo- 
numents of  the  Pharoahs,  the  Pto- 
lemies, and  the  Caesars.  The 
mosque  of  Mercy,  at  Alexandria, 
was  composed  of  the  recent  ruins 
of  the  city,  and  erected  on  the 
spot  where  the  victorious  Amru 
arrested  the  fury  of  his  troops. 
The  work  of  destruction  kept  pace 
with  the  progress  of  conquest 
along  th<j  western  coast  of  Africa. 
Five  hundrec^ episcopal  churches 
were  overturned  in  their  progress 
from  Tripoli  to  the  Atlantic, 
many  of  whose  ruined  fragments 
were  afterwards  collected  and  ce- 
mented in  the  modern  buildings 
of  Tunis  and  Algiers,  and  the 
mosques  of  Cordova  were  deco- 
rated with  the  spoils  of  Carthage. 

In  Spain,  almost  innumerable 
instances  occur  of  Roman  foun- 
dations having  Arabian  substruc- 
tures :  a  few  maybe  particularized. 
At  Alora,  near  Antequerra,  a  cas- 
tle has  the  basement  in  Roman 
brickwork,  and  the  walls  deco- 
rated with  the  horse-shoe  arch. 
The  entrance  gate,  called  the 
Giant's  Arch,  is  considered  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  examples 
of  the  Moorish  taste  in  build- 
ing. Within  the  enclosure  is  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria,  formerly 
a  Mahomedan  mosque,  and  is  now 
used  as  a  christian  church,  with- 
out any  other  alteration  than  be- 
ing profusely  decorated  with  bad 
pictures.  The  castle  of  Lebrixa 
has  the  lower  part  of  its  walls  of 
Roman  brickwork  in  some  places 
30  feet  high,  and  gradually  dimi- 
nishing in  thickness,  each  tier  of 
brick  standing  further  in  than  the 
one  below  it ;  the  wall  resembles  a 
stair.  The  Moorish  additions  to 
its  height  being,  however,  carried 
up  perpendicularly,  and  the  arches 
of  the  horse-shoe  form. 

What  most  of  all  contributed  to 

226 


the  improvement  of  Arabian  ar^ 
chitecture,  was  their  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  the  mathematical 
writings  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans. The  first  Moslems  having 
no  idea  of  building  beyond  their 
native  plebeian  habitations,  caused 
the  artificers  of  the  conquered 
countries  hastily  to  pile  up  the 
fragments  of  plundered  structures 
according  to  their  rude  instruc- 
tions. But  when  in  latter  times 
their  zeal  for  making  conquests  I 
had  subsided,  and  the  riches  of 
their  subjects  had  put  the  means  ! 
of  indulging  the  taste  for  magnifi- 
cence in  their  power,  they  became 
as  much  distinguished  for  the 
zealous  patronage  of  the  arts  and 
sciences,  as  they  before  had  been 
for  the  rage  with  which  they  had 
destroyed  the  objects  consecrated 
to  both.  Cordova  contained  six 
hundred  mosques,  nine  hundred  i 
baths,  and  two  thousand  houses. 
It  had  eighty  cities  of  the  first  I 
order,  and  three  hundred  of  the 
second  and  third  order ;  and 
the  banks  of  the  Guadalquivir 
were  adorned  with  twelve  thou- 
sand villages  and  hamlets. 

Towards  the  close  of  the  se- 
venth century,  they  had  translated  j 
the  works  of  the  great  mathema- 
ticians into  their  language,  and  if 
we  may  judge  by  their  buildings, 
they  had  profited  greatly  by  their : 
assistance  in  the  science  of  con- 
struction.   The  science  of  archi- 
tecture was  discussed  by  some  of  ] 
their  learned  men,    and  Rashid! 
composed  a  treatise  on  this  subject  j  I  i 
in  three  volumes,  and  theKatab  Al- 
haitan,  or  art  of  building,  was  com*)  1 
mented  upon  by  Damaguni,  a  dis-  I 
tinguished  cadi  or  magistrate. 

It  is  a  prominent  feature  of  Is- 
lamism,  that  wherever  it  is  pro- 
fessed, it  diffuses  a  general  resem- 
blance of  manner  and  opinions 
Hence,  as  the  climate  of  southerr 
Spain  was  in  many  respects  notun)  i  a 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


like  to  that  of  the  warm  climate  of 
Arabia,  we  find  that  the  manners 
of  the  Spanish  Arabs  were  similar 
to  those  of  their  brethren  in  the 
east.     In  every  place  the  conve- 
,  niency  of  water  was  a  grand  re- 
i  quisite,  and  to  this  day  Spain  is 
i  indebted  to  the  enterprise  and 
.  skill  of  its  Arabian  possessors  for 
■  many  aqueducts  and  numberless 
.  canals  of  irrigation.  Those  of  the 
;  mosque  at  Cordova,  and  the  pa- 
:  lace  Granada,  are  still  remaining 
1  to  give  us  an  idea  of  their  size 
i  and  beauty.    Fountains  were  fre- 
.  quent  in  their  streets  as  well  as  in 
;  the  courts  of  their  houses  ;  and 
on  contrasting  the  disposition  of 
the  apartments  in  their  dwellings 
with  the  mode  of  building  still  pre- 
valent in  the  east,  we  find  a  gene- 
,  ral  resemblance  in  the  style  of 
architecture.  In  both  we  see  large 
doors,  spacious  chambers,  clois- 
:  tered  courts  with  fountains  playing 
i  in  the  centre,  ornamented  tiles  and 
elegantly  executed  mosaic  work. 

The  prohibition  among  them 
i  to  copy  the  human  form,  had  a 
powerful  influence  in  preventing 
their  attaining  great  excellence  in 
either  painting  or  sculpture.  In 
one  or  two  this  was  however  dis- 
regarded— and  some  of  the  walls 
in  the  Alhamra  were  ornamented 
with  some  paintings  of  men  and 
•horses,  and  one  of  the  khalifs 
erected  the  statue  of  his  favourite 
(mistress  over  the  gate  of  a  palace 
he  had  built  for  her  reception  j 
but  the  example  was  too  violently 
•opposed  to  the  principles  of  the 
'nation,  and  it  does  not  appear  to 
fiave  had  any  influence  towards 
the  introduction  of  a  taste  for 
ihose  embellishments.  The  ex- 
terior of  their  mansions  was  an 
object  of  comparatively  little  at- 
tention; upon  the  interior  every 
hing  was  profusely  lavished,  that 
lould  tend  to  promote  luxurious 
liase  and  personal  comfort.  And  so 


admirable  was  the  arrangement  of 
air  in  their  apartments,  that  no  re- 
verberation of  sound  existed,  and 
and  the  light  was  generally  ad- 
mitted so  as  to  exclude  external 
prospects.  (  See  Alhamra.)  They 
bestowed  their  utmost  labour  and 
skill  in  decorating  the  ceilings  of 
their  edifices.  One  of  the  most 
complete  Arab  houses  now  remain- 
ing in  Spain  is  to  be  seen  at  Se- 
ville: it  was  originally  erected  for  a 
Spanish  Arab  chieftain,  and  though 
it  was  at  least  five  centuries  since 
it  was  built,  it  was  in  perfect  pre- 
servation in  1809. 

The  durability  of  the  Spanish 
Arab  buildings  is  truly  astonish- 
ing. History  indeed  furnishes  us 
with  some  well  authenticated 
facts  of  the  durability  of  wood. 
The  gate  of  Cyprus  belonging  to 
the  celebrated  temple  of  Diana 
at  Ephesus,  lasted  four  hundred 
years,  and  that  of  the  old  church 
of  St.  Peter,  at  Rome,  w  hich  was 
composed  of  the  same  material 
lined  with  sheets  of  silver,  conti- 
nued undecayed  for  five  hundred 
and  fifty  years.  But  a  more  re- 
markable instance  is  to  be  found 
in  the  mosque  of  Cordova.  The 
beams  employed  in  the  construc- 
tion of  its  roof  amounting  to  seve- 
ral thousand  cubic  feet  of  pine 
wood,  manifest  no  signs  of  cor- 
ruption or  decay  after  a  lapse  of 
ten  centuries. 

The  Spanish  Arab  fortresses, 
like  the  Acropoles  of  the  Greeks, 
were  erected  on  the  summit  of 
almost  inaccessible  heights,  to 
which  they  retired  when  repulsed, 
until  they  again  issued  as  assail- 
ants. Watch  towers  were  here 
constructed,  from  which  signals 
of  smoke  by  day,  and  of  torches 
by  night,  communicated  the  move- 
ments of  their  opponents. 

The  castle  at  Malaga,  called  Gi- 
bralfaro,  built  on  the  site  of  a  more 
ancient  Roman  fortress  stands  on 

227 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


a  hill  communicating  with  the 
city ;  the  whole  superstructure  is 
purely  Arabic.  The  entrances  are 
protected  by  a  contrivance  gene- 
rally found  in  their  castles  ;  over 
each  door  and  window  a  kind  of 
chimney  is  constructed,  the  bot- 
tom of  which  is  level  with  the  up- 
per rooms  of  the  entrance,  and  the 
top  terminates  at  the  parapet ; 
through  these  chimnies  the  be- 
sieged could  shoot  their  arrows  on 
the  heads  of  their  assailants,  and 
be  themselves  secure  from  attack. 
The  Moorish  walls  of  Lisbon, 
flanked  by  seventy-seven  towers, 
were  fourteen  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  nearly  six  long. 

There  are  also  remains  in  this 
ci  ty  of  a  magni  ficent  building  of  an- 
other species,  a  kind  of  dry  dock, 
admirably  constructed,  in  which 
the  Arabian  gallies  were  laid  up. 
It  is  now  converted  into  store- 
houses. 

On  a  careful  review  of  the  most 
perfect  Arabian  buildings,  and  on 
a  comparison  of  them  with  the 
best  preserved  specimens  of  other 
styles,  we  may  be  justified  in  con- 
sidering it  as  partaking  chiefly  of 
the  Graeco-Roman,  or  Byzantine, 
which  prevailed  in  the  lower  Greek 
empire,  and  of  the  Egyptian.  The 
former  adopted  when  they  over- 
run the  Roman  provinces  in  the 
east,  and  the  latter  when  they  sub- 
jugated Egypt  under  Amru,  during 
the  khalifat  of  Omar. 

M.  Laborde,  in  his  voyage  u  Pit- 
toresque  de  l'Espagne,"  assigns 
three  distinct  periods  to  the  rise, 
progress,  and  decay  of  Moorish 
architecture  ;  the  first  includes  the 
space  from  the  commencement  of 
Islamism  to  the  ninth  century ) 
the  second  from  the  ninth  to  the 
thirteenth  century  j  and  the  third, 
from  that  time  to  the  annihilation 
of  the  Mahometan  dominion  in 
Spain. 

During  the  first  of  these  periods, 

228 


according  to  the  same  author,  the 
finest  specimen  is  unquestionably 
the  mosque  at  Cordova,  the  plan 
of  which  corresponding  in  many 
respects  with  many  of  the  oldest 
churches  in  Rome,  and  the  mate- 
rials with  which  it  was  construct- 
ed were  either  taken,  or  coarsely 
imitated  from  the  Basclaine,  which 
had  previously  been  erected  in 
Spain  by  the  Romans. 

Of  the  second  period,  the  royal 
fortress  and  palace  of  Alhamra 
present  the  most  perfect  model 
of  pure  Spanish  Arab  architecture. 
It  was  founded  towards  the  close 
of  the  thirteenth  century ;  from 
this  period  not  a  single  vestige 
presents  itself  of  the  Byzantine,  or 
Graeco-Roman  style  in  the  Spanish 
Arab  buildings. 

The  third  period,  from  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  century  to  the 
decline  of  the  Arab  dominion  in 
Spain,  is  distinguished  by  a  mixed 
style.  The  arts  which  had  re- 
vived in  Italy  gradually  diffused 
themselves  over  the  west  of  j 
Europe,  and  their  influence,  ulti- 
mately, was  felt  in  Spain,  where 
the  Arabian  architecture  had  as- 
similated itself  with  the  Italian 
style.  M.  Laborde  found  some 
specimens  of  this  mixed  style  in 
the  fortresses  of  Benavente,  Pen- 
nafiel,  Cordesillas,  Segovia,  and 
Seville,  as  well  as  in  one  of  the 
courts  called  the  Patio  de  las  Na- 
ranges. 

A  house  built  during  this  period 
at  Seville  still  exists,  which  was 
the  residence  of  a  Moorish  Arab 
chieftian  ;  the  whole  is  most  vo- 
luptuously contrived  for  a  warm 
climate,  and  is  in  the  most  per- 
fect state  of  preservation,  though 
upwards  of  five  hundred  years 
old  :  one  of  the  apartments  is  al- 
most perfect  in  its  kind.  The 
form  resembles  a  double  cube, 
the  one  placed  above  the  other, 
its  height  about  60,  and  its  length 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


i  and  breadth  about  30  feet.  The 
;  ornaments  begin  at  about  10  feet 
from  the  floor,  and  are  continued 
•  to  the  top  of  the  room  ;  they  con- 
:  sist  of  a  kind  of  variegated  net- 
work, or  stucco,  designed  with  the 
most  perfect  regularity,  and  yet 
1  most  admirable  variety  in  the 
patterns,  and  the  interfacings  of 
:  each.  This  edifice  has  been  often 
adduced  as  an  instance  of  the  won- 
derful superiority  of  the  Arabs, 
?  over  the  modern  Spaniards  in  the 
art  of  building. 

The  history  of  classic  Arabian 
architecture  then,  comprises  a  pe- 
riod of  about  eight  hundred  years, 
•during  which,  the  style  of  the  se- 
;  cond  epoch  presents  in  the  Alhamra 
the  purest  and  best  preserved  spe- 
cimens of  Arabian  skill  in  the  art 
I  of  construction,  particularly  in  the 
'  court  of  the  lions,  and  in  the  hall 
;of  the  Abencerrages.  This  style  of 
'architecture,  considered  by  some 
authors  as  the  parent  of  what  is 
'called  the  gothic  style,  is  distin- 
guished by  the  following  charac- 
1  teristic  features  :  by  the  crescent 
form  of  its  arches  ;  by  the  extra- 
ordinary lightness  and  elevation 
of  a  numerous  assemblage  of  co- 
lumns ;  by  the  springing  naves,  or 
'mouldings  of  the  ogives,  either 
single  or  multiplied,  that  fit  the 
'arches,  which  descending  upon 
the  columns  either  stop  there,  or 
rest  on  consols  or  trusses ;  and  by 
the  prodigious  quantity  of  orna- 
ments either  in  relief  or  in  mo- 
saic, composed  of  chiligon  figures 
'almost  infinitely  varied  ;  and  the 
gorgeous  assemblage  of  minute 
Ornaments  of  the  same  descrip- 
tion with  which  the  roofs  are 
iancrusted  or  decorated.  The 
f  Arabian  Antiquities  of  Spain," 
by  Murphy,  contain  exquisite  ex- 
imples  of  these  roofs,  and  of  Ara- 
bian ornaments  in  general. 

But  it  must  not,  however,  be 
Understood  that,  as  a  style,  the  Ara- 


bian wras  the  same  at  any  period 
in  the  various  countries  under  their 
government  j  or  even  that  it  was 
uniform  in  the  same  country  in 
the  same  period.  Indeed,  if  we 
may  judge  from  the  remains  of 
some  buildings  in  Egypt  and  Sy- 
ria, of  nearly  the  same  age,  we  shall 
observe,  very  great  differences, 
not  only  in  the  minutiae  of  the  or- 
namental and  apparently  charac- 
teristic ornaments,  but  also  in  their 
distribution.  On  this  head,  how- 
ever, much  yet  remains  to  be  done 
before  a  proper  comparison  can 
be  instituted  between  the  modes 
of  different  ages  ;  for,  with  one  or 
two  exceptions,  we  have  no  de- 
tails of  the  remains  of  Arabian 
buildings  in  those  countries  where 
their  power  was  first  displayed, 
and  where  its  influence  is  still 
considerable.  The  buildings  in  the 
Peninsula,  must,  however,  be  con- 
sidered as  forming  an  interesting 
and  important  class  only  of  edifices 
in  this  style. 

The  following  notices  are  col- 
lected with  a  view  of  giving  a 
general  idea  of  the  arrangement, 
decoration,  and  construction  of 
modern  buildings  in  those  coun- 
tries which  may  still  be  considered 
as  Arabian,  or  at  least  as  influenced 
by  the  taste  introduced  by  that 
people  during  their  government. 

Some  of  the  buildings  enum- 
erated, might  probably  have 
been  better  placed  in  the  previous 
part  of  this  article  :  but  as  we  have 
no  details,  by  which  they  could 
be  classed  with  certainty,  their 
position  is  not  of  any  consequence. 

The  principal  streets  of  Mecca 
are  tolerably  regular,they  may  even 
be  called  handsome,  on  account  of 
the  pretty  fronts  of  the  houses ; 
they  are  sanded,  level,  and  very 
convenient.  The  houses  have  two 
rows  of  windows  with  balconies  co- 
vered with  blinds.  There  are  even 
several  large  windows  quite  open 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


as  in  Europe,  but  the  greater 
number  are  covered  by  a  species 
of  curtain  like  a  Venetian  blind, 
made  of  palm-tree,  which  are  ex- 
tremely light,  and  screen  the 
apartments  from  the  heat  of  the 
sun  without  interrupting  the  pas- 
sage of  the  air.  They  have  holes 
cut  in  various  parts  of  them  as 
peeping  places  by  the  women. 

These  houses  are  solidly  built 
with  stone,  generally  three  or 
four  stories  high,  sometimes  more. 
The  fronts  are  ornamented  with 
bases,  mouldings,  and  paintings, 
which  give  them  a  very  graceful 
appearance.  It  is  very  rare  to 
find  a  door  that  has  not  a  base 
with  steps,  and  small  seats  on 
both  sides.  The  roofs  form  ter- 
races surrounded  by  a  wall  about 
7  feet  high,  open  at  certain  spaces, 
which  are  occupied  by  a  railing 
formed  of  red  and  white  bricks 
placed  horizontally  and  symmetri- 
cally, leaving  holes  for  the  circu- 
lation of  the  air  j  and  at  the  same 
time  that  they  contribute  to  the  or- 
naments of  the  front,  they  screen 
the  women  from  being  seen  when 
they  are  upon  the  terraces. 

All  the  staircases  are  narrow, 
steep,  and  dark.  The  rooms  are 
well  proportioned,  long,  broad, 
and  lofty,  and  have,  besides  the 
large  windows  and  balconies,  a 
second  or  upper  row  of  smaller 
windows.  They  have  also  a  shelf 
all  round  as  at  Alexandria,  to  place 
various  things  upon,  as  well  for  or- 
nament as  use.  The  beauty  of  the 
houses  may  be  considered  as  the 
remains  of  the  ancient  splendour 
of  Mecca.  Every  inhabitant  has 
an  interest  in  preserving  his  dwel- 
ling to  invite  and  excite  the  pil- 
grims to  lodge  with  him,  because 
it  is  one  of  his  principal  resources. 
There  is  no  open  place  or  square 
in  Mecca.  (See  Gate,  Mosque, 
Turkish  Building.) 

The  streets  at  Suez  are  regu- 

230 


lar,  but  without  pavement.  The 
houses  are  substantial,  and  some 
of  them  elegant ;  but  the  gene- 
ral appearance  is  impressed  with 
an  air  of  decay. 

At  El  Hadda,  a  town  between 
Jidda  and  Mecca,  the  huts  were 
all  alike,  quite  round,  and  about 
seven  or  eight  feet  in  diameter. 
The  tops  resemble  cones,  the  sum- 
mits of  which  are  about  7  feet 
high.  They  are  formed  with 
sticks  like  a  cage,  and  covered 
with  palm-leaves  and  bushes.  On 
the  outside  of  the  town,  which 
was  encompassed  by  a  hedge, 
were  two  circles  of  empty  huts, 
which  were  destined  to  lodge 
the  caravans ;  and  between  the 
circles  was  a  well.  The  town  of 
Mona,  in  the  same  route,  is  com- 
posed of  a  single  street  upwards 
of  a  mile  long,  containing  many 
handsome  stone  houses,  some  of 
them  boasting  of  arabesque  stone 
ornaments. 

The  traveller  who  approaches 
Damascus,  believes  he  sees  be-  i 
fore  him  a  vast  camp  of  conical 
tents  raised  10  or  12  feet  above 
the  plane  of  the  earth,  but' on  a 
nearer  approach  he  perceives  that 
these  tents  are  nothing  else  than 
an  infinity  of  conical  cupolas, 
serving  as  roofs  to  all  the  rooms 
of  the  houses  in  the  outward  sub- 
urbs of  the  city.  These  cupolas 
are  white,  and  nearly  of  the  same 
form  and  size  as  the  dove-houses 
of  Egypt.  On  inquiry,  we  find 
this  construction  is  useful  and 
even  indispensable.  The  houses 
are  built  of  earth,  or  of  bricks 
composed  of  a  bad  clay,  and  straw 
baked  in  the  sun — and  as  the 
winters  are  very  rainy  in  this 
country,  if  the  houses  had  flat 
roofs,  or  were  simply  covered  with 
tiles,  made  of  the  same  material' 
as  the  bricks,  it  would  be  requi- 
site to  rebuild  them  every  year 
By  using  these  elevated  cones! 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  rains  do  not  cause  any  devas- 
tation, as  the  water  flows  almost 
perpendicularly  downwards.  These 
cupolas,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the 
buildings,  are  covered  with  a  coat 
of  reddish  white  marl,  and  very 
smooth,  which  gives  them  a 
very  pretty  aspect,  and  consi- 
derable durability.  The  ancient 
houses  are  built  with  more  solid 
materials,  and  have  generally  two 
stories  with  flat  roofs,  few  win- 
dows, small  doors,  and  un- 
adorned fronts.  The  streets  are 
well  paved,  have  elevated  foot- 
paths on  each  side  of  a  regular 
width,  though  they  do  not  run  in 
regular  lines.  Damascus,  like 
other  cities  inhabited  by  Arabs, 
has  no  square  or  public  place  ;  the 
custom  of  leaving  open  spaces  in 
the  middle  of  cities  to  ventilate  and 
embellish  them,  is  with  one  excep- 
tion unknown  to  Mahometans  of 
every  nation.  The  more  urgent 
necessity  of  guarding  against  the 
rays  of  a  continually  burning  sun, 
has  occasioned  them  to  restrict  the 
width  of  their  streets,  that  they 
may  the  more  easily  shade  them 
from  the  sun.  There  are,  how- 
ever, some  tolerably  wide  streets 
at  Damascus.  The  bazaars 
are  covered  with  wooden  vi- 
randas,  which  have  windows 
open  in  the  outer  part ;  public 
baths  are  attached  to  these  ba- 
zaars, constructed  with  consider- 
able magnificence.  The  first  sa- 
loon is  generally  large,  and  light- 
ed by  great  windows  looking  into 
the  street,  and  is  covered  with  a  fi  ne 
cupola  of  wood,  ornamented  with 
arabesques,  and  round  the  apart- 
ment runs  a  raised  gallery,  used  by 
those  who  have  just  left  the  baths. 
Every  house  has  several  fountains 
of  water,  and  the  city  contains 
not  less  than  five  hundred  houses, 
which  in  size  and  splendour  may 
rank  with  palaces.  The  number 
of  mosques  is  very  great,  but  ex- 


cept that  called  Zekia,  present 
nothing  remarkable. 

In  Hama  are  many  houses  built 
with  stone  ;  the  greater  number, 
however,  have  only  the  lower 
part  so  constructed,  whilst  the 
upper  part  is  of  brick  covered 
with  white  marl,  and  many  of 
them  crowned  with  the  conical 
cupolas  as  at  Damascus.  There 
are  some  edifices  built  in  the  Eu- 
ropean taste  with  large  windows. 

In  the  innumerable  mosques 
ornamenting  these  towns,  some 
are  covered  with  lead,  others  with 
stone  or  marble,  but  most  gene- 
rally like  those  in  Bagdad,  cased 
with  painted  glazed  tiles. 

Bagdad  also  possesses  several 
large  void  spaces,  which  we 
should  call  squares.  The  gates 
constructed  by  the  khaliifs  are 
still  remaining  ;  they  are  made  to 
fold,  20  feet  high,  and  6'  inches 
thick,  plated  with  brass  on  both 
sides.  The  inside  of  the  gates, 
under  the  walls,  is  one  immense 
room  without  any  division,  48 
paces  long,  and  17  paces  broad  j 
the  roofs  are  arched,  having  no 
other  buttresses  or  support  ex- 
cept the  walls  on  which  they  rest. 

The  walls  are  of  mud  c25  feet 
thick,  with  parapets  breast  high, 
furnished  with  small  embrazures 
for  musquetry  or  arrows:  the 
foundations  are  of  burnt  bricks 
above  the  level  of  the  water  when 
the  ditch  is  full. 

The  ramparts  of  Bagdad  are 
supported  by  strong  arches  built 
regularly  within  the  walls.  The 
houses  on  the  outside  make  no 
appearance,  they  all  have  subter- 
raneous apartments  arched,  and 
ornamented  with  handsome  stuc- 
co work,  to  which  the  families 
retire  about  ten  in  the  morning, 
where  they  dine  and  remain  until 
about  an  hour  before  sun-set. 

At  Bussorah,  where  they  nave 
no  timber  but  the  wood  of  the 

231 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


date  tree,  which  is  like  a  cab- 
bage stalk,  they  make  arches 
without  any  frame.  The  ma- 
son, with  a  nail  and  bit  of 
string,  describes  a  semicircle  on 
the  ground,  lays  his  bricks,  fast- 
ened together  with  a  gypsum 
cement,  on  the  lines  thus  traced, 
and  having  thus  formed  his  arch, 
except  the  crown  brick,  it  is  care- 
fully raised,  and  in  two  parts 
placed  upon  the  walls.  They  pro- 
ceed thus  till  the  whole  arch 
is  finished.  This  part  is  only 
half  a  brick  thick,  but  it  serves 
them  to  turn  a  stronger  arch  over 
it. 

The  architecture  in  Moorish  or 
western  Arabia,  resembles  in 
nothing  the  ancient  or  modern 
oriental.  And  far  from  finding  in 
the  recent  buildings  that  elegance 
and  boldness  which  distinguish 
the  more  ancient  edifices  in  this 
style,  they  display  only  the  great- 
est ignorance.  The  buildings  are 
constructed  without  any  plan,  and 
seemingly  at  random,  and  with 
such  an  ignorance  of  the  first 
rules  of  the  art,  that  in  some  of 
the  first  houses,  the  staircase  has 
not  a  single  ray  of  light.  In  ge- 
neral the  porches  and  staircases 
are  shabby,  even  those  in  the 
houses  of  the  nobles. 

The  form  of  the  houses,  as  in 
the  eastern  parts  of  the  ancient 
empire,  consists  always  of  a 
square  court,  of  which  two,  three, 
or  sometimes  all  the  four  sides 
are  surrounded  by  a  gallery.  A 
very  narrow  room  of  the  length 
of  this  gallery  was  parallel  with 
it.  But  these  rooms  have  ge- 
nerally no  windows,  nor  any  other 
opening  except  the  door  in  the 
middle  which  opens  on  the  gallery ; 
hence  all  their  dwellings  are  dark, 
and  badly  aired.  The  roofs  of  the 
houses  are  flat,  and  covered  with 
the  same  kind  of  plaster  with  the 
floors. 


The  walls  are  generally  made  of 
lime,  plaster,  and  stones,  but  more 
commonly  of  a  kind  of  greasy  clay 
beat  up  with  water.  In  order  to 
erect  such  a  wall,  two  planks  are 
placed  perpendicularly  with  a  suf- 
ficient space  between  them,  into 
which  is  thrown  the  clay  kneaded 
with  water  until  it  has  acquired 
the  consistency  of  paste ;  two  men 
then  beat  it  down  between  the 
two  planks  with  their  clubs.  They 
accompany  their  work  with  songs, 
to  which  their  clubs  beat  time. 
The  difficulty  of  procuring  strong 
beams  obliges  them  to  construct 
very  narrow  rooms,  in  order  to 
make  the  small  wood  of  the  coun- 
try answer  their  purpose.  They 
put  over  it  a  bed  of  reeds,  which 
they  cover  with  plaster  about  a 
foot  thick.  This  heavy  ceiling 
crushes  the  walls,  which  seldom 
last  long.  The  doors  are  of  a 
very  clumsy  construction,  and  at 
Tangier,  most  of  the  locks  are 
made  of  wood.  The  use  of  sew- 
ers, and  other  important  conve- 
niences, is  totally  unknown. 

The  architecture  of  the  modern 
mosques  is  as  rude  as  that  of  the 
houses.  The  principal  mosque  of 
each  town  is  as  usual  composed 
of  a  yard,  surrounded  by  arcades, 
and  opposite  its  gate  are  several 
rows  of  parallel  arches.  The 
minaret  is  placed  at  the  left  cor- 
ner ;  the  arches  and  roof  are 
very  low  5  the  timber-work,  which 
is  open,  is  very  clumsy  ;  and  in 
general  the  construction  is  very 
indifferent. 

In  Morocco,  the  entries  to  the 
houses  are  formed  by  lanes  so 
narrow  and  crooked  that  a  horse 
can  hardly  pass  them  which 
enables  the  grandees  in  time  of 
rebellion,  to  defend  their  houses 
from  the  rabble.  They  are  some- 
times built  with  stone,  but  in 
general  with  tabbi.  In  the  palace 
are  some  very  handsome  *n<»w- 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


ments,  constructed  by  the  present 
emperor  in  the  European  man- 
ner, with  large  windows  looking 
into  the  garden,  and  a  fine  square 
saloon,  but  the  staircase  is  very 
badly  placed  and  very  mean. 

The  walls  of  this  capital  are  ex- 
tremely thick,  formed  of  a  cement 
(called  tabia,  or  tabbi,  by  the 
Arabs,)  of  lime  and  earth  put  in 
cases,  and  beaten  together  with 
square  rammers.  Livy  says, 
"the  walls  of  Saguntum  were  built 
with  mortar  made  of  earth  :"  so 
that  this  is  the  ancient  mode. 

The  walls  of  Rabat,  built  by 
Almansar,  are  two  miles  in  cir- 
cuit and  strengthened  by  square 
towers.  These  and  the  houses 
of  the  town  (built  by  the  Spanish 
slaves  taken  by  the  sultan  in  his 
wars  with  that  country,)  are  not 
very  strong.  Tradition  says,  the 
Christians  expressly  built  them 
so  that  they  might  fall  in,  and  de- 
stroy their  oppressors,  for  which 
they  were  decapitated  "  by  thou- 
sands" at  the  iron  gate.  In  the 
mosque  at  Labat  which  was  erect- 
ed by  the  same  prince,  were  three 
hundred  and  sixty  columns  of  fine 
marble,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still 
visible. 

Some  of  the  houses  are  excep- 
tions however  to  the  general  style 
of  the  country,  and  are  built  with 
much  elegance  and  taste,  but  being 
all  behind  high  walls,  they  are  not 
visible  from  the  street,  and  even 
these  outer  walls  are  of  the  rudest 
construction,  for  every  individual 
is  anxious  to  conceal  his  wealth, 
and  to  impress  the  public  and  go- 
vernment with  an  idea  that  he  is 
distressed  and  poor.  The  roofs 
are  flat,  and  beat  down  with 
terras,  a  composition  of  lime  and 
small  stones. 

The  imperial  palace  is  of  hewn 
stone  ornamented  with  marble. 
The  openings  of  the  principal 
gates  have  pointed  arches,  and 
2G 


embellished  with  arabesque  orna- 
ments. The  walls  of  some  of  the 
rooms  are  of  filagree  work,  and 
others  of  cerrulea  or  glazed  tiles, 
which  are  fixed  in  the  walls  with 
much  art,  and  have  a  pleasing  and 
cool  effect.  In  the  gardens  arc 
pavilions  about  40  feet  square, 
covered  with  glazed  tiles  of  va- 
rious colours,  and  lighted  from 
four  lofty  and  spacious  doors  which 
are  opened  according  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  sun.  They  are  painted 
and  gilt  in  the  arabesque  style, 
and  ornamented  with  square  com- 
partments, containing  passages 
from  the  koran,  in  a  sort  of  Ara- 
bic shert  hand,  but  now  under- 
stood only  by  the  first  scholars. 

The  grand  pavilion  appropri- 
ated to  the  women,  is  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  enclosure.  TheM'Shoar, 
or  place  of  audience,  is  near  to 
the  palace ;  it  is  an  extensive 
quadrangle  walled  in,  but  open 
to  the  sky. 

The  body  of  the  mosque,  built 
by  Muley  El  Monsore,  is  sup- 
ported by  many  pillars  of  mar- 
ble, and  under  it  is  a  cistern,  which 
holds  a  large  quantity  of  water 
collected  in  the  rainy  season, 
used  for  ablution.  The  tower 
is  built  in  a  square  form;  the 
walls  are  4  feet  thick,  and  it  has 
seven  stories,  in  each  of  which  are 
windows,  narrow  on  the  outside 
but  wide  within,  which  renders 
the  inside  light  and  airy.  The 
ascent  is  not  by  stairs,  but  by  a 
gradually  winding  terrace,  com- 
posed of  lime  and  small  stones,  so 
firmly  cemented  as  to  be  nearly  as 
hard  as  stone  On  the  summit  of 
the  tower  is  a  square  lantern, 
yv  hich  commands  a  most  extensive 
prospect.  The  roofs  of  the  dif- 
ferent chambers  are  all  quadran- 
gular, and  very  ingeniously  vault- 
ed; the  whole  workmanship  is  of 
the  most  excellent  kind.  The 
tower  of  Beni  Hassan,  (so  named 

233 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


from  the  province  in  which  it 
stands,)  is  built  of  hewn  stone, 
ISO  feet  high  ;  and  instead  of  steps, 
it  has  an  inclined  plane,  forming  a 
gradual  ascent  to  the  top,  formed 
of  a  mixture  of  stone  and  lime 
which  time  has  so  hardened,  as  to 
be  almost  indestructible.  A  man 
on  horseback  may  ride  to  the  top 
of  this  building.  At  every  two  or 
three  circles  of  the  terrace  are 
apartments  built  of  solid  stone. 
It  is  a  local  tradition,  that  the 
tower  at  Morocco,  and  the  tower 
of  Seville,  were  built  after  the 
same  plan,  and  by  the  same  archi- 
tect, in  the  twelfth  century. 

The  houses  in  Fez,  an  an- 
cient Arabian  city,  are  more 
lofty  and  spacious  than  those  in 
some  other  towns.  They  have 
flat  roofs  ingeniously  worked  in 
wood,  and  covered  with  a  sort  of 
tarras,  on  which  the  inhabitants 
spread  carpets  in  summer  to  re- 
cline upon,  and  enjoy  the  cool 
breezes  of  evening.  A  small  tur- 
ret, containing  a  room  or  two,  is 
also  erected  upon  them  for  the  use 
of  the  females  of  the  family,  who 
resort  thither  for  amusement  or 
pastime. 

The  streets  are  narrow  as 
usual,  because  the  houses,  which 
are  also  very  high,  have  on  the 
first  floor  a  projection  which 
intercepts  much  of  the  light,  an 
inconvenience  which  is  increased 
by  a  sort  of  galleries  or  passages 
which  connect  the  upper  part  of 
the  houses,  and  by  the  high  walls 
which  are  raised  at  certain  dis- 
tances from  one  side  of  the  street 
to  the  other,  as  if  to  support 
the  houses.  This  practice  is  also 
followed  at  Alcazzar  and  Tetuan. 

Behind  these  high  walls  houses 
are  occasionally  found,  whose  ar- 
rangement presents  considerable 
elegance ;  but  the  rooms  are  long 
and  narrow,  like  those  of  Tangier. 

Ii  the  centre  of  each  house  is 

234 


an  open  quadrangle,  surroundea 
by  a  gallery  which  communicates 
with  a  staircase,  and  into  which 
the  doors  of  the  different  apart- 
ments open.  These  doors  are 
both  wide  and  lofty,  and  made  of 
curiously  carved  wood  painted 
in  various  colours.  The  beams 
of  the  roof  of  the  different  apart- 
ments are  whimsically  painted 
with  gay  colours  in  the  arabesque 
style,  and  even  have  ornaments  in 
gold  and  silver. 

The  ceiling  is  very  lofty,  in 
common  houses  this  part  is  with- 
out ornament.  The  floors  of  the 
rooms  are  of  brick.  In  the  houses 
of  the  rich  they  are  of  flat  square 
Dutch  tiles,  or  of  marble  of  dif- 
ferent colours,  placed  so  as  to 
form  designs  rather  pleasing. 
The  portals  of  the  houses  are 
made  of  brick  plastered  over.  The 
principal  houses  have  (metferes) 
cisterns  under  them,  contain- 
ing water  used  in  the  baths,  which 
are  built  of  marble  or  stone; 
most  of  the  principal  inhabitants 
having  baths  in  their  own  houses. 
Every  house  is  also  supplied  with 
water  from  a  river  rising  in 
the  Atlas  mountains,  which  en- 
ters the  town  by  covered  chan- 
nels in  two  different  places.  A 
public  bath  is  attached  to  each 
mosque,  and  also  others  open  to  the 
common  people  in  other  parts;  the 
mosques,  sanctuaries,  and  other 
public  buildings  being  superla- 
tively splendid.  There  are  nearly 
two  hundred  caravanseras  or  inns, 
three  stories  high,  containing  from  ! 
fifty  to  one  hundred  apartments,  in 
each  of  which  is  a  water-cock  for 
ablution. 

The  principal  mosque  is  con- 
structed of  bricks,  stone,  and  lime, 
but  without  any  pillars  or  archi- 
tectural ornament.  It  has  a  great 
number  of  gates,  and  two  hand- 
some fountains  in  the  court.  The 
Elcaissera,  as  well  as  many  of  the 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


other  streets,  that  are  filled  with 
shops,  are  covered  with  wood 
shaped  into  arabesques,  with  open- 
ings or  windows  of  various  forms 
to  admit  the  light. 

The  shops,  as  is  general  through- 
out the  east,  are  very  small,  so 
that  the  owner  sitting  in  the  cen- 
tre, can  reach  whatever  his  custo- 
mers may  require  without  rising. 

The  town  contains  a  number  of 
public  hot  baths,  some  of  them 
good,  containing  different  rooms, 
which  are  heated  to  different  tem- 
peratures. 

In  Tripoli,  the  houses  of  the 
principal  people  differ  from  those 
of  Egypt,  which  are  mostly  built 
three  and  four  stories  high  ;  here 
they  never  exceed  one  story.  You 
first  pass  through  a  sort  of  hall  or 
lodge,  (called  skiffer,)  with  bench- 
es of  stone  on  each  side.  From 
this  a  staircase  leads  to  a  single 
grand  apartment,  (termed  a  gul- 
phor,)  which  has,  what  is  not  per- 
mitted in  any  other  part  of  the 
building,  windows  facing  the 
street.  This  apartment  is  sacred 
to  the  master  of  the  mansion ;  here 
he  holds  his  levee,  transacts  busi- 
ness, and  enjoys  convivial  parties  ; 
none  of  his  own  family  even  dare 
enter  this  room  without  his  parti- 
cular leave.  Beyond  this  hall  or 
lodge  is  the  courtyard,  paved  in 
proportion  to  the  fortune  of  the 
owner.  Some  are  of  a  brown  ce- 
ment, resembling  finely  polished 
■  marble  ;  others  are  of  black,  or 
;  white  marble  ;  and  in  the  poorer 
i  houses,  it  is  of  stone  or  earth. 
-  The  houses  either  small  or  large, 
;  in  town  or  country,  are  built  ex- 
actly on  the  same  plan.  The 
courtyard  is  made  use  of  to  re- 
ceive large  female  companies, 
entertained  by  the  mistress  on 
state  occasions  ;  on  these  occasions 
the  floor  is  covered  with  mats  and 
Turkey  carpets,  and  is  sheltered 
from  the  inclemency  or  heat  of  the 


weather,  by  an  awning,  covering 
the  whole  yard,  for  which  the 
Moors  sometimes  incur  great  ex- 
penses. 

In  the  palaces,  during  festivals, 
the  area  of  the  court  is  sometimes 
strewed  with  sand  for  the  Pello- 
wan  or  wrestlers  to  fall  upon ;  and 
many  hundreds  of  people  may  at 
these  times  be  seen  as  spectators 
placed  on  the  roof  of  the  cloisters  : 
at  Algiers,  also,  this  use  of  the  court 
and  terrace  is  common  in  the 
dey's  palace. 

There  is  something  very  analo- 
gous between  this  open  space  and 
the  impluvium,  or  cava  aedium,  of 
the  Romans,  both  of  them  being 
alike  exposed  to  the  weather,  and 
both  giving  light  to  the  house, 
and  it  is  surrounded  with  a  clois- 
ter, as  the  impluvium  was  with  a 
peristylium,  or  colonnade.  The 
veil,  or  awning,  which  has  been 
mentioned,  is  expanded  by  ropes 
from  one  side  of  the  parapet  to 
the  other,  and  may  be  folded  or 
unfolded  at  pleasure.  At  festival 
times  rich  silk  cushions  are  laid 
round  for  seats,  the  walls  are  hung 
with  tapestry,  and  the  whole  is 
converted  into  a  grand  sala.  The 
cloister  is  supported  by  pillars, 
over  which  a  gallery  is  erected  of 
the  same  dimensions,  enclosed  with 
a  lattice-work  of  wood.  From 
the  cloisters  and  gallery,  doors 
open  into  large  chambers,  not 
communicating  with  each  other, 
and  which  receive  light  only  from 
this  yard  ;  each  of  these  chambers 
sometimes  serves  for  a  whole  fa- 
mily, particularly  when  a  father 
indulges  his  married  children  to 
live  with  him,  or  when  several 
families  join  in  the  rent  of  one 
house.  The  windows  have  no 
glass,  but  are  furnished  with  jalou- 
sies of  wood  curiously  cut  •  these 
windows  produce  a  gloomy  light, 
which  is  admitted  only  through 
spaces   one   quarter  of  an  inch 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


wide,  and  crossed  with  heavy  bars 
of  iron.  The  tops  of  the  houses, 
which  are  all  flat,  are  covered 
with  plaster  or  cement,  and  sur- 
rounded by  a  parapet  about  a  foot 
high,  to  prevent  any  thing  from 
immediately  falling  into  the  street. 
Upon  these  terraces  the  inhabi- 
tants dry  and  prepare  their  figs, 
raisins,  &c.  They  enjoy  on  them 
the  refreshing  sea  breeze,  and  of- 
fer up  their  devotions  to  Maho- 
met. From  the  terraces  the  rain- 
water falls  into  cisterns  beneath 
the  courtyard,  which  preserve 
the  water  from  year  to  year  in 
great  perfection.  No  other  soft 
water  is  to  be  had  in  this  country. 

A  modern  Tripoli  tan  Fenduke 
or  inn,  built  by  the  bashaw's  wife, 
is  described  as  very  large,  with  a 
square  area,  in  which  is  a  well  or 
gebia,  or  a  marble  reservoir  for 
water  to  wash  in  before  prayers 
or  meals.  Round  the  area  is  a 
number  of  small  rooms,  each  for 
the  luggage  or  merchandize  of 
the  person  or  persons  who  may 
sleep  in  the  apartments  over  it. 
The  camels,  horses,  and  mules  of 
the  travellers  are  ranged  around 
the  yard.  When  a  stranger  ar- 
rives, the  floor  of  an  empty  room 
is  dusted  by  a  Moor,  and  the  guest 
is  left  in  quiet  possession  of  it. 

In  general,  in  the  houses  of  the 
better  fashion,  the  chambers  are 
hung  with  velvet  or  damask  from 
the  middle  of  the  wall  downwards ; 
the  rest  is  adorned  with  ingenious 
wreathings  and  devices  in  stucco 
and  fret-work.  The  ceiling  gene- 
rally of  wainscot  is  very  artfully 
painted,  or  else  thrown  into  a  va- 
riety of  pannels  with  gilded 
mouldings  and  scrolls  of  the  ko- 
ran  intermixed :  the  practice  is 
most  ancient  throughout  the  east, 
for  the  prophet  Jeremiah  exclaims 
against  "  houses  ceiled  with  ce- 
dar, and  the  beams  painted  with 
vermilion." 

236 


To  most  of  the  houses  there  is 
a  smaller  one  annexed,  which 
sometimes  rises  one  story  higher 
than  the  house.  At  other  times 
it  consists  of  one  or  two  rooms 
only  and  a  terrace,  while  others 
built  over  the  gateway  have  all 
the  conveniences  that  belong  to 
the  house.  There  is  a  door  of 
communication  from  them  into 
the  gallery  of  the  house,  kept  open 
-or  shut,  at  the  discretion  of  the 
master,  besides  another  door 
which  opens  immediately  from  a 
privy  stairs  down  into  the  porch 
or  street,  without  giving  the  least 
disturbance  to  the  inmates  of  the 
house.  These  back  or  attached 
houses,  are  called  Alee,  or  Oleah, 
(for  the  house  properly  so  called 
is  Dar,  or  Beet,)  and  in  them 
strangers  are  lodged  and  enter- 
tained. In  them  also  the  sons 
of  the  family  are  allowed  to  keep 
their  concubines,  and  to  which 
the  men  retire  for  meditation 
or  diversion  ;  at  other  times  they 
serve  for  magazines  and  ward- 
robes. 

The  little  chamber  that  was 
built  on  the  wall  for  the  Shuna- 
mite  by  the  prophet  Elisha,  the 
summer  chamber  of  Eglon,  the 
chamber  over  the  gate  to  which 
David  retired  to  weep  for  Absa- 
lom, were  probably  similar  in 
situation  and  use  to  these  apart- 
ments. 

The  interior  of  one  of  the  apart* 
ments  of  the  palace  of  the  dey 
of  Tripoli  displayed  considera- 
ble elegance.  It  was  hung  with 
dark  green  velvet  tapestry,  orna- 
mented with  coloured  silk  da- 
mask flowers,  and  sentences  out 
of  the  koran  were  cut  in  silk,  and 
neatly  sewed  on,  forming  a  deep 
border  at  the  top  and  bottom  j 
below  this  the  apartment  was 
finished  with  tiles  forming  land- 
scapes. The  sides  of  the  door- 
way, and  the  entrances  into  tne 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE 


room  were  marble,  and  according 
to  the  custom  of  ornamenting 
houses,  choice  China  and  crystal 
encircled  the  room  on  a  moulding 
near  the  ceiling.  Close  beneath 
these  ornaments  were  placed  large 
looking-glasses  with  frames  of 
gold  and  silver  j  the  floor  covered 
with  curious  matting  and  rich  car- 
petting.  Loose  mattresses  and 
cushions  made  up  in  the  form  of 
sofas  covered  with  velvet  and  em- 
broidered with  gold,  served  for 
seats,  with  Turkey  carpets  laid 
before  them :  the  tables  are  low, 
not  more  than  12  inches  from  the 
ground,  and  beautifully  inlaid.  In 
Arabian  buildings,  in  this  district 
of  the  present  day,  the  roofs  are 
made  by  Maltese  who  are  sent 
for  on  purpose,  as  their  art  is  not 
only  esteemed  superior  to  that  of 
the  native  workmen,  but  peculiar 
to  themselves. 

The  golphors  and  best  rooms 
in  the  country  houses  of  peo- 
ple of  condition,  are  sometimes 
delightfully  relieved  by  a  con- 
siderable stream  of  clear  flow- 
ing water,  conducted  in  a  marble 
channel  through  the  middle  of 
them.  The  floors  and  sides  of 
the  apartments  are  finished  with 
coloured  tiles,  and  the  ceilings 
carved  and  painted  in  mosaic.  In 
the  inner  court  is  a  gebia,  conti- 
nually filled  with  fresh  water  from 
wells  made  near  it,  and  which 
flows  through  it  into  the  gardens. 
It  is  surrounded  with  a  parapet  of 
marble,  and  a  flight  of  marble 
steps  leads  into  it.  There  is  only 
a  broad  walk  left  round  it,  which 
is  paved  or  terraced,  and  into 
which  the  best  apartments  be- 
longing to  the  house  open,  which 
affords  a  refreshing  coolness  to 
the  house,  and  is  most  delightful 
during  the  extreme  heat. 

It  is  a  strange  fashion  in  the 
houses  of  Tripoli,  that  in  almost 
all  the  rooms  which  are  very  long 


and  narrow,  there  is  at  each  end  a 
sort  of  -stage  of  planks  about  4 
feet  high,  with  narrow  stairs. 
These  alcoves  are  furnished  with 
rails,  or  balustrades,  and  wooden 
ornaments,  and  there  is  a  door 
under  each  of  them.  These  are 
made  to  contain  the  complete 
household  furniture  of  a  woman, 
as  upon  one  of  the  alcoves  the  bed 
is  placed,  upon  the  other  the  wear- 
ing apparel,  and  that  of  the  chil- 
dren. Under  the  one  are  the  table 
utensils  and  victuals,  under  the 
other  the  remainder  of  the  wear- 
ing apparel ;  by  "this  arrangement 
the  middle  of  the  apartment  is 
nowise  encumbered,  and  a  man 
may  keen  in  a  house  of  three  or 
four  rooms  as  many  women  and 
their  families  without  their  being 
in  the  way  of  each  other."  A 
similar  arrangement  is  often  al- 
luded to  in  the  scriptures. 

The  walls  of  the  great  mosque 
to  within  3  feet  of  the  ceiling,  are 
lined  with  handsome  figured  China 
tiles  placed  uniformly,  and  the 
ceiling  is  ornamented  in  the  same 
manner.  The  sixteen  marble  co- 
lumns have  thin  iron  rods  painted 
blue  and  gilt,  reaching  from  one 
to  another,  and  forming  a  large 
cheque-work  through  the  whole 
edifice,  about  6  feet  below  the 
roof,  from  which  is  suspended  in 
festoons  antique  lamps  with  long 
silver  chains.  On  three  sides  of 
the  mosque  are  square  bay-win- 
dows grated  with  iron,  without 
glass.  On  the  side  towards  Mecca 
is  a  pulpit  of  marble  resembling 
alabaster,  with  a  flight  of  fourteen 
steps  enclosed  with  a  marble  ba- 
lustrade. This  pulpit  is  covered 
with  Chinese  tiles  :  over  it  is  a 
small  alabaster  dome  supported 
by  four  white  marble  pillars, 
which  rest  on  the  pulpit.  The 
outside  of  this  dome  is  entirely  co- 
vered with  gold.  There  is  no 
seat,  bench,  or  resting-place,  in 


ARABIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


this  mosque  throughout.  The 
windows,  which  are  very  low,  and 
made  deep  on  two  sides,  look 
into  a  cloister  which  surrounds 
the  mosque,  and  on  the  third 
side,  into  a  stone  building,  called 
the  Turbar,  or  mausoleum  of  the 
royal  family.  All  the  mosques 
are  adorned  with  minarets  or 
spires. 

If  a  few  persons  are  excepted 
who  are  buried  within  the  pre- 
cints  of  some  sanctuary,  the  rest 
are  buried  at  a  small  distance 
from  their  cities  and  villages, 
where  a  great  extent  of  ground  is 
allotted  for  that  purpose.  Each 
family  has  a  particular  portion  of 
it  walled  in  like  a  garden.  In 
these  enclosures  the  graves  are 
distinct  and  separate,  having  each 
of  them  a  stone  placed  upright 
both  at  the  head  and  feet,  whilst 
the  intermediate  space  is  planted 
with  flowers,  bordered  round  with 
stone,  or  paved  with  tiles. 

Inscriptions  are  found  only  on 
tombs  belonging  to  people  of  con- 
sequence, and  their  tombs  are 
whitewashed  and  kept  in  constant 
repair :  those  of  the  great  are  dis- 
tinguished by  a  marahut,  or  small 
chapel,  being  built  over  them, 
which  is  periodically  whitewashed 
and  kept  in  the  neatest  order, 
and  supplied  from  time  to  time 
with  the  most  expensive  flowers 
placed  in  China  vases  during  the 
life  of  any  near  relation :  in  others, 
lamps  are  kept  always  burning. 
The  little  chapel  is  open  on  four 
sides  ; — it  has  arches  from  the  top 
to  the  ground  closed  with  iron 
rails  handsomely  wrought  and  gilt. 

Notwithstanding  the  perish- 
able nature  of  the  greater  number 
of  their  buildings,  where  extraor- 
dinary strength  and  durability 
were  required,  throughout  west- 
ern Arabia  they  seem  to  have 
used,  and  now  douse,  mortar  to  all 
appearance  of  the  same  consistency 


and  composition  with  that  of  the 
ancients.  Those  cisterns  which 
were  built  by  sultan  Ben  Eglib  in 
several  parts  of  the  kingdom  of  Tu- 
nis, are  of  equal  solidity  with  the 
famous  ones  of  Carthage,  and 
continue  to  this  day  as  firm  and 
compact  as  when  they  were  just 
finished.  The  composition  is 
made  in  this  manner  :  they  take 
two  parts  of  wood-ashes,  three  of 
lime,  and  one  of  fine  sand,  which 
after  being  well  sifted  and  mixed 
together,  they  beat  for  three 
days  and  nights  incessantly  with 
wooden  mallets,  sprinkling  them 
alternately  with  a  little  oil  and 
water,  till  they  become  of  a  due 
consistence.  This  composition  is 
chiefly  used  in  their  arches,  cis- 
terns, and  terraces  5  but  the  pipes 
of  their  aqueducts  are  joined  by 
beating  tow  and  lime  only  toge- 
ther with  oil  5  these  two  compo- 
sitions quickly  assume  the  hard- 
ness of  stone,  and  suffer  no  water 
to  pervade  them. 

Instead  of  common  glue,  the 
joiners  frequently  use  a  prepara- 
tion of  cheese,  which  is  first 
pounded  wiih  a  little  water  in  a 
mortar,  till  the  wheyey  matter  is 
washed  out.  When  this  is  done, 
they  pound  it  again  with  a  small 
quantity  of  fine  lime,  and  apply  it 
afterwards  as  quick  as  possible  to 
such  boards  as  are  to  be  joined 
together,  which,  after  the  cement 
becomes  dry,  will  not  be  sepa- 
rated, it  is  said,  even  by  water 
itself. 

The  Bedouins  live  in  tents  call- 
ed khymas,  from  the  shade  they 
afford  the  inhabitants  ;  and  beet  el 
shar,  or  houses  of  hair,  from  the 
materials  they  are  made  of.  They 
are  the  same  with  what  the  an- 
cients called  mapalia,  which  be- 
ing then,  as  they  are  to  this  day, 
secured  from  the  heat  and  incle- 
mency of  the  weather,  by  a  co- 
vering only  of  such  hair  cloth  as 


A  R  M 


coal-sacks  are  sometimes  made 
of,  might  very  justly  be  described 
by  Virgil  to  have  thin  roofs. 
When  a  considerable  number  of 
them  are  placed  together,  they 
are  generally  arranged  in  a  circle, 
and  the  collection  is  then  called 

i  a  douwar.  The  fashion  of  each 
tent  is  the  same,  being  of  an  ob- 
long figure,  not  unlike  the  bot- 
tom of  a  ship  turned  upside  down, 
as  Sallust  long  ago  described  them, 
"  oblonga  incurvis  lateribus  tecta 
quasi  navium  carina?  essent."  They 
differ  in  bigness  according  to  the 
number  of  people  who  live  in  them, 
and  are  accordingly  supported, 
some  with  one  pillar,  others  with 
two  or  three,  whilst  a  curtain  or 
carpet,  placed  upon  occasions  at 
each  of  these  divisions,separates  the 
whole  into  so  many  apartments. 
The  pillar  is  a  straight  pole  8  or  10 
feet  long,  and  3  or  4  inches  thick, 
serving  not  only  to  support  the 
tent,  but  being  full  of  hooks  fixed 
for  that  purpose,  the  Arabs  hang 
their  clothes,  saddles,  and  instru- 
ments of  war  upon  it. 

The  dashkras  of  the  Kabyles, 
consist  of  a  collection  of  gurbies  as 
the  dourwas  do  of  khymas.  These 
gurbies  are  generally  raised  either 
with  hurdles  daubed  over  with 
mud,  or  else  they  are  built  out  of 
the  materials  of  some  adjacent 
ruins,  or  with  square  cakes  of  clay 
baked  in  the  sun.  The  roofs  are 
covered  with  straw  or  turf  sup- 
ported by  reeds,  or  branches  of 
trees.  There  is  rarely  more  than 
one  apartment  in  the  largest  of 
them,  notwithstanding  it  is  to 
serve  for  a  kitchen,  dining-room, 
and  bed-chamber ;  besides  one 
corner  of  it  that  is  reserved  (as  is 

;  also  the  case  in  each  khymas,)  for 
their  foals,  calves,  and  kids. 
These  hovels  are  always  fixed  and 
immovable,  and  according  to 
Virgil,  Carthage  itself  was  no- 
thing more  than  a  collection  of 
Lrurbic«  before  the  time  of  Dido. 


The  accompaniments  of  the 
buildings  as  objects  in  landscape 
gardening  are,  and  probably  have 
been,  of  the  simplest  and  most  in- 
artificial although  formal  kind.  A 
garden  secluded  from  every  eye  but 
those  of  the  household,  and  formed 
into  square  parterres,  where  the 
kitchen  and  flower  garden  were 
united.  The  garden  of  the  Al- 
cazzar,  at  Seville,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  laid  out  by  the  Moorish 
Arabs,  and  is  preserved  in  its 
original  state,  contains  walks 
paved  with  marble,  parterres  laid 
out  with  evergreens,  and  well 
shaded  with  orange  trees.  In 
many  parts  of  it  there  are  baths 
supplied  by  marble  fountains  from 
an  aqueduct,  and  they  have  a  con- 
trivance for  rendering  ihe  walks 
one  continued  fountain,  by  forc- 
ing up  small  streams  of  water 
from  minute  pipes  in  the  joining 
of  the  slabs,  which  in  this  climate 
produces  a  most  grateful  effect. 
As  a  specimen  of  an  Arab  garden 
in  its  original  state,  this  is  an  in- 
teresting object  j  recesses  for 
shade  and  seats  of  repose,  are  here 
the  only  ornaments  admitted. 

Arabo-tedescho.  A  German 
name  for  a  manner  of  building 
practised  in  the  middle  ages,  in 
which  the  Moorish  or  Arabian 
manner  is  mixed  with  the  debased 
Roman,  or  byzantine  and  pointed 
styles.  The  term  is  seldom  used 
by  modern  authors.  It  is  some- 
times written  after  the  Italian 
orthography — Arabo-Tedesca. 

Araignee.  (Fr.)  In  military 
architecture.  A  branch,  return,  or 
gallery  of  a  mine. 

Ar^ostyle.  (araios,  rare,  or 
thin  set,  and  stidos,  Gr.  a  column.) 
One  of  the  five  proportions  by 
which  the  ancients  regulated  the 
intervals,  called  intercolumnia- 
tions,  between  the  columns  of 
porticoes  and  colonnades. 

Vitruvius  dees  net  determine 
the  precise  r  ri>fvrn  «  f"  the  iira'o- 


ARiE 


ARC 


style  in  terms  of  the  diameter  of 
the  column,  which  has  led  various 
of  his  commentators  to  supply  the 
deficiency  or  omission.  Follow- 
ing the  same  progression  ob- 
served in  the  other  intervals, 
which  increase  each  a  semidia- 
meter,  the  araeostyle  should  be 
equal  to  three  and  a  half  dia- 
meters. Perrault,  in  his  transla- 
tion of  Vitruvius,  proposes  that 
the  interval  be  made  equal  to  four 
diameters.  Another  author  thinks 
that  Vitruvius  alluded  to  a  much 
wider  space  than  even  that  as- 
signed by  Perrault,  and  he  makes 
it  five  diameters.  In  modern 
practice  the  word  denotes  the  in- 
tercolumnar  space  of  four  dia- 
meters. Its  use  is  restricted  to 
apertures  decorated  with  the 
tuscan  order. 

Ar^eosystyle.  Among  French 
architects,  a  manner  of  propor- 
tioning the  intervals  between 
columns  ranged  in  pairs,  invented 
by  Perrault,  and  introduced  in 
his  most  celebrated  work — the 
"  River  Front  of  the  Louvre."  The 
same  arrangement  has  also  been 
followed  by  sir  Christopher  Wren 
in  the  west  front  of  St.  Paul's. 

This  kind  of  disposition  is  com- 
posed of  two  systyle  intercolum- 
niations  the  column  that  sepa- 
rates them  being  approached 
towards  one  of  those  at  the  ex- 
tremities, leaving  sufficient  room 
for  the  projection  of  the  capitals, 
so  that  the  great  space  is  three 
and  a  half  diameters  wide,  and  the 
small  one  only  half  a  diameter. 

Blondel  objects  to  this  innova- 
tion on  account  of  its  want  of 
solidity,  and  its  great  expense; 
since  almost  double  the  number  of 
columns  is  required  that  would 
be  sufficient  in  the  diastyle  in- 
terval, and  great  irregularities 
that  its  adoption  occasions  in  the 
ornaments  of  the  entablatures  of 
the  various  orders.  Notwith- 
standing one  or  two  examples  of 


coupled  columns  in  antique  build- 
ings, the  arseosystyle  invention 
may  be  safely  considered  to  be  a 
barbarism. 

Arbalestena.    See  Archeria. 

Arbores.  Large  bronze  can- 
delabra, in  the  shape  of  a  tree, 
placed  on  the  floor  of  ancient 
churches,  so  as  to  appear  growing 
out  of  it.  They  were  usually  of 
exquisite  workmanship,  and  often 
sumptuously  adorned  with  silver, 
and  gold,  and  gems. 

Arc.  fArcus,  a  bow.J  In  co«- 
structive  geometry.  Any  part  of  a 
curve  line  which  does  not  consist 
of  contrary  curvatures. 

It  is  by  means  of  circular  arcs 
that  all  angles  are  measured,  the 
arc  being  described  from  the  an- 
gular point  as  a  centre.  For  this 
purpose  every  circle  is  divided 
into  three  hundred  and  sixty 
equal  parts  or  degrees,  and  the 
number  of  these  parts  included 
in  the  curved  line,  is  the  measure 
of  the  arc,  or  of  the  angle.  Con- 
centric  arcs  have  the  same  centre. 
Similar  arcs  bear  the  same  pro-  I 
portion  to  their  respective  but 
different  circles.  Equal  arcs  have 
the  same  length,  or  contain  the 
same  number  of  degrees  of  the 
same,  or  an  equal  circle. 

The  length  of  circular  arcs  may 
be  found  and  expressed  by  the 
following  series,  where  the  radius 
is  made  unity  ;  and  of  any  arc  a,  ! 
if  the  tangent  be  t,  the  sine  s,  and 
the  co-sine  c,  and  the  versed  sine 
vf  then  the  arc  a  will  be  truly 
expressed  by  the  several  series —  ! 

a=t— JL  t>  +  i_  t*  — +— 1> 
3         5         7  9 

&c. 

s        Is5       1  sb 
a~  ~c        3"'  ~&    +lf  "c7 

— .—  &c. 

7  c7 


ARC 


ARC 


3^14109  rf=0  Q  29 
180 

where  d  denotes  number  of  de- 
grees in  the  given  arc,  and 

a==~^~c  nearly ;  c   being  the 

chord  of  the  arc,  and  c  chord  of 
1  half  the  arc,  whatever  the  radius 
;  is. 

Arca  custodies.  In  Roman 
architecture.  A  kind  of  cage  or 
[cell,  with  bars  of  oak  for  confin- 
ing criminals.  They  were  made 
of  lattice-work,  with  a  privy  for 
prisoners  of  war.  It  is  also  the 
name  of  a  land-mark,  formed 
square  and  hollow  like  a  chest; 
inscribed  stones. 

,    Arcade.    (Fr.)     A   series  of 
apertures  or  recesses  with  arched 
jCeilings  or  soffets.    The  use  of 
:his  word  is  very  vague  and  in- 
definite.  By  some  authors  it  is 
ised  for  a  single  arched  aperture, 
>r  enclosure,  instead  of  vault ;  or 
'or  the  space  covered  by  a  con- 
inued  vault,  or  arch  supported  on 
;>iers  or  columns,  instead  of  gallery 
>r  corridor;  and  by  others  for  the 
pace  enclosed  by  two  or  more 
rcades,  or  a  wall  and  an  arcade, 
istead  of  piazza  or  ambulatory. 
A  series  of  arched  openings, 
lough  not  so  magnificent  as  a 
inge  of  lintelled  apertures,  is 
iore  solid,   stronger,  and  less 
tpensive,    They  are,  therefore, 
n ployed  with  advantage  instead 
colonnades  round  public  squares, 
arkets,  large  courts,  and,  in 
pneral,  in  all  situations  where 
ide  spaces  are  desirable. 
In  some  modern  Italian  towns 
e  streets  on  each  side  are  lined 
th  arcades  like  those  of  Covent- 
;  rden  and  the  Royal  Exchange 
jjtrieh  add  greatly  to  their  mag- 
ficence.   In  rainy  climates  these 
'cades  opening  into  a  piazza  are 
2H 


exceedingly  convenient,  form- 
ing a  sheltered  walk  in  all 
weathers^  and  in  oriental  build- 
ings of  all  kinds  their  use  is 
general  for  their  grateful  shade. 

They  are  sometimes  introduced 
on  a  small  scale  in  English  build- 
ings to  form  corridors,  but  as  a 
street  decoration  they  are  seldom 
used.  The  English  mode  ot 
building  seldom  admitting  of  very 
lofty  stories,  they  are  objected  to 
as  darkening  the  apartments  to  a 
degree  inconvenient  in  ourgloomy 
climate ;  besides,  (though  without 
sufficient  reason,)  being  consi- 
dered as  impeding  the  free  cir- 
culation of  air. 

"At  Rome,  the  courts  of  the 
Vatican,  those  of  Monte  Cavallo, 
and  of  the  Borghese,  and  many 
other  places,  are  surrounded  with 
arcades,"  forming  piazzas,  "  under 
which  the  carriages  and  domestics 
wait  under  cover,  some  of  them 
being  sufficiently  capacious  to  ad- 
mit two  or  three  coaches  abreast. 
Such  conveniences  would  be  very 
useful  in  this  country  contiguous 
to  the  courts  of  law,  churches, 
places  of  public  amusement,  and 
even  to  most  houses  of  the  no- 
bility and  gentry,  where  numer- 
ous fine  equipages  and  valuable 
horses  stand  half  the  night  ex- 
posed to  all  weathers." 

"The  void  or  aperture  of  the 
arcade,"  says  the  same  author, 
"  should  never  be  more  in  height, 
nor  much  less  than  double  their 
width.  The  breadth  of  the  pier 
should  seldom  exceed  two-thirds, 
nor  be  less  than  one-third  of  the 
width  of  the  arch,  according  to 
the  character  of  the  composition; 
and  the  piers  at  the  angles  should 
be  broader  than  the  next  by  one- 
half,  one-third,  or  one-fourth." 

"The  thickness  of  the  piers  de- 
pends on  the  width  of  the  portico, 
and  the  weight  which  the  arcade 
has  to  carry  above ;  for  they  must 

241 


ARCADE. 


be  strong  enough  to  bear  the 
burden  and  to  resist  the  pressure 
of  the  vault  of  the  portico.  With 
regard  to  the  beauty  of  the  build- 
ing, Chambers  says,  the  pier 
should  not  be  less  than  one 
quarter  of  the  width  of  the  arch, 
nor  more  than  one-third  ;  and 
when  arches  are  closed  up  to 
receive  doors,  windows,  orniches, 
the  recesses  should  be  deep  enough 
at  least  to  contain  the  most  pro- 
minent parts  of  what  is  placed  in 
them  ;  otherwise  the  style  of  archi- 
tecture will  appear  flat,  and  the 
cornices  of  the  niches  or  windows 
projecting  before  the  fronts  of  the 
arcades,  will  become  too  power- 
ful and  striking  in  the  composi- 
tion." 

"  The  area,  enclosed  by  arcades, 
or  by  a  wall  and  an  arcade,  may 
have  a  flat  ceiling,  or  may  be 
arched  in  various  manners.  When 
the  ceiling  is  flat,  the  correspond- 
ing inside  faces  of  the  piers  may 
be  ornamented  with  pilasters,  or 
the  pier  may  have  this  ornament 
corresponding  to  another  placed 
on  the  wall,  forming  the  outer 
boundary  of  the  corridor.  Their 
projection  may  be  from  a  sixth  to 
aquarterof  their  diameter.  These 
pilasters  may  support  a  continued 
entablature,  or  one  interrupted 
and  running  across  the  portico 
over  every  two  pilasters,  in  order 
to  form  coffers  ;  or  the  architrave 
and  frieze  may  be  continued  while 
the  cornice  only  is  carried  across 
the  portico,  over  the  pilasters  as 
before,  and  serves  to  form  com- 
partments in  the  ceiling." 

"  Where  the  portico  is  arched 
with  a  semicircular,  or  elliptical 
vault,  the  backs  of  the  piers  and 
inner  wall  of  the  portico  may  be 
decorated  with  pilasters,  as  already 
described,  supporting  a  regular 
continued  entablature ;  from  a 
little  above  which  the  arch  should 
take  its  spring,  that  no  part  of  it 


may  be  hid  by  the  projection  of 
the  cornice." 

"The  vaultmaybeenriched  with 
compartments  of  various  regular 
polygonal  figures,  enclosing  other 
decorations  which  are  peculiar  to 
ceilings,  (which  see.)  But  when 
the  vault  is  groined  or  composed 
of  flat,  circular,  or  domical  coves, 
sustained  on  pendentives,  the 
pilasters  must  be  as  broad  as  are 
the  columns  in  front  of  the  piers; 
but  they  must  rise  no  higher  than 
the  top  of  the  impost,  the  mould- 
ings of  which  must  finish  and  | 
serve  them,  instead  of  a  capital 
from  whence  the  groins  and  pen- 
dentives are  to  spring,  as  also  the 
bands,  or  arcs  doubleaux,  which 
divide  the  vault." 

"  There  are  various  modes  of  de- 
corating an  arcade  externally ; 
sometimes  the  pier  is  rusticated, 
at  others  a  pilaster  is  placed  on 
it,  or  a  column,  or  a  terminus,  or 
caryatides;  and  on  some  occasions 
the  piers  are  made  broad  enough 
to  admit  a  niche  or  window." 

'*  The  circular  part  of  the  aper- 
ture is  either  surrounded  with 
rustic    archstones,    or   with  an 
archivolt  enriched  with  mould- 
ings ;   which,  in  the  centre,  is 
generally  interrupted  by  a  key- 
stone in  the  form  of  a  console,  a 
mask,  or  some  other  proper  or- 
nament of  sculpture,  serving  at 
the  same  time  as  a  key  to  the 
arch,  and  as  a  seemingly  necessary 
support  to  the  architrave  of  the 
order.    Sometimes  the  archivoll 
springs  from  an  impost  placed  a! 
the  top  of  the  pier,  and  at  other? 
from  columns,  with  their  regulai 
entablature  or  architrave  cornice 
placed  on  each  side  of  the  arch 
and  there  are  some  instances  o 
arcades  without  any  piers,  thearcl 
of  their  ceiling   springing  fron 
single  or  coupled  columns,  some 
times  with  and  sometimes  with!  L 
out  entablatures,  as  in  the  tempi 


ARC 


ARC 


of  Faunus,  at  Rome,  a  practice 
seldom    to    be  imitated,  being 
neither  solid  nor  handsome." 
,      "  When  the  arched  openings  of 
the  arcade  are  wide,  the  key-stone 
,  should  never  be  omitted,  but  cut 
into  the  form  of  a  console,  and 
i  carried  close  up  under  the  sofFet 
I  of  the  architrave,  which,  by  rea- 
,  son  of  its  extraordinary  length  of 
bearing,  requires  a  support  in  the 
middle.    And  if  the  columns  that 
:  adorn  the  piers  are  detached,  as 
\  in  the  triumphal  arches  at  Rome, 
lit  is  necessary  to  break  the  entab- 
lature over  them,  making  its  pro- 
jection, in  the  interval,  no  more 
than  if  there  were  no  columns  at 
Sail ;  for  though   the  architrave 
might  be  made  sufficiently  solid, 
yet  it  would  be  disagreeable  to 
see  so  great  a  length  of  entabla- 
ture hanging  in  the  air  without 
any  prop  or  apparent  support." 

"  It  is,  however,  to  be  remem- 
ibered,  that  these  breaks  in  en- 
tablatures should  be  verysparingly 
employed,  never  indeed  but  to 
nvoid  some  considerable  incon- 
venience or  deformity,  for  they 
are  unnatural,  render  the  columns 
>r  other  supports  apparently  use- 
ess,  destroy  in  a  great  measure 
he  simplicity  of  the  composition, 
,nd    can    seldom   be  contrived 
vithout    some    mutilations,  or 
triking  irregularities  in  the  cap- 
tals.     The  imposts    of  arches 
hould  never  be  omitted,  unless 
latbands  supply  their  place.  In 
11  arcades  the  arches  must  not 
Ipring  immediately  from  the  im- 
iost,  but  take  its  rise  at  such  a 
istance  above  it,  as  may  be  ne- 
2ssary  to  have  the  whole  curve 
,j     ;en  at  the  proper  point  of  view. 

hen  archivolts  are  employed 
6     fithout  a  key  or  a  console  in 
leir  middle,  the  same  distance 
?j     just  be  preserved  between  the 
>p  of  the  archivolt  and  the  arch- 
rave  of  the  order,   (if  one  is 


used,)  as  when  there  is  a  key,  or 
at  least  half  that  distance  j  for 
when  they  are  close  to  each  other 
their  junction  forms  an  acute  and 
disagreeable  angle." 

ARCiE.  (Lat.)  In  Roman  archi- 
tecture. The  gutters  of  the  cavae- 
dium.  The  word  area  is  used 
to  signify  a  beam  of  wood,  which 
has  a  groove  or  channel  hollowed 
in  it  from  one  end  to  the  other. 

Arce  arcul^.  In  square 
sarcophagi,  with  the  sides  expand- 
ing and  generally  resting  upon 
feet,  imitating  those  of  a  lion  or 
other  beast. 

Arca  pollinarta.  A  mill- 
trough. 

Arc-boutant.  (Fr.)  An  arched 
buttress  formed  of  a  flat  arch,  or 
part  of  an  arch,  abutting  against 
the  feet  or  sides  of  another  arch 
or  vault  to  support  them,  and 
prevent  their  giving  way  in  that 
direction.  "  Arch-formed  props 
employed  in  the  pointed  style  for 
sustaining  the  vaults  of  the  nave, 
their  lower  ends  resting  on  the 
pilastered  buttresses  of  the  aisles, 
and  their  upper  ends  resisting  the 
pressure  of  the  middle  vault 
against  the  several  springing 
points  of  the  groins.  They  are 
sometimes  called  flying  buttresses, 
arched  buttresses,  arch  butments." 

Arcella.  In  mediceval  archi- 
tecture.   A  cheese-room. 

Arch.  In  geometry.  Part  of 
a  circle,  not  more  than  a  half. 
Amongst  modern  mathematical 
writers  the  term  is  disused,  ex- 
cept as  restricted  to  its  usual 
acceptation  among  builders  and 
mechanics. 

Arch.  In  building.  A  me- 
chanical arrangement  of  separate 
inelastic  bodies  in  the  line  of  a 
curve,  which  preserve  a  given 
form  when  resisting  pressure.  A 
part  of  a  building  suspended  over, 
or  from,  a  given  plan,  and  sup- 
ported  or  resisted    at    its  cx- 

243 


ARCH. 


tremities,  and  concave  towards 
the  plan.  A  concave  structure 
raised  or  turned  upon  a  mould, 
called  its  centering,  in  the  form 
of  an  arc  of  a  curve,  and  serving 
as  the  inward  support  of  some 
superstructure.  A  building  open 
below  and  closed  above,  standing 
by  the  form  of  its  own  curve.  A 
ceiling  composed  of  stones,  which, 
by  acting  against  each  other,  are 
supported  by  the  same  force  by 
which  they  would  otherwise  fall. 

An  aperture  formed  of  bricks 
or  stones  of  a  wedge  or  like  ten- 
dency, by  which  it  is  adapted  to 
resist  perpendicular  and  lateral 
pressure,  so  as  to  support  the 
edifice  built  over  it.  An  opening 
in  a  bridge  through,  or  under, 
which  the  water  and  vessels  pass. 
A  concave  ceiling,  or  floor,  of 
any  material,  or  on  any  principle 
of  construction.  A  tunnel.  An 
excavation. 

An  arch,  says  sir  Henry  Wot- 
ton,  is  a  narrow  contracted  vault, 
and  a  vault  is  a  dilated  arch. 

The  supports  of  an  arch  are 
pillars  or  walls,  called  abutments, 
butments,  or  piers.  The  first,  or 
lowest  stones,  or  courses  of  stones, 
that  form  part  of  the  arch,  are 
called  springers ;  and  the  line  on 
which  they  are  placed,  or  from 
which  the  arch  begins  to  rise  or 
spring,  is  the  springing  line,  or 
reins  of  the  arch.  The  impost, 
or  platband,  is  the  upper  end  of 
the  pier  on  which  the  arch  rests. 
The  stones  ranged  in  the  curved 
line  are  called  archstones,  or  vous- 
soirs  j  the  lower  end  of  the  stones 
form  the  interior,  or  curve  of 
the  arch,  the  whole  of  which 
concave  surface  is  called  the 
intrados  by  geometers,  or  soffet 
among  architects.  The  cxtrados 
is  the  upper  or  opposite  convex 
surface  of  the  archstones.  The 
span,  or  chord  of  the  arch,  is  mea- 
sured from  the  points  or  lines, 


where  the  intrados  rises  from  the 
impost.  The  rise  of  the  arch,  or 
its  versed  sine,  is  the  distance  of 
the  highest  point  of  the  intrados 
above  the  chord  line.  This  high- 
est point  being  by  some  geo- 
meters called  the  vertex  of  the 
arch,  sometimes  the  crown  ,•  but 
among  workmen  and  builders,  the 
highest  point  of  the  intrados,  or 
vertex,  is  called  the  under  side  of 
the  crown,  the  crown  being  the 
upper  end  of  the  stones  highest 
in  the  arch.  The  upper  or  centre 
stone  of  the  series  of  archstones, 
or  voussoirs,  which  connects  the 
opposite  portions  of  the  arch,  and 
binds  them  together,  is  the  key- 
stone or  key,.  The  haunches,  or 
hances,  or  flanks,  among  geo- 
meters, are  the  spaces  included 
between  a  horizontal  line  drawn  j 
from  the  vertex  of  the  arch,  and 
a  perpendicular  touching  the  ' 
springing  line  of  the  intrados;  but 
among  masons,  the  hances.  Flanks 
are  the  spaces  included  between 
the  extrados,  and  a  horizontal  line  j 
from  the  crown  of  the  arch,  and 
a  vertical  line  from  the  springing 
of  the  extrados.  When  this  space 
is  not  built  up  with  solid  masonry 
throughout  the  breadth  of  the 
arch,  the  walls  built  upon  the 
voussoirs  to  the  same  height,  are 
called  hance  or  flank  walls ;  the 
outer  wall  forming  the  elevation 
of  the  arch  is  the  spandrel  wall. 
Sometimes  a  circle-arch  is  con- 
structed through  the  spandrel 
and  haunch  walls,  which  work- 
men designate  an  ox-eye, — the 
extrados  prolonged  by  an  arch 
of  a  reversed  curvature  passing 
over  the  pier,  and  connected 
with  a  similar  prolongation  of 
the  opposite  arch,  is  called  a 
strati  arch,  or  strutt  course. 

In  the  decoration  of  arches,  the 
archivolt  is  a  collection  of  mould- 
ings, on  the  face  of  the  arch- 
stones, concentric  with  the  in-i 


ARCH 


trades.     The  key-stone,  when 
ornamented,  is  sometimes  named 
from  its  ornament,  as  a  console,  or 
an  arcane.    Some  of  the  mediae- 
val   bridges   have  the  intrados 
formed  into  pannels,  by  hollowing 
each  alternate  row  of  archstones 
I  to  a  certain  depth  parallel  with 
:  the  intrados  ;  the  projecting  row 
or  voussoirs  are  then  called  ribs, 
t  and  in  arches  generally  the  same 
■  name  is  given  to  any  single  course 
1  of  stones  forming  an  arch. 

The  outside  face,  or  elevation 
of  the  spandrel  wall,  is  called  the 
spandrel ;  this,  when  the  arch  has 
an  archivolt,  is  included  in  the 
space  between  the  outer  mould- 
ing of  the  archivolt,  and  a  per- 
pendicular from  the  springing  of 
'this  moulding,  from  the  impost 
and  the  horizontal  moulding  or 
'projection  surmounting  the  arch. 

Arches  are  also  denominated, 
'from  the  similarity  of  their  intra- 
dos to  the  periphery  of  the  sec- 
tions of  various  geometrical  solids, 
'as  semicircular,  elliptical,  para- 
bolical, cycloidal,  catenarian,  &c. 
j    Circular  arches  are  called  by 
'the  earlier  architectural  authors 
'.arches,  by  way  of  eminence.  Their 
perfect  arch,  being  a  semicircle, 
the    imperfect,     scheme,  skeen, 
'•ikene,    surbassed,    or  diminished 
arch,  being  formed  of  a  portion 
'less  than  a  semicircle.   A  rampant 
pcA  rises  from  imposts  of  different 
heights,  or  has  its  chord  inclined 
BO  the  horizon.     An  arabesque, 
noresque,  or  saracenic   arch,  has 
ts  chord  line  less    than  other 
Parallel    lines,    which    may  be 
llrawn  between  it  and  the  vertex 
)f  the  arch  ;  and  this  species  is 
ometimes    named   a  horse-shoe 
trch  from  its  fancied  resemblance 
o  that  form.   When  the  extrudes 
»f  an  arch,  or  the  upper  line  of 
he  voussoirs,  is  concentric  with 
he  intrados,  (that  is,  the  arch- 
tones  being   all   of  the  same 


length,)  the  arch  is  then  said  to 

be  extradosed. 

Straight  Arch.  An  arch  of  an 
intermediate  form  between  the 
semicircular  and  gothic  arch, 
consisting  of  straight  lines  and 
a  pointed  top,  comprising  two 
sides  of  an  equilateral  triangle  : 
this  was  in  use  in  Italy  in  the 
ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  and 
appears  on  the  coins  of  Berenga- 
rius. 

Gothic  or  Pointed  Arch.  That 
formed  by  the  intersection  of  two 
arcs,  and  used  in  the  buildings  of 
the  latter  period  of  what  is  ge- 
nerally called  the  middle  ages. 
It  had  a  great  variety  of  pro- 
portions, as  it  is  found  to  have 
been  struck  on  different  occasions 
— from  a  third  of  its  width, — from 
one-fourth — one-fifth — two-fifths 
—one-sixth  —  one-seventh — two- 
sevenths —  three-sevenths  —  one- 
eighth  —  one-ninth — two-ninths 
and  five-twelfths — but  that  con- 
structed on  an  equilateral  triangle 
is  the  most  usual. 

"  By  tuscan  w  riters,"  says  sir 
Henry  Wotton,  "they  are  called 
di  terzo,  and  quarto  accuto,  because 
they  always  concur  in  an  acute 
angle,  and  do  spring  from  a  divi- 
sion of  the  diameter  into  three, 
four,  or  more  parts  at  pleasure  : 
such  as  these,  both  for  the  natural 
imbecility  of  the  sharp  angle  it- 
self, and  likewise  for  their  very 
uncomeliness,  ought  to  be  exiled 
from  judicious  eyes,  and  left  to 
their  first  inventors — the  Goths 
or  Lombards,  among  other  relics 
of  that  barbarous  age."  Evelyn 
calls  them  gotiq.  Modern  archi- 
tects have  classed  their  varieties 
chronologically,  according  to  the 
period  in  which  they  were  first 
used  in  mediaeval  buildings. 

Romanesque  Arch.  In  decora- 
tion. A  semicircular  or  a  sur- 
bassed arch  removed  from  its 
native  position  between  the  co- 

245 


ARCH. 


lumns,  and  raised  above  them, 
or  upon  them — sometimes  spring- 
ing from  the  abacus  of  the  capital, 
or  from  the  cornice  of  the  entab- 
lature. 

History  of  the  Arch.  Notwith- 
standing the  great  importance  of 
the  arch  in  building,  and  the 
changes  which  its  use  has  intro- 
duced, as  well  in  the  style  and 
taste  of  decoration  as  in  construc- 
tion, the  era  of  its  invention,  its 
original  form,  the  name  or  coun- 
try of  its  inventor,  are  involved 
in  the  deepest  obscurity. 

The  shadowing  wings  of  the 
cherubim  meeting  over  the  ark 
of  the  covenant,  and  the  meeting 
of  the  branches  of  the  palm-trees, 
with  carved  and  gilded  represent- 
ations of  which  the  walls  of  the 
temple  of  Solomon  were  adorned, 
have  been  cited  by  some  authors 
of  warm  imaginations,  and  fa- 
miliar with  the  mediaeval  struc- 
tures, as  suggesting  the  idea  of  a 
got  hie  arch.  Yet  it  is  remark- 
able that  in  the  detailed  descrip- 
tion of  this  magnificent  fane,  no 
contrivance  similar  to  the  arch 
appears  to  have  been  employed 
in  its  construction.  In  the  im- 
mense palaces  built  by  the  same 
prince  in  Jerusalem,  and  in  the 
forest  of  Lebanon,  (which  re- 
quired thirteen  years  to  complete 
them,)  the  walls  were  formed  of 
immensely  large  stones,  generally 
12  to  15  feet  long,  the  covering 
above  being  of  cedar  beams,  upon 
rows  of  cedar  pillars.  In  the 
account  of  these  buildings  we 
find  staircases  regularly  formed, 
•jut  no  indications  of  arches. 

In  the  second  temple  built  by 
Esdras,  the  temple  itself,  as  well 
as  the  stately  cloisters  surround- 
ing it,  the  apertures  were  of  the 
lintelled  kind  ;  and  when  it  was 
re-edified  by  Herod,  the  greatest 
part  of  these  ambulatories  are 
again    described    to  have  been 


roofed  with  beams  of  wood  laid 
across,  and  resting  upon  massy 
stone  pillars. 

And  it  is  not  a  little  extraordi- 
nary circumstance,  that  there  is 
no  word  at  all  of  a  similar  import 
with  the  word  arch,  or  its  forma- 
tion, from  one  end  of  the  scrip- 
tures to  the  other,  except  in  Eze- 
kiel,  where  it  is  said,  and  "  there 
were  narrow  windows  to  the  little 
chambers,  and  to  their  posts 
within  the  gate  round  about,  and 
likewise  to  the  arches,  and  wia- 
dows  were  round  about  inward, 
and  upon  each  post  were  palm- 
trees" — which  in  the  marginal 
emendation  is  made  galleries;  and 
where  the  same  word  which  is  here 
translated  arches  occurs  in  two 
other  places,  it  is  there  translated 
post. 

In  Homer's  description  of  the 
palace  of  Priam,  a  square  court 
is  surrounded  by  a  portico  with 
pillars  and  (rude)  entablatures  all 
round  it,  much  like  those  ancient 
remains  lately  described  as  exist-  < 
ing  in  Egypt,  behind  these  were 
ranges  of  chambers  10  or  12  feet 
wide  j  but  no  mention  is  made  of 
vaulted  apartments,  nor  does  the 
word  occur  in  his  poems. 

He  mentions  the  hundred  gates 
of  Thebes,  which  may  probably 
be  the  identical   structures  re- 1  ll 
maining  to  this  day.    Each  gate 
we  find  is  generally  composed  of  j  p 
two  great  towers,  like  truncated!  t 
pyramids,  with  their  bases  widely]  c 
extended  in  proportion  to  their  t 
summits,  standing  at  a  little  dis-  a 
tance   from  each    other,  whilst  c 
the  space  between  the  portal  is  ir 
formed  of  a  vast  lintel,  placed  at  m 
a  considerable  height  above  the  lo 
ground,  from  pyramid  to  pyramid, 
and  covering  a  passage  of  suf-  b 
ficient  height  and  width  to  form  a 
magnificent  gate.    Each  of  these 
pyramidal  towers  contained  se-|  q 
veral   small  apartments  in  each]  i 


ARCH. 


story,  and  piled  on  each'  other 
sometimes  to  the  height  of  five 
or  six  stories :  some  of  these 
towers  are  also  filled  up  solid ;  but 
the  opening  between  them  is 
always  covered  over  in  the  same 
manner.  The  palaces  and  temples 
are  constructed  of  vast  pillars  of 
granite  or  marble,  on  which 
rested  enormous  imposts  ;  these 
served  as  a  sort  of  beams,  upon 
which  other  great  stones  were 
placed  like  rafters,  side  by  side, 
and  which  formed  the  roof,  and 
occasionally  the  floors,  of  other 
superstructures  :  some  of  these 
stones,  still  to  be  seen,  are  40 
feet  long. 

In  the  pyramid  of  Sahara,  a 
chamber  22|  feet  long,  and  12 
feet   wide,  has  the  appearance 
of  a  high  arched  vaulted  ceil- 
ing j  yet,  in  reality,  nothing  can 
be  further   removed   than  this 
inclined  roof  from  the  construc- 
tion of  an  arch  of  any  kind  >  all 
the  stones  are  laid  in  horizontal 
courses,   each  course  projecting 
about  5  inches  beyond  that  be- 
neath it,  until  the  two  sides  nearly 
meet,  when  the  ceiling  is  com- 
I  pleted  by  being  covered  with  a 
flat  stone.  The  great  gallery  of  the 
:  pyramids  at  Memphis  is  154  feet 
i  long,  26  feet  high,  and  not  more 
;  than  6*  feet  wide  ;  its  ceiling  is 
;  formed  by  seven  tiers  of  stones 
projecting  in  the  same  manner, 
;  each  course  3  inches  beyond  that 
e  on  which  it  is  incumbent,  till  the 
two    sides  approach   to  within 
|  about  3  feet  at  top,  and  then  it  is 
:  covered  with  a  flat  stone.  The 
great  chamber  in  which  the  sar- 
|  cophagus  was  placed,  is  34  feet 
long,  17  feet  broad,  and  19  feet 
i  high  :  here  a  vault  or  arch  would 
have  been  particularly  beautiful 
i  as  well  as  convenient.     It  is, 
i  however,  roofed  in  the  manner  of 
one  or  two  very  narrow  galleries 
in  the  same  building,   by  nine 


immense  stones  laid  from  side 
side,  and  flat  ceiled. — This  was 
built  twelve  hundred  years  before 
the  birth  of  Christ. 

Herodotus,  in  describing  the 
celebrated  labyrinth,  says  it  en- 
closed twelve  courts,  all  of  which 
were  covered,  or  rather  the  por- 
ticoes, or  ambulatories,  which 
surrounded  them,  as  he  says  far- 
ther on,  that  to  each  court  was  a 
peristyle  (or  space  enclosed  by 
pillars)  of  white  stone  very  nicely 
adjusted,  and  the  covering  of 
every  one  of  them  was  of  stone, 
and  considering  the  meaning  of 
the  word  forophej  he  employs  on 
this  occasion,  this  covering  was 
flat,  like  that  in  the  great  cham- 
ber of  the  Memphian  pyramid. 
In  part  of  this  labyrinth,  still  re- 
maining, the  outward  wall  is  built 
sloping  (or  battering)  inwards 
like  a  pyramid  ;  and  also  one  of 
the  larger  and  better  rooms  is 
actually  covered  with  large  stones 
laid  from  wall  to  wall  as  in  the 
chamber  of  the  pyramid. 

The  sckos,  or  interior  of  the 
temple  of  Isis,  consists  of  several 
apartments,  all  the  walls  and  ceil- 
ings of  which  are  in  the  same 
way  covered  with  religious  and 
astronomical  representations ;  the 
roofs  are,  like  the  rest  remaining  in 
Egypt,  flat,  having  oblong  masses 
of  stone  resting  on  side  walls, 
and  when  the  distance  of  these 
is  too  great,  one  or  two  rows 
of  columns  are  carried  down  the 
middle  of  the  apartment  by  which 
the  roof  is  supported.  These 
apartments  are  lighted  by  small 
perpendicular  holes  cut  in  the 
ceiling,  and  where  it  was  possible 
to  introduce  the-m  by  oblique  ones 
in  the  sides  ;  these  are  very  small 
on  the  outside,  and  gradually  di- 
verge for  the  purpose  of  dispers- 
ing the  light  over  the  apartment. 

The  conclusion  is  obvious,  that 
the  Egyptians,  if  not  ignorant  of 

247 


A  R  C  H. 


the  mode  of  covering  a  space 
by  an  arch,  at  least  they  did  not 
I  resort  Jo  it ;  in  fact,  the  know- 
ledge or  practice  was  unnecessary, 
wiien   they    possessed  quarries 
capable  of  furnishing  such  enor- 
mous masses,  and  the  means,  both 
mechanical  and  economical,  of 
Raising  them,  seemingly  of  any 
•.dimension    they    wanted  5  that 
'  which  is  in  a  great  measure  a  sub- 
stitute for  the  insufficiency  and 
Imperfection  of  materials,  would 
•7be  to  them  an  useless  art.  An 
architect  who  had  the  means  of 
"covering  a  room  with  nine  large 
:stones,  would  not  surely  employ 
avhundred  for  that  purpose. 
i    In  this  step  of  the  inquiry, 
however,  there  is  no  historical 
data  to  go  upon,  as  to  whether 
.buildings  of  less  pretension  than 
pyramids,  and  temples,  and  palaces 
v\yere  constructed  with  a  similar 
.Tegard  (comparatively)  to  dura- 
tion or  stability  j  or  whether  that 
if  an  Egyptian  gentleman  con- 
structed a  dining  room,  or  bed- 
xhamber  of  an  equal  dimension 
■with   that  of  the  sarcophagus 
chamber  in  the  pyramid  at  Mem- 
phis, that  he  would  cover  it  with 
"granite  5     the     probability  is 
*against  the    conjecture  that  he 
would.    But  the  general  wants  of 
the  climate  point  out  the  use  of 
-pflat .  roofs,  or  terraces.    No  re- 
rmains  of  ancient  Egyptian  do- 
mestic architecture  are  extant,  to 
enable  us  to  decide,  whether  that 
invention  which  does- not  appear 
in  any  of  the  public  buildings, 
■Snight  have  been  found  in  those 
edifices,  where  economy  was  a 
primary  consideration.  It  is  some- 
what out  of  the  proper  place, 
jbut  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
in  a  much    later  age,  (that  of 
Hadrian,)  lintelled  apertures  in 
buildings,    under  circumstances 
in  "which    we  would   the  least 
of  all  expect  to  find  them,  were 


used  by  the  Egyptian  architects. 
In  one  of  the  gates  to  Antinopolis, 
composed  of  a  centre  apartment 
and  two  side  ones,  all  three  of  con- 
siderable elevation  and  width,  and 
decorated  in  the  Greek  style,  the 
apertures  are  lintelled.  The  corn- 
position,  though  characteristic, 
and  probably  pleasing  to  an 
Egyptian  eye,  could  not  have 
been  the  production  of  a  Greek  or 
Roman  artist. 

It  is  on  account  of  the  absence 
of  the  arch  in  these  buildings, 
that  its  existence  in  upper  Egypt 
before  the  time  of  the  Ptolemiea 
has  been  questioned. 

The  ancient  buildings  of  India 
bear  a  striking  resemblance,  in 
their  general  form,  as  well  as  in 
their  solidity,  with  those  of 
Egypt.  The  pyramidal  gates  of 
the  latter  bear  a  striking  affinity 
to  those  remarkable  erections  oyer 
the  gates  of  some  of  the  more 
ancient  pagodas  and  choultries 
particularly  those  constructed 
over  one  lofty  pyramidal  tower. 
In  the  ancient  Hindoo  choultries, 
the  massy  roofs  of  stone  are  quite 
flat,  and  supported  upon  vast 
pillars,  and  very  nearly  in  the 
same  manner  with  the  ancient 
Thebaic  temples, ;  and  in  some 
ancient  Indian  pagodas,  the  at- 
tempt to  procure  an  inclined 
ceiling  has  been  made  by  making 
one  course  project  over  the  other, 
as  in  the  gallery  of  the  pyramid, 
and  the  space  at  the  apex  is 
covered  with  a  single  flat  stone. 

The  Babylonian  builders  have 
also  been  considered  to  have  been 
acquainted  with  the  properties, 
and  to  have  availed  themselves  of 
the  use  of,  arches  in  their  edifices. 
The  bridge  over  the  Euphrates, 
the  hanging  gardens,  and  the 
subterranean  passage  made  by  queen 
Semiramis  under  the  bed  of  the 
Euphrates,  are  cited  in  support  of 
the  conjecture. 


ARCH. 


Herodotus  describes  the  great 
bridge  across  the  Euphrates  to 
have  been  built  with  stone  piers, 
(the  stones  being  bound  together 

i  with  lead  and  iron,)  upon  which 
were  laid,  (eula  pepragonaj  squared 
beams,  so  that  it  was  a  wooden 

:  framing  on  stone  piers.    The  sub- 

■  terranean  passage  by  which  this 
queen  passed  from  the  old  to  the 

;  new  palace,  differed  nothing  in 
the  construction  of  its  ceiling 

:  from  Egyptian  practice.  "  Hav- 
ing turned  the  river,"  says  Dio- 
dorus,  "  she  formed  from  the 

'  palaces  on  each  side  a  great 
trench,  and  built  (tas  kameras) 

;  covered  ways  of  dried  brick  ;  on 
each  part,  she  placed  melted  bi- 

\  tumen,  till  on  each  side  the  thick- 
ness of  the  layer  w  as  equal  to  four 

1  cubits.  The  walls  of  the  breach  on 
the  sides  were  of  the  breadth  of  20 
feet,  (i.e.  thick,)  and  the  height, 

:  exclusive  fkamphtheises  psalidos) 
of  the  inclined  forceps  part,  (or 

1  of  the  sloping  sides  of  the  vault- 
ing,) was  12  feet,  and  of  the  clear 
passage  15  feet."  The  investiga- 
tions of  recent  travellers  almost 

!  put  the  matter  beyond  a  doubt, 
as  to  the  mode  of  covering  sub- 

1  terranean  ways  among  this  people. 

1  Rennel  mentions  a  fragment  of  a 
subterranean  canal,  which,  instead 
of  being  arched  over,  was  covered 

■  with  flat  pieces  of  sand-stone,  6 
or  7  feet  long,  by  3  feet  wide 

•  and    Rich  (Ruins  of  Babylon) 
1  explored  a  subterranean  passage 
"  walled  with  large  bricks  laid 
in  bitumen,    and    covered  over 
with  pieces  of  sand-stone  a  yard 

■  thick,  and   several  yards  long." 

■  In  another  place  he  dug  into  a 
:  shaft,  or  hollow   pier,  60  feet 

square,  lined  with  fine  brick,  laid 
in  bitumen,  and  made  a  way  into 
a  passage  10  feet  high,  flat  on  the 
1  top,  and  exhibiting  both  burnt  and 
unburnt  bricks,  the  former  with 
inscriptions  on  them,  and  the 
21 


latter  as  usual  laid  with  a  layer  of 
reeds  between  every  row,  except 
in  one  or  two  courses  near  the 
bottom,  where  they  were  ce- 
mented with  bitumen.  And  in 
another  part,  where  an  excavat  ion 
was  made,  "  a  subterranean  pas- 
sage was  found  floored  and  walled 
with  large  bricks  laid  in  bitumen, 
and  covered  over  with  pieces  of 
sand-stone  a  yard  thick,  and 
several  yards  long ;  the  weight 
on  which  being  so  great  as  to 
have  given  a  considerable  degree 
of  obliquity  to  the  passage."  This 
is  the  same  as  described  by  Rennel, 
and  the  addition  by  Mr.  Rich  is 
curious,  the  obliquity  being  pro- 
bably the  original,  instead  of  an 
accidental  form,  given  to  shorten 
the  bearing  of  the  ceiling  stone. 
At  the  spot  he  examined  it,  the 
passage  was  only  7  feet  high ; 
but,  a  little  farther  on,  the  Arab 
guide  informed  him  a  horseman 
could  ride  upright  in  it.  From  an 
attentive  examination  of  these 
remains,  he  concludes  that  there 
are  the  strongest  grounds  for 
supposing  that  the  Babylonians 
were  entirely  unacquainted  with 
the  arch,  of  which  he  could  not 
find  the  slightest  trace  among  the 
ruins  ;  and  that  the  place  of  the 
column  in  their  buildings  appear 
to  have  been  supplied  by  thick 
piers,  buttresses,  and  pilasters. 

That  which  has  been  described  as 
a  surprising'  and  laborious  experi- 
ment, was  a  strain  of  complaisance 
in  king  Nebuchadnezzar  to  his 
Medean  queen,  who  could  never 
be  reconciled  to  the  flat  and  naked 
appearance  of  the  province  ot 
Babylon,  but  frequently  regretted 
each  rising  hill  and  scattered 
forest  she  had  formerly  delighted 
in,  with  all  the  charms  they  had 
presented  to  her  youthf  ul  imagin- 
ation. The  king,  who  thought 
nothing  impossible  for  his  power 
to  execute,  and  that  nothing  ought 

249 


A  R 

to  be  unattempted  for  the  gratifi- 
cation of  his  beloved  consort,deter- 
mined  to  raise  woods  and  terraces, 
even  within  the  precincts  of  the 
city,  equal  to  those  by  which  her 
native  country  was  diversified. 

The  great  gates  of  Babylon 
we  may  also  consider  to  have  been 
square  headed,  for  Diodorus 
describes  them  to  be  all  of 
brass,  even  their  posts  and  upper 
lintels  also."  "  The  whole  pile," 
says  Diodorus  when  describing 
the  celebrated  hanging  gardens, 
M  are  of  a  square  form  ;  the  roofs 
(or  floors)  or  tops  of  the  cavities 
in  the  mass  were  covered  with 
beams  of  stone,  whose  length, 
including  that  part  resting  on  the 
side  walls,  was  16  feet,  and  their 
breadth  4  feet.  The  structure 
resting  upon  these  stones  was 
composed,  first  of  a  layer  of  reeds 
mixed  with  much  bitumen, 
then  with  a  double  layer  of  bricks, 
cemented  together  by  plaster  j 
and  thirdly,  of  a  cover  of  thick 
sheets  of  lead  that  no  moisture 
might  penetrate,  and  over  these 
was  laid  such  a  thickness  of  earth 
as  should  be  sufficient  for  the 
roots  of  the  largest  trees.  And 
Strabo's  account  is  essentially  the 
same.  The  whole  surface  so 
elevated,  was  not  of  very  great 
extent — not  more  than  the  area 
within  the  rails  of  Lincoln's  Inn 
Fields,  and  less  than  that  covered 
by  the  base  of  one  of  the  pyra- 
mids ;  and  about  equal  to  that  of 
the  Isola  Bella,  in  the  Laggio 
Maggiore,  to  the  arrangement  of 
which  these  gardens  have  been 
likened. 

The  bridge  over  the  Euphrates 
had  the  intervals  between  the 
piers  covered  with  planks  with 
squared  beams.  "  The  constructor 
of  it,"  according  to  the  same 
ancient  historian,  "  hewed  out 
very  long  stones  ;  and  about  the 
middle  part  of  the  city,  with  those 

250 


C  H. 

stones  which  he  had  dug  out,  he 
built  a  bridge,  binding  the  stone 
together  with  iron  and  lead,  and 
upon  it  he  laid  squared  beams  of 
timber,  on  which  the  Baby- 
lonians had  a  means  of  passing 
over.  But  in  the  nighttime  these 
beams  were  taken  away,  and  on 
this  account,  that  persons  wander- 
ing in  the  night  might  not  steal 
from  others  on  the  opposite  side." 
This  offers  no  example  of  the 
arch,  although  it  certainly  maybe 
considered  as  one  of  the  earliest 
instances  of  a  permanent  draw- 
bridge, from  the  breadth  of  the  j 
Euphrates  at  Babylon,  it  is  un- 
likely that  all  the  flooring  was 
taken  up  :  probably,  only  over  an 
interval  of  each  end. 

In  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  con- 
jectured to  have  been  part  of  the 
magnificent  edifice  that  was  de- 
stroyed by  Alexander  the  Great, 
there   is   no   indication    of  the 
springing  of  an  arch,  nor  so  much  | 
as  an  arched  doorway,  or  win- 
dow, or  portal,  in  the  whole  edi-  j 
fice,  nor  even  an  arched  niche. 
They  are  all,  whether  of  larger  or 
smaller  dimensions,  covered  flat 
at  top  by  imposts  and  architraves, 
or  transom  stones,  or  else  hewn 
out  of  one  single  stone,  but  still 
of  the  square  or  oblong  form. 
The  peristyles  of  its  rows  consist  | 
of  massy  stone  pillars,  supporting  I 
architraves,  or    transom  stones, 
and  obviously  intended  to  support 
only  beams  of  timber. 

The  grand  false  portals  of  the 
excavated  tombs  next  Nazi  Tus- 
tan,  are  formed  at  top  with  flat  i 
lintels,  and  the  pillars  in  front  of 
the  whole,  though  merely  hewn  j 
out  of  the  face  of  the  solid  rock, 
are  purposely  made  to  appear  as 
if  they  supported  great  projecting  j 
imposts,  with  a  long  architrave  ; 
and  frieze  above,  adorned   with  j 
sculptured  figures.     The  gene- 
ral style  of  these  productions  j 


ARCH. 


nearly  resembles  that  of  Egyptian 
buildings.  If  this  resemblance, 
added  to  the  account  of  Diodorus, 
that  they  were  erected  by  Egyp- 
tian artists,  be  received,  it  is  pro- 
bable that  they  were  begun  soon 
after  the  return  of  the  army 
of  Cambyses,  probably  by  Darius, 
the  son  of  Hystaspes,  and  finished 
by  Artaxerxes,  about  the  period  of 
rebuilding  the  second  temple  of 
Jerusalem. 

The  remains  of  ancient  build- 
ings at  Paestrum,  are  constructed 
in  a  manner  precisely  similar ; 
immense  stones  are  laid  on  pillars, 
and  over  these  others  are  placed 
to  form  the  ceiling  of  the  peri- 
styles. There  are  no  arches  to 
be  found  throughout,  nor  any 
signs  for  the  springing  of  an  arch. 

The  use  of  the  arch  in  Greek 
building,  has  been  inferred  from 
some  descriptions  (by  Pausanias) 
of  buildings  of  acknowledged 
antiquity.  In  particular,  the  mode 
in  which  he  says  the  treasury  of 
Mengas  was  constructed.  It  is 
probable,  however,  that  he  did 
not  understand  the  principle  on 
which  they  were  reared  :  from  his 
account  of  that  at  Orchomenas, 
he  conceived  they  were  built  upon 
the  principle  of  an  arch.  The 
remains  of  it,  however,  still  exist- 
ing, show  it  to  have  been  formed 
by  projecting  horizontal  courses, 
(not  radiating  ones,)  having  had 
their  lower  angles  cut  off,  giving 
the  structure  an  appearance  of  a 
gothic  dome. 

The  whole  of  the  Mengasian 
treasury  has  fallen  into  the  level 
of  the  entrance  5  of  this  the 
entire  height  is  about  7£  feet 
above  the  present  level  of  the 
grounds  j  its  breadth  at  top  is 
8  feet,  and  widens  towards  the 
bottom  to  about  9  feet ;  but  the 
entire  height  of  the  opening  is 
about  19  feet.  The  whole  build- 
ing is  of  white  marble.  Its  lintel, 


orarchitrave,  is  Hat,  and  composed 
of  a  single  block  15  feet  4  inches 
long,  6  feet  3  inches  broad,  and 
3  feet  3  inches  thick,  weighing 
nearly  24  tons.  It  must  have 
been  brought  from  a  great  dis- 
tance, as  the  nearest  quarries  of 
white  marble  are  those  of  Peut- 
cliton  ;  it  has  been  about  65  feet 
in  diameter. 

In  the  island  of  Sardinia  there 
are  several  edifices  of  the  highest 
antiquity,  called  Noragis,  which 
are  constructed  on  the  same  plan, 
and  in  the  same  form  with  the 
ancient  Greek  treasuries,  but  they 
are  not  so  large.  According  to 
Pausanias,  Norax,  with  a  colony 
of  Iberians,  built  a  town  in  Sar- 
dinia called  Nora.  These  buildings 
may  have  been  so  named  from  this 
leader. 

The  treasury  of  Atreus,  near 
Mycenae,  is  still  perfect,  and  may 
be  considered  as  probably  the 
most  ancient  Greek  building  in 
existence  it  is  only  slightly 
mentioned  by  Pausanias,  and  it 
accords  perfectly  with  his  descrip- 
tion of  that  of  Minyas.  A  space 
of  "20  feet  in  width  between  two 
walls  leads  to  the  entrance^  which 
is  9|  feet  wide  at  the  base,  and 
7  feet  10  inches  at  the  top,  and 
about  19  feet  in  height,  and  leads 
by  a  passage  of  18  feet  in  depth 
to  a  subterraneous  circular  cham- 
ber, built  in  the  form  of  a  gothic 
dome,  terminating  at  the  top  in 
a  point  or  key-stone.  The  cavity 
of  the  apartment  is  similar  to  that 
of  a  bee-hive. 

There  was  an  ancient  temple 
of  Apollo,  at  Delphos,  which  was 
said  to  have  been  built  by  bees, 
probably  in  allusion  to  the  form 
of  the  hive  in  which  it  was  con- 
structed, like  that  which  we  are 
now  describing. 

The  stones  are  of  the  hard  and 
beautiful  breccia,  of  which  the 
neighbouring  rocks,  and  the  con  . 

251 


ARCH. 


tiguous  three-topped  Mount  Eu- 
bora  consists.  It  is  the  hardest 
and  most  compact  breccia  in 
Greece,  and  resembles  the  rare 
antique  marble  called  breccia 
tracagnina  antica,  which  is  some- 
times found  among  the  ruins  of 
Rome. 

The  present  height  of  the 
treasury  is  49  feet,  (50  feet,  Gell.) 
from  the  present  ground,  level  to 
the  apex ;  as  the  floor  is  raised 
above  its  original  line,  the  entire 
height  is  somewhat  more.  Its 
present  diameter  is  48  feet,  (47 
feet  6  inches,  Gell.)  which  at  the 
original  level  of  floor,  will  of  course 
be  somewhat  more.  The  blocks 
are  placed  in  parallelograms,  and 
regular  layers,  thirty-four  ranges 
being  at  preseut  visible.  They 
are  united  with  the  greatest  pre- 
cision, without  the  aid  of  cement, 
and  the  stones  are  not  all  of  equal 
dimensions  j  but  the  courses  are 
generally  about  two  feet  in  thick- 
ness, though  they  have  the  ap- 
pearance, to  a  spectator,  on  the 
floor  of  diminishing  towards  the 
vertex,  which  may  be  the  effect 
of  the  perspective. 

This  treasury,  see  engraving 
marked  "  History  of  Arch,"  had 
two  chambers  ;  a  door  leads  from 
the  first  into  the  second,  which  is 
a  square  of  about  27  feet,  and 
about  19  in  height  in  its  present 
state,  but  its  walls  are  not  visible 
from  being  obstructed  with  earth. 
The  door  is  only  9|  feet  high,  the 
base  4  feet  7  inches,  and  4  feet 
3  inches  at  top.  It  has  a  triangu- 
lar cavity  over  its  lintel,  similar 
to  that  over  the  entrance  to  the 
great  chamber. 

These  triangular  stones  were  of 
enormous  dimensions.  The  trian- 
gular stone  on  which  are  sculp- 
tured the  "  Lions"  over  the  gate  of 
Mycenae,  is  11  feet  broad  at  the 
base,  9  feet  high,  and  about  2 
feet  thick. 

252 


The  outside  front  of  the  great 
chamber,  which  is  the  only  part 
not  covered  with  earth,  faces  the 
Acropolis.  Over  the  lintel  of  the 
entrance  is  a  triangular  niche,  at  ! 
present  open  and  unadorned,  but 
which,  in  a  more  ancient  period, 
was  occupied  by  some  embellish- 
ment. Its  height  is  12  feet,  and 
breadth  7  feet  8  inches.  Some 
masses  of  rosso  antico,  covered 
with  spiral  ornaments,  and  a 
columnar  pilaster  and  its  base, 
are  seen  lying  near  the  gate, 
which  may  have  been  placed  as 
a  sepulchral  stelo  in  the  middle  of 
the  triangular  cavity,  and  the 
sides  filled  with  other  ornamental 
or  allegorical  subjects.  The 
pilaster  and  base  are  of  a  soft 
green  stone,  singularly  enriched 
with  spiral  and  zig-zag  ornaments 
of  an  Egyptian  rather  than  Gre- 
cian character  :  indeed  the  whole 
edifice  has  so  much  the  appear- 
ance of  Egyptian  origin,  that  it 
was  very  probably  constructed  by 
the  colony  of  the  Belides,  after 
the  expulsion  of  the  Inachidae 
from  the  Argolic  territory. 

The  thickness  of  the  wall  of 
this  extraordinary  structure  has 
not  been  ascertained.  The  con- 
cave surface  has  been  formerly 
ornamented  with  some  interior 
decorations,  as  a  great  many  long 
bronze  nails  are  found  fixed  in  the 
stones,  even  up  to  the  summit  of 
the  building ;  they  have  large 
heads,  and  project  about  a  third 
of  their  length  beyond  the  sur- 
face. The  lintel  of  the  door  is 
composed  of  two  masses  of  stone, 
the  largest  of  which  is  27  feet 
long,  17  broad,  and  3  feet  9 
inches  thick  ;  the  weight  of  which 
must  be  equal  to  one  hundred  and 
thirty-three  tons. 

No  masses,  except  those  of 
Egypt  and  Balbec,  can  be  com- 
pared with  this  gigantic  lintel, 
which  is,  however,  of  the  same 


ARCH. 


stone  with  the  other  parts  of  the 
building.  The  second  lintel  is  of 
the  same  height,  and  probably  of 
the  same  length,  as  the  other; 
but  as  it  is  on  the  outer  part  of 
the  edifice,  and  its  extremities 
covered  with  earth,  its  length 
has  not  been  ascertained  j  its 
breadth  is  only  one  foot.  The 
exterior  of  the  lintel  is  orna- 
mented with  two  parallel  mould- 
ings, which  are  continued  down 
the  jambs  of  the  door,  in  a  similar 
manner  to  the  portal  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Bacchus,  at  Nasos. 

All  these  subterranean  cham- 
bers in  Greece,  Italy,  and  Sicily, 
were  probably  constructed  upon 
the  principle  of  the  pyramids  to 
which  they  have  a  considerable 
approximation,  and  have  formed 
the  primitive  cryptae  of  the 
chiefs  of  the  people  of  antiquity. 
The  triangular  space  over  the 
lintels  in  these  buildings,  has  been 
thought  to  indicate  a  rude  attempt 
to  relieve  the  centre  of  the  stone 
from  the  inserted  weight,  and  to 
throw  it  upon  the  ends.  The  con- 
jecture is  ingenious,  and  also  an 
extension  of  it,  as  accounting  for 
the  employment  of  two  stones 
spanning  the  opening  over  a  lintel 
and  meeting  in  a  point,  (see  jig. 
c.,)  and  seen  in  the  pyramids, 
and  which  are  thought  to  be  the 
origin  of  the  pointed  arch  at  least, 
but  it  is  obviously  without  much 
foundation.  That  some  sort  of  orna- 
ment was  placed  in  their  situations 
many  ancient  remains  still  testify ; 
the  gate  of  the  lions,  within  a  few 
hundred  yards  of  this  building, 
which  bears  marks  of  being  of 
the  same  age,  is  an  example. 
Here  ornaments,  conjectured  to 
have  alluded  to  the  solar  worship 
of  the  Persians,  are  placed  in  a 
similar  pointed  aperture ;  the 
triangular  form,  therefore,  which 
was  given  to  the  entire  ornament, 
fitting  into  the  triangular  niche, 


may  have  been  in  allusion  to  the 
(mudros)  conic  emblem  of  the 
sun. 

It  was  certainly  a  mysterious 
figure  among  the  Egyptians. 

This  species  of  adoration  was 
possibly  introduced  into  Argolis 
by  the  early  Egyptian  colonists, 
and  an  aperture  in  this  form  may 
therefore  be  considered  rather  as 
having  been  made  from  religious 
or  mythological  custom,  than  from 
anykno  wledge  of  the  use  or  attempt 
at  forming  an  arch  ;  and  in  situ- 
ations where  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  intended  to  receive  any 
embellishment,  the  same  space 
was  filled  up  by  stones  having  an 
inclined  position,  and  enclosing 
others  fashioned  in  the  triangular 
form. 

The  galleries  in  the  walls,  which 
anciently  enclosed  the  Acropolis 
of  Tiryns,  otfer  other  remarkable 
points  in  the  history  of  the  arch. 
The  enclosure  has  already  been 
described.  (See  Acropolis.)  Here 
the  vaulting  only  of  the  gallery 
need  be  noticed  : — the  gallery  is 
5  feet  wide,  the  sides  of  it  are 
formed  by  two  courses  of  stone, 
and  the  ceiling  by  two  other 
courses,  on  each  side  each  project 
till  they  meet  ;  the  roof  is  pointed 
when  seen  from  below,  the  lower 
end  surfaces  being  cut  in  an  angle 
of  forty-hve  degrees  ;  towards  the 
east,  that  part  of  the  gallery  at 
present  accessible,  has  six  aper- 
tures opening  towards  the  gal- 
lery. These  openings  are  also  in 
the  pointed  form,  and  formed  by 
the  horizontal  row  of  stones  on 
which  the  two  courses  forming 
the  roof  rest,  being  rudely  cut 
into  the  form  of  a  pointed  arch, 
each  stone  meeting  in  the  centre. 
This  is  unquestionably  the  nearest 
approach  to  an  arch  which  has 
been  noticed,  and  the  difference 
in  the  construction  between  the 
so  flits  of  this  Cyclopean  arcade, 


ARCH. 


consists  in  the  opening  of  the 
arcade,  (if  this  term  is  allowable,) 
being  formed  by  cutting  the  stone 
at  each  side,  as  per  figure,  and  the 
angles  of  the  two  projecting 
courses  in  the  other. 

The  gallery,  it  has  been  stated, 
is  not  more  than  5  feet  wide  ;  and 
many  of  the  stones  which  form 
its  walls  are  of  that  form,  for  in- 
stance, which  is  described  by 
Tacitus,  as  being  in  use  in  his 
time  for  the  tents  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  Arabia. 

It  was  not,  therefore,  from  a 
want  of  materials  to  form  a  fiat 
roof  to  the  gallery,  or  lintels  to 
the  apertures  of  the  arcade.  Some 
of  the  stones  of  the  latter,  which 
are  cut  to  form  the  opening,  would 
be  more  than  efficient  foralintelj 
and  the  same  thing  is  the  case 
with  the  stones  of  the  ceiling  of 
the  gallery  j  yet  the  enclosure  is 
made  by  projecting  stones,  instead 
of  by  a  stone  rafter  or  beam  j 
while  the  simpler  mode  was  not 
only  more  convenient,  easier  in 
execution,  and,  of  course,  less  ex- 
pensive ;  and  it  must  have  oc- 
curred to  the  experience  of  those 
who  appear  to  have  built  so  much 
and  so  well,  that  lintels  would 
have  been  equally  strong,  if  not 
more  so.  This  is  a  remarkable 
series  of  circumstances.  The 
arrangement  cannot  by  any  pos- 
sibility be  considered  as  forming 
an  arch,  or  as  an  attempt  even  at 
its  construction,  by  those  whose 
practice  might  have  given  them 
an  indistinct  glimpse  of  some  of 
its  more  obvious  properties.  Was 
it  therefore  mere  imitation  that 
prompted  its  adoption  in  the  walls 
of  this  fortress,  and  if  it  were, 
could  its  type  be  seen  any  where 
except  in  Egyptian  buildings,  in 
the  gallery  of  the  pyramids  ?  or 
was  it  introduced  with  a  reference 
to  some  mythological  rite,  or  some 
religious  observance  ? 

254 


The  ancient  buildings  of  Paes- 
tum  are  probably  of  a  somewhat 
later  age  than  those  which  have 
just  been  described  :  they  are, 
without  an  exception,  constructed 
without  any  use  of  the  arch,  or 
knowledge  of  it.  In  the  city 
walls,  as  drawn  in  Mayor's  book, 
there  appears  an  arched  gateway  ; 
but  an  accurate  examination  has 
shown  that  this  aperture  was  an 
alteration  in  a  much  later  age. 

In  the  ruins  of  the  temple  of 
Diana,  at  Ephesus,  built  after  the 
time  of  Alexander,  some  remains 
of  arches  have  been  discovered  by 
recent  travellers  j  but  we  know 
that  this  edifice  was  repaired  by 
both  Trajan  and  Adrian,  from 
inscriptions  remaining  on  the 
building  itself ;  and  it  is  not  pro- 
bable that  Pliny,  who  expressed 
both  wonder  and  admiration  at 
other  parts  of  this  wonderful 
structure,  should  have  omitted  all 
notice  of  an  invention  which 
would  have  made  it  still  more 
so. 

The  foundation  of  this  building 
was  laid  in  a  marshy  soil,  by 
means  of  layers  of  pounded  char- 
coal, and  alternate  pieces  of  wool, 
and  on  this  was  placed  a  most 
solid  basement,  a  construction 
which  manifestly  precludes  all 
idea  of  arches  being  used  by  the 
builders. 

"  Just,"  says  Pliny,  "  is  the 
admiration  of  the  magnificence 
that  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus 
excites,  which  was  two  hundred 
and  twenty  years  in  building,  at 
the  expense  of  all  Asia  Minor. 
In  a  marshy  soil  they  placed  it, 
that  it  might  not  be  affected  by 
earthquakes,  or  subject  to  any 
rendings  ;  and  further,  that  they 
might  not  lay  the  foundations  of 
such  a  vast  pile  upon  a  yielding 
unstable  bottom,  they  formed  a 
stratum  of  pounded  charcoal, 
covered  with  fleeces  of  wool  j  the 


ARCH. 


length  of  the  whole  temple  was 
425  feet,  the  breadth  220  feet,  the 
columns  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
seven,  made  at  the  expense  of 
individual  kings  ;  the  height  of 
them  6*0  feet,  and  thirty-seven 
of  them  sculptured,  oiie  by  Sco- 
pes. Chersephron,  the  architect, 
presided  over  the  work." 

It  wns  most  miraculous  that 
architraves  of  such  immense  bulk 
could  be  raised  up  to  their  places. 
This  he  accomplished  by  means 
of  bags  full  of  sand  piled  up, 
forming  a  gentle  ascent,  rising 
higher  than  the  capitals  of  the 
columns,  and  then  by  gradually 
emptying  the  lower  ones  in  order 
that  the  work  in  hand,  the  pon- 
derous mass,  might  slowly,  by 
little  and  little,  settle  on  its  pro- 
per support.  This  was  brought 
to  pass  with  the  utmost  difficulty, 
with  regard  to  the  very  lintel 
which  he  was  placing  upon  the 
portal,  for  its  bulk  was  most  pro- 
digious, and  it  did  not  settle  pro- 
perly on  its  support  or  bed,  in 
consequence  of  which,  the  archi- 
tect, full  of  anxiety,  was  ready  to 
doom  himself  to  death. 

Tradition  says,  that  wearying 
himself  out  with  such  thoughts  in 
the  night  he  saw  in  his  sleep  the 
goddess  whose  temple  he  was 
building,  appearing  to  him,  and 
exhorting  him  to  live,  for  that  she 
had  set  the  stone  right ;  and  so  it 
appeared  the  next  day,  seeming  to 
have  been  brought  to  its  correct 
position  by  its  own  weight.  The 
anxiety  of  the  architect,  and  the 
interposition  of  the  goddess  would 
neither  have  occurred,  had  the 
simple  means  of  suspending  an 
architrave,  now  employed,  been 
<  known  at  Ephesus. 

The  earlier  temple  may  also  be 
1  considered  to  have  been  likewise 
a  lintelled  structure. 

The  first  positive  information 
that  occurs  in  historians  regarding 


the  use  of  arches  is  given  by 
Livy,  who  informs  us  that  Scipio 
Africanus,  and  Lucius  Mummius, 
placed  arches  on  piers,  which  had 
been  formed  by  M.  Fulvius  some 
years  before  that  period,  about 
one  hundred  years  before  Augus- 
tus Caesar  was  placed  in  the  em- 
pire. And  Cicero,  in  his  oration 
against  Verres,  mentions  an  arch, 
erected  in  honour  of  Verres,  at 
Syracuse,  "  and  so  early  an  exist- 
ence of  such  a  kind  of  structure 
there,  before  we  read  of  any  thing 
like  it  any  where  else,  may  fairly 
lead  us  to  suspect  that  Sicily  was 
the  country  where  this  noble  kind 
of  ornament  first  appeared,  and 
that,  indeed,  Archimedes  was  the 
inventor  of  it." 

Hirtius  describes  arches  at 
Alexandria  j  Livy  also  particular- 
izes a  street  called  the  archway  at 
Rome  ;  and  Virgil  has  a  plain 
reference  to  arches  in  some  of  his 
ideal  descriptions  and  similes ; 
yet  all  these  were  after  the  era  of 
Archimedes. 

Aristotle's  simile  of  the  works 
of  God  to  the  stones  of  a  vault, 
(peri  kosmouj  is  said  to  be  spu- 
rious. The  words  of  Plato,  re- 
commending a  long  vault  as  a 
monument  to  the  chief  magis- 
trate, may  be  translated  as  a  vault 
similar  to  that  of  the  treasury, 
so  called,  of  Atreus. 

The  arches  of  the  aqueduct  of 
Aqua  Martia  were  constructed  by 
the  consul,  and  the  aqueduct  first 
begun  by  Ancus  Marcus,  cannot 
be  shown  to  have  been  other  than 
a  water  course,  at  most  an  exca- 
vated tunnel. 

Dr.  Clarke  mentions  an  ancient 
barrow  at  Temrook,  which  en- 
closes a  large  arched  vault.  The 
stones  of  the  sides  are  all  square, 
perfect  in  their  form,  and  put  to- 
gether without  cement,  and  the 
roof  exhibits  a  fine  turned  arch 
having  the  whiteness  of  the  pur- 

255 


A  R 

est  marble.  An  interior  vaulted 
chamber  is  separated  from  the 
outer,  by  means  of  two  pilasters 
swelling;  out  towards  their  bases, 
and  placed  one  on  each  side  of 
the  entrance,  the  inner  chamber 
being  the  larger  of  the  two.  He 
also  mentions  an  arched  passage 
annexed  to  the  fountain  of  Hip- 
pocrates, near  Cos,  which  he  sup- 
poses may  be  of  the  age  of  that 
physician,  and  likewise  a  tomb  at 
Telmessus,  which  he  thinks  affords 
a  satisfactory  proof  of  the  ex- 
istence of  arches  before  the  chris- 
tian era.  Of  any  of  these  speci- 
mens the  age  is  purely  con- 
jectural. 

The  Cloaca  Maxima  in  Rome, 
from  the  express  testimony  of 
ancient  writers,  was  constructed 
byTarquinus  Priscus,  and  perhaps 
completed  by  Tarquinus  Superbus. 
There  is  no  allusion  to  this  work 
until  after  the  Gauls  were  expelled 
from  the  city,  when  Rome  was 
reduced  to  a  deplorable  and  ruin- 
ous condition.  Materials  for  its 
reedification  were  gratuitously 
furnished  by  the  people,  and  the 
city  suddenly  again  rose  into  im- 
portance, each  choosing  the  spot 
for  his  habitation  that  he  fancied 
without  any  reference  to  a  uniform 
plan. 

During  the  time  of  Cato  the 
Censor,  they  are  again  noticed. 
Others  were  formed  in  the  Aven- 
tine  and  other  places  where  they 
had  never  been  before,  but  these 
never  could  have  been  connerted 
with  the  more  ancient  ones.  This 
repair  was  done  at  ths  expense  of 
a  thousand  talents.  Hence,  to  the 
reign  of  Augustus,  a  period  to 
which  many  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished works  of  Rome  may 
be  referred,  the  Cloaca  Maxima 
is  not  again  mentioned  until  it 
was  cleansed  and  repaired  by 
M.  Agrippa,  who,  besides,  con- 
structed others,   and  connected 

256 


C  H. 

them  by  means  of  lateral  pipes, 
which  he  laid  into  the  houses  of 
individuals   for  the  purpose  of 
taking  off  the  waste  water.  And 
Aedile,  as  we  are  told  by  Strabo, 
caused  seven  rivers,  by  guiding  j 
their  streams,  to  run  through 
the  Cloaca  into  the   Tiber,  so  ! 
that    Rome   was    said    to   be  1 
pensile    and    navigable    under-  j 
neath. 

Strabo  says,  as  to  the  sewers, 
covering  them  over  arch-wise 
with  stone  squared  and  well  fitted,  i 
they  left  ways  therein,  some  of 
them  sufficient  for  the  passing  of 
carriages  laden  with  hay ;  and  he 
adds,  after  an  enumeration  of 
other  particulars  in  these  things, 
the  chief  care  was  bestowed  by 
M.  Agrippa  j  and  it  is  curious  to 
observe  the  feelings  of  the  horror 
of  such  an  employment. 

The  draining  of  the  marsh,  now 
known  by  the  name  of  Velabro, 
appears  to  have  been  the  inten-  ! 
tion  of  Tarquin,  and  keeping  the  j 
river  within  certain  limits  by  a  j 
massive  quay  of  stone,  through 
which  the  water  was  conducted. 
This  sewer  served  not  merely  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  away  the 
filth  of  the  city,  but  to  collect  and 
cut  off  the  springs  which  percolated 
from  the  interior  of  the  Palatine 
hill,  and  the  equally  important  j 
office  of  conveying  the  rain  from 
the  heights,  which,  in  that  part  of  i 
Italy,  frequently  for  days  together  i 
falls  in  torrents,  and  which,  by 
flooding  the  plain  below,  would 
have  caused  a  morass. 

The  Cloacae  were,  at  the  period 
of  the  expulsion  of  the  Gauls, 
led  through  public  places,  but  after 
that  period  houses  were  built 
upon  them. 

Livy  resided  many   years  at 
Rome  during  the  reign  of  Au- 
gustus ;  he  was  then  employed  in  j 
the  composition   of  his  history, 
which  he  occasionally  read  to  the 


ARCH. 


emperor,  who  was  anxiously  so- 
licitous about  the  decoration  of 
;  the  capital.  From  the  well-known 
jealousy  of  his  character,  Livy 
durst  not  have  assigned  a  work 
I  like  the  Cloaca  Maxima  to  Tar- 
quiti,  which  he  declared  yielded 
not  in  point  of  magnificence  to 
any  of  recent  construction,  could 
he  have  given  the  merit  of  it  to 
the  son-in-law  of  his  patron. 
Besides,  could  Agrippa  have  un- 
covered this  ancient  channel,  and 
closed  itwith  arched  masonryforty- 
■  three  palms  in  width?  an  undertak- 
ing, which  implies  the  removal  of 
all  houses  over  it,  through  one  of 
the  most  populous  districts  of  the 
city  ?  Nor  would  Pliny,  when 
contemplating  the  wonders  of  the 
city,  the  agger  of  Tarquin,  have 
pronounced  that  the  Cloaca  had 
continued  eight  hundred  years, 
"  prope  inexpugnabiles,"  had  they 
been  formed  within  a  century  of 
his  time. 

The  actual  commencement,  and 
the   course  and  termination  of 
the  Cloaca  Maxima,  correspond 
nearly  with  what  has  been  con- 
sidered to  be  the  mo«=t  ancient 
limits  of  the  city.     It  had  its 
origin  very  near  to  the  site  of  the 
jarch  of  Severus,  then  under  the 
pia  Sacra,  to  the  temple  of  Julius, 
md  turned  under  the  Bia  Nova, 
by  the  side  of  the  Palatine  hill, 
;o  the  Forum  Boarium,  which  it 
tossed,  and,    proceeding   in  a 
t might  line,  reached  the  Tiber, 
>pposite  the  temple  of  Vesta,  a 
listance  of  not  more  than  two  thou- 
sand five  hundred  palms,  or  about 
i  third  of  an  English  mile  : — it  is 
iboutlo'  feet  broad  and  30  high. 

In  opposition  to  this  opinion, 
t  has  been  urged  that  we  have  no 
jositive  testimony  of  the  Cloaca 
Vlaxima  having  been  provided 
vith  a  covering  of  any  kind.  Be- 
ore  the  period  of  the  expulsion 
>f  the  Gauls,  the  Cloaca  was  led 
2K 


through  the  public  places  j  but 
when  the  city  was  restored  and 
rebuilt  by  Camillus,  and  each 
citizen  chose  the  spot  most 
agreeable  to  himself,  the  houses 
were  crowded  together  in  narrow 
crooked  streets,  and  some  of 
them  were  even  built  upon  the 
Cloaca  Maxima 

Livy  says,  "  this  is  the  cause 
that  the  ancient  sewers  first 
carried  along  the  public  ways, 
now  pass  under  private  houses." 
But  it  would  be  too  much  to  ex- 
pect, that  had  the  sewers  been 
covered  before  that  event,  that  a 
similar  appropriation  would  not 
have  been  made. 

In  fact,  the  expression  of  Livy 
when  describing  the  labours  of 
Tarquin,  evidently  refer  to  mining 
rather  than  masonic  operations. 
His  account  of  the  aversion  of 
the  Romans  to  the  employment, 
may  have  been  derived  from  tra- 
dition, and  is  curious  as  a  picture 
of  the  difficulties  of  ancient 
builders. 

When  Tarquinus  Priscus  was 
performing  that  work  by  the  hands 
of  the  people,  and  it  was  uncertain 
whether  the  excessive  danger  or 
the  length  of  the  labour  would 
be  greatest  ;  and  where  here  and 
there  Romans  were  found  avoid- 
ing the  dreadful  toil  by  voluntary 
death,  that  king  found  a  new 
remedy  unthought  of  either  in 
preceding  or  after  times,  which 
was  to  fix  the  bodies  of  all  who 
so  died  upon  the  cross,  as  spectacles 
to  the  citizens,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  be  torn  by  wild  beasts  and 
birds,  by  which  means  the  proper 
revering  of  the  Roman  name,  that 
so  often  has  saved  lost  affairs  in 
battle,  came  in  aid,  while  more- 
over at  that  time  he  imposed  the 
effect  of  now,  as  it  were,  blushing 
for  them,  as  shaming  only  the 
dead,  when  in  reality  he  shamed 
only  the  living. 

257 


ARCH. 


The  re-covering  of  the  sewers 
in  these  eases,  was  probably  the 
same  as  the  superstructure, 
wood. 

That  part  of  the  city  through 
which  the  ?ewer  was  led,  it  is  ad- 
mitted, was  among  the  most  po- 
pulous in  Rome,  and  it  is  exceed- 
ingly improbable  that  Agrippa 
did  remove  all  the  buildings  with 
which  it  might  be  covered  in 
order  to  repair  it.  Yet  it  is  equally 
improbable  that  all  the  buildings 
so  placed  in  his  time,  were  the 
erections  of  the  age  of  Camillus. 
Portions  of  these  might  have  been 
covered  with  stone  before  his 
time,  in  the  process  of  reedifying 
the  superstructure.  It  was  the 
boast  of  Augustus  that  he  found 
Rome  of  wood,  but  he  would 
leave  it  of  marble  ;  and  if  any 
part  of  the  city  over  the  Cloaca 
was  included  in  his  magnificent 
antithesis,  the  sewer  on  which 
the  house  stood,  it  might  have 
been  found  necessary,  even  during 
that  period,  to  make  of  corres- 
ponding stability  with  the  house 
of  marble,  to  arch  instead  of 
flooring  it.  The  Cloaca  Maxima, 
for  example,  was  carried  under 
the  Pantheon,  built  by  Agrippa. 
Could  its  magnificent  builder  avoid 
reconstructing  it  in  that  part  which 
he  had  selected  for  the  site  of  this 
immense  edifice  ?  yet  this  was 
nearly  an  eighth  part  of  the  whole 
length  of  Tarquin's  built  work. 
When  the  city  was  destroyed  by 
Nero,  many  other  parts  must  have 
been  subjected  to  the  same  sort 
of  reparation. 

As  to  the  expressions  of  Ro- 
man and  Greek  historians  regard- 
ing the  magnificence  of  Tarquin's 
work,  they  can  be  reconciled  to 
probability,  if  not  to  truth,  with- 
out at  all  implying  a  knowledge 
existing  in  those  remote  times  of 
the  construction  of  an  arch. 

The  style  of  Etruscan  building 

258 


is  that  of  massive  greatness,  often 
surpassing  apparent  necessity,  and 
so  compact  that  it  might  some- 
times be  mistaken  for  a  uniform 
substance.  The  sides  and  bottom 
may  have  been  in  this  style,  and 
merit  all  the  encomiums  which 
have  been  heaped  on  the  ex- 
cellence and  durability  ;  while  the 
mere  connecting  of  the  side  walls 
by  an  arch  of  equal  or  greater 
solidity,  could  not  be  considered, 
in  aftertimes,  a  work  of  that 
magnitude  and  importance  as  to 
have  preserved  the  name  of  the 
builder  who  constructed  it,  even 
supposing,  that  the  whole  length 
had  been  so  enclosed  at  one  time;  for 
in  fact,  considered  with  reference 
to  its  size,  when  compared  with 
the  Pantheon,  to  the  Coliseum,  and 
many  other  buildings,  the  Cloaca 
Maxima  was  an  insignificant  work. 
An  arch  1400,  or  1500  feet  long, 
16  feet  wide,  and  30  feet  high, 
was  not  more  than  equal  to  the 
one  of  the  arcade  of  the  Coliseum. 

On  the  antiquity  of  the  Cloaca 
Maxima,  the  opinion  of  authors, 
drawn  from  a  careful  examination 
of  their  style,  ought  not  to  be  dis- 
regarded; and  the  present  sewer, 
acknowledged  to  be  of  the 
Roman,  bears  manifest  marks 
of  its  having  been  the  work  of  a 
period  much  later  than  the  time 
even  of  Camillus. 

The  more  ancient  Roman  build- 
ings have  no  indication  of  arches. 
The  temple  of  Vesta  shows  none 
even  in  its  windows.  The  temple 
of  Hercules  and  of  Concord,  both 
of  high  antiquity,  do  not  enter 
into  the  construction. 

The  emissaries  of  the  lake 
Albano,  built  during  the  siege  of 
Veii,  three  hundred  and  ninety- 
four  years  before  Christ,  have 
stones  projecting  as  in  the  earlier 
Grecian  Egyptian  examples. 

The  sepulchral  tomb,  called 
the  Horatii,  had  no  arch ;  nor  that 


of  Plautius.  Of  other  Roman 
buildings  referred  to  as  exhibiting 
arches,  the   temple   of  Jupiter 

,  Tonans  was  rebuilt  by  Augustus, 
that  of  Romulus  by  Adrian,  of 
Minerva  by  Pompey.  The  temple 
of  Saturn,  which  existed  in  the 
time  of  Publicola,  has  been  con- 
sidered from  the  style  of  its  orna- 
ments to  have  been  rebuilt  at 
various  times  :  the  tern  pie  of  Juno 
was  restored  by  S.  Severus. 

|  The  best  authorities  do  not 
therefore  trace  the  period  of  the 

.  introduction  of  the  arch  in  Ro- 
man buildings  higher  than  the 
time  of  Scipio  Africanus  ;  and 
that  as  there  must  have  been  some 
degree  of  contemporary  know- 
ledge existing  among  the  Italians, 
from  the  intercourse  of  Greece 

.  with  its  colonies,  it  is  probable 
that  their  knowledge  of  this  in- 
vention was  derived  from  this 
people,  for  arches  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  unknown  in  Greek 

(  buildings  at  the  time  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  though  very  little  use 
was  made  of  them  in  the  building 

r  of  temples.    "  The  Greeks  only," 

i  says  Visconti,  "  employed  them 
in  edifices  of  a  certain  kind,  to 
which  this  form  seemed  indis- 

;  pensable.  Such  were  the  aque- 
ducts, of  which  the  arches  (pha- 
lides)  near  to  Argos  were  cut  by 
Cleomenes  ;  such  was  the  theatre 

,  of  Mitylene,  the  exterior  arcades 
of  which  were  probably  imitated 
at  Rome  in  the  theatre  of  Pompey, 

i  which  served  in  its  turn  as  a 

I   model  for  that  of  Marcellus.  It 

,  is  not  therefore  impossible,  that 
arches  may  have  been  employed 

I  about  the  time  of  Alexander  the 
Great  in  the  construction  of  a 

;  theatre,  the  first,  perhaps,  that 
was  built  of  solid  materials  at 
Athens,  for  the  purpose  of  enter- 
taining   the    Greeks    with  the 

I  masterpieces  of  Sophocles  and 
Euripides,  and  with  the  come- 


A  R  C 

dies  of  Aristophanes  and  Me- 
nancier. 

In  coming  to  the  same  conclu- 
sion of  the  tirst  appearance  of  the 
use  of  arch  bulging  oeing  among 
the  Greeks,  otner  antiquaries  lix 
the  era  somewhat  later  than 
Visconti. 

That  it  was  then  and  there  in- 
vented we  have,  however,  no 
means  of  ascertaining  or  deciding, 
or  even  that  its  properties  were 
understood  ;  for  in  this,  as  in  other 
objects  of  human  contrivance, 
from  the  most  elevated  to  the 
most  humble  degree  of  practice,  it 
is  always  found  to  precede  theory ; 
and  the  arch, originally  the  result  of 
chance,  might  have  been  used 
without  knowledge,  and  imitated 
without  reflection.  Till  after  the 
reign  of  Alexander,  it  has  been 
remarked,  there  are  no  authors 
who  use  the  words,  afterwards 
employed,  to  signify  the  form  of 
arch,  in  a  sense,  w  hich  can  lead  us 
to  consider  them  as  signifying  an 
arch  constructed  on  scientific 
principles  ;  this  has  been  em- 
ployed when  investigating  its  rise 
in  other  countries,  but  the  infer- 
ences ought  to  be  received  with 
some  caution.  There  are  number- 
less operations  and  inventionswhen 
the  science  of  definition  is  so 
well  understood,  and  materials  so 
abundant,  almost  of  equal  im- 
portance even  in  our  own  times, 
which  have  no  equivalent  expres- 
sion in  English,  and  which,  as  far 
as  their  descriptions  in  books 
might  be  adduced  for  their  exist 
ence,  have  certainly  no  local 
habitation  or  a  name.  Wecannot, 
therefore,  expect  to  find  in  those 
ages  a  correct  knowledge  of  its 
scientific  principles,  while  in  our 
own  times  the  subject  rests  in  all 
its  original  obscurity  and  uncer- 
tainty. 

Alien ed.  adj.  Vaulted. 

Arciied-schene,  or  scheme.  A 

259 


ARC 


ARC 


flat  arch,  less  than  a  semi-circular 
one. 

Arch-monastery.  A  name 
sometimes  given  to  the  greater 
monasteries  and  abbeys. 

Arch-pillar.  The  main  or 
principal  pillar.  A  pier,  which, 
among  others,  more  immediately 
supports  an  arch  or  vault. 

Arch-way.  An  aperture  in  a 
building  covered  with  a  vault. 
Usually  an  arched  passage  or  gate, 
wide  enough  to  admit  carriages  to 
pass  under. 

Arch,tcographia.  The  art  of 
describing  or  explaining  antiqui- 
ties. 

Archeion.  The  most  retired 
and  secret  place  in  Grecian  tem- 
ples, used  as  a  treasury,  wherein 
were  deposited  the  richest  trea- 
sures pertaining  to  the  deity  to 
whom  the  temple  w^as  dedicated  j 
and  also  other  valuable  articles 
which  the  people  of  the  city 
wished  to  preserve  secure.  The 
Romans,  in  imitation  of  the 
Greeks,  lodged  their  public  trea- 
sure in  the  temple  of  Saturn. 

Archelaus.  A  famous  sculp- 
tor, the  son  of  Apollonius,  born 
at  Priaene,  a  town  of  Ionia.  The 
celebrated  marble  monument  of 
the  Apotheosis  of  Homer  is  as- 
cribed to  him.  It  was  dug  up 
a.  d.  1658,  in  a  field  belonging  to 
the  princes  of  Colonna,  where,  it 
is  said,  the  emperor  Claudius,  in 
whose  reign  it  was  executed,  had 
a  house  of  pleasure. 

Archeria.  In  mediceval  archi- 
tecture. Long  narrow  openings 
in  city  and  castle  walls,  through 
which  the  archers  shot  stones  and 
arrows  upon  the  assailants. 

Archibancus.  In  mediceval 
architecture.  A  cabinet.  A  ward- 
robe.   A  cupboard. 

Archimedes.  One  of  the  most 
celebrated  mathematicians  of  an- 
tiquity. He  was  born  at  Syra- 
cuse, according  to  Torelli  two 

260 


hundred  and  eighty-seven  years, 
but  according  to  Rivaltus,  who 
has  taken  considerable  pains  in 
ascertaining  the  true  eera  of  his 
birth,  two  hundred  and  ninety-one 
years,  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
Though  living  in  habits  of  the 
most  intimate  friendship  with 
Hiero,  the  Syracusan  king,  he 
prosecuted  his  studies  with  un- 
remitting assiduity  j  and  amongst 
various  objects  of  mathematical 
speculation,  to  which  his  atten- 
tion and  inventive  faculties  were 
directed,  one  of  the  principal  was 
the  mensuration  of  the  conic  sec- 
tions. "  Unless,"  says  the  writer 
of  this  article,  in  Br.  Reess  Cy- 
clopaedia, "we  except  the  lunes 
of  Hippocrates  of  Chios,  he  was 
the  first  who  squared  a  curvilineal 
space  5  he  also  reduced  the  quad- 
rature of  the  circle  to  the  deter- 
mination of  the  ratio  between  the 
diameter  and  the  circumference  j 
and  though  unable  to  obtain  the 
precise  value  of  it,  he  assigned  a 
useful  approximation  to  it  by  the 
numerical  calculation  of  the  peri- 
meters of  the  inscribed  and  cir- 
cumscribed polygons.  He  deter- 
mined the  relation  between  the 
circle  and  ellipse ;  and  likewise 
attempted  the  hyperbola,  though 
from  the  nature  of  the  case  he 
was  not  likely  to  succeed.  He 
also  found  the  proportion  of  the 
area  of  the  spiral  to  that  of  the 
circumscribed  circle,  and  that  of 
their  sectors  ;  he  determined  the 
relations  of  spheres,  spheroids,  and 
conoids,  to  cylinders  and  cones  j 
and  of  parabolas  to  rectilineal 
planes,  whose  quadratures  were 
already  known.  In  all  his  mathe- 
matical investigations,  he  imi- 
tated the  example  of  his  prede- 
cessor Euclid  ;  and,  like  him,  he 
was  cautious  in  admitting  any 
principles  that  were  not  strictly 
geometrical  and  unexception- 
able."   Such  was  the  pleasure  he 


ARC 


ARC 


derived  from  having  discovered 
the  proportion  between  the  sphere 
and  its  circumscribed  cylinder, 
that,  as  a  memorial  of  this  dis- 
covery, he  requested  his  friends 
to  place  upon  his  tomb  a  cylinder 
containing  a  sphere,  with  an  in- 
scription expressing  the  propor- 
tion of  the  one  to  the  other. 

The  mechanical  skill  of  this 
great  man  was,  during  the  last 
eight  months  of  his  life,  applied 
to  the  protection  of  his  fellow- 
citizens.     Syracuse    being  be- 
sieged by  Marcellus,  Archimedes 
devoted  his  time  to  the  construc- 
tion of  such  engines  as  would 
arrest  his  operations ;  and,  ac- 
cording to  Plutarch,  whether  the 
vessels  of  the  enemy  were  nearer 
to  the  walls  of  the  city,  or  more 
distant  from  them,  Archimedes 
was  sure  to  annoy  them.  When 
they  approached  the  ramparts,  he 
suspended   long  beams,  (which 
probably  acted  like  levers,)  and 
struck  the  galleys  with  a  force 
that  sunk  them  ;   and  by  means 
of  grappling  hooks  at  the  extre- 
mities of  other  levers,  he  raised 
\  up  vessels  in  the  air,  and  then 
dashed  them  to  pieces  against  the 
walls,  or  projecting  rocks.  Inde- 
pendently of  these,  he  used  instru- 
ments which  threw  large  stones, 
that  demolished  the  ships  or  ma- 
chines employed  in  the  siege  ; 
and  burning  glasses,  which  set 
;  the  ships  on  fire  at  a  great  dis- 
1  tance  from  the  city.  Syracuse, 
however,  was  eventually  taken  ; 
and  though  Marcellus  had  given 
strict  orders  that  the  house  and 
•  person  of  Archimedes  should  be 
inviolate,  he  was  surprised  and 
■  put  to   death.     Marcellus  paid 
>  respect  to  his  memory,  by  direct- 
:  ing  and  superintending  his  fune- 
\  ral,  and  restrained  the  victorious 
.  army  from  offering  any  violence 
to  his  relations.  ' 

Arcijixale.    See  Arsenal. 


Architect.  One  who  designs 
and  superintends  the  erection  of 
buildings. 

It  is  within  the  province  of  the 
architect  to  examine  and  see  that 
the  materials  used  by  the  different 
artificers  in  the  construction  of 
an  edifice  be  of  good  quality  ; 
that  the  workmen  proceed  in 
their  several  departments,  accord- 
ing to  the  plan  he  has  given  to 
them ;  and,  when  the  work  is 
completed,  to  measure  and  value 
the  whole. 

The  qualifications  necessary  to 
constitute  a  good  architect  are 
many,  and  for  the  most  part  dif- 
ficult of  acquirement.  He  should 
conjoin  practice  and  theory.  Prac- 
tice is  the  constant  and  accus- 
tomed attention  to  the  manual 
operations,  and  to  the  several 
kinds  of  materials  of  which  a 
work  may  be  constructed  :  and 
theory  is  the  ability  to  demon- 
strate and  explain  the  rules  and 
reasons  of  the  proportions  of 
buildings.  Architects  who  have 
practised  without  theory,  and 
who  have  been  only  experienced 
in  the  manual  part,  have  never 
been  able  to  acquire  any  reputa- 
tion by  their  works  ;  and  those 
who  have  trusted  to  theory  and 
speculation  only,  have  followed 
the  shadow  and  not  the  substance. 
An  architect  should  be  ingenious 
and  ready  to  receive  instruction  ; 
for  neither  ingenuity  without 
education,  or  education  without 
ingenuity,  can  render  him  a  com- 
plete artist.  He  should  have  a 
knowledge  of  letters,  that  he  may 
be  able  to  ensure  the  remembrance 
of  his  observations  ;  be  expert 
in  drawing,  that  he  may  be  en- 
abled to  form  the  representation  or 
the  work  he  would  execute ;  have 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  arith- 
metic and  mensuration,  by  means 
of  which  the  expense  of  an  edifice 
is  calculated,  the  measures  ad- 

261 


ARCH 

justed,  and  the  difficult  questions 
of  the  symmetry  solved ;  be 
learned  in  geometry,  which 
greatly  facilitates  the  delineation 
of  the  plans  of  buildings,  and  the 
management  of  squares,  levels, 
and  lines ;  be  well  acquainted 
with  projection  and  perspective, 
that  he  may  anticipate  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  building  he  is 
about  to  erect,  in  one  or  more 
points  of  view  5  have  some  know- 
ledge of  trigonometry,  which  is 
useful  in  ascertaining  the  heights 
and  distances  of  objects  j  be  inti- 
mate with  those  departments  of 
the  mathematics  which  relate  to 
gravitation,  the  composition  and 
resolution  of  forces,  and  the  pro- 
perties of  the  lever ;  and  know 
so  much  of  chemistry  as  will 
ensure  him  a  proficiency  in  the 
knowledge  of  the  strength  and 
properties  of  materials,  and  the 
best  methods  of  connecting  them 
together. 

Besides  these,  he  should  study 
the  aspects  of  the  heavens,  that 
he  may  admit  the  light  to  the 
best  advantage  ;  and  so  regulate 
the  apertures  of  a  building  that 
the  inhabitants  shall  be  incom- 
moded as  little  as  possible  by  the 
extremes  of  either  heat  or  cold. 
He  should  be  well  read  in 
history,  and  conversant  with  the 
laws,  at  the  least  so  far  as  relates 
to  the  rights  and  divisions  of 
property,  and  the  restrictions 
under  which  he  is  permitted  to 
build.  A  knowledge  of  history- 
is  indispensable,  that  he  may  not 
make  an  improper  choice  in  the 
selection  of  ornaments.  For  ex- 
ample, statues  of  women  in  gar- 
ments, called  Caryatides,  are 
sometimes  introduced  in  a  build- 
ing, supporting  the  mutules  and 
cornice,  instead  of  columns.  If 
the  reason  for  this  be  demanded, 
it  may  thus  be  given.  Carya,  a 
city   of   Peloponnesus,  having 

262 


I  T  E  C  T. 

joined  with  the  Persians  against 
the  Grecian  States,  and  the 
Greeks  having  put  an  end  to  the 
war  by  a  glorious  victory,  with 
one  consent  declared  war  against 
the  Caryatides.  They  took  the  j 
city,  destroyed  it,  slew  the  men, 
and  led  the  matrons  into  capti-  1 
vity,  not  permitting  them  to  wear 
the  habits  and  ornaments  of  their  ! 
sex  j  and  they  were  not  once 
only  led  in  triumph,  but  were 
loaded  with  scorn,  and  kept  in 
continual  servitude,  thus  suffer- 
ing  for  the  crime  of  their  city. 
The  architects,  therefore,  of  those 
days,  introduced  their  effigies 
sustaining  weights,  in  the  public 
buildings,  that  the  remembrance 
of  the  crime  of  the  Caryatides 
might  be  transmitted  to  posterity. 

The  Lacedemonians,  likewise, 
under  the  command  of  Pausanias, 
the  son  of  Cleombrotus,  having,  at 
the  battle  of  Platea,  vanquished, 
with  a  small  number,  a  numerous 
army  of  Persians,  in  order  to 
solemnize  the  triumph,  erected, 
with  the  spoils  and  plunder,  the 
Persian  portico,  as  a  trophy  to 
transmit  to  posterity  the  valour 
and  honour  of  the  citizens  in- 
troducing therein  the  statues  of 
the  captives,  adorned  with  habits 
in  the  barbarian  manner, support- 
ing the  roof.  Hence  it  is,  that 
Persian  statues  are  sometimes  in- 
troduced sustainingtheepistylium 
and  its  ornaments.  There  are 
also  many  other  historical  facts, 
with  which  it  behoves  an  architect 
to  be  well  acquainted. 

"  Proficiency,"  says  sir  William 
Chambers,  "  in  the  French  and 
Italian  languages  is  also  requisite 
to  him ;  not  only  that  he  may  be 
enabled  to  travel  with  advantage, 
and  converse  without  difficulty, 
in  countries  where  the  chief  part 
of  his  knowledge  is  to  be  col- 
lected, but  almost  to  understand 
the  many  and  almost  only  valu- 


ARC 


ARC 


able  books  treating  on  his  profes- 
sion :  the  greater  part  of  which 

I  have  never  been  translated.  And 

i  as  among  sea-faring  men  there  is 
a  technical  language,  of  which  no 
admiral  could  be  ignorant  without 
appearing  ridiculous  ;  so  in  archi- 
tecture, and  the  professions  con- 
nected therewith,  there  are  pecu- 
liar modes  of  expression,  and 
terms  of  art,  of  which  no  archi- 
tect  must  by  any  means  be  igno- 

,  rant ;  as  that  knowledge  impresses 
upon  the  minds  of  the  workmen  a 
respectable  idea  of  his  abilities, 

,  consequently  a  deference  for  his 
opinions  ;  and,  furthermore,  en- 
ables  him  to  explain  to  them  in- 
telligibly, what    he   intends  or 

j  wishes  to  be  performed." 

Having  thus  enumerated  the 
principal  qualifications  necessary 
to  constitute  a  good  architect,  it 

i  is  very  easy  to  conceive,  that  any 
one  who  wishes  to  excel  in  this 

,  profession  must  apply  himself  to 
study  with  the  greatest  diligence 
and  attention ;  that  he  must  learn 
to  become  a  quick  draughtsman, 
and  to  acquire  taste  in  the  selec- 
tion of  appropriate  ornaments. 
The  most  celebrated  architects 

,  and  writers  on  architecture,  are 
Vitruvius,  Bruneliske,  Alberti, 
Bernini,  Serlio,  Scamozzi,  Palla- 
dio,  Vignola,  Barbaro,  Catano, 
Viola,  lnigo  Jones,  De  Lolme, 
Perrault,  S.  le  Clare,  Sir  Chris- 

;  topher  Wren,  the  Earl  of  Bur- 

.  lington,  Sir  William  Chambers, 
and  Peter  Nicholson. 

Arciiitective.  adj.    That  per- 

i  forms  the  work  of  architecture. 

.  Architectonick.  That  which 
has  the  power  or  skill  of  an  arehi- 

|  tect. 

Arciiitectonical.  adj.  Skilled  in 
architecture. 

Arciiitectonieal.  That  which 
forms  or  builds  any  thing. 

Architectob.    A  builder. 

Architectress.  She  who 
builds. 


Architectural,  adj.  Concern- 
ing, or  relating  to,  architecture  as 
a  decorative  art. 

Architecture.  The  art  of 
forming  dwellings,  or  buildings 
of  any  kind. 

It  may  be  divided  into  two 
parts;  the  essential,  and  the  orna- 
mental. The  first  regards  the  real 
qualities  of  buildings,  their  con- 
venience, strength,  &c. ;  the  other 
has  relation  only  to  their  outward 
appearance,  or  effect.  In  the  for- 
mer respect,  architecture  ranks 
with  those  arts  which  relate  to  the 
necessaries  and  conveniences  of 
life  ;  in  the  latter,  with  the  arts 
of  entertainment,  as  poetry,  paint- 
ing, and  music. 

The  history  of  architecture,  like 
that  of  most  other  arts,  is  involved 
in  obscurity.  Nevertheless  we 
may,  by  comparing  the  accredited 
histories  of  enlightened  nations 
with  the  actually  rude  state  in 
which  some  of  the  existing  tribes 
of  men  are  but  too  well  known  to 
be,  draw  a  conclusion,  that  it 
originated  from  necessity,  and 
has  advanced  towards  perfection 
through  a  series  of  progressively 
improving  stages. 

In  the  earliest  ages  of  the  world, 
while  as  yet  the  earth  was  but 
thinly  populated,  it  seems  more 
than  probable,  that  mankind  dwelt 
in  natural  caverns  in  the  earth, 
and  in  the  hollows  of  the  trunks 
of  trees.  As  population  began  to 
increase,  man,  gifted  with  facul- 
ties susceptible  of  improvement, 
and  possessed  of  a  fondness  for 
the  companionship  of  his  fellows, 
would  mingle  with  them,  and  add 
some  portion  of  their  knowledge 
to  his  own  experience.  The  plea- 
sures he  thus  derived  from  the 
interchange  of  sentiment,  con- 
joined to  the  strongest  of  all  the 
impulses,  that  of  self-preservation 
from  the  attacks  of  the  larger 
kinds  of  animals,  and  from  the 

263 


ARCHITECTURE. 


villainous  of  his  own  species, 
might  induce  him  to  feel  disgusted 
with  those  dark  and  miserable 
habitations,  and  influence  a  wish 
to  adopt  some  mode  by  which  he 
might  remediate  the  evil.  Un- 
skilled as  he  then  was,  without 
tools  to  assist  him  in  his  labours, 
his  first  essay  in  architecture  must 
have  been  extremely  rude  ;  and 
his  hut,  from  our  knowledge  of 
the  earliest  attempts  towards  con- 
struction, as  displayed  in  the  com- 
fortless habitations  of  many  of 
the  Indian  tribes,  doubtless  must 
have  been  somewhat  similar  to 
the  wigwams  of  the  North  Ame- 
rican Indians,  and  kraals  of  the 
Hottentots  and  Caffres,  of  the 
present  day. 

Huts  of  this  description  are 
very  easily  constructed.  A  few 
boughs  of  trees,  collected  to- 
gether and  broken  of  a  determi- 
nate length,  are  placed  in  a  slant- 
ing position,  resting  against,  and 
supporting  each  other  at  the  top. 
The  bottom,  or  lower  part,  of  the 
boughs  are  then  spread  out,  to 
admit  the  interior  of  the  hut  to 
be  of  sufficient  capacity  for  the 
purposes  of  the  intended  occu- 
pant ;  and  an  aperture  is  left  for 
entrance.  Between  the  interstices 
of  the  boughs  smaller  branches, 
or  twigs,  are  interwoven  ;  and  the 
whole  is  covered  with  clay,  slime, 
or  mud,  to  render  it  impervious 
to  the  weather,  and  to  secure,  as 
near  as  possible,  an  even  temper- 
ature. 

As  ages  continued  to  roll  away, 
and  mankind  to  increase  and  mul- 
tiply, dissensions  arose  between 
different  families,  and  sometimes 
between  the  members  of  the  same 
family. 

The  bond  of  amity  being  dis- 
solved, men  separated  into  dis- 
tinct tribes.  Hence  arose  rapine, 
and  violence,  and  murder.  The 
people  of  the  one  tribe,  anxious 


to  preserve  themselves  from  the 
depredations  of  the  other,  would 
seriously  turn  their  attention  to 
the  erection  of  more  stable  edi- 
fices ;  and  having  observed,  per- 
haps, the  sharpness  of  a  broken 
wedge-shaped  piece  of  flint,  would 
learn  to  make  tools,  cut  down 
trees,  and  drive  the  lower  parts 
of  the  trees,  thus  cut  down,  into 
the  earth,  to  make  themselves 
strong,  convenient,  square-shaped 
buildings,  in  lieu  of  those  of  a 
conic  figure,  which  would  not 
permit  them  to  stand  upright. 
Thus,  from  the  primitive  hut,  or 
wigwam,  civil  architecture  has, 
from  various  influential  causes, 
advanced  progressively  to  its  pre- 
sent state  of  improvement. 

Vitruvius,  the  most  ancient 
writer  on  architecture,  after  a 
somewhat  fanciful  description  of 
the  first  cause  which  brought 
mankind  into  a  social  state,  in- 
forms us  nearly  as  above,  in  the 
following  words  : 

"  Mankind  began  to  make 
themselves  coverings  with  the 
boughs  of  trees  ;  some  dug  caves 
in  the  mountains  ;  and  others,  in 
imitation  of  the  nests  of  swallows,  ; 
with  sprigs  and  loam  made  shel- 
ters which  they  might  lie  under ; 
and  by  observing  each  other's 
work,  and  turning  their  thoughts 
to  discover  something  new,  they 
by  degrees  improved,  and  made 
better  kinds  of  habitations;  but 
men  being  of  an  imitative  and  do- 
cile nature,  glorying  in  their  daily 
inventions,  and  showing  one  ano-  \ 
ther  the  houses  they  had  made, 
they,  by  these  endeavours  and  ex- 
ertions of  their  faculties,  became 
in  time  more  skilful. 

"  At  first,  for  the  walls  they 
erected  forked  stakes,  and,  dis- 
posing twigs  between  them,  co- 
vered them  with  loam  ;  others 
piled  up  dry  clods  of  clay,  bind- 
ing them  together  with  wood ; 


ARCHITECTURE. 


and  to  avoid  rain  and  heat  they 
made  a  covering  with  reeds  and 

'boughs ;  but  finding  this  roof 
could  not  resist  the  winter  rains, 
they  made  it  sloping  and  pointing 

'at  the  top,  plastering  it  over  with 
clay,  and  by  that  means  discharged 

'the  rain  water. 

'    "That  the  origin  of  things  was 
as  above  written,  may  be  con- 
cluded from  observing,  that  to 
this  day  some  foreign  nations  con- 
struct their  dwellings  of  the  same 
kind  of  materials ;  as  in  Gaul, 
Spain,  Lusitania,   and  Aquitain, 
they  use  oak,  shingles,  or  straw. 
The  Colchians,  in  the  kingdom  of 
'Pontus,  where  they  abound  in  fo- 
rests, fix  trees  in  the  earth,  close 
together,  in  ranks  to  the  right 
and  left,  leaving  as  much  space 
'between  them  as  the  length  of 
!the  trees  will  permit;  upon  the  ends 
others  are  laid  transversely,which 
circumclude  the  place  of  the  habi- 
tation in  the  middle  ;  then  at  the 
top  the  four  angles  are  braced 
together  with  alternate  beams ; 
and  thus  the  walls,  by  fixing  other 
trees  perpendicularly  on  those  be- 
low, may  be  raised  to  the  height 
of  towers ;  the  interstices,  which 
"on  account  of  the  coarseness  of 
the  materials  remain,  ase  stopped 
with  chips  and  loam.   The  roof  is 
also  raised  by  beams  laid  across 
ifrom  the  extreme  angles,  gradu- 
ally converging  and  rising  from 
'the  four  sides  to  the  middle  point 
at  the  top,  and  then  covered  with 
;  boughs  and  loam.    In  this  man- 
"ner,  the  barbarians  made  the  tes- 
tudinal  roofs  of  their  towers.  The 
'  Phrygians,  who  inhabit  a  cham- 
:  paign  country,  being  destitute  of 
timber,  by  reason  of  the  want  of 
forests,  select  little  natural  hills, 
excavate  them  in  the  middle,  dig 
'  an  entrance,  and  widen  the  space 
within  as  much  as  the  nature  of 
'  the  place  will  permit :  above,  they 
fix  stakes  in  a  pyramidal  form, 
2L 


bind  them  together,  and  cover 
them  with  reeds  or  straw,  heaping 
thereon  great  piles  of  earth.  This 
kind  of  covering  renders  them 
very  warm  in  winter,  and  cool  in 
summer.  Some  also  cover  the 
roofs  of  their  huts  with  the  weeds 
of  lakes  ;  and  thus,  in  all  nations 
and  countries,  the  dwellings  are 
formed  upon  similar  principles. 
At  Marseilles  we  may  observe  the 
roofs  without  tiles,  and  covered 
with  earth  and  straw.  At  Athens 
the  Areopagus  is  an  example  of 
ancient  roofs  of  loam  :  at  the  Ca- 
pitol also,  the  house  of  Romulus, 
in  the  sacred  citadel,  may  remind 
us  of  the  ancient  manner  of  cover- 
ing our  roofs  with  straw. 

"By  these  examples,  therefore, 
we  may  be  assured  that  the  first 
inventions  of  building  happened  in 
the  manner  we  have  related.  But 
at  length  mankind  by  daily  prac- 
tice improved,  and  by  repeatedly 
exercising  their  faculties  and  ta- 
lents, arrived  at  the  full  know- 
ledge of  the  art ;  those  who  were 
the  most  experienced  professing 
themselves  artificers.  When, 
therefore,  these  things  were  thus 
far  advanced,  as  nature  had  not 
only  given  to  mankind  sense,  in 
common  with  other  animals,  but 
had  also  furnished  their  minds 
with  judgment  and  foresight,  and 
had  subjected  other  animals  to 
their  power,  they  from  the  art 
of  building  gradually  proceeded 
to  other  arts  and  sciences,  and 
from  a  savage  and  rustic  way  of 
life  became  humane  and  civilized. 
Then,  when  their  minds  were 
thus  enlightened,  and  they  became 
more  judicious  by  experience  and 
the  advancement  of  the  various 
arts  and  sciences,  they  no  longer 
built  huts,  but  founded  houses 
with  walls  constructed  of  bricks, 
stones,  or  other  materials  cover- 
ing the  roofs  with  tiles." 

Having   thus    furnished  the 

2G5 


ARCHITECTURE. 


reader  with  the  probable  causes 
which  led  mankind  to  pursue  the 
art  of  architecture,  it  is  not  our 
intention,  in  this  place,  to  endea- 
vour to  trace  it  through  its  suc- 
cessive changes,  in  the  lapse  of 
ages,  or  to  delineate  those  events 
which  have  led  to  its  rise  and  de- 
clension in  various  parts  of  the 
globe.  That  information  will  for 
the  most  part  be  given  to  him 
while  describing  the  architecture 
of  the  various  nations.  Never- 
theless, we  shall  here  present  him 
with  a  table,  chronologically  ar- 
ranged, of  the  foundation  of  most 
of  the  principal  cities  and  king- 
doms of  the  postdiluvian  world  ; 
as  also  of  some  of  their  most  fa- 
mous structures  ;  and  then  pro- 
ceed to  investigate  the  principles 
of  architecture,  to  which  we  wish 
particularly  to  draw  the  reader's 
attention. 
b.  c. 

2247.  The  Tower  of  Babel  built 
by  Noah's  posterity,  in  the 
plains  of  Shinah. 

2221.  Nimrod  founds  the  Chal- 
daean  monarchy. 

2188.  Menes  or  Mizraim,  the  son 
of  Ham,  lays  the  foundation 
of  the  Egyptian  kingdom, 
which  lasted  1663  years,  to 
the  conquest  of  Cambyses, 
525  years  before  Christ. 

2089.  The  kingdom  of  Sicyon  esta- 
blished, which  lasted  1000 
years,  terminating  inlOSSB.c. 

2059.  The  kingdom  of  Assyria 
begins  :  terminates  900  P».  C. 

1856.  Commencement  of  the  king- 
dom of  Argos. 

1718.  Sparta  built. 

1575.  Pyramids  of  Egypt  built. 

1556.  Cecrops  founds  Athens. 

1546.  Scamander,  from  Crete, 
founds  Troy,  which  was 
burned  by  the  Greeks,  on 
the  11th  of  June,  1184  B.  C. 

1344.  The  kingdom  of  Mycenae 
begins  :  ends  in  1104. 

266 


1252.  The  city  of  Tyre  built. 

1233.  Carthage  founded  by  a  co- 
lony of  Tyrians. 

1182.  The  kingdom  of  the  Latins 
begins  under  ^Eneas. 

1176.  Salamis  in  Cyprus  built  by 
Teucer. 

1152.  Ascanius  builds  the  city  of 
Alba  Longa. 

1141.  The  temple  of  Ephesus 
destroyed  by  the  Amazons. 

1124.  Thebes  built  by  the  Boeo- 
tians. 

1104.  Kingdom  of  Lacedaemon 
begins. 

1044.  The  Ionian  colonies  mi- 
grate from  Greece. 
lOl'-i.  Solomon  begins  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem  :  974,  plun- 
dered by  Sesac,  king  of 
Egypt  :  586,  destroyed  by 
fire:  515,  rebuilt  :  170,  plun- 
dered by  Antiochus  :  19,  re- 
built by  Herod.  A.  D.  70, 
Jerusalem  destroyed  :  130, 
rebuilt,  and  a  temple  dedi- 
cated to  Jupiter  :  1023,  the 
temple  plundered  by  the  Ca- 
liph of  Egypt  :  1031,  began 
to  be  rebuilt  by  Romanus  : 
1187,  Jerusalem  finally  de- 
stroyed by  Saladin. 

992.  Solomon's  palace  finished. 

986.  Samas  and  Utica  built. 

974.  Jerusalem  taken,  and  the 
temple  plundered  by  Sesac, 
king  of  Egypt. 

869.  The  city  of  Carthage  sup- 
posed to  be  built  by  Dido : 
destroyed  by  P.  Scipio,  146  : 
rebuilt  by  order  of  the  Ro- 
man senate,  123. 

814.  The  kingdom  of  Macedon 
begins  :  continues  646  years. 

801.  Capua,  in  Campania,  built, 

797.  Commencement  of  the  king- 
dom of  Lydia:  ended,  550  B.C. 

753.  Rome  built :  plundered  by 
Alaric,  A.  D.  410. 

732.  Syracuse  supposed  to  be 
built  about  this  time  by  a 


ARCHITECTURE. 


B.  C. 

colony  of  Corinthians  under 

Archias. 
713.  Gelas,  in  Sicily,  founded. 
70S.  Ecbatana  built  by  Dejoces. 
707.  The  Parthians,  on  being 

expelled  from  Sparta,  build 

Tarentum. 
703.  Corcyra  built  by  the  Co- 
rinthians. 
665.  The  city  of  Alba  destroyed. 
658.  Byzantium  built  about  this 

time  by  a  colony  of  Argives. 
549.  The  temple  of  Apollo,  at 

Delphos,  destroyed  by  Pisis- 

tratidae. 

630.  Cyrene  built  by  Battus,who 
begins  that  kingdom. 

538.  Babylon  taken  by  Cyrus, 
which  terminates  the  king- 
dom. 

539.  Marseilles  built  by  the 
Phocaeans. 

504.  Sardis  burned  by  the  Athe- 
nians. 

493.  The  Athenians  built  the 
port  of  Piraeus. 

351.  The  Sidonians,  being  be- 
sieged by  the  Persian  army, 
burn  their  city.  The  monu- 
ment of  Mausolus  erected. 

315.  Cassander  rebuilds  Thebes, 
and  founds  Cassandria. 

304.  Antioch,  Edessa,  Laodicea, 
&c.  founded  by  Seleucus. 
Antioch  destroyed  by  the 
king  of  Persia,  A.  D.  540  : 
rebuilt,  542.  The  city  of 
Antioch  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  580. 

291.  Seleucus  builds  and  peoples 
about  forty  new  cities  in 
Asia. 

284.  The     Achaean  republic 

founded. 
283.  The    college   and  library 

of  Alexandria  founded. 
267-  A  canal  made  by  Ptolemy 

from  the  Nile  to  the  Red 

Sea. 

83.  Sylla  destroys  the  Roman 
cap'itol  :    69  B.  C.  rebuilt  : 


B.  C. 

A.  D.  80  destroyed  by  fire: 
it  was  again  rebuilt  and  de- 
stroyed by  lightning,  A.  D. 
1S8. 

55.  Pompey  builds  a  stone 
theatre  for  public  amuse- 
ments :  destroyed  by  fire, 
A.  D.  21. 

27.  The  Pantheon,  at  Rome, 
built  :  destroyed  by  fire, 
A.  D.  80. 

19.  The  aqueducts,  at  Rome, 
constructed  by  Agrippa. 

10.  The  city  of  Caesarea  built 
by  Herod  :  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  A.  D.  12S. 

A.  D. 

18.  Tiberius  built  by  Herod. 
50.  London  built   about  this 
time  by  the  Romans. 

56.  Rotterdam  built  about  this 
time 

70.  Jerusalem  destroyed  by 
Titus. 

79.  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii 
destroyed  by  an  eruption  of 
Mount  Vesuvius. 

80.  Titus  builds  the  hot  baths 
and  amphitheatre  at  Rome. 

93.  The  empire  of  the  Huns, 
in  Tartary,  destroyed  by  the 
Chinese. 

114.  Trajan  erects  his  column 
at  Home. 

121.  A  wall  built  by  Adrian  be- 
tween Carlisle  and  Newcas- 
tle. 

130.  Adrian  rebuilds  Jerusalem, 
and  erects  a  temple  to  Jupi- 
ter. » 

134.  Urbicus's  wall  built  be- 
tween Edinburgh  and  the 
Firth  of  Clyde. 

209.  Severus  builds  his  wall 
across  Britain. 

260.  The  temple  of  Diana  burnt. 

274.  The  temple  of  the  sun  built 
at  Rome. 

412.  The  kingdom  of  the  Van- 
dals begun  in  Spain  j  and  in 
Africa,  439. 

267 


ARCHITECTURE. 


A.  D. 

420.  The  kingdom  of  the  French 
begins  on  the  Lower  Rhine. 

449.  The  Saxons  arrive  in  Bri- 
tain. Ella  founds  the  second 
Saxon  kingdom  in  Sussex, 
491. 

45*2.  The  city  of  Venice  founded 
about  this  time. 

476.  The  kingdom  of  Italy  be- 
gins. 

510.  Paris  becomes  the  capital 
of  the  French  dominions. 

567-  The  kingdom  of  the  Visi- 
goths founded  in  Spain, 

575.  The  first  monastery  found- 
ed in  Bavaria. 

604.  St.  Paul's  church  founded 
by  Ethelbert,  king  of  Kent. 

605.  Bells  introduced  into 
churches. 

611.  Westminster  Abbey  found- 
ed by  Sibert,  king  of  the 
East  Saxons.  Henry  the 
Seventh's  chapel  built  in 
1504. 

644.  Cambridge  University,  or 
rather  an  academic  institu- 
tion, founded  by  Sigebert, 
king  of  East  Anglia  :  the 
present  University  appears  to 
have  been  founded  in  915. 

660.  Organs  introduced  into 
churches. 

718.  The  kingdom  of  the  Astu- 
rias  founded  byPelagio. 

744.  Monastery  of  Fulda,  in 
Germany,  founded. 

762.  Bagdad  built  by  Almansor. 

829.  St.  Marks,  at  Venice,  built. 

886.  Alfred  founds  the  Univer- 
sity of  Oxford. 

895.  The  monastery  of  Clune 
founded. 

1035.  The  kingdoms  of  Castile 
and  Arragon  begin. 

1036.  Commencement  of  the 
kingdom  of  Norway. 

1119.  Bohemia  formed  into  a 
kingdom. 

1156.  The  city  of  Moscow  found- 
ed. 

26S 


A.  D. 

1179.  The  University  of  Padua 
founded  :  enlarged,  1221. 

1200.  The  University  of  Sala- 
manca, founded  by  Alphon- 
so  IX. 

1201.  City  of  Riga  founded. 
1228.  The  University  of  Thou- 

louse  founded. 
1238.  The  University  of  Vienna 

founded. 
1250.  The  Sorbonne  founded  in 

Paris. 

1272.  The  Academy  of  Florence 
founded. 

1273.  Commencement  of  the  Aus- 
trian empire. 

1281.  Marienburgh  built  by  the 
Teutonic  knights. 

1282.  The  Academy  of  Delia 
Crusca  founded. 

1290.  University  of  Lisbon  found- 
ed :  removed  to  Coimbra, 
1308. 

1298.  Foundation  of  the  Ottoman 
empire. 

1302-  The  University  of  Avignon 
founded. 

1312.  The  University  of  Orleans 
founded. 

1339-  The  Academy  of  Pisa  esta- 
blished. 

1347-  The  University  of  Cracow 
founded. 

1348.  The  University  of  Prague 
founded. 

1365.  The  Geneva  and  Vienna 
Universities  founded. 

1411.  The  University  of  St.  An- 
drews founded. 

1427-  The  Academy  of  Louvain 
founded. 

1448.  The  Vatican  founded  at 
Rome. 

1450.  The  University  of  Glas- 
gow founded. 

1470.  Plaster  casts  invented  by 
Verochio. 

1479.  The  University  of  Upsal 
founded. 

1494.  The  University  of  Aber- 
deen, king's  college,  founded. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


A.  D. 

1504.  King  Henry  the  Seventh 
built  a  chapel  at  Westmin- 
ster Abbey. 

1543.  The  Academy  of  Verona 
founded. 

1575.  The  University  of  Leyden 
founded. 

1581.  The  University  of  Edin- 
burgh founded. 

1591.  The  University  of  Dublin 
founded. 

1593.  Marischal  College,  Aber- 
deen, founded. 

1635.  The  French  Academy  esta- 
blished in  Paris. 

^643.  The  Royal  Academy  of 
Painting  founded  by  Louis 
XIV. 

.662.  The  Royal  Society  esta- 
blished. 

1 663.  The  Royal  Academy  of  In- 
scriptions and  Belles  Lettres 
established. 

664.  The  Academy  for  Sculp- 
ture established  in  France. 

666.  The  Fire  of  London,  which 
destroyed  thirteen  thousand 
two  hundred  houses. 

674.  The  Academy  of  Soissons 

i  established. 

701.  Academy  of  Sciences  found- 
ed at  Berlin. 

750.  Academy  of  Sciences  found- 
ed at  Stockholm. 

768.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Arts 
established  in  London. 

The  reader  being  thus  enabled 
»  furnish  himself  with  every  in- 
irmation  relative  to  the  time 
lien  the  different  states  were 
landed,  and,  consequently,  by 
•ference  to  the  articles,  Egyp- 
an  Archi'icture,  Roman  Archi- 
cture,  Grecian  Architecture,  5fC. 
b.  8fc.  of  the  rise  and  declension 
f  the  art  in  the  different  ages  and 
itions  of  the  world,  we  shall 
>W  proceed  to  detail  such  parti- 
ilars  as  we  conceive  will  be 
ghly  beneficial  to  the  student, 


and  even  to  those  more  advanced 
in  the  art.  This  information  will 
relate  to  the  principles  of  archi- 
tecture. For,  from  the  time  of 
Vitruvius  till  very  recently,  we 
have  been  told  of  grandeur,  order, 
proportions,  harmony,  &c. ;  but 
it  has  never  been  distinctly  stated 
upon  what  principles  these  are 
founded,  nor  by  what  means  they 
are  to  be  attained. 

This  very  necessary  and  im- 
portant art  has,  therefore,  hitherto 
been  too  frequently  directed  by 
capricious  fancy  ;  and  the  expense 
and  durability  of  its  works  have 
alone  prevented  it  from  experi- 
encing changes  equally  rapid  with 
those  of  furniture  and  dress.  This 
information,  according  to  the 
opinion  of  professor  Stewart,  (with 
which  we  accord,)  is  to  be  found 
only  in  Mr.  Alison's  Essay  on  the 
Principles  of  Taste.  We  shall 
therefore  endeavour,  in  the  first 
place,  to  give  Mr.  Alison's  opinion 
of  the  principles  of  taste,  and  of 
the  proportion  or  fitness  of  the 
general  outline  of  buildings  j  and 
then  proceed,  with  the  same  au- 
thor, to  treat  of  the  orders  of  ar- 
chitecture, and  to  show  that  their 
proportions  instead  of  being  in- 
trinsically beautiful  of  themselves, 
are  regulated  by  those  general 
principles  which  we  are  now 
about  to  elucidate,  and  that  they 
derive  their  merit  solely  from 
the  expressions  of  fitness  for  their 
several  purposes. 

In  treating  of  the  sublimity  and 
beauty  of  the  material  world, 
Mr.  Alison  observes,  "  It  cannot 
be  doubted  that  many  objects  of 
the  material  world  are  produc- 
tive of  the  emotions  of  sublimity 
and  beauty.  Some  of  the  fine 
arts  are  altogether  employed 
about  material  objects  ;  and  by 
far  the  greater  part  of  the  instan- 
ces of  beauty  and  sublimity  which 
occur  in  any  man's  experience. 


ARCHITECTURE. 


are  found  in  matter,  or  some  of 
its  qualities  ;  on  the  other  hand, 
it  must  be  allowed,  that  matter  in 
itself  is  unfitted  to  produce  any 
kind  of  emotion."  And  again, 
"  But  although  the  qualities  of 
matter  are  in  themselves  incapa- 
ble of  producing  emotion  or  the 
exercise  of  any  affection  ;  yet,  it 
is  obvious,  that  they  produce  this 
effect  from  their  associations  with 
other  qualities."  And,  "  in  works 
of  art,  particular  forms  are  signs 
of  dexterity,  of  convenience,  of 
utility;"  and,  "  in  such  cases,  the 
constant  connections  we  discover 
between  the  sign  and  thing  signi- 
fied, between  the  material  quality 
and  the  quality  productive  of 
emotion,  renders  the  one  expres- 
sive to  us  of  the  other,  and  very 
often  disposes  us  to  attribute  to 
the  sign  that  effect  which  is  pro- 
duced by  the  thing  signified." 

As  architecture  is  much  affected 
by  all  that  relates  to  form,  we 
would  strongly  urge  young  archi- 
tects to  pay  attention  to  what  this 
enlightened  philosopher  has  ad- 
vanced respecting  it.  He  states, 
"  of  all  the  material  qualities, 
that  which  is  most  generally  and 
naturally  productive  of  the  emo- 
tions of  sublimity  and  beauty,  is 
form  ;  other  qualities  may  be  se- 
parated from  most  objects  with- 
out destroying  their  nature  ;  but 
the  form  of  every  material  object, 
in  a  great  measure  constitutes  its 
nature  and  essence,  and  cannot  be 
destroyed  without  destroying  the 
individual  subject  to  which  it  be- 
longs. From  whatever  cause, 
therefore,  the  beauty  of  any  ma- 
terial object  proceeds,  it  is  natu- 
ral to  ascribe  it  to  the  form,  or  to 
that  quality  which  most  intimately 
belongs  to  the  object,  and  consti- 
tutes its  essence  to  our  senses ; 
the  common  opinion,  therefore, 
undoubtedly  is,  that  forms,  in 
themselves,  are  beautiful  j  that 

270 


there  is  an  original  and  essential  i 
beauty  in  some  particular  forms, 
and  that  this  quality  is  as  imme- 
diately discernable  as  the  forms 
themselves." 

Having  premised  thus  much, 
he  proceeds  to  state,  that  the 
sublimity  or  beauty  of  forms 
arises  altogether  from  the  asso- 
ciations we  connect  with  them,  or 
the  qualities  of  which  they  are 
expressive  to  us  :  and  he  soon  i 
afterwards  teaches  us,  that  the 
sublimity  of  inanimate  forms  ari- 
ses chiefly  from  two  sources  ;  1st, 
from  the  nature  of  the  objects 
distinguished  by  that  form  ;  and 
2ndly,  from  the  quantity  or 
magnitude  of  the  form  itself. 
Thus  forms  which  distinguish 
bodies  that  are  connected  in  our 
minds  with  ideas  of  danger, 
power,  strength,  splendour  or 
magnificence,  awe  or  solemnity, 
are  in  general  sublime.  Magni- 
tude is  sublime  as  associated  with 
power  or  strength  j  with  height, 
it  is  expressive  to  us  of  elevation 
and  magnanimity  ;  with  depth, 
of  danger  or  terror  with  length, 
of  vastness,  and  when  apparently 
unbounded,  of  infinity  ;  and  with 
breadth,  of  stability,  of  duration, 
of  superiority  to  destruction. 
That  magnitude  is  only  sublime 
in  consequence  of  these  associa- 
tions is  shown  by  many  illustra- 
tions ;  and  from  the  whole  he  de-  ; 
duces  the  following  conclusions : 
1st,  that  there  is  no  determinate 
magnitude,  which  is  solely  or  pe-  ^ 
culiarly  sublime,  as  would  neces- 
sarily be  the  case,  were  magnitude 
itself  the  cause  of  this  emotion  ; 
2ndly,  that  the  same  visible  mag- 
nitude which  is  sublime  in  one 
subject,  is  often  very  far  from  be- 
ing sublime  in  another  ;  and 
3dly,  that  magnitude,  according 
to  its  different  appearances,  has  s 
different  characters  of  sublimity 
corresponding  to  the  different  ex-  fJ 


ARCHITECTURE. 


sessions  which  such  appearances 
lave  ;  whereas,  if  it  were  in  itself 
ublime,  independently  of  all  ex- 
>ression,  it  would  in  all  cases 
lave  the  same  degree,  and  the 
ame  character  of  sublimity. 

With  respect  to  the  natural 
>eauty  of  forms,  it  is  stated,  that 
■natter  is  circumscribed  by  either 
ngular  lines,  or  by  curved  or 
binding  lines  :  and  that  the 
greatest  part  of  those  bodies  in 
'ature  which  possess  hardness, 
urability,  and  strength,  are  dis- 
inguished  by  angular  forms  5 
vhile  those,  on  the  contrary, 
vhich  possess  weakness,  fragility, 
r  delicacy,  are  distinguished  by 
binding  or  curvilineal  forms. 
■Anes  differ  in  regard  to  their  na- 
are,  according  to  the  different 
!egrees  of  their  consistence  or 
trength.  Strong  and  vigorous 
\nes,  when  perpendicular,  are  ex- 
ressive  to  us  of  strength  and 
tability ;  and  when  horizontal, 
'r  in  an  oblique  direction,  of  some 
egree  of  harshness  or  roughness. 

Fine  and  faint  lines  are  expres- 
ive  to  us  of  fineness,  smoothness, 
nd  delicacy.  In  any  given  num- 
!er  of  straight  lines,  that  is  al- 
ays  the  most  beautiful  which  is 
nest,  or  which,  while  it  preserves 
Is  continuity,  has  the  appearance 
I  the  smallest  quantity  of  matter 
jnployed  in    the  formation  of 

'  Strong  and  even  lines  express 
length  and  smoothness.  They 
u  e  therefore  a  degree  of  beauty. 
hie  and  even  lines  express  deli- 
icy  and  smoothness.  They  are 
;cordingly  more  beautiful  than 
■ie  former. 

Strong  and  angular  lines  ex- 
"ess  strength  and  harshness, 
hey  are  therefore  very  seldom 
puatiful.  Fine  and  angular  lines 
cpress  delicacy  together  with 
(Ughness.  They  are  therefore 
fily  beautiful  when  the  expres- 


sion of  delicacy  prevails  over  the 
other. 

Strong  and  winding  lines  ex- 
press strength  and  gentleness,  or 
delicacy.  Their  effect  is  there- 
fore mutually  destroyed,  and  they 
become  indifferent,  if  not  un pleas- 
ing. Fine  and  winding  lines  ex- 
press delicacy  and  ease ;  and  are 
accordingly  peculiarly  beautiful. 

The  least  beautiful  lines  are 
strong  and  angular  lines.  The 
most  beautiful,  fine  and  winding 
lines. 

In  architecture  the  great  con- 
stituent parts  require  direct  and 
angular  lines,  in  order  to  convey 
the  expression  of  stability  and 
strength  ;  and  no  ornament  can 
with  propriety  be  introduced,  ex- 
cepting in  the  minute  and  delicate 
parts  of  the  work ;  and  if  those 
ornaments,even  in  such  situations, 
exceed  in  size  or  relief  that  pro- 
portion in  point  of  delicacy  we 
expect  them  to  hold  with  respect 
to  the  whole  of  the  building,  the 
imitation  of  the  most  beautiful 
forms  does  not  preserve  them 
from  censure  of  clumsiness  or 
deformity. 

From  a  variety  of  considera- 
tions, Mr.  Alison  then  deduces 
the  following  conclusions  :  1. 
that  wherever  natural  forms  are 
imitated,  those  will  be  the  most 
beautiful  which  are  most  expres- 
sive of  delicacy  and  ease  ;  2.  that 
wherever  new  or  arbitrary  forms 
are  invented,  that  form  will  be 
the  most  beautiful  which  is  com- 
posed of  the  most  beautiful  lines  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  by  lines  which 
have  the  most  pleasing  expres- 
sion ;  3.  that  wherever  the  sub- 
ject of  the  form  is  of  a  hard  or 
durable  nature,  that  form  will  be 
the  most  beautiful  in  which  the 
smallest  quantity  of  matter  is  em- 
ployed, and  the  greatest  delicacy 
of  execution  exerted  ;  4.  that 
whenever  beautiful  form  is  in- 

271 


ARCHITECTURE. 


tended,  in  complex  forms,  some 
character  or  expressive  form 
should  be  selected,  as  the  ground 
or  subject  of  the  composition ; 
and  5.  that  the  variety,  whether 
in  the  form,  the  number,  or  the 
proportion  of  the  parts,  should 
be  adapted  to  the  peculiar  nature 
of  this  expression,  or  of  that 
emotion  which  this  expression  is 
fitted  to  excite. 

Forms  of  this  kind,  are  either 
simple  or  dependent.  In  simple 
or  independent  forms  their  cha- 
racter is  at  the  pleasure  of  the  ar- 
tist 5  and  that  will  always  be  the 
most  beautiful,  in  which  the  cha- 
racter is  best  preserved.  In  de- 
pendent forms,  on  the  contrary, 
or  those  which  are  designed  for 
particular  scenes  or  situations, 
their  character  must  be  determin- 
ed by  that  of  the  scene  or  situa- 
tion and  that  also  will  be  the 
most  beautiful  form,  in  the  com- 
position of  which  the  alliance  to 
the  general  character  is  most  pre- 
cise and  delicate. 

Having  dicussed  what  relates 
to  simple  and  composed  forms, 
or  what  constitutes  their  natural 
beauty,  Mr.  Alison  next  proceeds 
to  examine  into  the  qualities 
wrhich  constitute  their  relative 
beauty. 

From  the  discovery  of  fitness 
or  utility,  we  infer  the  existence 
of  design.  In  forms  distinguish- 
ed by  such  qualities,  the  discovery 
of  an  end  suggests  intention  or 
design  j  and  the  qualities  of  form, 
which  signify  this  fitness  or  use- 
fulness, are  signs  of  the  design  or 
thought  which  produce  them. 
The  natural  quality  most  power- 
fully expressive  of  design  is  uni- 
formity or  regularity.  In  every 
form  where  this  quality  is  observ- 
ed, we  infer  design  ;  and  from 
the  absence  of  it,  we  consider  the 
production  the  work  of  chance. 

Vegetable  forms    which  ap- 

272 


proach  to  the  resemblance  of  ani- 
mals, and  minerals  that  have  a 
resemblance  to  vegetables  or  ani- 
mals, are  reckoned  curious,  but 
are  never  considered  as  possessing 
that  beauty  which  excites  the 
emotion  of  delight.  Uniformity 
and  regularity,  therefore,  are 
only  beautiful  when  associated 
with  intention  or  design. 

Uniformity  being  expressive 
of  design,  and  variety  of  embel-  j 
lished  design,  the  beauty  of  forms 
will  be  most  perfect  when  these 
two  are  duly  proportioned  ;  that 
is,  when  the  unity  of  design  is 
equal,  the  beauty  of  forms  will 
be  in  proportion  to  their  embel- 
lishment ;  and  when  the  embel- 
lishment is  equal,  their  beauty 
will  be  in  proportion  to  the  unity 
of  design. 

To  these  we  may  add,  as  a 
fundamental  principle,  that  the 
expression  of  design  should  be 
subject  to  the  expression  of  cha- 
racter ;  and  that  in  every  form, 
the  proportion  of  uniformity  and 
variety  which  the  artist  should  '■ 
study,  ought  to  be  that  which  is 
accommodated  to  the  nature  of 
this  character,  and  not  to  the  ex- 
pression of  his  own  dexteritv  and 
skill. 

Mr.  Alison  considers  next,  that 
fitness  and  proportion  constitute 
relative  beauty ;  and  then  pro- 
ceeds  to  show,  that  the  beauty  of 
the  proportion  of  this  art  is  re- 
solvable into  the  principles  which 
have  been  established ;  and  that 
they  please  us,  not  from  any  ori- 
ginal law  of  our  nature,*  but  as 
expressive  of  fitness.  The  pro- 
portions of  architecture  relate 
either  to  its  external  or  internal 
members.  The  beauty  of  the  ex- 
ternal appearance  arises  from  its 
apparent  fitness  for  the  habitation 
of  man ;  and  consists  in  stability 
and  sufficiency  for  the  support  of 
the  roof.    Walls,  in  every  coun-j 


A  11  C  H  ITECTURE. 


try,  are,  at  the  same  period  of 
time,  nearly  of  an  equal  thickness, 
it  is  therefore  easy  for  the  specta 
tor  to  judge  whether  they  are,  or 
tre  not,  sufficient  for  these  two 
purposes.    When  the  walls  are  of 
;uch  a  height  as  seems  sufficient 
joth  for  their  own  stability,  and 
or   the  support  of  the  weight 
which  is  imposed  upon  them  ; 
ind  when  the  distance  between 
hem  is  such,  as  appears  sufficient 
or  supporting  the  weight  of  the 
*oof,  we  consider  the  house  well 
)r  properly  proportioned.  When 
iny  of  these  circumstances,  on 
he  contrary,  are  different — when 
he  walls  are  either  so  high  as  to 
eem  insecure,  the  roof  so  large 
cs  to  seem  too  heavy  for  its  sup- 
>ort,  or  the  side  walls  so  distant 
\s  to  beget  an  opinion  of  its  in- 
ecurity,  we  say,  that  the  build- 
ng,  in  such  particulars,  is  ill-pro- 
•ortioned.  Proportion,  therefore, 
a  those  cases,  is  merely  fitness, 
nd  this  has  never  been  very  pre- 
isely  determined  j  we  are  guided 
ntirely  by  experience,  and  our 
entinients  respecting  proportions 
re  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the 
uildings,  and  the  materials  of 
Inch  they  are  composed.  For 
xample,  a  house  built  of  brick 
r  wood  does  not  admit  of  the 
'xme  height  of  wall  as  if  built 
ith    stone.    A  house  which  is 
nited  with  others,  admits  of  a 
pater  height  than  if  it  stood 
ii    .one,  because  we  conceive  it  to 
supported  by  the  adjoining 
p    buses.  And  a  building  which  has 
(    p  roof,  or  nothing  that  it  appears 
)  support,  as  a  tower  or  spire, 
t    limits  of  a  much  greater  height 
l    ban  any  other  species  of  build- 
!     fg.    These  principles  are  all  that 
j     |;em  to  regulate   the  external 
j-o  port  ions  of  simple  buildings, 
nd  all  of  them  are  obviously 
■pendent  upon  fitness. 
Having  discussed  what  relates 
2M 


to  the  proportion  or  fitness  of  the 
general  outline  of  buildings,  Mr. 
Alison  proceeds  to  treat  of  the 
orders  of  architecture,  and  to 
show  that  their  proportions,  in- 
stead of  being  intrinsically  beau- 
tiful of  themselves,  are  regulated 
by  the  general  principles  which 
have  been  established  in  his  essay, 
and  derive  their  merit  solely  from 
the  expressions  of  fitness  for  their 
several  purposes.  We  shall  here 
quote  the  precise  words  of  the 
author  : — 

"  It  is  not  in  such  (simple) 
buildings,  accordingly,  that  any 
accurate  external  proportions  have 
ever  been  settled.  This  is  pecu- 
liar to  what  are  called  the  orders 
of  architecture,  in  which  the 
whole  genius  of  art  has  been  dis- 
played, and  in  which  their  pro- 
portions are  settled  with  a  cer- 
tainty so  absolute,  as  to  forbid 
almost  the  attempt  at  innovation. 

"  There  are  generally  said  to  be 
five  orders  of  architecture,  viz. 
the  Tuscan,  the  Doric,  the  Ionic, 
the  Corinthian,  and  the  Compo- 
site. There  are,  however,  pro- 
perly only  four,  and  some  writers 
have  farther  reduced  them  to 
three.  What  constitutes  an  order, 
is  its  proportions,  not  its  orna- 
ments. The  Composite  having 
the  same  proportions  as  the  Co- 
rinthian, though  very  different 
with  respect  to  its  ornaments,  is 
properly,  therefore,  considered  a 
corrupted  Corinthian. 

"  Every  order  consists  of  three 
great  parts,  or  divisions  ;  the  base, 
the  column,  and  the  entablature  -y 
and  the  governing  proportions  re- 
late to  this  division.  The  whole 
of  them  compose  the  wall,  or 
what  answers  to  the  wall  of  a 
common  building,  and  supports 
the  roof. 

u  There  is  one  great  difference, 
however,  to  be  observed  between 
a  common  wall,  and  that  assem- 

273 


ARCHITECTURE. 


blage  of  parts  which  constitutes 
an  order.  A  common  wall  is  in- 
tended to  support  a  roof,  and  de- 
rives its  proportions,  in  a  great 
measure,  from  its  destination.  To 
an  order,  the  consideration  of  a 
roof  is  unnecessary  j  it  is  gene- 
rally so  contrived  as  not  to  ap- 
pear ;  the  weight  which  is  sup- 
ported, or  appears  to  be  support- 
ed, in  an  order,  is  the  entablature. 
The  fitness  of  a  wall  consists  in 
appearing  adequate  for  support- 
ing the  roof.  The  fitness  of  an 
order,  or  of  the  proportions  of  an 
order,  it  should  seem  also  from 
analogy,  reasonable  to  conclude, 
consists  in  their  appearing  ade- 
quate to  the  support  of  the  entab- 
lature, or  the  weight  which  is 
imposed  on  them. 

"  That  this  is  really  the  case, 
and  that  it  is  their  being  expres- 
sive to  us  of  their  fitness,  that  the 
proportions  of  these  different 
orders  appear  beautiful,  may  per- 
haps seem  probable  from  the  fol- 
lowing observations  : — 

"  1.  The  appearance  of  the 
proportions  themselves  seems 
very  naturally  to  lead  us  to  the 
conclusion.  In  all  the  orders, 
the  fitness  of  the  parts  to  the  sup- 
port of  their  peculiar  weight,  or 
appearance  of  weight  of  entabla- 
ture, is  apparent  to  every  person, 
and  constitutes  an  undoubted  part 
of  the  pleasure  we  receive  from 
them.  In  the  Tuscan,  where  the 
entablature  is  heavier  than  in  the 
rest,  the  column  and  base  are 
proportionably  stronger.  In  the 
Corinthian,  where  the  entablature 
is  lightest,  the  column  and  base 
are  proportionably  slighter.  In  the 
Doric  and  Ionic, whichare between 
these  extremes,  the  forms  of  the 
column  and  base  are  in  the  same 
manner  proportioned  to  the  re- 
ciprocal weights  of  their  entabla- 
ture j  being  neither  so  strong  as 
the  one,  nor  so  light  as  the  other. 


"  If  the  beauty  of  such  pro- 
portions is  altogether  independ- 
ent of  fitness,  and  derived  from 
the  immediate  constitution  of  our 
nature,  it  is  difficult  to  account 
for  this  coincidence  ;  and  as  the 
beauty  of  fitness,  in  these  several 
cases,  is  universally  allowed,  it  is 
altogether  unphilosophical  to 
substitute  other  causes  of  the 
same  effect,  until  the  insuffi- 
ciency of  this  is  clearly  pointed 
out. 

"  2.  The  language  of  mankind 
upon  this  subject,  seems  to  con- 
firm the  same  opinion.  When- 
ever we  either  speak  or  think  of 
the  proportions  of  these  different 
orders,    the    circumstances  of 
weight  and  support  enter  both 
into  our  consideration  and  our  j 
expression.     The  term  propor- 
tion, in  its  general  acceptation, 
implies  them  ;  and  if  this  term 
is  not  used,  the  same  idea,  and  the 
same    pleasure,  may    be  com- 
municated by  terms  expressive  of 
the  support  for  weight.  Heavi- 
ness, and  slightness,  or  insuffi- 
ciency, are  the  terms  most  gene- 
rally used  to  express  a  deviation 
on  either  side  from  the  proper 
relation  j  both  of  them  obviously 
including   the   consideration  of 
support,  and  expressing  the  want 
of  proportion.    When  it  is  said, 
that  a  base,  or  column,  or  entab- 
lature,  is   disproportioned,  it  is 
the  same  thing  as  saying,  tha 
this  part  is  unfitted  to  the  rest 
and  inadequate  to  the  proper  em 
of  the  building.    When  it  is  said 
on  the  other  hand,  that  all  th« 
several  parts  are  properly  adjust 
ed  to  their  end,  and  that  the  bas 
appears  just   sufficient    for  th 
support  of  the  column,  and  hot 
for  that  of  the  entablature,  ever 
person    immediately  conclude.' 
that  the  parts  are  perfectly  pre 
portioned  ;  and  I  apprehend,  it 
very  possible,  to  give  a  man 


ARCHITECTURE. 


,  very  perfect  conception  of  the 
beauty  of  these  proportions,  and 
to  make  him  feel  it  in  the  strong- 
est manner,  without  ever  men- 
tioning to  him  the  name  of  pro- 
portion,   merely   by  explaining 
them  to  him  under  the  consider- 
ation of  fitness,  and  by  showing 
him   from   example,  that  these 
;  forms  are  the  most  proper  which 
i  can  be  devised  for  the  end  to 
which  they  are  destined.    If  our 
perception  of  the  beauty  of  pro- 
portion, in  such  cases,  were  alto- 
gether independent  of  any  such 
considerations,  I  think  that  these 
i  circumstances  in  language  could 
,not  possibly  take  place,  and  that 
it  would  be  as  possible  to  explain 
the  nature  and  beauty  of  propor- 
tions by  terms  expressive  of  sound 
: or  colour,  as  by  terms  expressive 
of  fitness  of  propriety. 

"  3.  The  natural  sentiments  of 
mankind  on  this  subject,  seem  to 
•have  a  different  progress  from 
what  they  could  naturally  have, 
if  there  were  any  absolute  beauty 
in  such  proportions  discoverable 
by  the  eye.    It  cannot  surely  be 
'imagined  that  an  infant  will  per- 
ceive, or  does  perceive,  the  beau- 
ty of  such  proportions  in  the 
same  manner  as  he  perceives  the 
;>bject  of  any  other  external  sense. 
It  is  not  found  either  that  the  ge- 
nerality of  mankind,  even  when 
•nine  to  mature  age,  express  any 
<ense  of  the  absolute  beauty  of 
uch  objects.    It  is  true,  indeed, 
hat  very  early  in  life  we  are  sen- 
sible of  disproportion  in  build- 
ng,  because  the  ideas  of  bulk  and 
upport  are  so  early  and  so  neces- 
sity acquired  ;  and  the  eye  is  so 
oon   habituated   to    judge  of 
R eight  from  visible  figure,  that 
vhat  is  fit  for  the  support  of 
veight,  is  very  soon  generally  as- 
ertained.    What  a  common  per- 
on,  therefore,  expresses  upon  the 
,iewof  such  proportions,  is  rather 


satisfaction  than  delight.  It  is 
not  the  proportions  that  most 
affect  him  ;  it  is  the  magnificence, 
the  grandeur,  and  costliness, 
which  such  buildings  usually  dis- 
play ;  and  though  he  is  much 
pleased  with  such  expressions,  he 
is  generally  silent  with  regard  to 
the  beauty  of  those  proportions 
with  which  the  connoisseurs  are 
so  much  enraptured.  If  the  pro- 
portions, on  the  contrary,  were 
something  absolutely  beautiful,  in 
such  objects  the  progress  of  taste 
would  be  reversed  ;  the  admira- 
tion of  the  infant  would  be  given 
to  those  proportions,  long  before 
he  was  able  to  judge  of  their  fit- 
ness ;  and  the  satisfaction  which 
arises  from  the  pleasure  of  fitting 
would  be  the  last  ingredient  in 
his  pleasure,  instead  of  being,  as 
it  now  is,  the  first. 

"  4.  The  nature  of  these  pro- 
portions themselves  seem  very 
strongly  to  indicate  their  depen- 
dence upon  the  expression  of  fit- 
ness. The  beauty  of  such  forms 
(on  the  supposition  of  their  abso- 
lute and  independent  beauty) 
must  either  consist  in  their  beauty, 
considered  as  individual  objects, 
or  in  their  relation  to  each  other. 
If  the  effect  arises  from  the  nature 
of  the  individual  forms,  then  it 
must  obviously  follow,  that  such 
forms  or  proportions  must  be 
beautiful  in  all  cases.  I  think, 
however,  there  is  no  reason  to 
believe  this  to  be  the  case  ;  the 
base  of  a  column,  for  instance, 
(taken  by  itself,  and  independent 
of  its  ornaments,  which,  in  this 
inquiry  are  entirely  excluded  from 
consideration,)  is  not  a  more 
beautiful  form  than  many  others 
which  are  given  to  the  same 
quality  of  matter.  The  peculiar 
form  which  its  proportions  give 
to  it,  is  very  far  from  being  beau- 
tiful in  every  other  case,  as  it 
would  necessarily  happen,  if  it 


ARCHITECTURE. 


were  beautiful  in  itself,  and  inde- 
pendent of  every  other  expression. 
A  plain  stone  of  the  same  magni- 
tude, may  surely  be  carved  into 
very  different  forms  from  those 
"which   constitute  the    bases  of 
many  of  the  orders,  and  may  still 
be  beautiful.  In  the  same  manner, 
the  column  (considered  as  in  the 
former  case,  merely  in  relation  to 
its  peculiar  form,  and  independent 
of  its  ornaments,)  is  not  more 
beautiful  as  a  form,  and  perhaps 
not  so  beautiful  as  many  other 
forms  of  a  similar  kind.  The 
trunk  of  many  trees,  the  mast  of 
a  ship,  the  long"  slender  Gothic 
column,  and  any  other  similar 
objects,  are  to  the  full  as  beau- 
tiful, when  considered  merely  as 
forms,  without  any  relation  to 
end,  as    any  of  the  columns  in 
Greek  architecture.    If,  on  the 
contrary,  these  forms  are  beauti- 
ful in  themselves,  and  as  indivi- 
dual objects,  no  other  similar 
forms  could  be  equally  beautiful, 
but  such  as  had  the  same  propor- 
tions. The  same  observations  will 
apply  equally  to  the  form  of  the 
entablature.     It  would  appear, 
therefore,  that  it  is  not  from  any 
absolute  beauty  of  these  forms, 
considered  individually,  that  our 
opinion  of  their  beauty  in  compo- 
sition arises.    If  it  .is  said,  on  the 
other  hand,  that  the  beauty  of 
proportion  in  such  cases  arises 
in    relation  of  such  parts,  and 
that  there  is  something  in  the 
relations  of  these  forms  and  mag- 
nitude, in  itself  beautiful,  inde- 
pendent of  any  consideration  of 
fitness,  there  seem  to  be  equal 
difficulties.    Besides  the  relation 
of  fitness  for  the  support  of  the 
weights,  the  only  relations  which 
take  place  among  these  parts,  are 
the    relations    of    length  and 
breadth,  and  the  relation  of  mag- 
nitude. If  this  beauty  arises  from 
the  relation  of  length,  it  is  ne- 

276 


cessary  to  show,  that  such  a  pro- 
portion of  these  parts,  in  point  of 
length,  is  solely  and  permanently 
beautiful.  If  from  both  together, 
then  the  same  proportion  only 
ought  to  be  felt  as  beautiful,  in 
all  cases  to  which  the  relations  of 
length  and  breadth  can  apply.  If 
again  this  beauty  arise  from  the 
relation  of  magnitude,  it  is  ne- 
cessary in  the  same  manner  to 
show  that  their  magnitudes  or 
quantities  of  matter,  have  in  fact 
no  other  beautiful  proportions, 
but  those  which  take  place  in 
such  order  j  but  as  it  is  very  ob- 
vious that  there  is  no  foundation 
for  supposing  there  is  any  such 
law  in  our  nature,  and  that  on  the 
contrary  in  innumerable  cases  of 
all  such  relations,  different  and 
contrary  proportions  are  beauti- 
ful 5  it  cannot  be  supposed  that 
such  proportions  are  absolutely 
beautiful  from  any  of  these  rela- 
tions. The  only  relation,  there- 
fore, that  remains,  is  the  relation 
of  fitness,  and  if  the  same  inquiry 
is  carried  on,  I  believe  it  will 
soon  be  found  that  a  certain  pro- 
portion of  parts  is  necessarily 
demanded  by  this  relation,  and 
very  probably  also,  that  this  cer- 
tain proportion  is,  in  fact,  in  each 
of  these  orders,  according  to  the  j 
particular  wreight  or  bulk  given. 

"  If  an  order  is  considered  as  an!  t 
assemblage  of  weight,  and  parts 
to  support  that  weight,  our  ex- 
perience immediately  leads  us  to  I 
conceive   a   proper   relation  of  |i 
those  parts  to  their  end.    If  the!  t 
entablature  be  considered  as  the|  ( 
weight,  then  of  course  a  certain 
form  and  size  in  the  column  is 
demanded  for  the  support  of  it,|  1 1 
and  in  the  base  for  the  support  ofj   1 1 
both.    A  plain  stone  for  instance,, 
set  on  its  end,  has  no  proportion 
further  than  for  the  purpose  oA 
stability.    If  it  appears  firm  itha^ 
all  the  proportions  we  desire  oil 

I 


ARCHITECTURE. 


demand  ;  and  its  form  may  be 
varied  in  a  thousand  ways,  with- 
out interfering  with  our  sense  of 
its  proportions.  Place  a  column, 
ior  any  other  weight,  on  this  stone, 
immediately  another  proportion 
is  demanded,  viz.  its  proportion 
to  the  support  of  this  weight. 
The  form  supported  has,  how- 
ever, no  proportion  further  than 
is  necessary  for  its  stability.  It 
may  be  more  or  less  beautiful  in 
point  of  form  from  other  consi- 
derations, but  not  on  account  of 
its  proportion.  Above  this  again 
place  an  additional  body,  immedi- 
ately the  intermediate  form  de- 
mands a  new  proportion,  viz.  to 
ithe  weight  it  supports  ;  and  the 
rirst,or  base,  demands  also  another 
proportion,  in  consideration  of 
the  additional  weight  which  is 
thus  imposed  upon  it.  In  this 
supposition,  it  is  obvious,  that 
the  consideration  of  fitness  alone 
leads  us  to  expect  a  certain  pro- 
portion among  each  of  these 
parts.  The  parts  are  beautiful  or 
pleasing,  just  as  they  answer  to 
this  demand ;  and  where  the 
parts  are  few,  and  experiments 
easy,  it  seems  not  difficult  at  last 

0  arrive  at  that  perfect  propor- 
tion which  satisfies  the  eye,  as 
sufficient  for  the  purpose  of  sup- 
port or  stability.  If  we  leave, 
herefore,  every  thing  else  out  of 
consideration,  the  consideration 
>f  fitness  alone  seems  to  account 
>oth  for  the  origin  of  such  pro- 
nations in  architecture,  and  for 

1  he  pleasure  which  attends  the 
,    observation  of  them. 

"  But  granting  that  the  doc- 
rine  of  original  beauty  of  propor- 
tion be  abandoned  as  inconsistent 
kith  experience,  and  that  of  the 
influence  of  the  expression  of  fit- 
iess  be  adopted,  yet  it  may  still 
>e  doubted  if  this  is  sufficient  to 
iccount  for  the  delight  felt  from 
i  he  orders  of  architecture,  or  the 


uniform  adherence  to  the  estab- 
lished proportions. 

"  It  is  acknowledged  that  the 
mere  consideration  of  fitness  is 
insufficient  to  account  for  the 
pleasure  derived  from  the  estab- 
lished orders.  But  it  is  observed, 
that  this  pleasure  arises  from  their 
proportions  ;  and  that,  in  fact, 
when  these  proportions  only  are 
considered,  the  pleasure  that  is 
generally  felt  is  not  greater  than 
that  which  we  experience,  when 
we  perceive  in  any  great  work  the 
proper  relation  of  means  to  an 
end. 

"  The  proportions  of  these  or- 
ders it  is  to  be  remembered,  are 
distinct  subjects  of  beauty,  from 
the  ornaments  with  which  they 
are  embellished,  from  the  magni- 
ficence with  which  they  are  ex- 
ecuted, from  the  purposes  of  ele- 
gance they  are  intended  to  serve, 
or  the  scenes  of  grandeur  they 
are  destined  to  adorn.  It  is  in 
such  scenes  however,  and  with 
such  additions,  that  we  are  ac- 
customed to  observe  them  j  and 
while  we  feel  the  effect  of  these 
accidental  associations  we  are  sel- 
dom willing  to  examine  what  are 
the  causes  of  the  complex  emo- 
tion we  feel,  and  readily  attri- 
bute to  the  nature  of  architec- 
ture itself  the  whole  pleasure 
which  we  enjoy.  But  besides 
these,  there  are  other  associations 
we  have  with  these  forms,  that 
still  more  powerfully  serve  to 
command  our  admiration,  for  they 
are  the  Grecian  orders  j  they  de- 
rive their  origin  from  those  times, 
and  were  the  ornament  of  those 
countries  which  are  most  hallowed 
in  our  imaginations  j  and  it  is 
difficult  for  us  to  see  them,  even 
in  our  modern  copies  without 
feeling  them  to  operate  upon  our 
minds  as  relics  of  those  polished 
nations  where  they  first  arose,  and 
of  that  greater  people  by  whom 

277 


ARCHITECTURE. 


they  were  borrowed.  While  this 
species  of  architecture  is  attended 
with  so  many  and  so  pleasing  as- 
sociations, it  is  difficult  for  even 
a  man  of  reflection  to  distinguish 
between  the  different  sources  of 
this  emotion  ;  or  in  the  moments 
when  this  delight  is  felt,  to  ascer- 
tain what  is  the  exact  proportion 
of  his  pleasure  which  is  to  be 
attributed  to  these  proportions 
alone  ;  and  two  different  causes 
combine  to  lead  us  to  attribute  to 
the  style  of  architecture  itself,  the 
beauty  which  arises  from  many 
other  associations." 

Independently  of  what  Mr.  Ali- 
son has  here  advanced,  it  may  not 
be  altogether  useless  to  detail  to 
the  reader  the  opinion  he  has  given 
of  the  different  orders,  in  the  ear- 
lier part  of  his  work.  "  The  or- 
ders of  architecture,"  he  states, 
"'have  different  characters  from 
several  causes,  and  chiefly  from 
the  different  quantity  of  matter  in 
their  entablatures.  The  Tuscan 
is  distinguished  by  its  severity  j 
the  Doric  by  its  simplicity ;  the 
Ionic  by  its  elegance ;  the  Corin- 
thian and  Composite  by  their 
lightness  and  gaiety.  To  these 
characters,  their  several  orna- 
ments are  suited  with  consummate 
taste.  Change  these  ornaments, 
give  to  the  Tuscan  the  Corinthian 
capital,  or  to  the  Corinthian  the 
Tuscan,  and  every  person  would 
feel  not  only  a  disappointment 
from  this  unexpected  composi- 
tion, but  a  sentiment  also  of  im- 
propriety from  the  appropria- 
tion of  a  grave  or  sober  ornament 
to  a  subject  of  splendour,  and  of  a 
rich  or  gaudy  ornament  to  a  sub- 
ject of  severity." 

The  preceding  observations  re- 
late wholly  to  the  external  parts 
of  architecture  ;  but  as  the  inter- 
nal proportions  are  guided  by  the 
same  principles,  we  shall  merely 
state,  that  the  observations  offered 

278 


by  Mr.  Alison  on  the  beauty  of 
the  internal  proportions  of  archi- 
tecture, afford  sufficient  evidence 
for  concluding,  in  general,  that 
the  beauty  of  these  proportions 
is  not  original  and  independent, 
but  that  it  arises,  in  all  cases, 
from  the  expression  of  some  spe-  i 
cies  of  fitness.  The  fitness  which 
such  proportions  may  express,  is  ! 
of  different  kinds  : 

"  1.  One  beauty  of  these  pro- 
portions, arises  from  their  expres- 
sion of  fitness  for  the  support  of 
the  weight  imposed. 

"  <2.  A  second  source  of  their  ! 
beauty,consists  in  their  expression 
of  fitness  for  the  preservation  of 
the  character  of  the  apartment. 

"  3.  A  third  source  of  their 
beauty,  consists  in  their  expres- 
sion of  fitness,  in  the  general 
form,  for  its  peculiar  purpose  or 
end. 

"The  two  first  constitute  the 
permanent  beauty,  and  the  third 
the  accidental  beauty  of  an  apart-1 
ment. 

"  The  most  perfect  beauty  that 
the  proportions  of  an  apartment 
can  exhibit,  will  be  when  all  these 
expressions  unite  ;  or  when  the 
same  relations  of  dimensions 
which  are  productive  of  the  expres-1 
sions  of  sufficiency,  agree  also  in 
the  preservation  of  character,  and! 
in  the  indication  of  use." 

From  the  whole  of  the  forego- 
ing discussions  and  illustrations,; 
Mr.  Alison  has  drawn  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  :  — 

"  That  the  principal  sources  ol 
the  beauty  of  forms  are  :  1st,  the 
expression  which  we  connect  witfc 
peculiar  forms,  either  from  the 
form  itself,  or  the  nature  of  the 
subject  formed  ;  2dly,  the  qua- 
lities of  design,  and  fitness,  anc 
utility,  which  they  indicate  ;  ant 
3dly,  the  accidental  association;; 
which  we  happen  to  connect  vvitl; 
them. 


ARC 


ARC 


"  All  forms  are  either  orna- 
mental or  useful. 

"  The  beauty  of  merely  orna- 
.  mental  forms   appears   to  arise 
from  three  sources  : 

"  1.  The  expression  of  the  form 
1  itself. 

"  LZ.  The  expression  of  design. 

"  3.  Accidental  expression. 

"  The  real  and  positive  beauty, 
therefore,  of  every  ornamental 
form,  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
nature  and  the  permanence  of  the 
expression  by  which  it  is  distin- 
guished. The  strongest  and  most 
permanent  emotion,  however,  we 
can  receive  from  such  expressions, 
lis  that  which  arises  from  the  na- 
ture of  the  form  itself.  The  emo- 
tion we  receive  from  the  expres- 
sion of  design,  is  neither  so  strong 
nor  so  permanent ;  and  that  which 
accidental  associations  produce, 
perishes  often  with  the  year  which 
,gave  it  birth.  The  beauty  of  ac- 
cidental expression  is  as  variable 
,as  the  caprice  or  fancy  of  man- 
kind. The  beauty  of  expression 
rof  design  varies  with  every  period 
of  the  art.  The  beauty  which 
arises  from  the  form  itself  is  alone 
permanent,  as  founded  on  the  uni- 
form constitution  of  the  human 
mind.  Considering,  therefore,  the 
beauty  of  forms,  as  constituted  by 
the  degree  and  permanence  of  their 
expression,  the  following  conclu- 
sions seem  immediately  to  sug- 
gest themselves. 

,  "  1.  That  the  greatest  beauty 
which  ornamental  forms  can  re- 
ceive, will  be  that  which  arises 
rrom  the  expression  of  the  form 
tself. 

"  2.  That  the  next,  will  be  that 
which  arises  from  the  expression 
fjf  design  or  skill.  And 

"  3.  That  the  least  will  be  that 
which  arises  from  accidental  or 
jiemporary  expression. 

"  In  all  those  arts,  therefore, 


that  respect  the  beauty  of  form, 
it  ought  to  be  the  unceasing  study 
of  the  artist  to  disengage  his  mind 
from  the  accidental  associations 
of  his  age,  as  well  as  the  common 
prejudices  of  his  art;  to  labour  to 
distinguish  his  productions  by  that 
pure  and  permanent  expression, 
which  may  be  felt  in  every  age, 
and  to  disdain  to  borrow  a  transi- 
tory fame,  by  yielding  to  the  tem- 
porary caprices  of  his  time,  or  by 
exhibiting  only  the  display  of  his 
own  dexterity  and  skill." 

The  reader  who  has  attentively 
perused  this  slight  sketch  of  Mr. 
Alison's  valuable  investigations, 
will,  we  doubt  not,  agree  with  us, 
that  he  has  distinctly  established 
the  true  principles  of  architec- 
ture ;  and  we  trust  that  the  liberal- 
minded  artist  will  perceive,  that 
the  direct  path  to  eminence  in  his 
profession  is  precisely  marked 
out,  and  that  he  has  no  longer 
cause  to  dread  being  entangled  in 
uncertainty  and  confusion. 

Architrave.  This  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  "  apx^" 
chief,  and  the  Latin,  "  trabs," 
a  beam  :  and  signifies  that  part  of 
the  entablature  which  rests  imme- 
diately upon  the  columns.  See 
PI.  M3,  Mouldings. 

In  vestiges  of  ancient  Grecian . 
temples  at  Athens  and  Corinth, 
as  also  at  Paestum  in  Sicily,  the 
architrave  of  the  doric  order  is  of 
very  great  height,  being  nearly 
equal  to  the  diameter  of  the  co- 
lumn, and  has  but  one  facia  ;  but 
in  the  doric  order  of  the  theatre 
of  Marcellus,  at  Rome,  where  it 
has  also  but  one  facia,  the  archi- 
trave is  much  lower,  being  only 
equal  to  half  of  the  diameter  of 
the  column.  The  moderns,  in  re- 
storing ancient  architecture,  have 
generally  followed  the  last  of 
these  proportions;  but  have  given 
to  the  architrave  two  facias  j  tak- 


A  R  C 


ARC 


ing  the  idea  from  some  ancient 
examples  of  the  doric  order  still 
existing  in  Italy. 

In  the  ionic  order,  the  Gre- 
cians varied  the  number  of  their 
facias  from  one  to  three,  some- 
times making  them  quite  plain, 
and  at  other  times  enriching  the 
upper  mouldings.  The  moderns, 
however,  confine  this  order  to  two 
facias. 

In  the  corinthian  and  compo- 
site, the  ancients  gave  to  the  first 
three,  and  to  the  last  two  facias  ; 
but  the  moderns  give  three  facias 
to  each  of  these  orders. 

In  gothic  architecture  there 
is  no  architrave,  and  the  arches 
spring  immediately  from  the  tops 
of  the  columns.  This  forms  the 
most  striking  characteristic  dif- 
ference between  the  architecture 
of  the  ancients  and  that  of  the 
middle  ages. 

Architrave  of  a  door.  A  col- 
lection of  members  surrounding 
the  aperture  of  a  section  similarly 
to  the  architraves  of  the  ionic 
and  corinthian  orders,  &c.  The 
upper  part  or  lintel  is  called  the 
traverse;  and  the  sides,  the  jambs. 
For  further  information,  see 
Door. 

Architrave  cornice.  An  enta- 
blature consisting  of  an  architrave 
and  cornice  without  the  interven- 
tion of  the  frieze.  Architrave  cor- 
nices are  introduced  when  it  is  in- 
convenient to  give  the  entablature 
its  usual  height.  An  example  of 
this  kind  among  the  ancients  may 
be  seen  in  the  Caryatic  portico,  at 
Athens.   Vide  PI.  Pandroseion. 

Archivault.    Vide  Archivolt. 

Archives.  A  repository  or 
closet  for  the  preservation  of 
writings  or  records.  A  secret 
closet. 

Archivolt.  This  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  French  "  archi- 
volte"  and  is  the  same  as  the  La- 

2S0 


tin  "areas  volutus."  The  archi- 
volt is  a  collection  of  members 
forming  the  inner  contour  of  an 
arch,  or  a  band  or  frame  adorned 
with  mouldings,  running  over  the 
faces  of  the  arch-stones  and  bear- 
ing upon  the  imposts. 

The  archivolt  differs  in  the  dif- 
ferent orders.  In  the  tuscan  it 
has  only  a  single  face  ;  it  has  two 
faces  crowned  in  the  doric  and 
ionic  ;  and  in  the  corinthian  and 
composite  it  has  the  same  mould- 
ings with  the  architrave. 

Archivoltum.  In  mediaval 
architecture.  An  arched  recepta- 
cle for  filth.  A  cesspool  or  com- 
mon sewer. 

Archivum.  Arceps.  Archarium. 
In  mediceval  architecture.  Archives. 

Archoid.  If  the  ends  of  a 
prism  be  a  conic  section,  contained 
by  a  portion  of  the  curve  next  to 
a  vertex,  and  double  ordinate  to 
the  axis,  and  not  exceeding  the 
half  of  the  entire  figure  ;  when 
the  curve  is  an  ellipse,  the  prism 
is  called  an  archoid.  This  geo- 
metrical solid  is  denominated  a 
circular,  an  elliptic,  hyperbolic, 
or  parabolic  archoid,  as  its  ends 
are  portions  of  these  curves.  The 
circular,  or  elliptic,  archoid,  is 
also  denominated  a  cylindric,  or 
cylindroidic  archoid.  When  ap- 
plied to  building,  the  space  it 
occupies  is  called  an  arch  vault, 
or  a  vault,  the  line  of  its  surface 
forming  the  intrados  of  the  vault. 

The  part  of  an  inverted  arch 
opposite  to  the  ceiling  of  the 
vault,  or  arch,  is  sometimes  called 
the  floor  of  the  arch. 

Archwise,  adj.  In  the  form 
or  shape  of  an  arch. 

Arcs  doubleaux.  The  soffits 
of  arches. 

Arcuature.  The  bending  or 
curvature  of  an  arch.  The  in- 
trados. 

Arcus.    The  avenue,  or  area, 


AREA. 

which  was  usually  formed  in  front  the  triumph  of  religion  over  the 
of  the  ancient  Basilicae.  grave,  were  among  the  subjects 

Arcus  ECCLESiiE.    In  mediceval     displayed  in  mosaic  in  these  situ- 
architecture.    The  arch  by  which  ations. 

the  nave  of  the  church  was  di-  Arcus  presbyterii.  In  medice- 
vided  from  the  choir  or  chancel,  vol  architecture.  The  arch  over 
This  arch,  among  ecclesiastical  the  tribune  marking  the  boundaries 
authors  of  the  middle  ages,  is  of  the  recess  which  composed  it. 
often  called  arcus  triumphalis.  As  Its  decorations  were  similar  to 
the  triumphal  arches  in  heathen  those  of  the  arcus  ecclesia. 
.  Rome  were  adorned  with  military  Arcus  toralis.  The  lattice 
trophies,  and  the  deeds  of  the  separating  the  choir  from  the  nave 
emperors  to  whose  honour  they  in  the  Basilicae. 
were  raised  ;  so  the  arcus  ecclesiae  Area.  In  architecture.  A  small 
I  and  also  the  arcus  presbyterii  court  or  place  sunk  below  the 
were  decorated  with  ornaments  general  surface  of  the  ground, 
•  allusive  to  the  christian  faith.  The  before  and  level  with  the  floor 
holy  sign  of  the  cross,  the  suffer-  of  the  basement  story  of  a  build- 
ings of  the  martyrs,  emblems  of  ing. 

Area.  In  geometry.    The   superficial  content  of  any  figure.  For 
example  :  PI  M1,  "  Mensuration  of  Superficies." 

Prob.  1.  To  find  the  area  of  a  parallelogram  :  whether  it  be  a 
square,  a  rectangle,  a  rhombus,  or  a  rhomboid. 

Multiply  the  length  by  the  breadth,  or  perpendicular  height,  and 
the  product  will  be  the  area. 
1     Ex.  1.  To  find  the  area  of  a  square,  whose  side  is  6  inches, 
or  6  feet,  &c. 

6 

;  _6 

Answer  36 

<2.  To  find  the  area  of  a  rectangle,  whose   length  is  9,  and 
breadth  4  inches,  or  feet,  &c. 

9 

_4 

Answer  36 

3.  To  find  the  area  of  a  rhombus,  whose  length  is  6  chains,  and 
perpendicular  height  5. 

6 
J> 

Answer  30 
Prob.  2.  To  find  the  area  of  a  triangle. 

Rule  1.  Multiply  the  base  by  the  perpendicular  height,  and  half  the 
,  product  will  be  the  area. 

,  Rule  2,  When  the  three  sides  only  are  given  :  add  the  three  sides 
together,  and  take  half  the  sum ;  from  the  half  sum  substract  each  side 
separately;  multiply  the  half  sum  and  the  three  remainders  continually 
together  ;  and  the  square  root  of  the  last  product  wili  be  the  area  of 
the  triangle. 

2N  281 


AREA. 


Ex.  Required  the  area  of  the  triangle  whose  base  is  6  feet,  and 
perpendicular  height  5  feet. 

6 

±± 
2)30(15  answer. 

Prob.  3.  To  find  one  side  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  having  the 
other  two  sides  given. 

The  square  of  the  hypothenuse  is  equal  to  both  the  squares  of  the 
two  legs.  Therefore, 

1.  To  find  the  hypothenuse;  add  the  squares  of  two  legs  together, 
and  extract  the  square  root  of  the  sum. 

2.  To  find  one  leg  ;  subtract  the  square  of  the  other  leg  from  the 
square  of  the  hypothenuse,  and  extract  the  root  of  the  difference. 

Ex.  1.  Required  the  hypothenuse  of  aright-angled  triangle,  whose 
base  AB  is  40,  and  perpendicular  BC  30. 

4  3 
4  3 

~16  1) 
9 

25(5  the  square  root  of  the  sum  of  the 
25         two  squares,  being  the  hypo- 
thenuse AC. 

2.  What  is  the  perpendicular  of  a  right-angled  triangle,  whose  base 
AB  is  56,  and  hypothenuse,  AC  65  ? 
56  65 
56  65 

"336  325 
280  390 

3136  4225 
3136 

1089(33  the  perpendicular  which  is  the  root  of 
9  the  remainder  of  the  square  of  the 

.  .   hypothenuse  AC,  when  the  square  of 

63    189  AB  has  been  subtracted. 

3  J  189 

Prob.  4.  To  find  the  area  of  a  trapezoid. 

Multiply  the  sum  of  the  two  parallel  sides  by  the  perpendicular 
distance  between  them,  and  half  the  product  will  be  the  area. 

Ex.  In  a  trapezoid,  the  parallel  sides  are  AB  7,  and  CD  12,  and  the  j 
perpendicular  distance  AP  or  CN  is  9  :  required  the  area. 

7 
12 

19 
9 


85 \  area. 

Prob.  5.  To  find  the  area  of  a  trapezium. 

282 


ARE  A. 


Case  for  any  trapezium. — Divide  it  into  two  triangles  by  a  diagonal  j 
then  find  the  areas  of  these  triangles,  and  add  them  together. 

Note.  If  two  perpendiculars  be  let  fall  on  the  diagonal,  from  the 
other  two  opposite  angles,  the  sum  of  these  perpendiculars  being 
multiplied  by  the  diagonal,  half  the  product  will  be  the  area  of  the 
trapezium 

Ex.  To  find  the  area  of  the  trapezium  ABCD,  the  diagonal  AC  being 
42,  the  perpendicular  BF  18,  and  the  perpendicular  DE  16. 

'  18 
16 

34 
42 

68 
136 

2)1428 

714  answer. 

Prob  6.  To  find  the  area  of  an  irregular  polygon. 

Draw  diagonals  dividing  the  figure  into  trapeziums  and  triangles. 
Then  find  the  areas  of  all  these  separately,  and  their  sum  will  be  the 
content  of  the  whole  irregular  figure. 

Ex.  To  find  the  content  of  the  irregular  figure  ABCDEF,  in  which 
are  given  the  following  diagonals  and  perpendiculars  :  namely, 

c.  a  =  10 

d.  f  =  6 
ci  =  4 
k.e  =  2 
m.f=  3 
n.b  —  4 

For  trapez.  d.  c.  f.  e.  For  trapez.  c.  f.  a.  b. 

ci.     4  n.b.  4 

ke.  _2  m.f.  _3 

~6  7 

df._6  c.a.  _10 
2)36  2)70 
18  content.  35  content. 

18  content  d.  c.  f.  e. 
35  content  c.  f.  a.  b. 

53  content  of  the  irregular  polygon. 

Prob.  7.  To  find  the  area  of  a  regular  polygon. 

Rule  Multiply  the  perimeter  of  the  figure,  or  sum  of  its  sides,  by  the 
perpendicular  falling  from  its  centre  upon  one  of  its  sides,  and  half 
the  product  will  be  the  area. 

Prob.  8.  In  a  circular  arc,  having  any  two  of  the  following  lines 
viz.  the  chord  AB,  the  versed  sine  DP,  the  chord  of  half  the  arc  AD 
and  the  diameter,  or  the  radius  AC  or  CD  given,  to  find  the  others. 

If  any  two  of  these  lines  be  given,  two  sides  of  one  of  the  right- 
angled  triangles,  APC  or  APD,  will  be  known,  and  from  them  the 
remaining  side,  and  other  lines  in  the  arc,  may  be  found  by  Prob.  3. 

Suppose  AB  and  PD  be  given,  then,  by  Prob.  3,  the  half  of  AB,  or 

283 


AREA. 


AP  is  a  mean  proportional  between  DP  and  PC  +  CD  ;  for  PC  +  CD  -f- 
PD  is  the  diameter  of  the  circle,  half  of  which  is  the  radius,  or  CA, 
and  by  Prob.  3,  AC2  —  AP2  =  CP2,  and  AP 2  -f  PD 2  =  AD2. 

Suppose  CD  and  AB  be  given,  then  half  of  AB  =  AP,  anu 

CD  =  AC  ;  therefore  V  CD2  — AP2  =  CP,  and  CD  —  CP  =  PD 
VPD2+  AP2  =  AD. 

Prob.  9.  To  find  the  diameter  and  circumference  of  a  circle,  the 
one  from  the  other.  » 

Rule  1.  As  7  is  to  22,  so  is  the  diameter  to  the  circumference. 

As  22  is  to  7,  so  is  the  circumference  to  the  diameter. 
Rule  2.  As  113  is  to  355,  so  is  the  diameter  to  the  circumference. 

As  355  is  to  113,  so  is  the  circumference  to  the  diameter. 
Rule  3.  As  1  is  rto  3*1416,  so  is  the  diameter  to  the  circumference. 
As  3"1416  is  to  1,  so  is  the  circumference  to  the  diameter. 
Ex.  I.  To  find  the  circumference  of  a  circle,  whose  diameter  A  B 
is  10. 

By  Rule  1. 
7  :  22  :  :  10  :  3142857 
10 

7)220 

Sli- 
er 31*42357  answer. 
By  Rule  2.  By  Rule  3. 

113  :  355  :  :  10  :  31TVr  1  :  3*1416  :  :  10  :  31416 

10  the  circumference  nearly, 

113)3550(31*41593  answer.  •  the  true  circumference 

160  being 


470 
180 


31-4159265358979,  &c 


670 
1050 
330 

So  that  Rule  2,  is  nearest  the  truth. 
Ex.  2.  To  find  the  diameter  when  the  circumference  is  100. 

By  Rule  1. 

22  :  7  :  :  50  :  7  +  2°    =  —  =  15  -H-  =  15.9090  answer. 
11      =  11 

By  Rule  2.  By  Rule  3. 

355  :  113  :  :  50  :  15  ffr  3*1416  :  1  :  :  50  :  15  9156 

50  50 

355)5650  3*1416)50  000(15-9156 

71)H30(15-9155   )  18584 

420  ~2876 

650  49 

110  JL8 

390  « 

284 


0 


AREA. 


Prob.  10.  To  find  the  length  of  any  arc  of  a  circle. 
Rule  1.  As  ISO  is  to  the  number  of  degrees  in  the  arc, 
So  is  3*1416  times  the  radius,  to  its  length. 
Or  as  3  is  to  the  number  of  degrees  in  the  arc, 
So  is  '05236  times  the  radius,  to  its  length. 
Ex.  1.  To  find  the  length  of  an  arc  ADB  (Prob.  S,)  of  30  degrees, 
the  radius  being  9  feet. 

3-1416 
9 

As  180:  30  

Or  6  :  1  :  :  2S2744  :  47124 
Or  3  :  30  :  :  '05236  X   9  :  4 '71 24 
 90 

4*7124  answer. 


Rule  2.  From  8  times  the  chord  of  half  the  arc  subtract  the 
chord  of  the  whole  arc,  and  i-  of  the  remainder  will  be  the  length  of 
the  arc  nearly. 

Ex.  2.  The  chord  AB  (Prob.  8,)  of  the  whole  arc  being  4*65874, 
and  the  chord  AD  of  the  half  arc  2'34947  j  required  the  length  of 
the  arc. 

2*34947 
 8 

1S795/6 

4*65874 

3)14-13702 

4*71234  answer. 


Prob.  11.  To  find  the  area  of  a  circle,  the  diameter  or  circumfer- 
ence being  given. 

Rule  1.  Multiply  half  the  circumference  by  half  the  diameter,  or 
take  \  of  the  product  of  the  whole  circumference  and  diameter. 

Rule  2.  Multiply  the  square  of  the  diameter  by  *7S54. 

Rule  3.  Multiply  the  square  of  the  circumference  by  -0795S. 

Rule  4.  As  14  is  to  11,  so  is  the  square  of  the  diameter  to  the 
area. 

Rule  5.  As  88  is  to  7,  so  is  the  square  of  the  circumference  to  the 
area. 

Ex.  To  find  the  area  of  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  10,  and  circum- 
ference 314-159265 


By  Rule  1. 
314159265 
10 

4)314- 159265 
area  78  539816 


By  Hvl*  2. 

""854 
luO 
area  78  54 


By  Rule  3. 
sq.  circ.  986*96044 
invert.  85970 

6908/23 
888264 
49348 
7896 


78-54231 

285 


area. 


AREA, 


By  Rule  4. 

14  :  11  :  :  100 

11  area 


By  Rule  5. 


31.4159265  circutn 
56.2951413  invert. 


14)1100(78.57  answer. 


80 
70 
100 
98 

2 


98 

20 
112 


94247779 
3141593 
1256637 
31416 
15708 
2827 


63 
19 
2 


88  :  7  *  :  986*96044 
7 


8)690872308 


11)863-59038 


78-50821  answer. 


Prob.  12.  To  find  the  area  of  the  sector  of  a  circle. 

Rule  1.  Multiply  the  radius,  or  half  the  diameter,  by  half  the  arc  of 
the  sector,  for  the  area.  Or  take  \  of  the  product  of  the  diameter  and 
arc  of  the  sector. 

Note.  The  arc  may  be  found  by  problem  10. 

Rule  2.  As  360  is  to  the  degrees  in  the  arc  of  the  sector,  so  is  the 
whole  area  of  the  circle  to  the  area  of  the  sector. 

Ex.  What  is  the  area  of  the  sector  CAB,  the  radius  being  xO,  and 
the  chord  AB  16. 

100=AO 
64=AE» 

36  (6=CE 
10= CD 

4=DE 

"~16~=DE» 
64=AE» 

80~(8-9442719=AD. 
 8 

715541752 
16  

3)55-5541752 

gjl^S  180581  arc  ADB 

9-2590297  ~  half  arc 
10  —  radius 

92*590297  answer. 

Prob.  13.  To  find  the  area  of  a  segment  of  a  circle. 
Rule.   Find  the  area  of  the  sector  having  the  same  arc  with  the 
segment,  by  the  last  problem. 


286 


AREA. 


Find  the  area  of  the  triangle,  formed  by  the  chord  of  tne  segment 
ind  the  two  radii  of  the  sector. 

Then  the  sum  of  these  two  will  be  the  answer  when  the  segment 
s  greater  than  a  semicircle  :  but  the  difference  will  be  the  answer 
>vhen  it  is  less  than  a  semicircle. 

Ex.  Required  the  area  of  the  segment  ABCD,  its  chord  AB  being  12, 
md  the  radius  EA  or  CE  10. 

100  AE 2 
36  AD3 
~~64  DE2 

its  root    8  DE 
from    JO  CE 
J2CD 

4  CD2 
36^  AD2 

40  chord  AC,  6  AD 

S  DE 

its  root    6-324555  chord  AC  — 

 8  48  area  of  A  EAB. 

50-596440 
12- 


3)3S-59644 


2)12-86548  arc  ACB 

6  43274  4.  arc 
10  radius 


64-3274  area  of  sect.  EACB 
4S-0000  area  of  triangle  EAB 

Answer  16'3274  area  of  segm.  ACBA 

Prob.  14.   To  find  the  area  of  a  circular  zone  ADCBA. 

Rule  1.  Find  the  areas  of  the  two  segments  AEB,  DEC,  and  their 
iifference  will  be  the  zone  ADCB. 

Rule  2.  To  the  area  of  the  trapezoid  DQP  add  the  area  of  the 
small  segment  ADR;  and  double  the  sum  of  the  area  of  the  zone 
^DCB. 

Prob.  15.  To  find  the  area  of  a  circular  ring,  or  space  included 
between  two  concentric  circles. 

The  difference  between  the  two  circles  will  be  the  ring.  Or,  multi- 
ply the  sum  of  the  diameters  by  their  difference,  and  multiply  the 
product  by  '7854  for  the  answer. 

Ex.  The  diameters  of  the  two  concentric  circles  being  AB  10  and 
3G  6,  required  the  area  of  the  ring  contained  between  their  circum- 
erences  AEBA,  and  BFGD. 

10  -7854 
_6  64 

Sum  16  31416 
Dif.  _4  47*124 

64  50  2656  answer. 

287 


ARE 


ARR 


Prob.  16.  To  measure  long  irregular  figures. 

Take  the  breadth  in  several  places  at  equal  distances.  Add  all 
the  breadths  together,  and  divide  the  sum  by  the  number  of  them, 
for  the  mean  breadth j  which  multiply  by  the  length  for  the  area. 

Ex.  The  breadths  of  an  irregular  figure,  at  five  equi-distant  places, 
being  AD  81,  m  P  74,  nq  9  2,  or  10  1,  BC  8  6  ;  and  the  length  AB 
39  ;  required  the  area. 

81 

74 
92 
10- 1 

8-6 
5)434 
868" 
39 

78'  12 
^60- 4 

33S  5L2  answer 


Arena.  The  plain  space  in  the 
middle  of  the  amphitheatre,  or 
other  places  of  public  resort 
amongst  the  Romans,  where  the 
gladiators  had  their  combats.  The 
word  is  Latin,  and  signifies  sand. 
The  place  most  probably  derived 
its  name  from  the  ground  being 
strewed  with  sand  or  sawdust, 
to  prevent  the  combatants  from 
sliding;  as  also  to  hide  the  blood 
spilt  in  the  contests  from  the 
view  of  the  spectators. 

Arena.  In  architecture.  The 
middle  or  body  of  a  temple  ;  com- 
prehending the  whole  space  be- 
tween the  antae  and  extreme  wall 
of  the  building. 

Arenaria.  A  word  used  by 
the  ancient  writers  in  a  sense  ana- 
logous to  the  English  "sand-pit" 
A  pit  out  of  which  sand  is  dug. 

Arenarii.  Gladiators,  and  slaves 
of  the  lowest  rank,  who  combated 
with  beasts  in  the  arena. 

Arknatum,  is  used  by  Vitruvius 
for  a  kind  of  plaster;  mortar  com- 
posed of  sand  and  lime. 

Areopagus.  A  place  near 
Athens,  where  the  Athenians  held 
their  court  of  justice. 


Areostyle.    Vide  Arceostyle. 

Arris.  This  word  is  very  much 
used  by  all  who  are  connected; 
with  the  art  of  building;  and 
though,  in  general  language,  it! 
implies  the  same  thing  as  edge,  the 
workmen  use  those  two  words  in  a 
very  different  sense.  Arris  is  used! 
by  them  to  denote  the  intersec- 
tion, or  lines  on  which  two  sur-J 
faces  of  a  body  forming  an  exte- 
rior angle  meet ;  and  edge  is  only 
applied  to  those  two  surfaces  of  a 
rectangular  parallelopipedal  body, 
on  which  the  length  and  thickness; 
may  be  measured,  as  in  boards,; 
planks,  shutters,  &c. 

Arris  fillet.  A  slight  piece 
of  timber  of  a  triangular  section, 
used  in  raising  slates  against  the 
shafts  of  chimneys,  or  against  a 
wall  that  cuts  across  the  roof  in  an 
oblique  direction.  It  is  also  used 
in  forming  gutters  at  the  upper, 
ends  and  sides  of  skylights  that 
have  their  plane  coinciding  with 
that  of  the  roof.  When  used  in! 
raising  the  slates  at  the  eaves  oi; 
a  building  the  arris  fillet  is  called 
eaves-board,  eaves-lath,  or  eaves- 
catch. 


ASH 


ASS 


Arsenal.  A  public  storehouse 
for  arms  and  warlike  ammunition, 
Artifickrs.  Persons  who  work 
with  their  hands,  and  manufac- 
ture any  commodity  in  iron,  brass, 
wood,  &c. 

Artisan.  Vide  Artificer. 
Akx.  A  consecrated  place 
on  the  Palatine  mount  where 
the  augurs  publicly  performed 
their  office:  also  a  public  place  in 
Rome,  set  apart  for  the  operations 
of  the  augurs. 

Arx.    In  ancient  military  art. 
A  town,  fort,  or  castle,  for  the  de- 
fence of  a  place.    Some  writers 
have  supposed  that  the  arx  and 
capitol  of  Rome  were  the  same 
thing  ;  but  they  were  two  distinct 
I'difices.    The  arx,  according  to 
tlyckius,  was  a  place  on  the  high- 
est part  of  the  Capitoline  mount, 
•tronger  and  much  better  fortified 
1     'han  the  rest,  having  towers  and 
>innated  walls,  and  in  which  was 
he  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus. 
\       Asarotum.    A  kind  of  painted 
1     'avement  used  by  the  Romans  be- 
>re  the  invention  of  mosaic  work, 
to    "he  most  celebrated   was  that 
tinted  by  Sesus,  at  Pergamus, 
hich  exhibited  the  appearance  of 
rumbs,  as  thrugh  the  floor  had 
ot  been  swept  after  meals, 
lal     1  Asbam,ea.  A  fountain  dedicated 
•  Jupiter,  near  Tyana,  in  Cappo- 
ito  pcia. 

Ashlar.      Common,  or  free, 
ones,  as  they  are  brought  from 
e  quarry,  of  different  lengths 
p    'id  thicknesses. 

Ashlar.  The  facing  of  squared 
tool      )nes  on  the  front  of  a  building, 
hen  the  stones  which  compose 
■  ashlar  facing  are  quite  smooth, 
jcj;     Id  exhibit  none  of  the  marks  of 
1  i  tools  by  which  the  stones  were 
ft,  it  is  called  plane  ashlar.  When 
^  ought  in  a  regular  manner,  so 
tit  the  surface  has  the  appear- 
I  e  of  parallel  flutes,  placed  per 
J  idicularly  in  the  building,  it  is 
20 


called  tooled  ashlar.  When  the 
surfaces  of  the  stones  are  cut  with 
a  broad  tool,  without  care  or  re- 
gularity, it  is  said  to  be  random' 
tooled.  When  wrought  with  a 
narrow  tool,  chiselled  or  boasted  : 
when  cut  with  very  narrow  tools 
it  is  said  to  be  pointed  :  and  when 
the  stones  project  from  the  joints, 
with  either  smooth  or  broken 
surfaces,  the  ashlar  is  said  t>  be 
rusticated.  Neither  pointed,  chi- 
selled nor  random-tooled  ashlar 
can  be  admitted  in  good  work. 
In  the  country,  herring-bone  ashlar, 
and  herring-random-tooled  ashlar 
are  some  times  used. 

Ashlaring.  The  act  of  setting 
an  ashlar  facing. 

Ashlering.  In  carpentry.  The 
fixing  of  short  upright  quar- 
terings  in  garrets,  about  two  feet 
and  a  half  or  three  feet  high,  be- 
tween the  rafters  and  the  floor,  in 
order  to  make  more  convenient 
rooms,  by  cutting  off  the  acute 
angles  at  the  bottom. 

Asiminthos.  A  kind  of  large 
vessel  in  which  the  Greeks  used 
to  bathe. 

Asphaltum.  A  kind  of  bitu- 
minous stone,  found  near  the  an- 
cient Babylon,  and  lately  in  the 
province  of  Neufchatel.  When 
this  stone  is  mixed  with  some 
other  materials,  it  forms  an  ex- 
cellent cement,  which  is  incor- 
ruptible by  air,  and  impenetrable 
by  water.  It  is  supposed  to  be 
the  mortar  so  much  celebrated 
among  the  ancients,  and  used  in 
cementing  the  walls  of  Babylon, 
and  the  temple  of  Jerusalem. 

Assemblage.  The  joining,  or 
uniting,  of  several  things  together ; 
or  the  things  themselves  so  joined 
or  united.  Carpenters  and  joiners 
have  various  kinds  and  forms  of 
assemblage,  as  by  mortise  and 
tenon,  dove-tailing,  &c. 

Assemblage  of  the  Orders.  The 
placing  of  the  columns  upon  one 

289 


AST 


AST 


another  in  the  several  *anges,  so 
that  their  axes  be  in  the  same 
straight  line. 

Assers.  A  term  used  in  an- 
cient  carpentry,  signifying  the 
laths  which  supported  the  tiles  of 
the  roof.  The  denticulated  cor- 
nice is  supposed  to  have  origi- 
nated from  these  ;  and,  as  they 
were  not  disposed  horizontally, 
but  according  to  the  inclination  of 
the  roof,  Vitruvius  forbids  the 
use  of  dentils  in  pediments.  As- 
sers, among  the  ancients,  also  im- 
plied the  ribs  or  brackets  of  an 
arched  ceiling. 

Association  of  Orders.  Vide 
Assemblage. 

Astragal.  This  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek  a<npa<ya\o<i, 
which  signifies  strictly  a  bone  in 
the  foot,  to  which  this  moulding 
has  been  imagined  to  bear  some 
resemblance.  The  astragal  is  a 
small  moulding,  having  a  semi- 
circular profile  j  and  is  used  in  va- 
rious parts  of  building.  Some 
have  supposed,  and  with  some 
justice,  that  it  properly  represents 
a  ring,  on  whatever  part  of  the 
column  it  may  be  placed  j  and 
that  the  idea  originated  in  placing 
a  circle  of  iron  round  wooden  co- 
lumns, to  prevent  them  from  split- 
ting. The  astragal  and  torus  are 
similar  figures.  The  only  dis- 
tinguishing feature  is,  that  when 
the  one  is  compared  with  the 
other,  in  the  same  piece  of  work, 
the  astragal  is  considerably  smaller 
than  the  torus.  See  Plate  M3. 
and  M4,  Mouldings.  The  as- 
tragal is  sometimes  quite  plain  j 
at  other  times  it  is  enriched  with 
beads  and  berries,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  ornamental  astragals  which 
separate  the  facias  of  the  archi- 
trave in  the  corinthian  capital  of 
the  Maison  Quarree,  at  Nismes. 
PI.  C\  Capitals. 

As  Vitruvius  does  not  men- 
tion any  astragal   between  the 

290 


shaft  and  hypo trachel  ion  of  the 
doric  and  tuscan  columns,  it  is  not 
improbable,  that  the  hypotrache- 
lion  might  be  formed  without  any 
mouldings  whatever,  by  making 
it  slightly  recede  within  the  shaft  j 
or  by  fluting  it,  as  in  Trajan's 
column.     This  is  rendered  still 
more  probable,  by  its  being  con- 
formable to  all  the  early  examples 
of  the  grecian  doric  order  j  such 
as  the  doric  temples  at  Corinth, 
Athens,  Sicily,  and  Pcestum.  In 
those  temples,  the  hypotrachelion 
is  separated  from  the  shaft  by  one, 
two,  or  three  annular  channels 
without  any  projecting  moulding, 
and  the  flutes  are  continued  up- 
wards  through  the  hypotrache- 
lion, to  meet  the  under  side  o 
the  annulets.    In  the  ionic  order, 
the  ancients  never  omitted  the 
astragal  :  and  with  the  exception 
of  but   two  instances,  the  one 
being  the  temple  of  Erechtheus, 
the  other  of  the  Minerva  Polias, 
both  at  Athens,  the  hypotrache- 
lion was  never  introduced  by  them 
in  the  ionic  column ;    and  the 
astragal  was  placed  immediately 
below  the  echinus.    The  same  is 
observable  in  the  few  remaining 
examples  of   the  Roman  ionic 
order.    In  the  corinthian  monu- 
ment  of  Lysicrates,  at  Athens 
which  is  one  of  the  oldest  speci- 
mens of  the  corinthian  order 
there  is  no  astragal,  but  there  i; 
an  annular  groove  between  th< 
shaft  and  capital,  in  which  pro 
bably  was  inserted  a  metal  ring 
or    circular   moulding.     In  a! 
other  examples  of  the  corinthia: 
order,  as  well  as  those  of  th 
composite,  the  astragal  is  neve 
omitted  between  the  under  rowc 
leaves  and  the  shaft.    In  Egyf 
tian  architecture,  we  sometime 
meet  with  astragals  at  the  top  < 
the  shafts,  and  sometimes  wit 
several  between  the  top  and  bo 
torn,  though  frequently  there 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


no  moulding  between  the  shaft 
and  capital. 

Astronomical  column.  See 
Column. 

Asuljs.    Marble  chips. 

Asymptote.  A  straight  line 
which  continually  approaches  to 
a  curve  without  touching  it. 

Bertinus  enumerates  divers  sorts 
of  asymptotes ;  some  straight, 
others  curved ;  some  concave, 
others  convex,  &c.  j  and  farther 
proposes  an  instrument  for  mea- 
suring them.  Though,  strictly 
speaking,  the  term  asymptotes 
seems  only  appropriated  to  straight 
lines. 

Athenaeum.  In  antiquity.  A 
public  place,  built  in  the  form  of 
an  amphitheatre,  wherein  the  pro- 
fessors of  the  liberal  arts  held 
their  assemblies,  the  rhetoricians 
declaimed,  and  the  poets  recited 
their  verses.  The  three  most 
celebrated  athenaea  were  those  at 
Athens,  at  Rome,  and  at  Lyons  ; 
the  second  of  which,  according  to 
Aurelius  Victor,  was  built  by  the 
i  emperor  Adrian. 

i  Athenodorus.  A  famous  an- 
cient sculptor,  who  was  born  at 
Rhodes,  about  four  hundred  and 
! thirty-two  years  before  Christ. 
He  was  one  of  the  three  who 
jointly  executed  the  admirable 
group  of  Laocoon  :  the  other  two 
were  Agesander  and  Polidore. 
>  Athenian  Architecture. 
Athens,  the  capital  of  Attica,  was 
founded  by  Cecrops,  about  1556 
years  before  Christ,  and  by  him 
lamed  Cecrppia.  Before  the  ex- 
uiration  of  two  centuries,  the 
lame  was  changed  into  Athens, 
;n  honour  of  Minerva,  called  by 
■he  Greeks  AOrjvw,  who  was  con- 
sidered the  protectress  of  the  city. 

Athens,  once  enriched  with  the 
inest  structures,  of  which  even 
iow  there  are  some  vestiges,  has 
3ng  engaged  the  attention  of 
hose  who  apply  themselves  to 


the  study  of  architecture.  In- 
deed, those  ruins  are  highly 
interesting,  and  generally  have 
been  considered  the  models  and 
standard  of  regular  and  orna- 
mental building.  Many  repre- 
sentations of  them,  drawn  and  en- 
graved by  skilful  artists,  have  been 
published  ;  but  of  those  publica- 
tions none  have  risen  higher  in 
the  public  estimation  than  that  by 
the  late  Messrs.  James  Stuart  and 
Nicholas  Revett.  Availing  our- 
selves, therefore,  of  the  informa- 
tion furnished  by  those  gentlemen, 
we  purpose,  in  this  place,  to  give 
a  very  full  account  of  the  anti- 
quities of  Athens  ;  in  fact,  a  faith- 
ful abstract  of  most  of  the  valu- 
able information  comprised  in  the 
work  generally  known  by  the 
name  of  Stuart's  "Athens/' 

1.  The  building  of  which  we 
shall  first  treat,  is  a  doric, portico 
of  four  fluted  columns  ;  generally 
supposed  to  be  a  temple  dedicated 
to  Rome  and  Augustus.  The  co- 
lumns, entablature,  and  pediment, 
as  also  one  of  the  antae,  are  all 
sufficiently  entire  to  give  an  exact 
idea  of  its  original  form  and  pro- 
portion, which  is  represented  in 
Plate  A1. 

The  inscription  on  the  acrote- 
rium  which  is  placed  over  the 
middle  of  the  pediment,  and  which 
probably  supported  a  statue  of  Lu- 
cius Caesar,  may  be  thus  translated  : 

Thepeople  (of  Athens  honour)  Lu- 
cius Ccesar,  the  son  of  the  emperor 
Augustus  Ccesar,  the  son  of  the 
god,  (with  this  statue. J 

And  that  on  the  architrave, 
thus  : — 

The  people  (of  Athens)  out  of  the 
donations  bestowed  (on  them)  by  Caius 
Julius  Ccesar  the  god  ;  and  by  the 
emperor  Augustus  C<rsar,  the  son  of 
the  god  ;  (dedicate  this)  to  Minerva 
Archegetia,  (or  the  chief  conductress.) 
Euclees  the  Marathonian  being  com- 
mander of  the  heavy-armed  foot,  he 

291 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


likewise  succeeded  into  the  office  of 
overseeing  this  work  for  his  father 
Herodes :  and  he  had  likewise 
finished  his  embassy.  (Or,  who  also 
received  the  charge  of  overseeing  this 
building  for  his  father  Herodes,  who 
was  absent  on  an  embassy. J  In  the 
year  that  Nicias,  the  son  of  Sera- 
pion,  the  Athmonian,  was  archon. 

Near  the  easternmost  column  of 
this  portico,  there  is  a  quadran- 
gular base.  It  formerly  support- 
ed a  statue,  which,  by  the  inscrip- 
tion still  remaining,  appears  to 
have  represented  Julia  Augusta, 
m  the  character  of  Providence. 
The  words  are  to  the  following 
effect : 

The  senate  of  the  areopagus,  and 
the  senate  of  the  six  hundred,  and 
the  people  (of  Athens  by  their  de- 
cree honour)  Julia  the  divine,  the 
august,  the  provident,  (with  this  sta- 
tue,) erected  at  the  expense  of  Diony- 
sius,  the  son  of  Aulus  the  Maratho- 
nian  •  the  said  Dionysius  the  Mara- 
thonian,  and  Quintus  Ncevius  Ru- 
fus,  the  Melisean,  being  prefects  of 
the  market. 

There  was  also  an  inscription 
over  the  jamb  of  the  doorcase, 
which,  though  much  effaced,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  an  edict  of  the 
emperor  Adrian,  regulating  the 
sale  of  oils,  and  the  duties  or  cus- 
toms they  were  obliged  to  pay. 

From  the  inscription  on  the 
architrave  it  is  evident,  that  this 
building  was  not  dedicated  to 
Augustus,  but  to  Minerva ;  and 
on  further  examination  there  ap- 
pear strong  presumptions  that  it 
was  not  only  not  dedicated  to 
Augustus,  but  was  not  a  temple. 
For  the  wall  in  which  the  door  is 
placed,  extended  on  each  side  be- 
yond the  lateral  walls  of  the  por- 
tico ;  whereas  the  usual  plan  of 
porticoes  is  a  rectangular  parallel- 
ogram, and  their  lateral  walls  are 
continued  without  interruption, 
from  the  antse  of  the  portico,  or 

292 


the  posticus  or  back-front.  Be- 
sides this,  the  diameter  of  these 
columns  are  in  a  smaller  propor- 
tion to  their  height,  than  the  dia- 
meters of  any  that  are  found  in 
the  ancient  temples  of  this  order 
now  extant ;  which  circumstance, 
considering  the  distinction  Vitru- 
vius  has  made  between  the  pro- 
portion of  those  columns  which 
are  employed  in  temples,  and  of 
those  which  are  placed  in  build- 
ings of  inferior  dignity,  adds 
a  considerable  weight  to  this 
opinion. 

It  may  likewise  be  remarked, 
that  there  is  an  appearance  of  im- 
propriety, in  supposing  that  an 
edict  relating  to  the  sale  of  oils, 
was  inscribed  on  the  gate  of  a 
temple  j  neither,  indeed,  did 
Wheler  and  Spon,  when  they 
conceived  this  to  be  a  temple, 
understand  that  the  inscription 
here  mentioned  was  on  a  part  of 
the  building  itself :  they  supposed 
that  it  was  removed  hither  from 
the  Prytaneum,  or  some  other 
neighbouring  ruin  j  whereas,  in 
truth,  it  is,  as  has  been  before 
observed,  in  its  original  situation. 
It  should  seem  therefore  a  more 
reasonable  opinion,  and  more  na- 
turally to  be  inferred  from  the 
subject  of  this  inscription,  that  the 
portico  here  treated  of,  is  the  re- 
mains of  an  agora  or  market; 
the  entrance  to  which,  must  be 
allowed  a  much  more  appropriate 
place  than  the  gate  of  a  temple  j 
for  exhibiting  to  the  public  a  law, 
which  regulated  so  important  a 
branch  of  commerce. 

The  inscription  likewise  on  the 
base,  which  formerly  supported 
the  statue  of  Julia  Augusta,  fur- 
nishes an  argument  in  favour  of 
this  opinion  :  for  why  should 
otherwise  the  names  of  two  per- 
sons be  mentioned  in  it,  as  pre- 
fects of  the  market,  when  only 
one  was  at  the  expense  of  the 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE 


Statue  ?  The  donor  might  indeed 
justly  claim  this  privilege,  wher- 
ever it  was  erected  ;  but  the  other 
prefect  cannot  be  supposed  by 
any  right  to  enjoy  this  honour, 
unless  the  building  before  us  had 
some  relation  to  his  office. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe, 
that  there  were  two  agoras  in 
Athens,  one  called  the  old  agora, 
and  the  other  the  new ;  the  first 
seems  to  have  been  in  the  cera- 
micus  within  the  walls,  near  the 
dipylon  ;    and  the  other,  which 
is  probably  that  under  our  present 
consideration,  was  in  a  part  of 
the  city,  called    Eretria  :  they 
were   ornamented   with  monu- 
ments  of  the   mos\  celebrated 
actions  of  the  Athenians,  and  with 
statues  of  those  persons  who  had 
deserved  well  of  the  republic. 
1         2."  On  the  southern  bank  of  the 
f1    illissus,  not  far  from  the  fountain 
Enneacrunos,  which  at  present 
I      has  recovered  its  more  ancient 
name,  and  is   called  Callirrhoe, 
stands  a  litte  ionic  temple,  the 
"     mouldings  of  which  differ  much 
W     from   all  the  examples  of  that 
i      order  hitherto  published.  Their 
forms  are  extremely  simple,  but 
n     'withal  so  elegant,  and  the  whole 
■     ifl  so  well  executed,  that  it  may 
\i     doubtless    be  reckoned  among 
i     those  works  of  antiquity,  which 
d    'best  deserve  our  attention. 

It  should    be  observed,  that 
most  of  the  ancient  structures  in 
Athens,  of  which  there  are  any 
remains,  were  entirely  built  of  an 
'xcellent  white  marble,  on  which 
toe  weather  has  very  little  effect ; 
onsequently,  such  parts  as  have 
iot  been  impaired  by  violence, 
ire  by  no  means  in  that  mould- 
•ring  state  of  decay,  to  which 
he  dissolvent  quality  of  the  air 
educes  the  ordinary  buildings  of 
ommon    stone.      From  which 
ause  it  is,  that  notwithstanding 
;reat  part  of  this  temple  has  long 


since  been  thrown  down  and  de- 
stroyed, whatever  remains  of  it  is 
still  in  good  preservation.  The 
Athenians,  probably  several  cen- 
turies ago,  repaired  this  building; 
and  with  some  barbarous  addi- 
tions, transformed  it  into  a 
church,  dedicated  to  the  Mother 
of  Christ ;  and  called,  from  its 
situation,  e  Panagia  eis  ten  Petran, 
or  St.  Mary's  on  the  Rock,  which 
name  it  still  retains,  although  the 
repairs  which  were  then  bestowed 
on  it,  are  now  also  gone  to  decay, 
and  the  church  is  at  present  to- 
tally deserted.  Spon  supposes 
that  it  was  anciently  dedicated  to 
Ceres,  and  appropriated  to  the 
celebration  of  the  lesser  mysteries. 
It  were  to  be  wished  that  he  had 
produced  the  authorities  on  which 
his  opinion  is  founded  :  it  had 
then,  perhaps,  never  been  contro- 
verted, or  at  least  he  would  have 
enabled  his  readers  to  determine 
with  more  ease,  and  greater  ac- 
curacy, how  far  they  could  concur 
with  him  in  his  sentiments  on 
the  subject. 

The  spot  on  which  it  is  built 
commands  a  very  beautiful  and 
extensive  prospect ;  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  are  still  visible  the 
ruins  and  foundations  of  many 
edifices,  which  formerly  improved 
this  pleasing  situation,  and  adorn- 
ed the  banks  of  the  Ilissus. 
Among  these  were  the  Lyceum, the 
Stadium,  the  altar  of  the  Muses, 
Illisiades,  the  monument  of  Nisus, 
and  the  temple  of  Diana  Agro- 
tera :  all  which  Pausanias  has 
enumerated.  Of  this  number  was 
likewise  the  temple  of  Boreas, 
mentioned  by  Herodotus.  But  it 
is  evident  from  many  circum- 
stances, that  none  of  them  can  be 
the  temple  here  described.  These 
circumstances,  however,  do  not 
affect  the  conjecture  of  Monsieur 
Spon,  which  so  far  deserves  cre- 
dit, as  it  is  certain,  that  the  tem- 

293 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


pie  dedicated  to  Ceres  Agrotera 
was  near  the  city,  and  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Ilissus. 

It  should  not  however  be  omit- 
ted, that  there  was  a  temple,  a 
statue,  and  a  fountain,  which  were 
dedicated  to  an  Athenian  hero, 
named  Penops  ;  and  they  were  all 
of  them,  probably,  near  this 
place,  since  by  a  passage  in  Plato, 
the  fountain  appears  to  have  been 
just  without  the  gate  of  Athens, 
which  was  nearest  to  the  Lyceum 
and  the  Ilissus.  So  small  a  tem- 
ple as  this  of  which  we  have  treated, 
seems  not  to  correspond  with  the 
high  veneration  in  which  the  god- 
dess Ceres  was  held  at  Athens; 
and  it  could  by  no  means  be  suf- 
ficient for  the  reception  of  that 
train  and  pomp,  which  doubtless 
accompanied  the  celebration  of 
even  the  lesser  mysteries.  It 
may,  therefore,  rather  be  ima- 
gined, that  the  hero  Penops  was 
honoured  in  this  temple. 

The  elevation  of  the  portico  is 
shown  in  PI.  A1.  In  the  origi- 
nal building,  the  cymatium  is 
destroyed,  and  the  two  centre  co- 
lumns are  wanting.  The  frieze 
likewise,  which  is  here  repre- 
sented plain,  has  most  probably 
been  ornamented  with  basso-re- 
lievos. 

Plate  A2.  Fig.  1.  represents 
the  capital  and  base  of  the  co- 
lumns, together  with  the  enta- 
blature. The  dotted  line  AA,  de- 
notes the  present  surface  of  the 
frieze ;  and  the  figures  on  it  are 
copied  from  a  fragment  found  at 
Athens,  which  may  possibly  have 
belonged  to  this  place,  since  its 
heighth  and  thickness  is  such  as 
exactly  supplies  the  space  de- 
signed for  this  ornament.  Fig.  2. 
A  section  of  one  quarter  of  the 
columns,  to  show  the  number  and 
proportion  of  the  fluting.  Fig. 
3.  The  manner  of  forming  the 
(lutings. 

PI.    A3,  is  the  plan,  profile, 

94 


and  section  of  an  angular  capital 
belonging  to  this  ionic  temple. 

Fig.  1.  The  plan  of  the  capital, 
in  which  it  is  observable,  that  the 
ornament  called  echinus,  (or 
eggs  and  anchors)  is,  contrary  to 
the  present  custom,  continued  un- 
der the  volutes,  and  quite  round 
the  capital. 

Fig.  2.  The  profile  of  the  ca- 
pital. 

Fig.  3.  A  section  through  the 
front  of  the  capital. 

Fig.  4.  A  section  through  the 
side  of  the  capital. 

Fig.  5.  The  form  and  dimen- 
sions of  the  volutes. 

3.  The  octagon  tower  of  An* 
dronicus  Cyrrhestes  is  of  marble, 
on  each  side  is  a  figure  in  relievo, 
representing  one  of  the  eight 
winds  ;  which  proves  it  to  be  the 
marble  octagon  tower,  built  at 
Athens  by  Andronicus  Cyrrhestes. 
This  will  appear  evident  from  the 
following  description  of  it  given 
by  Vitruvius.  "  Some  have  cho- 
sen," says  he,  "  to  reckon  only 
four  winds ;  the  east  blowing  from 
the  equinoctial  sun-rise;  the 
south  from  the  noon-day  sun  ;  the 
west  from  the  equinoctial  sun- 
setting  ;  and  the  north  from  the 
polar  stars.  But  those  who  are 
more  exact,  have  reckoned  eight 
winds,  particularly  Andronicus 
Cyrrhestes,  who  on  this  system  I 
erected  an  octagon  marble  tower, 
at  Athens,  and  on  every  side  of 
the  octagon  he  wrought  a  figure 
in  relievo,  representing  the  wind 
that  blows  against  that  side.  The 
top  of  this  tower  he  finished  with 
a  conical  marble,  on  which  he 
placed  a  brazen  triton,  holding  a 
wand  in  his  right  hand.  This 
triton  is  so  contrived  that  he  turns 
round  with  the  wind,  and  always 
stops  when  he  directly  faces  it, 
pointing  with  his  wand  over  thej 
figure  of  the  wind  at  that  time 
blowing." 

In  order  to  give  an  exact  iJeai 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE 


of  the  present  state  of  this  build- 
ing, it  is  necessary  to  observe, 
that  since  the  time  it  was  erected, 
the  surface  of  the  ground  is  raised 
,15  or  16  feet  on  every  side 
with  the  exception  of  that  which 
locks  to  the  north-east,  where  its 
utmost  height  does  not  exceed 
12  feet,  for  the  entrance  is  on 
this  side,  and  a  considerable  quan- 
tity of  earth  has  been  removed  to 
make  it  accessible.  There  were 
originally  two  doors  to  this  build- 
ing. That  situate  on  the  north- 
east side  has  been  already  men- 
tioned as  still  in  use  j  the  other, 
which  is  on  the  north-west  side, 
is  totally  closed  up  and  concealed 
by  the  quantity  of  soil  and  rub- 
bish, which  has  so  considerably 
raised  the  surface  of  the  ground 
here,  and  in  the  neighbourhood. 

|  So  great  an  accumulation  of 
earth  has  diminished  the  appa- 

,  rent  height  of  the  building,  and, 
by  consequence,   has  absolutely 

,  destroyed  whatever  beauty  might 
originally  result  from  its  general 
proportions.  The  building  is  more- 
over much  encumbered,  and  shut 

.  |  up  from  view,  by  the  ordinary 
houses  near  it,  as  also  by  the 
walls  of  the  little  enclosures  which 
belong  to  them.    Besides  these, 

j  all  the  mouldings  within  have 
been  so  defaced,  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  to  determine  what  was 
their  original  form. 

It  is  from  these  disadvantageous 
circumstances,  that  this  building 
does  not,  at  its  first  appearance, 
present  the  spectator  with  an  idea 
of  any  extraordinary  beauty,  or 

I  immediately  give  him  that  plea- 
sure, which  he  will  receive  on  a 
more  particular  examination  of 
[it. 

The  roof,  which  is  curious  for 
its  construction,  is  of  a  form 
-emarkably  elegant,  and  wher- 
ever it  can  be  seen,  has  a  very 

II  Tine  effect. 


The  figures  on  the  sides  of 
the  octagon  are  noble  pieces 
of  sculpture,  both  for  design  and 
execution,  and  ingeniously  ex- 
press the  characters  of  the  winds 
they  are  intended  to  represent. 
Under  each  of  these  figures 
there  is  a  sun-dial  ;  and  as 
the  east  dial  is  only  the  west  dial 
reversed,  and  as  the  noon-day 
line  in  the  south  dial  is  a  per- 
pendicular, from  which  the  hour 
lines  belonging  to  the  forenoon 
are  equally  distant  with  the  cor- 
responding hour  lines  belonging 
to  the  afternoon,  it  is  obvious, 
that  the  astronomer  who  marked 
out  these  dials,  supposed  the  sides 
of  this  octagon  tower  exactly 
fronted  the  four  cardinal,  and  the 
four  principal  intermediate,  points 
of  the  horizon.  Nor  was  he  mis- 
taken. For  on  applying  a  mag- 
netic needle,  made  for  such  pur- 
poses, under  the  direction  of  the 
ingenious  and  accurate  Dr.  Knight, 
to  its  western  side  (which,  accord- 
ing to  this  supposition,  should  be 
in  the  plane  of  the  meridian,)  it 
deflected  from  this  side  towards 
the  west  about  12 J  55';  which, 
as  far  as  could  be  ascertained  by 
repeated  meridian  observations  of 
the  sun,  was  at  that  time  the 
magnetic  variation  at  Athens. 

To  trace  the  original  form  of 
this  building,  it  was  necessary  to 
make  several  considerable  exca- 
vations. The  first  was  a  trench 
along  the  south-east  side,  where, 
at  the  depth  of  about  14  feet, 
the  upper  step  appeared  j  after 
that  two  others,  and  at  length 
the  pavement.  The  trench  was 
then  carried  round  the  angle 
at  the  southern  extremity,  with 
the  intention  of  continuing  it  on 
the  south  side  j  but  here  the 
workmen  were  obstructed  in  their 
operations  by  a  wall,  which  pro- 
jected from,  and  appeared  to  be, 
a  part  of  the  original  structure. 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


For  there  is  nat  only  a  continua- 
tion of  the  same  ranges  of  mason- 
ry, but  many  of  the  blocks  of 
marble  are  so  wrought,  as  to  be 
placed  partly  in  the  face  of  the 
octagon,  and  partly  in  this  new 
discovered  wall.  On  further  search, 
the  wall  appeared  to  be  built  on 
a  plan  which  comprises  three- 
fourths  of  a  circle,  and  to  project 
from  the  south  side  of  the  octagon, 
after  the  manner  of  a  modern  bow- 
window. 

On  examining  the  north  side  of 
the  building,  beneath  the  figure 
of  Skiron,  some  traces  of  the 
other  door  were  discovered  j  and 
on  the  removal  of  a  great  quantity 
of  earth,  the  door-case,  and  the 
greater  part  of  two  fluted  columns, 
which  had  formerly  supported  the 
entablature,  were  found  in  their 
original  situations.  Many  frag- 
ments of  the  architrave  and  pedi- 
ment were  also  dug  up  during 
these  researches.  From  the  whole 
of  which,  the  building  has  been 
restored  to  the  form  represented 
in  plate  A4. 

This  tower,  at  the  time  that 
Stuart  and  Revett  visited  Athens, 
was  appropriated  to  the  purposes 
of  a  Turkish  chapel ;  and  as  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dirt,  to 
the  height  of  about  7  feet  from 
the  pavement,  had  accumulated  in 
the  interior,  to  the  obstruction  of 
their  religious  dances,  the  whole 
had  been  covered  with  deal  floor- 
ing. Stuart  and  Revett  applied 
to,  and  obtained  permission  of, 
the  sheik,  or  chief  of  the  dervises, 
to  break  up  this  floor  and  carry 
away  the  rubbish  j  and  having 
removed  about  2,700  cubic  feet  of 
dirt  and  stones,  came  to  the  pave- 
ment, which  was  found  entire.  It 
consists  of  white  marble  ;  and  is 
inwrought  with  certain  cavities 
and  channels,  for  which  no  reason 
can  be  assigned,  unless,  indeed, 
they  are,  what  seems  most  pro- 


bable, the  remains  of  a  clepsydra 

or  water-dial. 

This  conjecture  appears  to  be 
placed  almost  beyond  a  doubt  by 
many  concurring  circumstances. 
First,  from  a  stream  of  water, 
which  rises  at  the  foot  of  the  rock 
on  which  the  Areopolis  is  built, 
passing  within  10  feet  of  this 
place.  Secondly,  from  the  dis- 
covery of  that  part  of  the  build- 
ing already  described,  as  project- 
ing from  the  south  side  of  the 
octagon,  which  might  have  served 
as  a  reservoir,  whence  the  re- 
quisite quantity  of  water  was  sup- 
plied to  work  the  clepsydra. 
Thirdly,  from  the  principal  cavity 
or  channel  in  the  pavement  being 
continued  in  a  straight  line  from 
the  south  side  of  the  octagon 
to  the  centre,  where  there  is  a 
circular  hole,  communicating  with 
a  subterraneous  passage,  which 
would  conveniently  serve  to  carry 
off  the  waste  water  :  and,  fourthly, 
that  either  this  stream,  or  the 
fountain  whence  it  issues,  was 
anciently  called  clepsydra. 

Independently  of  the  above,  it 
may  be  observed,  that  this  build- 
ing, so  highly  decorated,  and  si- 
tuate near  to  the  agora  or  market, 
constructed  apparently  for  the  ex- 
press purpose  of  exhibiting  the 
direction  of  the  wind,  the  season 
of  the  year,  the  hour  of  the  day, 
and  of  regulating  the  businesses 
dependent  on  them,  would  ill  have 
answered  the  purposes  for  which 
it  had  been  designed,  without  some 
such  contrivance  as  a  clepsydra. 

Plate  A4,  the  elevation  of  the 
tower  of  the  Winds  :  every  part 
of  which,  with  the  exception  of  the 
conical  marble  at  the  top  of  the 
building,  and  the  triton  that  is  sup- 
ported by  it,  were  fairly  made  out 
from  remains  found  on  the  spot. 
The  triton  and  conical  marble  are 
supplied  from  the  description  of 
Vitruvius.    It  may,  perhaps,  be 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


necessary  f-z  state  that,  though 
the  capitals  given  to  the  columns 
were  found  among  the  ruins,  it 
is  probable  that  they  never  did 
belong  to  them.  This  kind  of 
capital  has  been  in  frequent  use 
at  Athens,  and  in  other  parts  of 
Greece.  That  supporting  the 
triton  is  evidently  of  the  same 
species  ;  that  is,  the  upper  range 
of  leaves  is  not  divided  like  the 
acanthus,  or  any  other  of  the 
foliages  proper  to  the  corinthian 
capital ;  but  smooth,  resembling 
what  our  workmen  call  water- 
leaves. 

4.  The  choragic  monument  of 
Lysicrates,  of  which  we  are  about 
to  speak,  is  commonly  called  by 
the  modern  Athenians,  "  to  pha- 
nari  tuu  Demosthenios"  or  the 
lantern  of  Demosthenes  ;  and 
there  is  a  vulgar  story  still  cur- 
rent at  Athens,  that  it  was  built 
by  that  philosopher  as  a  place  of 
retirement  and  study  but,  like 
many  other  popular  traditions,  it 
is  too  absurd  to  deserve  a  serious 
refutation. 

This  monument  of  antiquity, 
which  is  exquisitely  wrought, 
stands  near  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Acropolis,  and  is  partly  enclosed 
n  the  hospitium  of  the  Capuchins, 
it  is  composed  of  three  distinct 
->arts.  First,  a  quadrangular 
rasement.  Secondly,  a  circular 
colonnade,  of  which  the  interco- 
umniations  were  entirely  closed  : 
ind,  thirdly,  ntholus  or  cupola  with 
he  ornament  that^is  on  it. 

There  is  no  kind  of  entrance  or 
iperture  in  the  quadrangular  base- 
nent,  which  is  entirely  closed  on 
•very  side.  On  breaking  through 
'me  of  the  sides,  Stuart  and  Revett 
ound  that  it  is  not  quite  solid  ; 
Ittt  the  vacant  space  is  so  small, 
nd  so  irregular,  that  a  man  can 
lardly  stand  upright  in  it. 

The  basement  supports  the  cir- 
:ular   colonnade,  and  was  con- 
2P 


structed  in  the  following  manner. 
Six  equal  panels  of  white  marble, 
placed  contiguous  to  each  other, 
on  a  circular  plan,  formed  a  con- 
tinued cylindrical  wall,  which  was 
divided  from  top  to  bottom  into 
six  equal  parts  by  the  junction  of 
the  panels.  On  the  whole  length 
of  each  juncture  was  cut  a  semi- 
circular groove,  into  which  a 
corinthian  column  was  fitted  with 
great  exactness,  so  as  effectually 
to  conceal  the  junctures  of  the 
panels.  These  columns  projected 
somewhat  more  than  half  their 
diameters  from  the  surface  of  the 
cylindrical  wall,  and  the  wall  en- 
tirely closed  up  the  intercolumnia- 
tion.  Over  this  were  placed  the 
entablature  and  the  cupola,  in 
neither  of  which  was  any  aperture, 
so  that  there  was  no  admission  of 
light  to  the  interior  j  indeed,  it  is 
only  5  feet  llj  inches  in  the 
clear,  and  was  therefore  never 
intended  for  a  habitation,  or  even 
for  a  repository  of  any,kind. 

An  entrance  has  been  since 
forced  into  it,  by  breaking  in  one 
of  the  panels,  probably  in  the  ex- 
pectation of  finding  treasure.  For 
many  of  the  inhabitants  of  those 
countries  are  reduced  to  such  a 
state  of  barbarism,  as  to  imagine, 
that  every  work,  which  is  great  or 
beautiful  beyond  their  conception, 
must  be  the  work  of  magic,  and 
the  repository  of  hidden  treasures. 
Three  of  the  marble  panels  being 
now  destroyed,  their  places  are 
supplied  by  a  door  and  two  brick 
walls,  and  the  monument  is  con- 
verted into  a  closet. 

It  should  be  observed,  that  on 
each  of  the  three  panels  still  re- 
maining, two  tripods  with  handles 
to  them  are  wrought  in  basso- 
relievo  :  they  are,  perhaps,  of 
that  species  which  Flomer  and 
Hesiod  describe  by  the  name  jf 
rp&roBet  lOTwevTa,  or  eared-tri- 
pods. 

297 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


The  architrave  and  frieze  of  the 
circular  colonnade  are  formed  of 
one  block  of  marble  5  and  on  the 
architrave  is  an  inscription  to  the 
following  effect : — 

Lysicrates,  of  Kikyna,  the  son 
of  Lisitheidcs,  was  choragus,  (or 
gave  the  chorus  at  his  own  ex- 
pense.) 

The  tribe  of  Akamantis  obtained 
the  victory  in  the  chorus  of  boys. 
Theon  was  the  performer  on  the 
jlute.  Lysiades,  an  Athenian,  was 
the  teacher  of  the  chorus.  Evaen- 
etus  was  archon. 

From  this  we  may  conclude, 
that,  on  some  solemn  festival, 
which  was  celebrated  with  games 
and  plays,  Lysicrates,  of  Kikyna, 
a  demos,  or  borough  town,  of  the 
tribe  of  Akamantis,  exhibited,  at 
his  own  expense,  on  behalf  of  the 
tribe  to  which  he  did  belong,  a 
musical  or  theatrical  entertain- 
ment, in  which  the  boys  of  Aka- 
mantis obtained  the  victory  ;  also 
that,  in  commemoration  of  the 
victory,  this  monument  was  erect- 
ed to  perpetuate  the  same  to  pos- 
terity. By  the  name  of  the  archon, 
or  magistrate,  in  whose  time  this 
took  place,  it  appears  that  the 
building  was  erected  about  three 
hundred  and  thirty  years  before 
the  christian  era,  in  the  time  of 
Demosthenes,  Apelles,  Lysippus, 
and  Alexander  the  Great. 

Round  the  frieze  is  represented 
the  story  of  Bacchus  and  the  Tyrr- 
henian pirates.  The  figure  of 
Bacchus,  and  of  the  several  fauns 
and  satyrs  who  attend  him  on  the 
manifestation  of  his  divinity,  as 
also  the  chastisement  of  the  pi- 
rates, and  their  terror  at  being 
transformed  into  dolphins,  are  ex- 
pressed in  this  basso-relievo  with 
the  greatest  spirit  and  elegance. 

The  cornice,  which  is  composed 
of  several  pieces  of  marble,  bound 
together  by  the  cupola,  which  is 
of  one  entire  piece,  is  crowned 

298 


with  a  sort  of  Vitruvian  scroll  in- 
stead of  a  cymatium. 

The  outside  of  the  cupola  is 
wrought  with  much  delicacy.  It 
imitates  a  thatch  or  covering  of 
laurel  leaves,  edged  with  a  Vitru- 
vian scroll,  and  enriched  with  or- 
naments. The  flower  on  the  top 
of  the  cupola  is  a  very  graceful 
composition  ;  and  from  the  form 
of  the  upper  surface,  and  disposi- 
tion of  four  remarkable  cavities 
in  it,  it  is  probable  that  it  formerly 
supported  the  tripod  gained  as 
the  prize.  Three  of  the  cavities 
are  cut  on  the  three  principal 
projections  of  the  upper  surface, 
their  disposition  being  that  of  the 
angles  of  an  equi -lateral  triangle, 
in  which  the  feet  of  the  tripod  were 
probably  fixed.  In  the  fourth 
cavity,  which  is  much  the  largest, 
and  is  in  the  centre  of  the  upper 
surface,  a  baluster  was  in  all 
likelihood  inserted  to  support  the 
tripod  and  give  it  that  stability 
and  strength  which  its  situation  j 
required. 

The  tripod  seems  to  have  been 
the  peculiar  reward  bestowed  by 
the  people  of  Athens  on  that  cho- 
ragus, who  exhibited  the  best  mu- 
sical or  theatrical  entertainment; 
and  we  find  that  this  particular 
custom  obtained  for  these  tripods 
the  name  of  choragic  tripods.  It; 
was  customary  for  the  victor  to; 
dedicate  the  tripod  he  had  won  to 
some  divinity,  and  to  place  it  either 
on  one  of  the  temples  already 
built,  or  on  the  top  of  some  edi- 
fice erected  and  consecrated  by 
him  for  the  purpose.  Thus  they 
participated  of  the  sanctity  of  the 
place,  and  were  secured  from  in- 
jury or  violence.  A  tripod  thus 
dedicated  was  always  accompanied! 
with  an  inscription  ;  so  that  it; 
became  a  permanent,  authentic, 
and  public  monument  of  the  vic- 
tory, and  of  the  person  who  hac 
obtained  it.  ! 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


There  were  formerly  many 
temples  and  edifices  of  this  sort 
in  Athens.  One  is  mentioned  by 
Plutarch,  as  being  built  by  Nicias 
within  the  place  consecrated  to 
Bacchus  and  Pausanius  makes 
nention  of  a  street,  leading  from 

he  Prytraneum,  which  took  its 
lame  from  the  number  of  tripods 
hat  were  in  it. 

Stuart  and  Revett  conclude  their 
lescription  of  the  building  under 
Consideration,  by  adducing  many 
nrcumstances  to  prove  that  it  was 

rected  for  the  above  purpose  j 
nit  as  these  are  somewhat  irrele- 

ant  to  the  subject  for  which  this 
)ook  is  expressly  dedicated,  we 

hall  pass  them  in  silence. 
Plate  A5,  represents  the  eleva- 

ion  of  this  building,  restored  as 

I  ar  as  the  remains  found  on  the 
'pot  authorize,  and  no  farther.  In 
)late  Athenian  Order,  (given  in 
sTo.  13,)  the  upper  part  of  this 
nonument  is  shown  on  a  larger 

II  'cale :  and  in  plate  Athenian 
~)rder,  (given  in  Part  3,)  the  exter- 
lal  face  of  the  capital  is  also 
hown  on  a  larger  scale.  Among 

1  he  many  peculiarities  of  this  sin- 
;ular  edifice,  the  manner  of  flut- 
ng  the  columns  deserves  some 

1      ttention.    The  lower  extremities 
f  these  flutings  descend  below 
heir  usual  limits,  and  are  cut  into 
he  apophyges,  or  scape  of  the  co- 
nnn,  and  the  upper  extremities 
-rminate  in  the  form  of  leaves, 
he  annular  channel  immediately 
hove  them,  which  divides  the 
haft  of  the  column  from  the  capi- 
d,  was  probably  filled  with  an 
stragal,  or  collarino  of  bronze. 
5.  A  stoa,  or  temple,  common- 
'  supposed  to  be  the  remains  of 
ie  temple  of  Jupiter  Olyrnpius, 
one  of  the  most  considerable 
imains  of  Athenian  magnificence, 
has,  even  in  its  present  ruinous 
mdition,  so  striking  an  effect, 
latmost  travellers  have  mistaken 


it  for  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olyrn- 
pius, which,  in  splendour  and 
majesty,  surpassed  every  other 
structure  in  Athens. 

What  the  ancient  name  of  this 
building  was,  appears  extremely 
difficult  to  ascertain  ;  nor  will  the 
traditions  of  the  present  Athenians 
assist  us  in  the  disquisition,  for 
they  call  it  indifferently,  the  palace 
of  Pericles,  or  of  Themistocles. 
It  is,  however,  extremely  impro- 
bable that  any  citizen,  among 
those  jealous  republicans,  would 
venture  to  erect  so  splendid  a 
house  for  his  own  private  habita- 
tion. No  sculptures  or  inscrip- 
tions were  found  to  throw  light 
upon  the  inquiry  ;  but  the  general 
plan  of  the  external  walls  may  be 
traced.  This,  with  some  other 
circumstances,  render  it  probable 
that  these  ruins  are  the  remains 
of  a  stoa  or  portico,  and  not  of  a 
palace  or  temple. 

The  external  walls  enclose  a 
large  quadrangular  space,  376 
feet  1  inch  in  length,  and  252  feet 
in  breadth.  The  front  looks 
nearly  west-north-west,  or,  to  be 
more  exact,  28°  20'  east  of  north, 
and  west  of  south.  In  the  middle 
are  the  remains  of  a  gate  or  en- 
trance, which  had  formerly  an 
ascension  to  it  of  six  steps.  The 
whole  extent  of  the  front  is  orna- 
mented with  corinthian  columns, 
and  is  terminated  at  each  extre- 
mity by  a  pteroma,  or  projecting 
wall,  faced  with  a  corinthian 
pilaster. 

The  columns  were  originally 
eighteen  in  number,  and  were 
thus  disposed  :  four,  being  fluted, 
were  placed  on  the  uppermost 
step  in  the  middle  of  the  front, 
to  support  an  entablature  and 
pediment,  which  formed  the  por- 
tal or  portico  of  the  gate  j  and  on 
each  side  of  this  portico  was  a 
range  of  seven  columns,  without 
flutes,  the  top  of  whose  pedestals 

299 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


were  exactly  level  with  the  upper- 
most step  of  the  portal. 

The  north-easterly  half  of  the 
front,  with  its  columns,  pedestals, 
and  entablature,  js  not  much  de- 
faced j  but  the  south-western 
column  of  the  portico,  together 
with  the  entablature  which  it  sup- 
ported, are  wanting.  Besides 
these,  there  are  no  remains  of  the 
cornice  which  was  over  the  tym- 
panum of  the  pediment.  The 
south-westerly  half  of  the  front  is 
much  ruined  j  but  great  part  of 
the  wall,  together  with  seven 
pedestals,  and  some  fragments  of 
the  columns  that  were  placed  on 
them,  still  remain  in  their  original 
situations.  The  antae  or  pilasters 
of  the  portals  are  entire,  as  also 
are  those  pteroma  or  wings 
which  limit  the  extremity,  and 
determine  the  utmost  length,  of 
this  front. 

The  two  lateral  walls  were 
probably  similar  to  each  other: 
and  that  on  the  north-east  side  of 
the  quadrangle  is  in  a  tolerable 
state  of  preservation.  The  out- 
side of  this  wall  has  three  remark- 
able projections.  The  one  in  the 
middle,  which  is  rectangular,  has 
probably  been  an  entrance  j  and 
those,  which  are  situate  one  on 
each  side  of  it,  of  a  semi-circular 
form,  appear  to  have  been  what 
Vitruvius  calls  exhedrae.  They 
form  recesses  in  the  inside  of  the 
quadrangle,  like  those  on  each 
side  of  Westminster-bridge,  and 
doubtless  were  designed  to  ac- 
commodate such  persons  as  were 
disposed  to  sit  and  converse  with- 
out interruption. 

The  back- front  part  of  the  build- 
ing likewise  remains  in  a  fair  state 
of  preservation  ;  and  is  supported 
on  the  outside  by  six  large  plain 
parastata,  or  buttresses.  There 
are  some  traces  of  a  peristyle  or 
continued  colonnade  which  en- 
compassed, on  the  inside  of  the 


walls,  the  quadrangular  space 
before  mentioned.  This  peristyle 
was  composed  of  a  double  range 
of  columns,  agreeing  in  this  par- 
ticular with  Vitruvius's  description 
of  porticoes.  Notwithstanding 
that  a  great  number  of  columns 
were  necessary  to  form  such  a 
peristyle,  only  one  remains  in  its 
original  place,  which  appears  to 
have  been  of  that  range  which 
was  farthest  from  the  wall. 

About  250  feet  distant  from  the 
front  wall,  and  exactly  facing  the 
gate  or  entrance,  are  some  old 
foundations,  on  which  a  church, 
the  work  of  a  most  barbarous 
age,  has  been  erected.  It  is 
called  "  ee  Megdle  Panagia"  or 
Great  St.  Mary's.  In  these  walls 
are  still  to  be  seen  an  ancient 
arch,  with  some  other  remains  of 
excellent  masonry ;  and  conti- 
guous to  the  church  are  three 
columns  supporting  an  architrave, 
which  probably  belonged  to  the 
same  edifice  as  the  arch. 

Whatever  difficulties  may  attend 
the  disquisition  concerning  this 
building,  it  is  most  evident,  that 
it  was  not,  as  some  have  supposed, 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olympins. 
That  temple  was  situate  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  city,  near  the 
fountain  Calirrhoe  ;  whereas  this 
building  stands  to  the  north  of 
the  Areopolis.  Those  stately 
ruins,  vulgarly  called  the  columns 
of  Adrian,  and  by  some  supposed 
to  be  the  remains  of  that  em- 
peror's palace,  stand  exactly  on 
the  spot  assigned  by  the  ancients 
for  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
pius.  This,  conjoined  to  many 
other  circumstances  which  Stuart 
and  Revett  have  pointed  out, 
prove  that  those  ruins  are  not  the 
columns  of  Adrian,  but  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius. 

Wheler  and  Spon,  deluded  by 
the  common  opinion,  supposed 
that  these  columns  were  the  re- 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


nains  of  one  hundred  and  twenty 
columns  of  Phrygian  marble,  with 
vhich  the  emperor  Adrian  had, 
Recording  to  Pausanius,  adorned 
in  edifice  he  had  erected  at 
ithens  ;  and  they  suppose  this 
Phrygian  marble  to  be  whiter  than 
he  marble  of  Pentelicus.  But 
?hrygian  marble  is  a  species  of 
ilabaster  variegated  with  beauti- 
ul  veins  and  spots.  Stephanus 
3yzantinus  states,  that  Alabastra 
s  a  city  of  Phrygia,  in  which  an 
;xcellent  species  of  marble  was 
bund  :  and  this  is  further  con- 
irmed  by  Strabo,  who  tells  us 
hat  there  were  quarries  near  Syn- 
lada,  a  city,  of  Phrygia,  that  af- 
orded  a  sort  of  stone,  variegated 
iiearly  in  the  manner  of  alabas- 
,rites  j  and  that  columns  and  slabs 
•fit,  wonderful  for  their  dimen- 
sions and  beauty,  were  carried  to 
,lome.  Now,  it  is  evident  from 
'liny,  that  the  alabastrites  which 
he  Phrygian  marble  resembled, 
vere  diversified  with  various  co- 
lours ;  so  that  Wheler  and  Spon 
vere  undoubtedly  mistaken  when 
hey  supposed  that  the  said  co- 
umns  of  Adrian,  or,  more  properly 
peaking,  of  Jupiter  Olympius, 
vhich  are  white,  are  of  Phrygian 
i-arble,  and  that  Phrygian  is 
whiter  than  Pentelic  marble.  On 
he  strictest  examination,  no  dif- 
rence  could  be  discerned  be- 
ween  the  marble  of  these  columns 
nd  that  of  the  other  buildings  at 
kthens  ;  we  may  therefore  be 
ertain  that  they  were  brought 
rom  Pentelicus,  and  not  from 
'hrygia.  For  it  is  not  credible 
iiat  Adrian  would  have  been  at 
ie  expense  of  transporting  from 

distant  country  to  Athens,  a 
Garble  which  the  quarries  of  At- 
'  ca  afforded  in  great  plenty  and 
erfection. 

Having  thus  proved  that  these 
olumns  could  not  be  part  of  the 
Jmple  of  Jupiter  Olympius,  Stu- 


art and  Revett  proceeded  to  in- 
quire to  what  building  they  did 
really  belong. 

Pausanius  afforded  them  some 
assistance  in  this  inquiry  :  and  by 
his  description  it  should  seem  that 
the  building  in  question  can  be  no 
other  than  the  celebrated  portico 
called  the  Poikile.  In  his  way 
from  the  Ceramicus  and  the  tem- 
ple of  Vulcan  to  the  Poikile,  he 
passes  near  the  Hermes  Agorseus, 
or  Mercury  of  the  Agora  ;  he  then 
enters  the  Poikile,  which  he  de- 
scribes, and  having  finished  his  ac- 
count of  it,  returns  to  the  Agora, 
and  enumerates  various  particu- 
lars he  observed  in  that  place.  The 
manner  in  which  Pausanius  speaks 
of  these  buildings,  and  the  transi- 
tions he  makes  from  one  to  the 
other  of  them  are  such,  that  we 
must  necessarily  conclude  them  to 
be  almost  contiguous  to  each 
other.  He  then  proceeds  to  the 
Gymnasium  of  Ptolemy,  which 
he  tells  us,  is  not  far  from  the 
Agora ;  and  to  the  temple  of 
Theseus,  not  far  from  the  Gymna- 
sium. Hence  it  appears  that  these 
three  buildings,  the  Agora,  the 
Poikile,  and  the  Gymnasium  of 
Ptolemy,  stood  near  each  other  j 
and  that  the  Agora  was  nearer 
than  the  Poikile  both  to  the  Cera- 
micus and  to  the  Gymnasium  ;  and 
that  the  Gymnasium  lay  between 
the  Agora  and  the  temple  of  The- 
seus. 

Now  the  temple  of  Theseus 
still  remains  at  Athens,  and  the 
sculptures  on  it  are  sufficient  war- 
rant for  the  name  universally  given 
to  it.  That  temple  therefore  is  a 
fixed  and  certain  spot,  concerning 
the  situation  of  which  there  can  be 
no  dispute. 

Not  far  from  this  temple  of 
Theseus,  are  three  of  the  most 
considerable  ruins  in  Ather.s, 
standing  together,  and  as  it  were 
in  one  group.    One  of  these  is 

301 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


the  building  under  consideration, 
which,  from  the  disposition  of  its 
plan,  as  we  have  already  observed, 
appears  to  have  been  a  stoa,  or 
portico.  Another  is  the  doric  por- 
tal, treated  of  in  the  first  section, 
where  it  is  proved  to  be,  most 
probably,  the  Agora :  and  the 
third  may  be  supposed,  both  on 
account  of  its  situation  and  ex- 
tent, to  be  the  remains  of  the 
Gymnasium  of  Ptolemy  ;  for  it  is 
the  nearest  of  the  three  to  the 
temple  of  Theseus,  being,  in  fact, 
scarcely  700  feet  distant  from 
it.  It  lies  between  that  building 
and  the  Agora,  from  which  it 
is  only  200  feet  distant.  Its 
plan,  moreover,  is  a  quadrangle, 
whose  longest  sides  extended 
about  400,  and  its  shortest  sides 
300  feet,  a  space  well  adapted 
to  the  uses  of  a  Gymnasium. 

To  this  circumstance  of  their 
vicinity  may  be  added,  that  the  re- 
spective situations  of  these  ruins 
correspond  with  each  other,  and 
with  the  temple  of  Theseus,exactly 
in  the  manner  that  the  Agora, 
Poikile,  and  the  Gymnasium,  cor- 
respond in  Pausanius's  description 
of  them.  For,  going  the  nearest 
way  from  that  part  of  the  city,  in 
which  the  Ceramicus  stood,  to  the 
ruin  here  supposed  to  be  the  Poi- 
kile, the  doric  portico,  which  was 
shown  to  be  most  probably  the 
Agora,  is  on  the  right  hand  j  the 
ruin  supposed  to  be  the  Gymna- 
sium is  on  the  left  ;  and  a  little 
farther,  but  on  the  same  side  with 
the  Agora,  is  that  which  is  the 
subject  of  our  present  consider- 
ation. Again,  if  from  the  Agora, 
you  go  to  the  temple  of  Theseus, 
it  is  necessary  to  pass  by  the  ruin 
here  supposed  to  be  the  Gymna- 
sium of  Ptolemy.  We  may  there- 
fore conclude,  that  whatever 
proves  any  one  of  these  ruins  to 
be  the  remains  of  the  building 
corresponding  to  it  in  Pausanius's 

302 


description,  will  show,  with  the 
same  degree  of  evidence,  that  the 
other  two  likewise  correspond. 
For  instance,  the  reasons  alleged 
in  the  first  section,  to  prove  that 
the  building  there  treated  of  was 
part  of  the  Agora,  prove  equally 
that  the  other  two  are  the  re- 
mains of  the  Poikile  and  Gymna- 
sium. Hence  we  may  infer,  that 
the  ruin  which  is  here  the  parti- 
cular subject  of  our  consideration, 
and  which,  from  the  disposition  of 
its  plan,  appears  to  have  been  a 
stoa,  or  portico,  was  from  its 
situation,  and  the  richness  of  the 
architecture,  that  principal  stoa 
called  the  Poikile. 

Plate  A6,  is  a  section  of  the  front 
wall,  with  a  profile  of  the  portal, 
and  of  the  southern  pteroma, 
likewise  one  of  the  seven  columns 
which  are  placed  between  the 
portal  and  the  northern  pteroma. 
The  numbers,  accompanied  with 
asterisms,  denote  the  depth  of  the 
channels  of  the  rustic,  and  the 
projection  of  the  different  orna- 
ments of  the  front  wall. 

The  column  nearest  to  the  wall, 
is  one  of  the  seven  which  are 
placed  between  the  portal  and  the 
northern  pteroma  j  the  Corinthian 
pilaster,  next  it,  is  one  of  the 
antae  of  the  portal ;  the  other  Co- 
rinthian pilaster,  is  that  of  the 
southern  pteroma  ;  and  the  co- 1 
lumn  farthest  distant  from  the 
wall,  is  one  of  the  columns  of  the 
portal.  The  abacus  of  this  capi- 
tal, like  that  of  the  temple  of 
Vesta,  at  Rome,  has  its  angles 
acute,  that  is,  they  are  not  cut  off 
as  is  generally  practised  There 
is  a  small  fillet  immediately  above 
the  astragal  of  the  column,  and 
eight  short  plain  leaves,  fromi 
which  the  usual  leaves  of  the 
second  range  seem  to  spring.  The 
profile  of  this  entablature  resem- 
bles that  of  the  frontispiece  ofj 
Nero  at  Rome.    But  no  part  of 


i 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


;he  mouldings  are  enriched,  ex- 
:ept  the  soffit  of  the  corona. 

6.  The  temple  of  Minerva 
called  Parthenon,  and  Hecatom- 
Dedon,  was  built  during  the  ad- 
ninistration  of  Pericles,  who  em- 
>loyed  Callicrates  and  Ictinus  as 
.rchitects,  under  Phidias,  to  whom 
le  committed  the  direction  of  all 
vorks  of  elegance  and  magnifi- 
ence.  It  has  been  celebrated  by 
ome  of  the  most  eminent  writers 
»f  antiquity,  whose  accounts  are 
onh'rmed  and  illustrated  in  the 
iescriptions  given  us  by  those 
ravellers  who  saw  it  almost  en- 
'ire  in  the  last  century.  Even  in 
ts  present  state,  the  spectator,  on 
pproaching  it,  will  find  himself 
mt  a  little  affected  by  so  solemn 
'n  appearance  of  ruined  grandeur, 
ccustomed  as  Stuart  and  Revett 
ere  to  the  ancient  and  modern 
agnificence  of  Rome,  and  by 
hat  they  had  heard  and  read,  as 
Iso  impressed  with  an  advan- 
ageous  opinion  of  what  they  had 
'.one  to  see,  they  nevertheless 
ound  the  image  their  fancy  had 
'preconceived,  greatly  inferior  to 
;he  real  object. 

When  sir  George  Wheler  and 
Jr.  Spon  visited  Athens,  in  the 
ear  1676,  this  temple  was  entire ; 
nd  the  former  has  given  the  fol- 
ding description  of  it  : — 

"  It  is  situated  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  citadel,  and  consists 
ltogetherof  admirable  white  mar- 
ie. The  plane  of  it  is  above 
wice  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  being 
17  feet  9  inches  long,  and  98  feet 
inches  broad.  It  hath  an  ascent 
very  way  of  five  degrees,  or 
teps,  which  seem  to  be  so  con- 
nived as  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  the 
ortico,  which  is  supported  by 
hannelled  pillars  of  the  doric 
rder,  erected  round  upon  them 
''ithout  any  other  basis.  These  pil- 
irs  are  forty-six  in  number,  being 
ight  to  the  front  and  as  many  be- 


hind, and  seventeen  on  each  side, 
counting  the  four  corner  ones  twice 
over  to  be  deducted.  They  are  42 
feet  high,  and  17|  feet  about.  The 
distance  from  pillar  to  pillar  is  7 
feet  4  inches.  This  portico  beareth 
up  a  front,  and  frieze  round  about 
the  temple,  charged  with  histo- 
rical figures  of  admirable  beauty 
and  work.  The  figures  of  the 
front,  which  the  ancients  called 
the  eagle,  appear,  though  from 
that  height,  of  the  natural  bigness, 
being  in  entire  relievo,  and  won- 
derfully well  carved.  Pausanius 
saith  no  more  of  them,  than  that 
they  concern  the  birth  of  the 
goddess  Minerva.  What  I  ob- 
served, and  remembered  of  them, 
is  this  : — 

"  There  is  a  figure  that  stands 
in  the  middle  of  it,  having  its 
right  arm  broken,  which  probably 
held  the  thunder.  Its  legs  strad- 
dle at  some  distance  from  each 
other,  where,  without  doubt,  was 
placed  the  eagle  :  for  his  beard, 
and  the  majesty  which  the  sculptor 
has  expressed  in  his  countenance, 
although  those  other  usual  cha- 
racters be  wanting  here,  do  suffi- 
ciently show  it  to  have  been  made 
for  Jupiter.  He  stands  naked,  for 
so  he  was  usually  represented,  es- 
pecially by  the  Greeks.  At  his 
right  hand  is  another  figure,  with 
its  hands  and  arms  broken  off,  co- 
vered half  way,  the  legs  in  a  pos- 
ture as  coming  towards  Jupiter 
which,  perhaps,  was  Victory,  lead- 
ing the  horses  of  the  triumphant 
chariot  of  Minerva,  which  follows 
it.  The  horses  are  made  with 
such  great  art,  that  the  sculptor 
seems  to  have  outdone  himself,  by 
giving  them  a  more  than  seeming 
life,  such  a  vigour  is  expressed  in 
each  posture  of  their  prancing  and 
stamping,  natural  to  generous 
horses.  Minerva  is  next  repre- 
sented in  the  chariot,  rather  as  the 
goddess  of  learning  than  of  war 

303 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


without  buckler,  helmet,  or  a 
Medusa's  head  on  her  breast. 
Next  behind  her  is  another  figure 
of  a  woman  si  tting  with  her  head 
broken  off :  who  it  was  is  not  cer- 
tain )  but  my  companion  made 
me  observe  the  next  two  figures, 
sitting  in  the  corner,  to  be  the  em- 
peror Adrian,  and  his  empress  Sa- 
bina  j  whom  I  easily  knew  to  be 
so,  by  the  many  medals  and  sta- 
tues I  have  seen  of  them.  At  the 
left  hand  of  Jupiter  are  five  or  six 
other  figures :  my  companion  tak- 
eth  them  to  be  an  assembly  of 
the  gods,  where  Jupiter  intro- 
duced Minerva,  and  owneth  her 
for  his  daughter. 

"  The  postick,  or  hind -front,  was 
adorned  with  figures,  expressing 
Minerva's  contest  with  Neptune, 
about  naming  the  city  of  Athens  ; 
but  now  all  of  them  are  fallen 
down,  only  a  part  of  a  sea-horse 
excepted.  The  architrave  is  also 
charged  with  a  basso-relievo  at 
several  distances,  divided  into 
squares  of  about  2  or  3  feet 
broad,  and  3  or  4  feet  high.  With- 
in the  portico  on  high,  and  on 
the  outside  of  the  cella  of  the 
temple  itself,  is  another  border  of 
basso-relievo  round  about  it,  or, 
at  least,  on  the  north  and  south 
sides,  which,  without  doubt,  is  as 
ancient  as  the  temple,  and  of  ad- 
mirable work,  but  not  so  high  a 
relievo  as  the  other.  Thereon  are 
represented  sacrifices,  processions, 
and  ether  ceremonies  of  the  hea- 
then worship.  Most  of  them 
were  designed  by  the  marquis  de 
Nan  tell,  who  employed  >\  painter 
to  do  it  two  months  together,  and 
showed  them  to  us  when  we 
waited  on  him  at  Constantinople. 

"  The  cella  of  the  temple  without 
is  658  feet  long,  and  broad  67 
feet.  Before  you  enter  into  the 
body  of  the  temple  from  the  front 
is  the  proniios,  whose  roof  is  sus- 
tained by  six  channelled  pillars 


of  the  same  order  and  bigness 
with  those  of  the  portico,  and 
contains  near  the  third  part  of  tne 
cella  j  to  wit,  44  feet  of  the 
length.  We  observed  in  place  of 
one  of  the  pillars,  a  great  pile  of 
stone  and  lime  of  most  rude 
work)  which,  they  told  us,  theKis- 
la  Haga  had  ordered  to  be  so  done, 
to  help  to  support  the  roof  3  be- 
cause he  could  never  find  a  stone 
big  enough  to  supply  the  place 
of  the  old  pillar  broken  down, 
although  he  had  spent  two  thou- 
sand crowns  to  do  it.  From  the 
pronaos  we  entered  into  the  tem- 
ple by  a  long  door  in  the  middle 
of  the  front.  But  my  companion 
and  I  were  not  so  much  surprised 
with  the  obscurity  of  it  as  Mon- 
sieur Guiliter  ;  because  the  obser- 
vations we  had  made  on  other 
heathen  temples  did  make  it  no( 
new  thing  to  us.  When  the  chris- 
tians consecrated  it  as  a  place  of! 
worship,  they  admitted  light  at  the 
east  end,  which  is  all  that  it  yet 
hath,  and  made  a  semi-circle  for 
the  holy  place,  according  to  their 
rites,  which  the  Turks  had  not 
yet  much  altered.  This  was  se- 
parated from  the  rest  by  jasper 
pillars  j  two  of  which  on  each 
side  remain.  Within  this  channel 
is  a  canopy  sustained  by  four  por- 
phyry pillars,  with  beautiful  white 
marble  chapters  of  the  corinthian: 
order,  but  the  holy  table  under; 
it  is  removed.  Beyond  the  canopy: 
are  two  or  three  degrees  one  above 
another  in  a  semi-circle,  where 
the  bishop  and  presbyters  used  to 
sit  in  time  of  communion,  upon 
certain  solemn  days.  The  bishop 
sat  in  a  marble  chair  above  the 
rest ;  which  yet  remaineth  above 
the  degrees  against  the  window 
On  both  sides,  and  towards  the 
door,  is  a  kind  of  gallery,  made 
with  two  ranks  of  pillars,  twenty-i 
two  below,  and  twen'Y-three 
above  5  the  odd  pillar  is  over  th« 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


arch  of  the  entrance,  which  was 
left  for  the  passage.  They  showed 
is  the  place  where  two  orange- 
rees  of  marble  had  stood,  which 
jeing  taken  thence  to  be  carried 
o  Constantinople,  the  vessel  mis- 
carried with  them.  The  roof  over 
be  altar  and  choir,  added  to  the 
ernple  by  the  Greeks,  hath  the 
icture  of  the  Holy  Virgin  on  it, 
f  mosaic  work,  left  yet  by  the 
urks.  This  temple  was  covered 
utwardly  with  great  planks  of 
tone,  of  which  some  have  fallen 
own  and  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
losque." 

Sir  George  Wheler  copied  this 
:count  from  Dr.  Spon,  and  ad- 
ed  to  it  some  mistakes  of  his 
wn,  which  we  have  here  omitted, 
r.  Spon  states,  that  the  measures 
ere  taken  in  French  feet ;  there- 
ire,  reckoning  the  diameters  of 
;e  columns  5-rVV  such  feet,  the 
;tent  of  the  front  between  the 
iter  surfaces  of  the  angular  co- 
mns  reduced  to  English  mea- 
re  will  be  found  to  be  nearly 
iH  feet  2  inches  ;  and  that  of 
11     e  side  225  feet  10J  inches.  But 
easures  obtained  by  girting  the 
rcumferences  of  columns  is  little 
be  depended  on. 

In  the  year  1687,  when  Athens 
is  besieged  by  theVenetians,  un- 
1  |r  the  command  of  the  provedi- 
re  Morosini  and  count  Konings- 
lirk,  an  unlucky  bomb  fell  on 
lis  admirable  structure,  and  re- 
<  ced  it  to  the  state  in  which  it 
1     l  is  seen  by  Stuart  and  Revett. 

On  their  way  from  the  city  to 
[■     t  s  building,  they  passed  by  the 
t  atre  of  Bacchus,  and  came  to 
1   Propyloea,  which  are  miser- 
s»     a  y  ruined:  then,  passing  through 
0    Street  of  scattered  houses,  came 
i     t  the  western  front  of  this  temple, 
»ait    >|ose  majestic  apj)earance  cannot 
e  ily  be  described.  On  this  front, 
t  walls  with  their  antae,  and  all 
ti  columns  of  the  portico,  with 
sort  2Q 


the  entablature  and  pediment  are 
still  standing  ;  and.  though  the 
sculpture  in  the  metopes,  and 
figures  in  the  pediment  are  defaced 
and  ruined,  the  architecture  seems 
to  have  suffered  but  little. 

The  columns  of  the  portico 
stand  on  a  pavement  raised  three 
steps  above  the  ground ;  and  there 
are  two  more  from  the  portico  to 
the  pronaos,  or  rather  posticus, 
for  the  pronaos  was  in  reality  at 
the  opposite  front  ;  and  from  thi3 
there  is  another  little  step,  of  lit- 
tle more  than  an  inch  in  height, 
into  the  temple. 

The  inside  of  the  temple  was 
divided  by  a  cross  wall  ;  and  the 
smaller  division,  (the  pavement  of 
which  is  on  a  level  with  the  little 
step  last  mentioned,)  is  the  part 
into  which  a  person  first  enters. 
Wheler  and  Spon  have  improperly 
called  it  the  pronaos. 

This  was  undoubtedly  the  opis- 
thodomus  where  the  public  trea- 
sure was  kept ;  there  the  columns 
mentioned  by  those  travellers  are 
no  longer  standing;  but  part  of 
the  rude  mass  said  to  have  been 
erected  by  Kisla  Aga  is1  still  to 
be  seen.  Hence  the  traveller 
passes  into  the  greater  division. 
At  the  western  end  of  this,  and  on 
both  the  sides,  the  pavement  of 
the  opisthodomus  is  continued  on 
the  same  level,  to  about  15  feet 
from  the  walls,  and  enclose  an 
area,  sunk  a  little  more  than  an 
inch  below  it.  In  the  area,  and 
near  the  edge  of  this  little  step, 
are  still  to  be  seen  certain  circles, 
distinctly  traced.  On  these,  the 
columns  of  the  peristyle  that  sup- 
ported the  galleries,  mentioned  by 
Wheler,  were  most  likely  placed: 
but  these  galleries,  together  with 
the  walls  of  that  part,  and  fourteen 
of  the  columns  of  the  peripteros, 
are  now  no  longer  standing.  The 
pavement  is  shown  with  pieces  of 
sculpture,  some  of  which  are  very 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


large,  and  the  whole  of  them  are 
of  excellent  workmanship. 

In  this  division  stood  the  fa- 
mous statue  of  Minerva,  of  ivory 
and  gold,  the  work  of  Phidias. 
Pausanius  states,  that  Minerva 
stood  erect,  with  her  garments 
reaching  to  her  feet,  a  helmet  on 
her  head,  and  a  Medusa's  head  on 
her  breast  j  that  in  one  hand  she 
held  a  space,  and  on  the  other  a 
figure  of  Victory,  of  about  4  cu- 
bits high.  According  to  Pliny, 
the  statue  of  Minerva  was  26 
cubits  high  :  but  in  this  account 
he  probably  included  the  pedestal, 
on  which,  according  to  the  state- 
ments of  both  these  authors,  the 
birth  of  Pandora  was  represented. 

We  are  not  informed  that  the 
ivory  was  painted  ;  though,  from 
an  observation  of  Strabo,  that 
Pantanus,  the  brother  or  nephew 
of  Pbidias;  assisted  him  in  the 
colouring  of  the  statue  of  Jupiter, 
at  Elis  which  was  likewise  of 
ivory  and  gold,  it  is  reasonable  to 
conclude  that  it  was.  Ivory  was 
used  in  statues  of  this  kind,  not  so 
much  on  account  of  the  colour,  as 
from  its  being  less  liable  to  split 
and  be  destroyed  by  worms.  For 
ivory  is  not  of  a  uniform  colour, 
being  yellow  near  the  outside  and 
white  in  the  middle  ;  conse- 
quently, it  requires  to  be  painted 
on  that  account,  as  also  to  hide 
the  joinings  of  the  pieces. 

Ihucydides  states  that  the  gold 
about  this  statue  weighed  40  ta- 
lents, which,  according  to  the 
value  of  gold  at  the  present  day, 
is  equal  to  i£ 120,000  sterling. 
Lachares  stripped  it  off  about  one 
hundred  and  thirty  years  after  the 
death  of  Pericles  ;  and  we  do  not 
read  of  its  ever  being  replaced. 

The  eastern  front  of  this  temple 
hath  suffered  more  than  the  west- 
ern ;  as  all  the  walls,  and  five  of 
the  columns  of  the  pronaos  are 
down  :  but  the  eight  columns  in 

306 


front,  with  their  entablature,  re- 
main pretty  entire  in  their  ori- ! 
ginal  situation,  though  much  the 
greater  part  of  the  pediment  is 
wanting. 

The  metopes  on  the  south  side 
were  adorned  with  sculpture  in 
alto-relievo  of  centaurs  and  lapi- 
thae,  some  of  which  are  not  en- 
tirely defaced. 

The  outside  of  the  cell  was 
surrounded  at  the  top  with  a  con- 
tinued frieze  of  about  3  feet 
4  inches  deep,  representing  the 
Panathenaie  pomp  or  procession 
in  basso-relievo.  In  the  year 
16*74,  the  marquis  de  Nointel 
employed  a  young  Flemish  pain- 
ter to  copy  this ;  two  or  three  of 
whose  drawings  are  represented 
in  Montfaucon's  "  Antiquities." 

Pausanius  gives  but  a  transient 
account  of  this  temple,  nor  does 
he  state  whether  Adrian  repaired 
it,  though  the  statue  of  that  empe- 
ror, as  also  of  his  empress  Sa- 
bina,  are  in  the  western  pediment. 
This  has  occasioned  a  doubt  whe- 
ther the  sculptures  in  both  were 
not  put  up  by  him.    Wheler  and 
Spon  were  of  this  opinion,  and 
state  that  they  were  whiter  thar 
the  rest  of  the  building;  the  sta- 
tue of  Antinous,  also,  still  remain- 
ing at  Rome,  may  be  thought  ? 
proof  that  there  were  artists  ir 
his    time    capable  of  executing 
them.    The  whiteness  of  the  mar 
ble,  however,  is  no  proof  that  the; 
were  more  modern  than  the  tern 
pie,  for  they  might  be  made  of 
whiter  marble:  nor  is  the  circum 
stance  of  the  heads  of  Adrian  an 
Sabina  being  there,  any  corrobo 
ration  of  the  supposition,  as  it  \va 
not  an  uncommon  practice  amon 
the  Romans,  and  might  have  bee 
practised  in  the  present  case,  t 
affix  heads  to  ancient  figures.  I 
addition  to  this,  we  may  stal 
from  Plutarch,  that  the  building 
of  Pericles  were  not  in  the  lea 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


impaired  by  age  in  bis  time ; 
therefore,  this  temple  could  not 
want  any  material  repairs  in  the 
reign  of  Adrian  ;  unless,  indeed, 
which  is  not  probable,  that  the 
damage  once  sustained  by  the 
opisthodomus  by  fire,  had  re- 
mained unrepaired  for  so  long  a 
time. 

Mr.  Stuart  has  said  that  the 
lesser  division  of  the  temple  was 
called  the   opisthodomus,  where 
the  public  treasure  was  kept.  Thu- 
:ydides  tells  us,  that  it  was  kept  in 
;he  Acropolis  ;  and,  having  reck- 
oned up  what  it  amounted  to, 
says,  the  riches  out  of  the  other 
emples  may   likewise  be  used, 
vhich  implies,  that  the  treasure, 
>f  which  he  had  been  speaking, 
vas  kept  in  a  temple.  Aristo- 
)hanes  places  Plutus,  the  god  of 
iches,  in   the  opisthodomus  of 
he   temple   of  Minerva.  His 
choliast  says,  that  this  was  the 
emple  of  Minerva  Polias,  which 
3  a  mistake,   for  that  temple 
iad  only  a  single  cH!    as  will 
'ppear  hereafter:  nor  could  it  be 
he  temple  meant  by  Thucydides, 
ince  it  was  not  finished  till  after 
he  death  of  Pericles,  as  appears 
y  the  inscription  brought  from 
thens  at  the  expense  of  the  so- 
ety  of  the  dilettanti.  Demos- 
lenes  calls  the  treasury  opistho- 
nmus.  which  properly  signified 
le  back  of  a  temple  ;  and  Hesy- 
lius,  Harpocration,  Suidas,  and 
le  etymologist,  agree  that  the 
thenian  treasury  was  in  the  opis- 
mdomus  of  the  temple  of  Mi- 
?rva,  which  could  be  no  other 
ian  this. 

The  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  mar- 
es in  the  second  part  of  Dr. 
lialmers's  "  Inscriptions"  are  Te- 
sters of  the  delivery  of  donations 
this  temple  by  the  treasurers, 
their  successors  in  office.  The 
ird  and  fourth  were  found  among 
i  ruins.    It  is  called  Ilecatom- 


pedon  in  both,  and  its  opisthodo- 
mus is  expressly  mentioned  in  the 
latter.  The  fifth  calls  it  Par- 
thenon. 

There  is  a  passage  in  Vi truvius 
which  most  probably  relates  to 
this  temple,  and  which  proves  it 
to  have  been  an  hypaethros.  Vi- 
truvius  states,  "  that  the  hypae- 
thros has  ten  columns  in  the  pro- 
naos  and  posticus,  in  all  other 
respects  it  is  like  the  dipteros  j 
within,  it  has  two  rows  of  co- 
lumns, one  above  the  other,  at  a 
distance  from  the  wall;  so  that 
you  may  pass  round  it  as  in  the 
portico  of  peristyles ;  but  in  tine 
middle  it  is  open  to  the  sky 
without  a  roof.  The  entrance  is 
at  each  end,  by  doors  in  the  pro- 
naos  and  posticus.  There  is  no 
example  of  this  at  Rome  ;  but  at 
Athens  an  octostyle  in  the  Olym- 
pian temple." 

From  our  quotation  from  Whe- 
ler  it  should  appear,  that  when 
he  saw  the  temple,  it  had  within 
the  cell  on  each  side,  two  rows  of 
columns,  the  one  above  the  other, 
and  standing  at  a  distance  from  the 
wall.  And  by  the  decorations  on 
the  eastern  front,  it  should  fur- 
ther appear,  that  the  principal  en- 
trance was  originally  placed  there, 
though  it  has  been  since  closed 
up,  probably  by  the  Greek  chris- 
tians, who  could  not  otherwise 
have  placed  their  communion  ta- 
ble at  the  east  end  of  the  temple, 
which  is  a  custom  religiously 
observed  by  them  :  the  door  also 
in  the  western  frontwas  originally 
in  that  place,  as  is  evident  from 
the  threshold  or  step  leading  into 
it  still  remaining.  P>y  this,  there- 
fore, the  reader  will  perceive,  that 
this  temple  agrees  with  what  Vi- 
truvius  has  delivered,  and  coin- 
cides with  Mr.  Stuart's  opinion. 
The  roof  with  which  it  was  com- 
pletely covered  when  Wheler  and 
Spon,  and  other  travellers,  exa- 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


mined  it,  may  seem  to  furnish  a 
plausible  objection  to  what  has 
been  here  advanced  j  but  as  great 
additions  and  alterations  have  cer- 
tainly been  made,  with  a  view  to 
adapt  it  to  the  numerous  cere- 
monies of  the  Greek  ritual,  and  to 
the  pompous  functions  of  the 
archbishop  and  his  attendant 
clergy,  it  is  very  probable  that  the 
root  was  constructed  at  that  time. 
This  supposition  acquires  addi- 
tional support,  when  we  consider 
that  the  space  between  the  co- 
lumns did  not  much  exceed  30 
feet  ;  and  that  it  was  necessary 
that  this  space  should  be  covered 
in,  before  it  could  be  fit  for  the 
reception  of  a  christian  congrega- 
tion. The  roofing  it  in  would  not 
have  been  more  expensive,  or 
have  required  greater  skill  in  the 
execution,  than  the  alterations 
which  Wheler  and  Spon  inform 
us  were  made  in  the  eastern  end. 

From  what  Vitruvius  has  said, 
when  speaking  of  the  several  de- 
viations from  the  usual  form  of 
temples,  another  objection  might 
be  deduced.  ff  Temples,"  says  he, 
"  are  also  built  of  other  kinds, 
ordered  with  the  same  propor- 
tions, but  differently  disposed,  as 
that  of  Castor  in  the  Circus  Fla- 
minius,  and  that  of  Vejovis,  be- 
tween the  two  groves  :  ut,  more 
ingeniously,  that  of  Diana  Memo- 
rensis,  with  columns  added  to  the 
right  and  left  on  the  shoulders  of 
the  ponaos  ;  but  this  kind  of  tem- 
ple, like  that  of  Castor  in  the  Cir- 
cus, was  first  erected  in  the 
fortress  of  Athens  to  Minerva." 

The  reader  may,  perhaps,  by 
remarking  the  similarity  between 
the  temples  Vitruvius  has  here 
enumerated  and  that  of  the  Mi- 
nerva in  the  Acropolis,  and  by 
comparing  it  with  what  he  has 
previously  told  us,  that  there  was 
no  hypaethros  at  Rome,  suppose, 
that  the  temple  of  Minerva  was 

303 


not  an  hypaethros  j  but  it  should 
be  remembered  that  he  is  in  this 
place  treating  only  of  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  external  columns. 

It  appears  extraordinary,  that 
in  the  account  he  has  given  of  the 
hypaethros,  the  examples  he  pro- 
duces should  be  exceptions  to  his 
doctrine  ;  but  we  may  be  the  less 
surprised  at  it,  as  the  same  un- 
usual proceeding  occurs  in  his  ac- 
count of  the  peripteros  {  and  it  is 
obvious,  that  an  hypaethros  hav- 
ing eight  columns  in  front  differs 
from  one  having  ten  only  in  this 
particular,  that  the  exterior  co- 
lumns form  a  peripteros,  instead 
of  a  dipteros,  round  the  cell  of  the 
temple,  as  the  marquis  Galiani 
has  observed  in  his  comment  on 
this  place. 

Plate  A7,  is  an  elevation  of  the 
portico  of  the  Parthenon.  The 
dimensions  marked  on  this  plate 
were  all  taken  on  the  western 
front,  which  is  similar  to  the  front 
facing  the  east,  except  only,  that, 
on  the  eastern  architrave  certain 
triangular  holes  are  cut  at  regular 
distances,  which  are  not  repeated 
on  the  sides  of  the  building,  or  on 
the  front  facing  the  west.  It 
is  difficult  to  assign  any  use  for 
these  holes,  unless  we  suppose 
that  cramps  were  fixed  in  them, 
to  support  some  kind  of  ornament, 
probably  festoons  with  which  the 
eastern  front,  and  that  only,  had 
been  decorated. 

Plate  A8.  The  capital  and  en- 
tablature of  the  columns  of  the 
portico. 

7.  The  temple  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
pius  of  which  we  have  already 
spoken,  in  the  fifth  section,  shall 
next  claim  our  attention.  A  plan 
of  it  is  inserted  in  plate  A9. 

In  the  year  1753,  when  Stuart 
and  Revett  visited  Athens,  there 
remained  but  seventeen  columns  i 
thirteen  of  which,  standing  toge- 
ther in  one  group,  without  any  in 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


tervenmg  chasm,  and  connected 
together  by  their  architraves,  ap- 
pear to  have  formed  the  southern 
angle  of  the  front  which  faced  the 
east  ;  and  furnished  an  unequivo- 
cal proof,  that  this  temple  was  a 
dipteros,  that  is,  the  cell  was  sur- 
rounded by  two  rows  of  columns. 
These  columns  exceed  6  feet  in 
diameter,  and  appear  to  be  near 
60  feet  high.  They  are  of  Pen- 
telic  marble,  fluted,  with  beauti- 
ful corinthian  capitals,  and  attic 
bases,  the  outward  row  of  which 
ire  distinguishable  from  those 
columns  next  the  cell. 

Three  other  columns,  belong- 
ing to  the  inner  row  of  the  south- 
ern flank  of  the  temple,  were 
standing  some  distance  from  those 
lbove  mentioned  ;  and  there  re- 
named  one,    marked  F  in  the 
jlan,  which  stood  originally  in  the 
.vestern  portico.    This  last  men- 
tioned column  proves  that  the 
emple,  when  entire,  had  one  and 
wenty  columns  on  its  flank  :  for, 
f  a  right  line  be  drawn  from 
r     'east  to  west,  through  the  centres 
)f  the  outward  columns,  it  will 
;ut  exactly  in  the  centre  of  the 
wentieth  column  of  that  row,  by 
mother  line  drawn  at  right  angles 
o  it  from  the  centre  of  the  column 
;,  the  base  of  which  proves  it 
vas  not  in  the  front  of  the  portico, 
nit  had  another  row  of  columns 
tanding  before  it.    There  will 
herefore   have   been    one  and 
wenty  columns  on  the  flank  of 
his    magnificent   temple;  and 
onsequently  it  was  a  decastyle,  or 
ad  ten  columns  both  in  the  por- 
ico  and  the  posticus,  which  is  the 
umber  Vitruvius  has  assigned  to 
he  complete  hypaethros. 
On  this  supposition,  the  front 
i nst  have  extended  at  least  167 
let,  and  the  length  from  east  to 
est  have  been  372  feet  and  some 
fdd  inches. 
The  peribolas,  or  wall,  which 


enclosed  the  consecrated  ground 
was,  according  to  Pausanius, 
about  four  stadia,  or  half  a  mile 
in  circumference  ;  but  Stuart  and 
Revett  could  not  entirely  verify 
the  statement.  Stuart  and  Revett 
state,  that  their  admeasurements 
were,  for  the  extent  from  east  to 
west,  682  feet  9  inches  ;  and  for 
the  distance  from  the  outward 
face  of  the  southern  wall  of  the 
peribolus  to  the  basement  on 
which  the  columns  of  the  dipteros 
are  set,  146  feet  2  inches ;  but 
that  they  were  unable  to  ascer- 
tain its  extent  towards  the  north, 
as  there  was  not  on  that  side  the 
least  visible  trace  of  the  building. 
Pausanius  enumerates  other  tem- 
ples, statues,  and  monuments, 
that  were  within  this  peribolus, 
some  of  them  accounted  of  great 
antiquity  even  in  his  time  ;  and  it 
can  hardly  be  doubted  but  that  the 
inside  of  this  wall  was  adorned 
with  a  peristyle,  or  continued 
colonnade,  with  porticoes  and 
other  ornaments,  so  that  the  bare 
wall  did  not  appear. 

8.  Of  the  temples  of  Erechtheus, 
Minerva  Polias,  and  Pandrosus. 
To  the  north  of  the  Parthenon,  at 
the  distance  of  about  150  feet,  are 
the  remains  cf  three  contiguous 
temples.  That  towards  the  east 
was  called  the  Erechtheum  :  to 
the  westward  of  this,  but  under 
the  same  roof,  was  the  temple  of 
Minerva,  with  the  title  Polias,  as 
protectress  of  the  city  :  and  ad- 
joining to  it,  on  the  south  side,  is 
the  Pandrosium,  so  named  he- 
cause  it  was  dedicated  to  the 
nymph  Pandrosus,  one  of  the 
daughters  of  Cecrops. 

Pausanius  has  not  given  a  more 
particular  description  of  this 
building  than  he  has  of  the  Par- 
thenon. He  tells  us  that  it  was  a 
double  temple,  and  that  in  the 
Erechtheum  was  the  spring  of 
sea- water  produced  by  the  stroke 

309 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


of  Neptune's  trident,  when  he 
contended  with  Minerva  for  the 
patronage  of  the  city.  Before 
the  entrance  was  an  altar  of 
Jupiter  the  Supreme  ;  and  within 
the  temple  an  altar  of  Neptune, 
on  which,  by  the  command  of  an 
oracle,  sacrifices  were  likewise 
made  to  Erechtheus.  By  this  we 
may  conclude  that  the  temple  was 
not  originally  dedicated  to  Erech- 
theus, but  to  Neptune.  Besides 
these,  there  was  an  altar  of  the 
hero  Butes,  the  brother  of  Erech- 
theus j  and  another  on  which 
sacrifices  were  made  to  Vulcan. 
On  the  wall  were  paintings,  or 
inscriptions,  relating  to  the  family 
of  Butes,  in  which  family  the 
priesthood  was  hereditary. 

In  the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias 
was  an  ancient  statue  of  the  god- 
dess. It  was  of  wood,  and  was 
said  to  have  fallen  from  heaven. 
Stuart  supposed  it  to  have  been 
one  of  those  ancient  statues  which 
Pausanius  mentions  as  being 
black,  and,  though  entire,  so 
scorched  with  the  flames  when 
Xerxes  burnt  the  temple,  that  it 
could  not  resist  a  blow.  In  the 
temple  was  likewise  a  Hermes,  or 
statue  of  Mercury,  dedicated  by 
Cecrops.  It  was  almost  hid  from 
the  sight  by  branches  of  myrtle, 
on  account,  it  should  seem,  of  the 
absurdity  and  indecency  of  such 
an  image  in  the  temple  of  a  virgin. 
Superstition  alone  could  have  pre- 
vented the  Athenians  from  remov- 
ing it ;  for  a  Hermes  appears  to 
have  been  as  obscene  a  figure  as 
a  Priapus.  In  this  temple  was 
likewise  placed  the  golden  lamp 
made  by  Callimachus,  the  inventor 
of  the  corinthian  capital.  This 
lamp,  which  was  said  to  burn  a 
whole  year  without  a  fresh  sup- 
ply of  oil,  was  placed  under  a  bra- 
zen palm-tree,  the  branches  of 
which  extended  up  to  the  roof, 
and  conveyed  away  the  smoke. 


The  Pandrosium  is  the  only  an- 
cient example,  with  which  we  are 
acquainted,  in  which  the  entabla- 
ture and  roof  are  supported  by! 
caryatides.  A  plate  of  this  beau- 
tiful portico  has  been  given  in' 
Part  3. 

Within  the  Pandrosium  was  an 
olive-tree,  said  to  have  been  pro- 
duced by  Minerva,  in  the  above 
cited  contest  with  Neptune.  It  was 
called  pankyphos,  that  is,  incur- 
vated,  from  its  branches  bending 
downwards  after  it  had  reached 
the  roof.  Under  this  tree  stood 
an  altar  of  Jupiter  Herceus.  Some 
have  imagined  that  the  olive-tree 
grew  in  the  temple  of  Minerva 
Polias  j  but  it  is  quite  improba- 
ble that  a  tree  should  grow  in  a 
place  so  unfavourable  to  vegeta- 
tion. The. temple  of  Minerva  Po- 
lias appears  to  have  been  a  close 
room,  illuminated  only  by  a  single 
lamp  ;  whereas  in  that  of  the 
Pandrosium  the  spaces  between 
the  caryatides  was  left  open,  for 
the  free  admission  of  light  and 
air. 

The  olive-tree  and  the  spring  o! 
sea-water  prove  this  to  be  the  fa- 
bulous scene  of  contention  betweei 
the  two  divinities  :  as  also  tha1 
these  temples  were  erected  on  tin 
precise  spot  as  that  on  which  th< 
temples  burned  by  Xerxes  ha( 
originally  stood.  The  origina 
temples  were  of  great  antiquity 
probably  the  most  ancient  ii 
Athens  :  for  Homer  mentions  tha 
of  Minerva,  under  which  name  h 
seems  to  include  the  three,  as  He 
rodotus  afterwards  similarly  in 
eludes  them  under  the  name  o 
Erechtheus. 

An  inscription  brought  fron 
Athens,  at  the  expense  of  the  so 
ciety  of  dilettanti,  and  publishei 
by  Dr.  Chandler,  contains  a  sur 
vey  of  such  parts  of  these  tern 
pies  as  were  at  that  time  unfi 
nished,  with  what  seems  to  be  ai 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


estimate  in  attic  minas  of  the 
expense  of  completing  them, 
amounting  to  between  three  and 
four  hundred  pounds  sterling. 

This  survey  was  taken  by  order 
of  the  people  of  Athens  when 
Diocles  was  archon,  which  was  in 
the  twenty- third  year  of  the  Pele- 
ponnesian  war.  Hence  it  is  not 
improbable,  that  this  building  was 
begun  during  the  administration 
of  Pericles,  and  that  a  stop  was 
put  to  it  either  through  his  death, 
or  the  calamities  and  expenses  of 
that  war. 

By  the  grammatical  inaccura- 
cies in  this  description,  it  seems 
to  have  been  drawn  up  by  the 
mason  employed  in  the  survey. 
And  as  many  of  the  architectural 
terms  used  in  the  inscription  are 
(not  to  be  found  in  any  writer  now 
remaining,  together  with  our  ig- 
norance of  the  manner  in  which 
the  survey  was  taken,  whether  it 
•were  by  going  round  the  build- 
ing, or  classing  similar  deficien- 
cies together,  render  it  now  very 
obscure,  and  in  a  great  measure 
unintelligible. 

The  situation  of  some  of  the 
•most  unfinished  parts  is  described 
as  being  near  the  Cecropium  ;  of 
others  near  the  Pandrosium ;  some 
)n  the  south  wall  :  others  on  the 
sast.  By  the  Cecropium,  it  is 
supposed,  is  meant  the  temple  of 
Minerva  Polias,  which  might  have 
leen  so  called,  from  the  opinion 
hat  Cecrops  was  buried  there  ; 
is  the  contiguous  temple  of  Nep- 
une,  probably  for  a  like  reason, 
vas  called  theErechtheum.  We 
ead  of  no  other  building  being 
ailed  Cecropium.  The  Acropo- 
Bj  which  was  the  ancient  city,  and 
aid  to  have  been  built  by  Ce- 
rops,  was  called  Cecropia. 

In  this  survey  no  part  of  the 
'ecropium,  or  of  the  Pandrosium, 

said  to  be  unfinished.  In  the 
jrty-fourth  line,  it  mentions  co- 


lumns on  the  wall  next  the  Pan- 
drosium ;  and  in  the  sixty-second, 
pilasters  next  to  the  Cecropium  j 
and  some  other  particulars  are  also 
mentioned  which  seem  to  belong 
to  the  present  building,  but  the 
measures  assigned  to  them  prove 
the  contrary. 

This  circumstance  is  a  confir- 
mation of  a  passage  in  Xenophon, 
which  states,  that  this  temple  was 
burnt  ^ahout  three  years  after  the 
survey  was  taken,  though  the 
names  of  the  archon  and  epho- 
rus  are  generally  believed  to  be 
interpolated. 

These  temples  are  now  in  a 
very  ruinous  condition.  Those 
of  Erechtheus  and  Minerva  have 
no  roof  or  covering  of  any  kind. 
The  wall  which  separated  them, 
as  also  that  by  which  the  pronaos 
or  passage  to  the  Pandrosium  was 
parted  off  from  the  temple  of 
Minerva,  are  so  demolished,  that 
scarcely  any  traces  of  them  re- 
main, excepting  where  they  join 
the  side  walls.  The  pavements 
are  so  encumbered  with  large 
blocks  of  marble  and  rubbish,  as 
to  render  the  inside  almost  impas- 
sable. The  Pandrosium,  though 
it  has  suffered  the  least,  is  filled 
up  to  a  great  height  in  the  same 
manner,  and  one  of  the  caryatides 
is  wanting.  Stuart  and  Revett 
found  the  portico  of  Minerva  Po- 
lias walled  up  ;  and  being  a  ma- 
gazine of  military  stores,  admit- 
tance was  denied  them. 

Although  these  three  temples 
compose  one  body,  they  are  not 
on  the  same  level ;  for  the  pave- 
ment of  the  temple  of  Erech- 
theus is  about  8  feet  higher  than 
that  of  the  rest  of  the  building. 
Neither  has  the  architect  at- 
tempted to  form  them  into  one 
regular  whole,  but  seems  pur- 
posely to  have  kept  them,  as  we 
now  see  them,  in  three  distinct 
forms. 

311 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


In  Plate  A'°.  is  represented  the 
plan  of  the  three  contiguous  tem- 
ples. 

A,  the  temple  of  Erechtheus, 
or  of  Neptune,  in  which  was  a 
well  of  salt  water,  and  the  altars 
of  Neptune,  Vulcan,  and  the  hero 
Butes.  Before  it  stood  the  altar 
of  Jupiter  the  Supreme. 

B,  the  temple  of  Minerva  Po- 
lias  ;  perhaps  the  Cecropium  of 
the  dilettanti  inscription. 

a  a,  the  wall  which  separated 
the  two  temples  j  distinctly  visible 
where  it  joined  the  lateral  walls. 

C,  the  temple  ofPandrosus  ;  in 
which  was  the  olive-tree  said  to 
be  produced  by  Minerva,  and  the 
altar  of  Jupiter  Herceus. 

D,  the  portico,  common  to  the 
temple  of  Minerva  and  to  that  of 
Pandrosus. 

EE,  a  kind  of  vestibule,  or  pro- 
niios,  which  likewise  was  com- 
mon to  the  two  last  mentioned 
temples,  and  the  only  approach 
by  which  either  of  them  could  be 
visited. 

bb,  vestiges  of  the  wall  which 
separated  the  vestibule  from  the 
temple  of  Minerva. 

The  part  shadowed  with  dia- 
gonal lines  lies  about  S  feet  lower 
than  the  unshadowed  part,  and 
distinguishes  the  level  on  which 
the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias  is 
built  from  the  higher  ground  on 
which  the  Erechtheum  stands. 

FF,  foundations  of  a  wall  con- 
tinued from  the  basement  of  the 
Pandrosium  to  some  distance 
westward.  It  stood  on  the  ex- 
treme edge  of  a  little  precipice, 
which  in  this  part  separates  the 
upper  level  from  the  lower. 

d  d,  vestiges  near  the  portico 
of  the  Erechtheum  of  a  division 
between  the  upper  and  lower 
ground,  similar  to  that  mentioned 
in  the  preceding  reference. 

Plate  A11,  elevation  of  the  por- 
tico of  the  temple  of  Erechtheus. 

312 


On  the  left  hand  is  the  flank  of 
the  portico  of  Minerva  Polias  : 
the  dotted  line,  aa,  marks  the  le- 
vel on  which  that  portico  is  built. 
On  the  left  hand  is  the  flank  of 
the  Pandrosium. 

Plate  A  12,  the  capital  base 
and  entablature  of  the  portico  of 
Minerva  Polias. 

Plate  A13.  Fig  1  and  %  the  ca- 
pital and  base  of  the  antae.  Fig. 
3,  profile  of  the  moulding  under 
the  corona.  Fig.  4,  the  .same 
viewed  from  below,  to  show  the 
effect  of  the  flower  on  the  angle. 
The  other  figures  represent  the 
plan  reversed  and  the  necessary 
sections  of  the  capital. 

Plate  A14,  the  ionic  volute  of 
the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias 
described. 

In  Part  3,  has  been  given  under 
the  word  Pandrosium  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  front  of  the  temple 
of  Pandrosus  adorned  with  cary- 
atides :  and  in  Part  2  and  3, 
three  plates  have  been  given, 
showing  the  caryatides  on  a  larger 
scale. 

9.  Of  the  choragic  monument 
of  Thrasyllus.  Just  above  the 
place  on  which  Mr.  Stuart  has 
supposed  the  odeum  of  Pericles 
to  have  been  built,  there  is  in  the 
rock  of  Acropolis  a  cavern  or 
grotto,  the  entrance  to  which  is 
completely  fronted  and  closed  by 
the  choragic  monument  of  Lysi- 
crates.  This  cavern  is  now  con- 
verted into  a  christian  church, 
called  "Panagia  SpUiotissa,', or  the 
blessed  lady  of  the  grotto. 

On  the  front  of  the  building  are 
three  inscriptions,  recording  vic- 
tories obtained  in  the  odeum  or 
the  theatre,  which  prove  it  to  be 
a  choragic  monument ;  not  indeed 
so  highly  ornamented  as  the  mo- 
nument of  Lysicrates,  but  ne- 
vertheless wrought  with  great 
accuracy,  and  deserving  of  our  no- 
tice, both  for  the  singularity  of  the. 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


composition  and  the  form  of  the 
mouldings. 

There  is  an  inscription  on  the 
architrave  to  the  following  effect : 
"Thrasyllus,  the  son  of  Thrasyl- 
lus  of  Cecelia  (a  demos  or  bo- 
rough town  of  the  tribe  of  Hippo- 
thoon),  dedicates  this  building, 
having  been  at  the  expense  of  ex- 
hibiting the  games  in  which  he, 
:with  the  men  of  his  own  tribe, 
obtained  the  victory.  Evius,  of 
'Chalcis,  was  the  musician  j  and 
Karchidamus,  the  son  of  Sotis, 
'composed  the  piece;  Nechaemus 
'being  archon."  This  was  in  the 
first  year  of  the  hundred  and  fif- 
teenth olympiad,  or  about  three 
hundred  and  eighteen  years  before 
the  christian  era  j  so  that  this 
building  was  erected  above  two 
'thousand  years  ago. 

The  other  two  inscriptions, 
which  may  be  thus  translated, 

u  The  people  gave  the  games  ;  Pytkaratus 

was  archon  ; 
Thrasycles,  the  son  ofThrasyllus,  a  Dece- 

liaii,  was  agonothetes ; 
The  boys  of  the  tribe  of  Hippothoon  gained 

the  victory  ; 
Theon.the  Theban,  performed  on  the  flute  ; 
Pronomus,  the  Theban,  composed  the  piece. 
and 

"  The  people  gave  the  games  ;  Pytharatus 
,    was  archon; 

Thrasycles,  the  son  of  Thrasyllus,  a  De- 

celian,  was  agonothetes  j 
The  men  of  the  tribe  of  Pandion  gained 

the  victory ; 
■  Nicocles,  the  Ambracian^  performed  on  the 
flute ; 

Lysippus,   the  Arcadian,    composed  the 
piece." 

record  victories  of  the  same  kind 
as  the  former,  obtained  about  fifty 
years  afterwards,  when  Pythara- 
tus was  archon. 

Over  this  building,  but  higher 
,up  the  rock,  stand  two  columns 
of  different  heights.  The  diame- 
ter of  the  tallest  measures  about 
4  feet  2  inches  and  2-10ths  5  and 
that  of  the  other,  3  feet  4-10ths 
of  an  inch.  They  have  never  be- 
longed to  the  building,  and  are 
2R 


each  of  them  insulated,  being 
erected  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
supporting  a  tripod,  as  is  evident 
from  the  form  of  their  capitals. 
They  are  of  a  triangular  shape, 
like  that  of  the  flower  on  the 
dome  of  the  monument  of  Lysi- 
crates,  and  like  that,  have  cavities 
sunk  in  their  upper  surfaces  at 
each  of  their  angles.  In  these  ca- 
vities were  doubtless  fixed  the 
feet  of  the  tripods.  The  capitals 
are  of  uncommon  forms ;  but, 
though  adorned  with  foliage  and 
volutes,  are  not  to  be  admired  for 
any  elegance  of  invention,  or  de- 
licacy of  workmanship. 

On  the  plinth  of  the  eastern, 
and  tallest  of  these  columns  is  in- 
scribed 2TPAT0NEIK02,  proba- 
bly the  name  of  the  person  who  de- 
dicated the  tripod ;  but,  as  the  name 
of  the  archon  is  wanting,  the  date 
cannot  be  ascertained,  unless  we 
suppose  it  to  have  been  erected 
in  the  year  of  anarchy,  that  is, 
in  the  first  of  the  ninety-fourth 
olympiad  ;  for  even  at  that  disas- 
trous period,  the  Athenians  seem 
to  have  solemnized  their  festivals, 
and  to  have  indulged  themselves 
in  their  accustomed  amusements. 

In  Plate  A15,  is  represented  the 
elevation  of  the  front  of  this  mo- 
nument ;  and  in  Part  3,  the  capi- 
tal and  entablature  have  been 
given  on  a  larger  scale. 

10.  Of  the  temple  of  Theseus. 
The  travellers  who  have  visited 
the  city  of  Athens,  and  the  au- 
thors who  have  described  its  an- 
tiquities, agree,  that  this  doric 
temple,  which  is  one  of  the  noblest 
remains  of  ancient  magnificence, 
and  at  present  the  most  entire, 
was  built  in  honour  of  Theseus. 
This  opinion  is  juFtificd  by  the 
sculptures  in  the  metopes,  several 
of  which,  though  mutilated,  re- 
present the  exploits  of  that  hero. 

The  circumstances  which  led  to 
the  construction  of  this  building 

313 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


took  place,  according  to  Plutarch, 
in  the  year  that  Aphepsion  was 
archon  ;  which  was  about  the 
fourth  year  of  the  seventy-seventh 
olympiad,  or  four  hundred  and 
sixty-seven  years  before  Christ ; 
consequently,  this  temple  may  be 
accounted  one  of  the  works  of  the 
age  of  Pericles. 

It  is  built  of  pentelic  marble  ; 
and.  in  the  language  of  Vitruvius, 
is  a  peripteros  ;  that  is,  it  has  a 
portico  of  six  columns  in  each 
front,  and  on  each  side  a  range  of 
eleven  columns,  exclusive  indeed 
of  the  columns  on  the  angles,  in 
which  particular  the  Greeks  dif- 
fered from  the  Romans,  who  in- 
cluded the  columns  on  the  angles 
in  the  number  eleven.  The  dis- 
tance of  the  lateral  columns  from 
the  wall  of  the  cell,  is  somewhat 
more  than  the  space  of  one  inter- 
columniation  ;  they  connect  the 
two  porticoes,  and  by  that  means 
complete  a  covered  walk  round 
the  cell  of  the  temple. 

The  principal  front  faces  the 
east ;  and  the  pediment  of  the 
front  appears  to  have  been  adorn- 
ed, like  the  Parthenon,  with 
figures  of  entire  relief,  fixed  simi- 
larly in  their  places  by  cramps 
of  metal.  Several  holes,  in  which 
the  cramps  were  inserted,  remain 
in  the  face  of  the  pediment,  though 
the  figures  which  they  h  atl  sup- 
ported are  entirely  destroyed. 

On  the  metopes  of  this  front 
are  represented  ten  of  the  labours 
of  Hercules  :  and  on  the  four  me- 
topes next  this  front,  on  the 
northern  and  southern  sides,  are 
represented  eight  of  the  achieve- 
ments of  Theseus.  It  may  at  first 
appear  somewhat  extraordinary, 
that  the  labours  of  Hercules 
should  make  so  considerable  a 
part  of  the  ornaments  of  this  tem- 
ple ;  but  when  we  consider  the 
respect  and  gratitude  professed  by 
Theseus  for  that  hero,  who  was 

314 


his  kinsman,  and  had  restored  him 
from  a  tedious  captivity  to  his 
friends  and  country  •  as  also,  that 
Theseus,  on  his  return,  did  con- 
secrate to  Hercules,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  four,  all  the  places 
which  the  gratitude  of  the  citizens 
had  formerly  dedicated  to  himself, 
the  impression  will  wear  off.  Nor 
could  it  have  been  esteemed  a 
slight  honour  to  Theseus,  to  have 
his  labours  placed  in  conjunction 
with  those  of  Hercules. 

The  remainder  of  the  metopes, 
and  the  pediment  of  the  posticus, 
or  western  front,  have  never  been 
adorned  with  sculptures. 

This  temple  is  now  converted 
into  a  church,  and  dedicated  to 
St.  George  ;  for  whom  the  pre- 
sent Athenians  seem  to  have  as 
high  a  veneration,  as  their  ances- 
tors had  for  Theseus. 

The  sculpture  on  the  frieze  over 
the  antae  of  the  proniios  represents 
a  battle  and  a  victory.  It  seems 
to  record  an  action  of  great  im- 
portance, for  it  is  honoured  with 
the  presence  of  six  divinities  ;  three 
of  whom,  though  somewhat  de- 
faced, are  yet  to  be  distinguished 
for  Jupiter,  Juno,  and  Minerva. 
Amongst  the  combatants  there 
is  one  of  superior  dignity,  more 
vigorous  exertion,  and  of  more 
ample  stature,  arrayed  in  a  long 
robe,  which  trails  behind  him,  ; 
and  in  the  act  of  hurling  a  stone 
of  a  prodigious  size  at  his  adver- 
saries :  this,  probably,  represents 
the  phantom  of  Theseus  rushing 
impetuously  on  the  Persians  at 
the  battle  of  Marathon.  His  mi- 
raculous apparition  and  interpo- 
sition at  that  battle  was  firmly 
believed  by  the  Athenians,  and 
was  one  inducement  to  the  build- 
ing of  this  temple.  The  victory 
of  Marathon  was  certainly  one  of; 
the  most  glorious  of  the  Athenian 
achievements  ;  and  there  is  a  sort 
of  modesty  as  well  as  piety,  in  their 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


attributing  to  the  gods  and  the 
assistance  of  their  hero  this  amaz- 
ing victory,  rather  than  to  their 
own  valour.  The  last  figure  on 
the  frieze  was  evidently  employed 
in  erecting  a  trophy. 

The  sculpture  on  the  frieze 
over  the  antae  of  the  posticus  re- 
presents the  battle  of  the  centaurs 
and  lapithae.  Amongst  the  com- 
batants one  hero  alone  has  thrown 
a  centaur  to  the  ground,  and  is  in 
the  act  of  killing  him.  This  hero 
is  probably  intended  for  Theseus. 
In  the  middle  of  this  piece  of 
sculpture  is  Caneus,  who,  being 
invulnerable  by  weapons,  is  over- 
whelmed by  a  huge  piece  of  rock, 
with  which  two  centaurs  are  about 
to  crush  him.  This  circumstance 
lis  introduced  by  Ovid,  in  the  de- 
scription he  makes  Nestor  give  of 
the  centaurs  and  lapithae. 

It  may  be  proper  to  observe, 
'that  the  sculpture  on  this  temple 
is  very  fine  and  much  relieved,  the 
limbs  being  in  many  places  en- 
tirely detached,  which  is,  perhaps, 
one  reason  that  they  are  so  much 
damaged. 

Plate  A16,  represents  an  eleva- 
tion of  the  eastern  front. 

11.  Of  the  arch  of  Theseus,  or  of 
Hadrian.  This  arch  stands  nearly 
lorth-east  and  south-west,  and  is 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  south- 
•astward  from  the  Acropolis.  The 
'root  facing  that  building  has  an 
ascription  to  the  following  effect : 

"  This  >s  Athens,  formerly  the  city  of 
Theseus." 

And  that  next  to  the  Ilissus, 
he  channel  of  which  lies  to  the 
out h  of  it,  at  less  than  a  quarter 
f  a  mile  distance,  is  another  in- 
cription  to  this  effect : 

This  is  the  city  of  Hadrian,  and  not  of 
2  heseus." 

Both  fronts  are  adorned  with 
orinthian  columns,  and  are,  in  all 
arts,  perfectly  similar.  It  is  of 
entelic  marble,    and,    like  the 


other  ancient  edifices  of  Athens 
is  built  without  the  aid  of  mortar 
or  cement,  the  blocks  of  marble 
being  connected  together  by 
cramps  of  metal.  This  arch  evi- 
dently appears  neither  to  have 
been  connected  with,  or  to  have 
belonged  to,  any  other  building  j 
and  to  have  been  originally  in- 
tended to  remain  insulated.  It 
appears,  however,  extraordinary, 
that  it  should  stand  so  near,  and 
be  situated  so  obliquely  to  the  re- 
mains of  the  peribolus,  or  wall, 
that  encompassed  the  temple  of 
Olympium  ;  and  it  is  difficult  to 
reconcile  its  situation  to  any  idea 
of  beauty  or  convenience,  or  to 
conceive  the  motive  that  induced 
the  Athenians  to  place  it  here. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  in- 
scription states  the  emperor  Ha- 
drian to  be  the  founder  of  at  least 
the  southern  part  of  Athens,  it 
should  seem,  from  arguments  fur- 
nished by  Mr.  Stuart,  that  it  is  ra- 
ther a  complimentary  effusion  of 
Athenian  gratitude  to  so  liberal  a 
benefactor  than  an  absolute  truth, 
or  the  record  of  an  historical  fact. 

The  situation  of  the  arch  of 
iEgeus  and  that  of  Hadrian  ap- 
pearing to  coincide,  Mr.  Stuart 
has  supposed  that  the  subject  of 
the  present  section  is,  in  fact,  no 
other  than  the  arch  of  JEgeus, 
probably  rebuilt  by  Hadrian  on 
the  identical  spot  on  which  the 
former,  venerable  for  its  antiquity, 
had  stood.  Mr.  Stuart  has  also 
supposed,  that  the  north-western 
angle  of  the  peribolus  of  the 
Olympium  has  been  cut  off  by  a 
wall  running  parallel  to  this  arch, 
which,  by  that  means,  became  an 
additional  ornament  to  the  enclo- 
sure, in  which,  not  only  the  mag- 
nificent temple  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
pius,  built  by  Hadrian,  but  many 
other  monuments  of  much  higher 
antiquity  were  contained.  This 
opinion  is  strengthened  by  the 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


unconnected  state  of  the  arch,  and 
the  obliquity  of  its  position. 

Plate  A17,  is  an  elevation  of  the 
front  facing  the  south-east. 

The  preceding  information  re- 
lates to  the  state  of  Athens  at  the 
time  that  Messrs.  Stuart  and  Re- 
vett  visited  it  in  the  year  1759  j 
but  considerable  alterations  hav- 
ing taken  place  since  that  period, 
particularly  the  transportation  of 
some  of  the  most  beautiful  parts 
of  those  edifices  to  the  British 
metropolis,  we  consider  it  our 
duty  to  detail  to  the  reader  the 
particulars  which  led  to  the  depo- 
sit of  those  works  in  the  British 
Museum. 

In  the  year  1799,  lord  Elgin 
was  appointed  his  majesty's  am- 
bassador extraordinary  to  the  Ot- 
toman Porte  ;  and  being  sensible 
that  the  artists  of  this  country 
would  derive  material  improve- 
ment from  the  study  of  the  most 
celebrated  works  of  antiquity,  he 
proposed  to  his  majesty's  govern- 
ment, that  they  should  send  out 
persons  of  acknowledged  emi- 
nence, to  make  exact  measure- 
ments and  designs  of  the  build- 
ings at  Athens.  This  being  ob- 
jected to,  partly  from  the  doubtful 
issue  of  the  undertaking,  and 
partly  from  the  expense  attending 
it,  his  lordship  endeavoured  to 
procure,  at  his  own  charge,  some 
artists  from  this  country  j  but 
finding  the  value  of  their  time  far 
beyond  his  means  of  liquidation, 
he  found  himself  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  having  recourse  to 
the  artists  of  other  countries. 
These  were  Don  Tita  Lusieri,  of 
Sicily,  one  of  the  best  general 
painters  in  Europe,  to  undertake 
the  execution  of  the  plan;  Signor 
Balestra,  a  distinguished  archi- 
tect, and  It  tar,  a  young  man  of 
promising  talents,  both  of  Rome, 
to  undertake  the  architectural 
part  5  Theodore,  aCalmouk,  who, 


during  several  years'  stay  at  Rome, 
had  shown  himself  equal  to  the 
first  masters  in  the  design  of  the 
human  figure  j  and  two  Italian 
for  ma  tori,  to  make  the  madre- 
formi  for  the  casts. 

These  artists  prosecuted  the 
undertaking  with  the  greatest 
diligence  and  skill,  so  that  in  the 
course  of  three  years  every  mo- 
nument of  which  there  were  any 
remains  to  be  found  was  mea- 
sured with  the  utmost  precision  ; 
and  from  the  rough  draughts  of 
the  architects,  finished  drawings 
have  been  made  by  them  of  the 
plans,  elevations,  and  details  of 
the  most  remarkable  objects ;  in 
which  the  Calmouk  has  restored 
and  inserted  all  the  sculpture, 
with  exquisite  taste  and  ability. 
He  has,  besides,  made  accurate 
drawings  of  the  bas-reliefs  on  the 
several  temples,  in  the  precise 
state  of  decay  and  mutilation  in 
which  they  at  present  exist.  Most 
of  the  bas-reliefs,  and  nearly  all 
the  characteristic  features  of  ar- 
chitecture, in  the  various  monu- 
ments at  Athens,  have  been  mould- 
ed, and  the  moulds  brought  to 
London. 

Besides  the-  architecture  and 
sculpture  at  Athens,  all  similar 
remains  which  could  be  traced 
through  several  other  parts  of 
Greece,  have  been  measured  and 
delineated  with  the  most  scru- 
pulous exactness  by  the  second 
architect,  Ittar.  And  picturesque 
views  of  Athens,  of  Constan- 
tinople, of  various  parts  of  Greece, 
and  of  the  islands  of  the  Archi- 
pelago, have  been  executed  by 
Don  Tita  Lusieri. 

In  the  prosecution  of  this  un- 
dertaking, the  artists  had  the 
mortification  of  witnessing  the 
very  wilful  devastation  to  which 
all  the  sculpture,  and  even  the  ar- 
chitecture, was  daily  exposed, 
on  the  part  of  the  Turks,  and  tra- 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


vellers.  The  former  influenced  by 
mischief  and  avarice  ;  the  latter 
from  an  anxious  desire  to  become 
possessed,  each  according  to  his 
means,  of  some  relic,  however 
small,  of  buildings  or  statues  which 
had  formed  the  pride  of  Greece. 
Many  of  the  buildings  which  were 
in  Stuart's  time  in  a  state  of  tolera- 
ble preservation  had  so  entirely 
disappeared,  that  their  founda- 
tions were  no  longer  visible.  This 
induced  lord  Elgin  to  endeavour 
to  preserve,  by  removal  from 
Athens,  as  many  of  the  specimens 
of  architecture  and  sculpture  as 
he  could  without  injury  rescue 
from  such  impending  ruin.  The 
removal  of  them  from  Athens  to 
London  cost  his  lordship  no  less 
a  sum,  including  the  interest  of 
money;  than  one  hundred  and 
hirty-five  thousand  pounds.  They 
ire  now  deposited  in  the  gallery 
>f  antiquities  in  the  British  Mu- 
seum j  and  consist  principally  of 
'.he  undermentioned  : — 

Fifteen  of  the  metopes  belong- 
ng  to  the  Parthenon,  which,  al- 
ernately  with  the  triglyphs,  or- 
lamented  the  frieze  of  the  entab- 
r  'ature  surmounting  the  colon- 
)ade,  representing  the  battle  be- 
ween  the  centaurs  and  lapithae. 
The  exterior  frieze  of  the  cella  of 
he  Parthenon,  which  embellished 
he  upper  part  of  the  walls,  with- 
1  the  colonnade,  at  the  height  of 
he  frieze  of  the  pronaos,  and 
v  hich  was  continued  in  an  uninter- 
upted  series  of  sculpture  entirely 
ound  the  temple,  representing 
he  •  sacred  procession  which 
>ok  place  at  Athens  every  fifth 
ear,  at  the  festival  of  the  great 
'anathenaea,  in  honour  of  Miner- 
a ;  and  that  portion  of  the  above- 
lentioned  frieze,  which  occupied 
ie  east  end  of  the  temple,  repre- 
enting  divinities  and  deified  he- 
>es.  Also  a  portion  of  the  same 
ieze,  taken  from  the  north  side  of 
ie  temple,  representing  two  of  the 


metceci,  or  strangers,  who  settled 
at  Athens,  and  were  allowed  to 
take  part  in  the  procession,  toge- 
ther with  charioteers  and  horse- 
men. Other  slabs  of  the  frieze, 
from  the  south  and  west  sides, 
representing  a  procession  of  vic- 
tims, charioteers,  and  horsemen  j 
that  of  the  south  side  being  very 
similar  in  its  general  character  and 
appearance  to  the  frieze  on  the  op 
posite  or  north  side.  From  the  pe- 
diment of  the  Parthenon,  on  which 
was  represented  the  birth  of  Mi- 
nerva, and  the  supposed  contest 
between  Minerva  and  Neptune 
for  the  honour  of  naming  the  city, 
there  are  many  very  excellent 
figures,  particularly  the  recum- 
bent statue  of  the  river  god  Ilys- 
sus,  and  that  of  Theseus  the 
Athenian  hero. 

There  are  also  casts  in  plaster 
from  the  frieze  of  the  pronaos 
and  posticus  of  the  temple  of 
Theseus  j  and  from  the  choragic 
monument  of  Lysicrates.  Also 
the  capital  of  an  ionic  column 
from  the  portico  of  the  Erechthe- 
um  ;  pieces  of  the  architrave,  a 
portion  of  the  cornice,  and  four 
pieces  of  the  frieze,  all  from  the 
same  temple  of  Erechtheus.  Also 
various  pieces  of  the  shafts  and 
capitals  of  doric  and  ionic  co- 
lumns ;  and  one  of  the  caryatides 
which  supported  the  roof,  under 
which  the  olive-tree  of  Minerva 
was  sheltered,  in  the  temple  of 
Pandrosus. 

These  excellent  remains  of  an- 
tiquity, of  which  we  cannot  speak 
too  highly,  have  been  very  differ- 
ently valued  by  the  gentlemen  who 
had  to  give  in  their  estimates  to 
parliament  j  Mr.  Knight  valued 
them  at  £25,000 ;  Mr.  Hamilton 
at  <£60,800;  and  the  earl  of  Aber- 
deen named  ,£35,000,  as  a  sort 
of  conjectural  estimate  of  the 
whole. 

The   various    items  of  those 

estimates  we  here  subjoin  : 
yi7 


ATHENIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 


Mr.  Knight's  Valuation. 


Recumbent  statue  of  Hercules,  as  on  the  coins  of  brass, 

with  little  of  the  surface  remaining,   1,500 

Trunk  of  a  male  statue  recumbent,   1,500 

Back  and  shoulders  of  a  trunk  on  which  the  head  of  Hadrian 

appears  to  have  been,   1,200 

Fragment  of  a  horse,  very  fine,    250 

Fragments  of  about  ten  draped  trunks  from  the  pediment  of 
the  Parthenon,  most  of  which  appear  to  be  of  the  age 

of  Hadrian,   2,000 

Fourteen  metopes,  of  various  degrees  of  merit,  all  corroded, 

and  mostly  much  mutilated,   %   7,000 

Twelve  pieces  of  the  frieze  of  the  cell  with  parts  entire,    3,600 

About  thirty-five  more,  completely  ruined,   1,400 

Plaster  casts  from  ditto,  and  other  temples,    2,500 

A  granite  scarabaeus,    300 

A  white  marble  soras,  complete  and  entire,  but  coarse,   ....  500 

Various  shafts  and  blocks  of  marble,    350 

Ditto    of  porphyry,    350 

Various  fragments  of  statuary  and  relief,   500 

Ditto                       architecture,    300 

Caryatides  from  the  propylaea,  much  injured,   200 

Nine  broken  marble  urns,   450 

One  wrought  brass  ditto,    150 

One  inscribed  earthen  ditto,   150 

Inscriptions  on  marble,   300 

Medals   1,000 


£25,500 


Mr.  Hamilton's  Valuation. 


Theseus,  .  *   4,000 

Ilyssus,    4,000 

Female  group,   4.000 

Ditto,    4,000 

Iris,   2,000 

Three  horses'  heads    2,000 

Torso  of  Neptune,   500 

Remainder  of  the  pediment,   2,000 


For  the  pediment,  £22,500 

Metopes  (nineteen),    10,000 

Fifty-three  pieces,  at  £400    20,300 

Bacchus,   1,000 

Cariates,   700 

Casts  from  the  Parthenon,  . .   1.000 


Carried  forward  £55,500 

18 


A  T  It 


ATR 


Doric  columns  and  architecture, 
onic  ditto,  


Brought  forward 


(nscnptions,    

Etruscan  bas-relievoes,, 
/ases  from  Athens,  . . 

3ronze  vase,  

dedals,   

Drawings,  


55,500 
400 
800 
2,000 
200 
400 
200 
800 
500 


Atlases,  or  atlantides.  The 
lame  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
!tatues  of  men  which  supported 
entablatures  with  mutules  :  they 
vere  otherwise  called  by  the 
greeks,  "Persians,"  and  by  the 
'lomans,  "Telamones."  Plate  P2. 
These  three  figures  are  from  de- 
igns by  Michael  Angelo  Buona- 
(otti.  The  middle  figure  may  be 
'mployed  in  buildings  j  the  other 
wo  in  the  angles  of  coved  ceilings. 
'  Atrium.  A  court  surrounded 
»y  porticoes  in  the  interior  divi- 
sion of  ancient  Roman  houses. 

According  to  Vitruvius,  the  pro- 
)ortions  of  the  Atrium  were  de- 
ermined  in  three  several  ways  : 
irst,  in  some  the  width  was  three- 
ifths  of  the  length  ;  secondly/  in 
ithers,  it  was  but  two-thirds  of 
he  length  ;  and  thirdly,  in  others, 
he  width  was  proportioned  to  the 
ength,  by  describing  a  square, 
jdch  of  whose  sides  was  equal  to 
Jie  width,  and  the  diagonal  of 
hat  square  determined  the  length 
f  the  atrium.  That  side  of  the 
(triuni  opposite  to  the  gate  was 
(idled  tablinum  ;  and  the  other  two 
,  des  alee,  or  wings. 
,  The  width  of  the  alae,  or  wings, 
n  the  right  and  left,  was  propor- 
,oned  to  the  length  of  the  atrium, 
f  the  length  was  from  30  to  40 
;et,  the  width  of  the  alae  was  one- 
iird  ;  if  from  40  to  50  feet,  the 
ngth  was  divided  into  three  parts 
id  a  half,  of  which  one  part  gave 
ie  width  for  the  alae  ;  if  from  50 
)  60  feet  the  alae  was  a  fourth  part 


£60,800 

of  the  length  ;  if  from  60  to  SO 
feet,  the  length  was  divided  into 
four  parts  and  a  half,  of  which  the 
width  of  the  alee  was  equal  to  one 
part  or  two-ninths  of  the  whole  ; 
and  if  the  length  of  the  atrium 
was  from  SO  to  1 00  feet,  the  width 
of  the  alee  on  the  right  and  left 
was  just  one-fifth  of  that  extent. 
The  trabes,  or  lintel-beams,  ex- 
tending from  column  to  column 
of  the  alae,  were  made  as  high  as 
they  were  wide. 

When  the  atrium  was  20  feet 
wide,  the  tablinum,  or  place  ap- 
propriated for  the  preservation  of 
the  family  records,  was  made  two- 
thirds  of  it ;  when  from  30  to  40 
feet,  the  tablinum  was  half  the 
width ;  and  when  from  40  to  60, the 
width  was  divided  into  five  parts, 
two  parts  being  given  to  the  tabli- 
num. Atria  of  small  dimensions 
could  not  with  propriety  have  the 
same  proportions  as  those  which 
were  more  spacious ;  because  if 
the  proportions  of  the  greater  be 
used  in  the  less,  neither  the  tabli- 
num nor  alae  could  be  convenient ; 
and  if  the  proportions  assigned  to 
the  less  be  used  for  the  greater, 
the  members  would  be  huge  and 
enormous.  Vitruvius  has,  there- 
fore, in  the  above,  assigned  to 
each  their  respective  proportions, 
both  as  regards  their  utility  and 
appearance. 

The  height  of  the  beams  of  the 
tablinum  was  one-eighth,  and  that 
of  the  lacanariae  one-third  more 
than  the  breadth.    The  fauces,  or 

319* 


ATT 

entrance,  in  atria,  of  small  dimen- 
sions was  one-third,  and  in  atria 
of  large  dimensions  one-half,  of 
the  width  of  the  tablinum  ;  -and 
the  height  of  the  images,  with 
their  ornaments,  was  determined 
by  the  breadth  of  the  alae. 

The  proportions  of  the  height 
and  width  of  the  doorways  de- 
pended upon  the  order  of  archi- 
tecture, whether  doric  or  ionic, 
and  was  regulated  by  the  estab- 
lished proportions  of  that  particu- 
lar order  of  which  the  doorway 
was  constructed 

As  many  persons  have  con- 
founded together  the  terms  atri- 
um and  vestibulum,  supposing 
them  to  be  one  and  the  same  place, 
we  have  given  a  plan  of  an  an- 
cient Roman  magistrate's  house, 
by  reference  to  which  the  reader 
will  perceive,  that  the  vestibulum 
was  not  a  part  of  the  interior  of 
the  house,  but  a  large  recess  at 
the  principal  entrance,  analogous, 
perhaps,  to  the  loggias  of  modern 
Italy.  See  Plate  P  3,  a,  the  vesti- 
bulum ;  b,  the  atrium  ;  c,  the  tab- 
linum ;  dd,  alae ;  ee,  domestic 
offices  ;  f,  the  cavaedium  ;  g,  the 
triclinium  ;  h,  the  procceton  ;  i, 
bathing  apartments  ;  k,  the  cubi- 
culi :  /,  the  basilica;  m,  the  pin- 
acotheca  -,  n9  the  libraries  ;  o,  the 
peristylium  ;  p,  servants'  rooms  j 
q,  the  Egyptian  cecus  ;  r,  the  Co- 
rinthian cecus  ;  s,  the  tetrastyle 
cecus  ;  and  t,  the  cyzicene  cecus. 

Atrium.  In  ecclesiastical  anti- 
quity. An  open  space  or  court 
before  a  church,  making  part  of 
what  was  called  the  narthex,  or 
anti-temple.  It  was  surrounded 
by  a  portico  or  cloister,  and  was 
situate  between  the  porch  and 
body  of  the  church.  In  the 
atrium  stood  the  first  class  of  pe- 
nitents, to  beg  the  prayers  of  the 
faithful  as  they  went  into  the 
church.  '• 

Attic.  A  term  that  expresses 

320 


ATT 

any  thing  invented  or  much  used 
in  Attica,  or  the  city  of  Athens. 

Attic.  A  low  story  erected 
over  an  order  of  architecture,  to 
finish  the  upper  part  of  the  build- 
ing, being  chiefly  used  to  conceal 
the  roof,  and  give  greater  dignity 
to  the  design. 

The  rules  assigned  by  archi- 
tects for  the  proportions  of  the 
attic  are  various.  Some  make 
the  height  equal  to  one-half,  and 
others  only  to  one-third  of  the 
principal  order.  It  is  usually  de- 
corated with  pilasters,  which  are 
sometimes  plain,  and  at  other 
times  panelled.  They  have  no  di- 
minution, nor  have  they  any  pe- 
culiar base  or  capital.  Attics  are 
much  used  by  modern  architects, 
particularly  by  the  Italians ;  and 
when  applied  to  modern  buildings 
frequently  have  windows  in  the 
podium  or  dado. 

Attic,  or  atticurgic  base. 
Consists  of  an  upper  and  lower 
torus,  a  scotia,  and  fillets  between 
them.  Vitruvius,  speaking  of  the 
bases  of  columns,  says,  "the  bases 
are  fixed  in  their  places,  and  are 
so  proportioned,  that,  including 
their  plinth,  they  have  in  height 
half  the  thickness  of  the  column; 
and  in  projection,  which  the 
Greeks  call  eic(fiopav,  ekphoran. 
They  should  have  one  quarter  of 
the  thickness  of  the  column ;  so 
that  their  breadth  and  length  will 
be  once  and  a  half  the  thickness  of 
the  column.  Their  height,  if  they 
are  to  be  in  the  attic  mode,  is  so 
divided  that  the  upper  part  is  one- 
third  of  the  thickness  of  the  eo- 
lumn,  and  the  remainder  is  left 
for  the  plinth.  The  plinth  being 
excluded,  the  remaining  part  is 
divided  into  four  parts,  and  the 
upper  torus  has  one  of  them  ;  the 
remaining  three  parts  are  equally 
halved,  and  one-half  makes  the 
lower  torus,  and  the  other  the 
scotia,  which  the   Greeks  call, 

I 


AUG 


AX  I 


■po%i\ov,  trochilon,  with  its 
iquares." 

In  ancient  examples  of  the  ionic 
>nd  corinthian orders,  both  among 
he  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  attic 
•ase  is  frequently  to  be  found  5 
•ut  the  proportions  of  its  parts 
aries  in  almost  every  example, 
"he  attic  base  is  extremely  beau- 
iful,  and  is  as  much  the  favourite 
f  the  moderns  as  it  was  of  the 
ncients.    See  Plate  B1.  Bases. 

Attic,  or  atticurgic  door. 
ee  Door. 

Attic  order.  A  term  used  by 
)me  authors  to  denote  the  pilas- 
>rs  employed  in  the  decoration 
F  an  attic  story.  It  appears, 
Dwever,  to  be  used  improperly, 
1  it  wants  the  parts  that  are  es- 

ntially  necessary  to  constitute 
p  order,  such  as  the  capital,  base, 
itablature,  &c. 

Attic  story.  A  term  frequent- 
applied  to  the  upper  story  of  a 
()use. 

Attributes.  In  Painting  and 
mlpture.  Symbols  given  to 
;ures  and  statues  to  indicate 
jeir  office  and  character.  For 
ample,  the  palm  is  an  attribute 
,  victory ;  the  trident,  of  Nep- 
ne  j  the  olive  branch,  of  peace  ; 
i  d  the  club  is  an  attribute  of 
hrcules. 

Auditory.  A  seat  or  bench 
^  iere  a  magistrate  or  judge  hears 
uses. 

Auditory.  In  ancient  churches. 
1  at  part  of  a  church  where  the 
]  )ple  usually  stood  to  be  in- 
ducted in  the  gospel  ;  it  is  now 
c  led  the  nave. 

Vuger.  A  tool  used  by  carpcn- 
t<s  and  joiners  for  the  boring  of 
2S 


large  holes.  It  consists  of  an  iron 
spindle,  terminating  at  the  one 
end  with  steel,  and  at  the  other 
with  a  wooden  handle.  The  steel 
end  of  the  spindle  is  pointed  and 
sharpened  like  a  centre-bit,  one 
extremity  of  the  edges  being  made 
to  cut  the  wood  at  the  circum- 
ference ;  and  the  other  to  cut  and 
take  away  the  cone  the  whole 
length  of  the  radius.  SeePlateT1. 
Tools. 

Aviary.  A  large  cage  or  apart- 
ment for  breeding  birds. 

Aula.  A  court  or  hall  in  an- 
cient Roman  houses. 

Axal.    Relating  to  the  axis. 

Axal  section.  A  section 
through  the  axis  of  a  body. 

Axe.  A  tool  used  in  the  hew- 
ing of  timber.  It  consists  of  a  cut- 
ting edge  with  a  long  wooden 
handle,  which  is  usually  grasped 
by  both  hands  during  the  opera- 
tion of  cutting.  There  is  a  dif- 
ference between  the  adze  and  the 
axe  :  the  former  being  employed 
in  forming  horizontal  surfaces  -y 
and  the  latter  for  cutting  timber 
in  a  vertical  direction.  Axes  are 
also  used  by  bricklayers  and  stone- 
cutters, the  forms  of  which  are 
varied,  according  to  the  quality  of 
the  materials  upon  which  they 
have  to  act. 

Axis.  The  spindle  or  centre  of 
any  rotative  motion.  In  a  sphere, 
a  line  passing  through  the  centre 
is  the  axis. 

Axis  of  a  cone.    See  Cone. 

Axis  of  a  conic  section.  See 
Conic  Section. 

Axis  of  a  cylinder.  Sec  Cy- 
linder. 

321 


B  AC 


BAD 


Babel.  A  city  and  tower  built 
by  Noah's  posterity  in  the  plains 
of  Shinah.  Its  precise  situation 
is  not  ascertained.  It  was,  how- 
ever, within  the  province  of  Shi- 
nah, and  probably  ancient  Baby- 
lon was  erected  on  or  near  to  its 
ruins.  Some  have  supposed,  that 
a  shapeless  heap  of  ruins,  lying 
about  eight  or  nine  miles  to  the 
north-west  of  Bagdad,  is  the  re- 
mains of  that  celebrated  tower. 

According  to  the  scripture,  the 
materials  of  which  this  building 
was  constructed  were  burnt  bricks 
instead  of  stone,  and  slime  instead 
of  mortar.  The  slime  was  of  a 
pitchy  or  bituminous  nature, 
brought  from  a  city  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Babylon,  called  Is  or 
Hit. 

Back.  When  any  piece  of  tim- 
ber is  placed  in  a  level  or  an  in- 
clined position,  the  upper  side  is 
called  the  back  ;  and  the  lower 
side,  the  breast. 

Back  of  a  hand-rail.  From 
the  preceding  definition  it  is  evi- 
dent, that  the  upper  side  of  the 
hand-rail  is  called  the  back. 

Back  of  a  hip  rafter.  See 
Hip  Roof. 

Back  of  a  rafter.  The  upper 
side  of  a  rafter. 

Back  lining  of  a  sash  frame. 
See  Sash  Frame. 

Back  shutters.  Shutters  for 
the  principal  rooms  of  houses  are 
generally  made  in  halves  :  the 
one-half  being  fixed  to  the  one 
side  of  a  window,  the  other  half 
on  the  side  exactly  opposite  )  sm 
that  when  the  halves  are  brought 
towards  each  other,  and  are  in  one 
plane,  they  close,  and  effectually 
shut  out  the  light.  Each  of  the 
halves  consist  of  two,  three,  or 
more  pieces  of  joinery,  connected 
together  by  hinges,  to  admit  of 
their  being  folded  behind  each 


other,  so  as  to  fall  back  into  a 
box  or  recess  made  for  th^ir  re- 
ception. When  thus  folded  back, 
that  division  of  the  shutters  which 
is  visible  is  called  the  front-shut- 
ters and  that  division  or  divisi- 
ons which  is  confined  in  the  recess, 
the  back-shutters,  or  back-flaps. 
Back-shutters  are  usually  made 
thinner  than  the  front-shutters, 
and  are  framed  with  bead  and  butt. 

Back  of  a  wall.  See  Backing 
of  a  Wall. 

Back  of  a  window.  That  piece 
of  joinery,  or  wainscoting,  which 
is  in  the  intermediate  space  be- 
tween the  bottom  of  the  sash  frame 
and  the  floor  of  an  apartment, 
being  confined  in  its  length  by 
the  two  elbows.  This  wainscot- 
ing has  commonly  but  one  panel; 
though  under  large  windows  it 
has  sometimes  two  and  even  three 
panels.  The  mouldings  on  the 
framing  of  these  panels  are  made 
to  correspond  with  the  moulding; 
on  the  elbows,  shutters,  doors, 
soffits,  &c.  of  the  same  apart- 
ment. 

Backing  of  a  rafter  or  rib 
The  forming  of  an  upper  or  oute: 
surface,  that  it  may  range  with 
the  edges  of  the  ribs  or  ratten 
on  either  side.  See  Edging,  am 
Ranging. 

Backing  of  a  wall.  The  in 
ner  face  of  a  wall ;  or  the  art  o 
building  the  inner  face. 

Badigeon.  A  mixture  of  plas 
ter  and  free-stone,  well  sifted  am 
ground  together  :  it  is  used  b 
statuaries  to  fill  up  the  little  holes 
;ind  repair  the  defects,  in  stoneso 
which  their  work  is  made.  Joiner 
apply  this  term  to  a  mixture  c 
saw-dust  and  strong  glue,  where 
with  they  fill  up  the  chaps  an- 
other defects  of  wood,  after  it  ha 
been  wrought.  They  also  use  fc 
the  same  purpose  a  mixture  ( 


I 


BALBEC. 


vhiting  and  glue  ;  and  sometimes 
mtty  and  chalk.  When  the  lirst 
>f  these  two  last  mentioned  is  used, 
I  is  usual  to  allow  it  to  remain  till 
is  quite  hard,  before  it  is  sub- 
litted  to  the  operation  of  planing 
r  smoothing  ;  as,  otherwise,  it 
apt  to  shrink  below  the  surface 
f  the  work. 

Bagxio.  An  Italian  term  for  a 
jath.  The  English  apply  this  term 
p  a  house  which  hath  conveni- 
nces  for  bathing,  sweating,  and 
therwise  cleansing  the  body ;  the 
urks  apply  it  to  the  prisons  where 
leir  slaves  are  confined,  in  which 
risons  it  is  customary  to  have 
aths. 

Baguette.  A  small  astragal 
oulding,  sometimes  carved  and 
riched  with  pearls,  ribands, 
urels,  &c.  According  to  M. 
!  Clerc,  when  the  baguette  is 
niched  with  ornaments  it  is  call- 
1  a  chaplet ;  and  when  plain,  it  is 
bead. 

Bakehouse.  A  house,  or  apart- 
ment, for  baking.    See  Oven. 
Balaxeia.    A  Greek  term  for  a 

(atfe- 

!U l, !'.K( OR   BAALBECK.      A  fa- 

,)ous  (  rv  of  Syria  ;  implying  in 
re   Syrian    language,     the  city 
Bit'tl  or  the  Sun.    It  was  also 
plebrated    by  the    Greeks  and 
rttin$  under  the  term  Heliopolis, 
inch  word  is  analogous  to  the 
rian  "  Balbec."   It  is  pleasantly 
tuate  near  the  north-east  extre- 
ity  of  the  valley  of  Bocat,  or 
fkna,   at   the   foot  of  mount 
iti-Libanus,   on  the  last  rising 
Jbimd  where  the  mountain  ter- 
•  inates  in  the  plain.    It  is  well 
itered  by   the  Litane,  rising 
Dm  Anti-Libanus,  and  the  Bar- 
1  uni  from  the  foot  of  Libanus  ; 
«'d  it  abounds  in  gardens.    It  is 
<  tant  from  Damascus  about  fifty 
)  lea  to  the  north-west ;  and  it  is 
«'  out  thirty  miles  from  the  nearest 
M-coast,  which  is  the  site  of  the 
Jcient  Byblus. 


Balbec  has  long  been  failed  for 
her  architectural  antiquities.  Pur- 
suing the  plan,  therefore,  which 
we  have  adopted  with  respect  to 
Athenian  architecture, we  purpose, 
in  this  place,  to  detail  to  the  reader 
some  of  the  most  valuable  infor- 
mation relating  to  this  city,  de- 
pending principally  upon  the  ac- 
credited accounts  of  Mr.  Robert 
Wood,  which  were  published 
through  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Daw- 
kins,  who  visited  Balbec  in  1/51  j 
and  those  of  Mi  Volney,  in  his 
travels  in  Egypt  and  Syria. 

"  As  we  arrive,"  says  Volney, 
"  from  the  south,  we  discover  the 
city  at  the  distance  of  only  a  league 
and  a  half,  behind  a  hedge  of  trees, 
over  the  verdant  tops  of  which 
appears  a  white  edging  of  domes 
and  minarets.  After  an  hour's 
journey  we  reach  these  trees, which 
are  fine  walnuts  ;  and  soon  after, 
crossing  some  ill-cultivated  gar- 
dens, by  winding  paths  arrive  at 
the  entrance  of  the  city.  We  there 
perceived  a  ruined  wall,  flanked 
with  square  towers,  which  ascends 
the  acclivity  to  the  right,  and 
traces  the  precincts  of  the  ancient 
city.  This  wall,  which  is  only 
10  or  12  feet  high,  permits  us  to 
have  a  view  of  those  void  spaces, 
and  heaps  of  ruins  which  are  the 
invariable  appendage  of  every 
Turkish  city :  but  what  principally 
attracts  our  attention,  is  a  large 
edifice  on  the  left,  which,  by  its 
lofty  walls  and  rich  columns, 
manifestly  appears  to  be  one  of 
those  temples  which  antiquity  has 
left  for  our  admiration.  These 
ruins,  which  are  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  best  preserved  in 
Asia,  merit  a  particular  descrip- 
tion. 

"To  give  a  just  idea  of  them,  we 
must  suppose  ourselves  descend- 
ing from  the  interior  of  the  town. 
After  having  crossed  the  rubbish 
and  huts  with  which  it  is  filled 
we  arrive  at  a  vacant  place,  which 

H'2'3 


B  A  L  B  E  C. 


appears ,  to  have  been  a  square  j 
there,  in  front  towards  the  west, 
we  perceive  a  grand  ruin,  which 
consists  of  two  pavilions  orna- 
mented with  pilasters,  joined  at 
their  bottom  angles  by  a  wall  160 
feet  in  length.  This  front  com- 
mands the  open  country  from  a 
sort  of  terrace,  on  the  edge  of 
which  we  distinguish  with  diffi- 
culty the  bases  of  twelve  columns, 
which  formerly  extended  from  one 
pavilion  to  the  other,  and  formed 
a  portico.  The  principal  gate  is 
obstructed  by  heaps  of  stones  j 
but  that  obstacle  surmounted,  we 
enter  an  empty  space,  which  is 
a  hexagonal  court  of  180  feet 
diameter.  This  court  is  strewed 
with  broken  columns,  mutilated 
capitals,  and  the  remains  of  pilas- 
ters, entablatures,  and  cornices  -} 
around  is  a  row  of  ruined  edifices, 
which  display  all  the  ornaments 
of  the  richest  architecture.  At 
the  end  of  this  court,  opposite  the 
west,  is  an  outlet  which  formerly 
was  a  gate,  through  which  we  per- 
ceive a  still  more  extensive  range 
of  ruins,  whose  magnificence 
strongly  excites  curiosity.  To 
have  a  full  prospect  of  these  we 
must  ascend  a  slope,  up  which 
were  the  steps  to  this  gate,  and 
we  then  arrive  at  the  entrance  of 
a  square  court,  much  more  spaci- 
ous than  the  former.  The  eye  is 
first  attracted  by  the  end  of  this 
court,  where  six  enormous  and 
majestic  columns  render  the  scene 
astonishingly  grand  and  pictur- 
esque. Another  object  not  less 
interesting  is  a  second  range  of 
columns  to  the  left,  which  appear 
to  have  been  part  of  the  peristyle 
of  a  temple  5  but  before  we  pass 
hither  we  cannot  refuse  particular 
attention  to  the  edifices,  which 
enclose  this  court  on  each  side. 
They  form  a  sort  of  gallery  which 
contains  various  chambers,  seven 
of  which  may  be  reckoned  in  each 

324 


of  the  principal  wings  j  viz.  two 
in  a  semicircle,  and  five  in  an 
oblong  square.  The  bottom  of 
these  apartments  still  retains  pedi- 
ments of  niches  and  tabernacles, 
the  supporters  of  which  are  de- 
stroyed. On  the  side  of  the  court 
they  are  open,  and  present  only 
four  and  six  columns  totally  de- 
stroyed. It  is  not  easy  to  con- 
ceive the  use  of  these  apartments ; 
but  this  does  not  diminish  our 
admiration  at  the  beauty  of  their 
pilasters,  and  the  richness  of  the 
frieze  and  of  the  entablature.  Nei- 
ther is  it  possible  to  avoid  remark- 
ing the  singular  effect  which  re- 
sults from  the  mixture  of  the 
garlands,  the  large  foliage  of  the 
capitals,  and  the  sculpture  of  wild 
plants  with  which  they  are  every 
where  ornamented.  In  traversing 
the  length  of  the  court,  we  find 
in  the  middle  a  little  square  espla- 
nade, where  was  a  pavilion,  of 
which  nothing  remains  but  the 
foundation.  At  length  we  arrive 
at  the  foot  of  the  six  columns  j 
and  then  first  conceive  all  the 
boldness  of  their  elevation,  and 
the  richness  of  their  workman- 
ship. Their  shafts  are  21  feet  8 
inches  in  circumference,  and  58 
high ;  so  that  the  total  height, 
including  the  entablature,  is  from 
71  to  72  feet.  The  sight  of  this 
superb  ruin,  thus  solitary  and 
unaccompanied,  at  first  strikes  us 
with  astonishment ;  but  on  a  more 
attentive  examination,  we  dis- 
cover a  series  of  foundations, 
which  mark  an  oblong  square  of 
268  feet  in  length,  and  146  wide; 
and  which,  it  seems  probable,  was 
the  peristyle  of  a  grand  temple, 
the  primary  purpose  of  this  whole 
structure.  It  presented  to  the 
great  court,  that  is  to  the  east,  a 
front  of  ten  columns,  with  nine- 
teen on  each  side,  which  with  the 
other  six  make  in  all  fifty-four. 
The  ground  on  which  it  stood 


BALBEC. 


was  an  oblong  square,  on  a  level 
with  this  court,  but  narrower  than 
it  j  so  that  there  was  only  a  terrace 
of  27  feet  wide  round  the  colon- 
nade. The  esplanade  this  pro- 
duces fronts  the  open  country 
toward  the  west,  by  a  sloping 
wall  of  about  30  feet.  This  de- 
scent, as  you  approach  the  city, 
becomes  less  steep  -f  so  that  the 
foundation  of  the  pavilion  is 
on  a  level  with  the  termination 
of  the  hill,  whence  it  is  evident 
that  the  whole  ground  of  the 
courts  has  been  artificially  raised. 

"  Such  was  the  former  state  of 
this  edifice  j  but  the  southern  side 
of  the  grand  temple  was  after- 
wards blocked  up  to  build  a  small- 
er one,  the  peristyle  and  wall  of 
which  are  still  remaining.  This 
temple,  situated  some  feet  lower 
than  the  other,  presents  a  side  of 
thirteen  columns,  by  eight  in  front 
'  (in  all    thirty-four),    which  are 

1  likewise  of  the  Corinthian  order  ; 
their  shafts  are  15  feet  8  inches 
in  circumference,  and  44  in  height. 

1     'The  building  they  surround  is  an 

1  1  oblong  square,  the  front  of  which, 
facing  the  east,  is  out  of  the  line 
of  the  left  wing  of  the  great  court. 
To  reach  it  you  must  cross  trunks 
of  columns,  heaps  of  stones,  and 
a  ruinous  wall  by  which  it  is  now 
hid.  After  surmounting  these  ob- 

[  'stacles,  you  arrive  at  the  gate, 
'where  you  may  survey  the  enclo- 

ii  sure  which  was  once  the  habita- 
tion of  a  god;  but  instead  of  the 
awful  scene  of  a  prostrate  people, 
uid  sacrifices  offered  by  a  multi- 
:ude  of  priests,  the  sky,  which 
s  open  from  the  falling  in  of  the 
oof,  only  lets  in  light  to  show  a 
haos  of  ruins  covered  with  dust 
ind  weeds.  The  walls  formerly 
nriched  with  all  the  ornaments 
)f  the  corinthian  order,  now  pre- 
ient  nothing  but  pediments  of 

v  liches,  and  tabernacles,  of  which 
dmost  all  the  supporters  have 


fallen  to  the  ground.  Between 

these  niches  is  a  range  of  fluted 
pilasters,  whose  capitals  support 
a  broken  entablature  j  but  what 
remains  of  it  display  a  rich  frieze 
of  foliage,  resting  on  the  heads 
of  satyrs,  horses,  bulls,  &c.  Over 
this  entablature  was  the  ancient 
roof,  which  was  5*  feet  wide,  and 
1 10  in  length.  The  walls  which 
supported  it  are  31  feet  high,  and 
without  a  window.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  form  any  idea  of  the  or- 
naments of  this  roof,  except  from 
the  fragments  lying  on  the 
ground  ;  but  it  could  not  have 
been  richer  than  the  gallery  of  the 
peristyle  :  the  principal  remaining 
parts  contain  tablets  in  the  form 
of  lozenges,  on  which  are  repre- 
sented Jupiter  seated  on  his  eagle  : 
Leda  caressed  by  the  swan  Diana 
with  her  bow  and  crescent  j  and 
several  busts,  which  seem  to  be  fi- 
gures ofemperors  and  empresses." 

Several  changes,  however,  have 
taken  place  since  their  journey ; 
for  example,  they  found  nine  large 
columns  standing  ;  and  in  1784, 
there  were  but  six.  They  reck- 
oned nine  and  twenty  at  the  lesser 
temple,  but  there  now  remain  but 
twenty ;  the  others  have  been 
overthrown  by  the  earthquake  of 
1759.  It  has  likewise  so  shaken 
the  stone  walls  of  the  smaller  tem- 
ple, that  the  stone  of  the  soffit  of 
the  gate  has  slid  between  the  two 
adjoining  ones,  and  descended  8 
inches  ;  by  which  means  the 
body  of  the  bird,  sculptured  on 
that  stone,  is  suspended,  detach- 
ed from  its  wings  and  the  two 
garlands  which  hung  from  its 
beak  and  terminated  in  the  two 
genii.  Nature  alone  has  not  af- 
fected this  devastation  j  the  Turks 
have  had  their  share  in  the  de- 
struction of  these  columns.  Their 
motive  is  to  procure  the  iron 
cramps,  which  serve  to  join  the 
several  blocks  of  which  each  co- 

325 


( 


BALBEC. 


lumn  is  composed.  These  cramps 
answer  so  well  the  end  intended, 
that  several  of  the  columns  are 
not  even  disjointed  by  the  fall ; 
one  among  others,  as  Mr.  Wood 
observed,  has  penetrated  a 
stone  of  the  temple  wall  without 
giving-  way.  Nothing  can  surpass 
the  workmanship  of  these  co- 
lumns; they  are  joined  without 
any  cement,  yet  there  is  not  room 
for  the  blade  of  a  knife  between 
their  interstices.  After  so  many 
ages,  they  in  general  retain  their 
original  whiteness.  But  what 
is  still  more  astonishing,  is  the 
enormous  stones  which  compose 
the  sloping  wall.  To  the  west, 
the  second  layer  is  formed  of 
stones  which  are  from  28  to  35 
feet  long,  by  about  9  in  height. 
Over  this  layer  at  the  north-west 
angle,  «  there  are  three  stones 
which  alone  occupy  a  space  of  175 
feet  and  a  half  j  viz.  the  first,  58 
feet  7  inches  ;  the  second,  58  feet 
11  *  and  the  third,  58  ;  and  each 
of  these  are  12  feet  thick.  These 
stones  are  of  a  white  granite,  with 
large  shining  flakes  like  gypse  j 
there  is  a  quarry  of  this  kind  of 
stone  under  the  whole  city,  and 
in  the  adjacent  mountain,  which 
is  open  in  several  places,  and, 
among  others,  on  the  right  as  we 
approach  the  city.  There  is  still 
lying  there  a  stone,  hewn  on  three 
sides,  which  is  69  feet  2  inches 
long,  12  feet  10  inches  broad,  and 
13  feet  3  inches  in  thickness. 

The  tradition  which  ascribes 
the  buildings  at  Balbec,  and  also 
Palmyra,  to  Solomon,  and  on 
which  the  inhabitants  of  the  coun- 
try confidently  rely,  is  founded  on 
an  opinion  generally  prevalent  of 
his  wisdom  and  love  of  pleasure, 
with  both  of  which  the  magnifi- 
cence, beauty,  and  disposition  of 
these  buildings  perfectly  agree  ; 
and  on  the  mention  of  "Tadmor  in 
the  wilderness,  and  the  tower  of 

326 


Lebanon  looking  toward  Damas- 
cus," which  are  said  in  the  Old 
Testament  to  have  been  built  by 
his  direction. 

Some  have  supposed  that  these 
are  the  ruins  of  a  temple  of  the 
sun  built  by  the  Phoenicians,  be- 
cause it  is  certain  that  the  suns 
was  worshipped  at  this  place  when 
the  Phoenicians  were  in  their  most 
flourishing  state.  Others  have 
thought,  that  these  buildings  were 
erected  by  theGreeks,who  succeed- 
ed the  Phoenicians  in  this  country, 
because  they  are  of  the  corinthian 
and  ionic  order  ,  but  as  they  are' 
not  mentioned  from  the  time  of 
Alexander's  conquest  to  that  of 
Pompey,  there  is  great  reason  to 
suppose  they  are  of  later  date. 

When  we  consider  the  extraor- 
dinary magnificence  of  the  temple 
of  Balbec,  we  cannot  but  be  as- 
tonished at  the  silence  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  authors.  Mr. 
Wood,  who  has  carefully  examin- 
ed all  the  ancient  writers,  has] 
found  no  mention  of  it,  except  in 
a  fragment  of  "  John  of  Antioch," 
surnamed  Malala,  who  attributes 
the  building  of  this  edifice  to 
Antoninus  Pius.  He  says,  that; 
this  Emperor  "  built  a  great  tem- 
ple to  Jupiter  at  Heliopolis,  near 
Libanus,  in  Phoenicia,  which  was 
one  of  the  wonders  of  the  world." 
This  is  the  only  historical  autho- 
rity that  has  yet  been  discovered 
relating  to  this  subject.  As  these 
buildings  seem  to  have  been  erect-J 
ed  between  the  time  of  Pompey 
and  Caracalla,  it  is  very  probable 
they  were  the  work  of  Antoninusi 
Pius.  The  inscriptions  that  re- 
main corroborate  this  opinion, 
which  perfectly  accounts  for  the 
constant  use  of  the  corinthian  or-; 
der,  since  that  order  was  not  ic 
general  use  before  the  third  age 
of  Rome  ;  but  we  ought  by  ncj 
means  to  allege  as  an  additional 
proof,  the  bird  sculptured  ovei< 


B  A  L  B  E  C. 


the  gate  ;  for  if  his  crooked  beak, 
large  claws,  and  the  caduceus  he 
bears,  give  him  the  appearance  of 
an  eagle,  the  tuft  of  feathers  on 
his  head,  like  that  of  certain 
pigeons,  proves  that  he  is  not  the 
Roman  eagle :  besides  that,  the 
same  bird  is  found  in  the  temple 
of  Palmyra,  and  is,  therefore, 
evidently  an  oriental  eagle,  con- 
secrated to  the  sun,  who  was  the 
divinity  adored  in  both  these  tem- 
ples. His  worship  existed  at  Bal- 
bec  in  the  most  remote  antiquity. 
;  His  statue,  which  resembled  that 
of  Osiris,  had  been  brought  thither 
from  the  Heliopolis  of  Egypt,  and 

ll  the  ceremonies  with  which  he 
was  worshipped  there,  have  been 
described  by  Macrobius  in  his 
curious  work,  entitled  "  Satur- 
nalia.*'  Mr  Wood  supposes,  with 

tl      reason,  that  the  name  of  Balbec, 

5j     |  which  in  Syriac  signifies  city  of 
:  Baal,  or  of  the  sun,  originated 

ej  !  in  this  worship.  The  Greeks  by 
naming  it  Heliopolis  have,  in  this 

s  i  instance,  only  given  a  literal  trans- 
lation of  the  oriental  words,  a 
practice  to  which  they  have  not 

I      always  adhered. 

We  are  ignorant  of  the  state  of 
this  city  in  remote  antiquity ;  but 

I      ,  it  is  to  be  presumed,  that  its  situ* 
,  ation  on  the  road  from  Tyre  to 
i  Palmyra,  gave  it  some  part  of  the 
commerce  of  those  opulent  cap- 
itals. 

Under  the  Romans,  Heliopolis 
was  constituted  a  colony  by  Julius 
Caesar  j  and  in  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus, it  is  mentioned  as  a  gar- 
rison town,  for  it  received  part 
of  the  veterans  of  the  fifth  and 
I  eighth  legions  ;  and  there  is  still 
remaining  on  the  wall  of  the 
southern  gate,  to  the  right  as  we 
enter,  an  inscription  which  proves 
the  truth  of  this,  the  words  Ken- 
turla  Prima,  in  Greek  characters, 
being  very  legible.  One  hundred 
and  forty  years  after,  Antoninus 


built  there  the  present  temple,  in 
place  of  the  ancient  one,  which, 
doubtless,  was  falling  into  ruins. 
Christianity,  however,  having 
gained  the  ascendancy  under 
Constantine,  the  modern  temple 
was  neglected,  and  afterwards 
converted  into  a  church,  a  wall  of 
which,  that  hid  the  sanctuary  of 
the  idols,  is  still  remaining.  It 
continued  thus  until  the  invasion 
of  the  Arabs,  when  it  is  proba- 
ble they  envied  the  christians  so 
beautiful  a  building.  The  church 
being  less  frequented,  fell  to  de- 
cay 5  wars  succeeded,  and  it  was 
converted  into  a  place  of  defence  ; 
battlements  were  built  on  the  wall 
which  surrounded  it,  on  the  pa- 
vilions, and  at  the  angles,  which 
still  subsist  j  and  from  that  time, 
the  temple,  exposed  to  the  rava- 
ges of  war,  fell  rapidly  to  ruin." 

Mr.  Wood's  book,  entitled 
Les  Ruines  de  Balbec,  contains 
forty-six  folio  plates,  illustrative 
of  the  state  of  the  ancient  build- 
ings in  Balbec,  at  the  time  that 
he  and  Mr.  Dawk  ins  visited  it  in 
the  year  1751.  But  as  the  limits 
of  this  work  will  not  admit  of  our 
giving  more  than  a  small  portion 
of  these  plates, we  have  endeavour- 
ed to  select  such  as  will  be  the 
most  useful  to  our  readers. 

Plate  B2,  Balbec,  is  a  plan 
and  elevation  of  the  semicircular 
exedrae  of  the  great  temple. 

A,  niche ;  enlarged  in  plate  B3. 

B,  tabernacle  above  the  niche  ; 
enlarged  in  plate  B5. 

C,  entablature  ;  enlarged  in 
plate  B\ 

D,  soffit  of  the  arched  roof. 
Plate   B3,  Balbec.  Elevation 

of  the  niche  in  the  semicircular 
exedra  ;  and  between  the  pilas- 
ters of  the  quadrangular  court, 
with  a  part  of  the  tabernacle 
above. 

A,  end  of  the  niche. 

B,  pilaster  of  the  niche,  of  the 

327 


B  A  L 

composite  order,  ornamented  with 
oak-leaves. 

C,  great  pilaster  of  the  court. 
See  this  order  entire  in  plate  B5. 

D,  frieze  within  the  niche,  of  a 
size  equal  to  the  height  of  the 
capitals  of  the  pilasters. 

E,  shell,  which  forms  the  upper 
part  of  the  niche. 

F,  pedestal  for  a  statue. 

G,  columns  of  the  tabernacle 
above  the  niche. 

Plate  B4,  Balbec.  Plan  and 
elevation  of  the  tabernacle,  above 
the  niche,as  shown  in  the  last  plate. 

A,  plan  of  the  tabernacle. 

B,  C,  its  depth  in  the  wall. 

D,  plan  of  the  composite  co- 
lumns. 

E,  plan  of  the  pilasters  of  the 
courts.  Plate  B5,  will  show  the 
order. 

Plate  B5,  a  column  and  entab- 
lature of  the  two  courts.  The 
shaft  of  the  column  consists  of  a 
single  block  of  granite,  and  the 
vase  and  capitals  were  of  the  same 
materials  as  the  rest  of  the  edifice. 

The  shafts  of  the  columns  of 
the  great  temple  were  composed 
of  three  pieces,  very  closely  join- 
ed without  the  aid  of  cement, 
and  fastened  together  by  clamps 
of  iron.  For  the  reception  of  these 
bars  of  iron,  holes  were  made 
in  each  of  the  stones.  Most  of 
the  bases  have  two  of  these 
holes,  the  one  circular,  the 
other  square,  which  correspond 
with  two  holes  of  the  same 
form  and  dimensions  in  the  in- 
ferior parts  of  the  shafts.  On 
measuring  some  of  the  largest  of 
the  circular  holes,  it  appeared  to 
Mr.  Wood,  that  the  rods  of  iron 
that  had  been  inserted  in  them 
must  have  been  a  foot  long,  and 
more  than  a  foot  in  diameter  j  the 
whole  of  the  ruins  which  he  saw 
had  similar  holes,  hence  he  con- 
cluded that  each  of  the  stones 
had  been  secured  in  the  manner 

328 


B  A  L 

above  described.  This  diminished 
his  surprise  of  the  quantity  of 
iron,  which  the  inhabitants  in- 
formed  him  had  been  taken  ' 
from  the  ruins  by  the  bashaws  of  I 
Damascus ;  and  the  marks  of  their 
violent  though  vain,  efforts  to 
take  the  iron  from  the  columns 
still  standing  were  very  evident. 

Plate  B6,  elevation  of  the  front 
of  the  most  entire  temple  re- 
stored. 

Plate  B7,  side  elevation  of  the 
same  temple, 

Plate  B8,  order  of  the  peristyle 
of  the  same  temple.  Most  of  the 
columns  are  composed  of  three, 
though  some  of  them  are  only  of 
two  pieces. 

Plate  B9,  column  in  the  interior 
of  the  temple  ;  the  shaft  of  which 
is  composed  of  several  pieces. 

Plate  B10,  view  of  the  circular 
temple,  in  the  state  in  which  it 
was  found  by  Mr.  Wood.  The 
outside  of  this  temple  was  of  the 
Corinthian  order,  the  inside  of  the 
Corinthian  and  ionic  :  the  shafts 
of  the  columns,  both  exterior  and 
interior,  are  of  a  single  piece. 

Balcony.  From  the  French 
balcon,  a  kind  of  open  gallery, 
projecting  from  the  walls  of  build- 
ings, contrived  chiefly  for  the 
convenience  of  looking  around, 
seeing  processions,  cavalcades, 
and  the  like.  When  there  is  but 
one  balcony  to  a  house,  it  is  usu-  ! 
ally  placed  on  a  level  with,  and 
extending  the  whole  length  of  the 
first  floor.  Balconies  are  some- 
times made  of  wood,  and  some- 
times of  cast-iron ;  they  are  j 
also  made  of  wrou£?ht-iron, 
fashioned  into  various  fanciful 
figures  ;  and  sometimes  of  stone. 
A  separate  balcony  is  sometimes 
placed  to  each  window ;  and 
are  usually  made  convex  to 
the  street.  Where  balconies  are 
placed,  it  is  customary  to  extend 
the  windows  to  the  floor,  or  very 


B  A  L 


BAL 


iear  to  it,  without  giving  the 
perture  any  additional  breadth. 

Balcony.  In  Naval  Architecture. 
\  gallery,  either  covered  or  open, 
nade  abaft,  for  convenience 
r  ornament  of  the  captain's 
abin. 

Baldachin,  or  baldaquin.  This 
,-ord  is  derived  from  the  Italian 
aldackino,  and  implies  a  build- 
hg  in  the  form  of  a  canopy,  sup- 
orted  with  columns,  and  serving 
s  a  crown  or  covering  to  an 
■  ltar. 

Balection   mouldings.  See 
{election  Mouldings. 
Balks.    Large  pieces  of  tim- 
er brought  from  abroad  in  floats ; 
r  a  sort  of  beams  imported,  from 
to  12  inches  square.  The  greater 
ilks  are   accounted   timber  if 
jove  8  inches  square.    Balk  is 
so  used  in  some  parts  of  Eng- 
nd  for  the  summer-beam  of  a 
Hiding,  as  also  for  the  poles  or 
ifters   laid    over  outhouses  or 
irns.    It  is  used  among  brick- 
yers,  for  the  pieces  of  timber 
fed  in  making  scaffolds. 
*     Balloon.  A  round  ball  or  globe 
aced  at  the  top  of  a  pillar,  or 
f    |e  like,  by  way  of  acroter  or 
owning.    That  on  the  top  of 
Peter's,  at  Rome,  is  of  brass, 
stained  by  an  iron  arming  with- 
;  and  being  at  the  height  of 
vty-seven  fathoms,  is  above  8 
;!     et  in  diameter. 

Balneum.    A  bath. 
'       Balthei.      A  word  used  by 
truvius  for  some  part  of  the 
i  iic  volute,  generally  supposed 
I  be  the  mouldings  that  encom- 
ia    i(ssed  the  bolsters. 

Baluster.     A  small  kind  of 
t     (lumn,  or  pillar,   belonging  to 
I  alustrade. 

Baluster.    The  lateral  part  of 
t;  volute  of  the  ionic  capital, 
vruvius    calls  it  pulvinata,  on 
I  jount  of  its  resemblance  to  a 
v  f'low. 

2T 


Balustrade.  This  word  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin  balustrum,  or 
balustrium ;  a  space  in  the  ancient 
baths  that  was  railed  in.  Balus- 
trades are  sometimes  of  real  use 
in  buildings,  and  at  other  times 
they  are  merely  ornamental.  Such 
as  are  intended  for  use,  as  when 
they  are  employed  in  stair-cases, 
before  windows,  to  enclose  terra- 
ces, &c.  must  always  be  nearly  of 
the  same  height,  never  exceeding 
3  feet  and  a  half,  nor  ever  less 
than  3  feet,  so  that  a  person  of 
ordinary  size  may,  with  ease,  lean 
over  them,  without  being,  at  the 
same  time,  in  danger  of  falling. 
But  those  that  are  principally 
designed  for  ornament,  as  when 
they  finish  a  building,  should  be 
proportioned  to  the  architecture 
they  accompany.  Palladio,  in 
some  of  his  works,  has  made  the 
height  of  the  balustrade  equal  to 
that  of  the  whole  entablature  ; 
and  Inigo  Jones,  in  many  of  his 
buildings,  has  followed  his  ex- 
ample, particularly  at  the  ban- 
queting-house,  Whitehall,  or,  as 
it  is  now  most  generally  called, 
Whitehall  chapel.  Sir  William 
Chambers  objects  to  this  great 
height  being  given  to  the  balus- 
trade, and  states  that  it  should 
never  exceed  four-fifths,  nor  be 
less  than  two-thirds  of  the  height 
of  the  entablature  on  which  it  is 
placed. 

There  are  various  figures  of 
balusters ;  the  most  regular  of 
which  are  delineated  in  plate  B11, 
Balusters.  The  handsomest  are 
the  three  in  the  first  row  :  the 
profiles  and  dimensions  of  which 
all  diner.  The  simplest  of  them 
may  serve  to  finish  a  tuscan  or- 
der ;  and  the  others  may  be  em- 
ployed in  the  doric,  ionic,  Corin- 
thian, and  composite  orders,  ac- 
cording to  their  degrees  of  rich- 
ness. The  best  proportion  for 
balustrades  of  this  kind  is,  to 

329 


B  ALUS 

divide  the  whole  given  height 
into  thirteen  equal  parts  j  and  to 
make  the  height  of  the  baluster 
equal  to  eight,  the  height  of  the 
base  to  three,  and  that  of  the  cor- 
nice or  rail  to  two,  of  those  parts ; 
and  if  it  be  required  to  make  the 
baluster  less,  to  divide  the  height 
of  the  balustrade  into  fourteen 
parts,  giving  eight  parts  to  the 
baluster,  four  to  the  base,  and 
two  to  the  rail.  One  of  these 
parts  may  be  called  a  module  j 
and  being  divided  into  nine  mi- 
nutes, may  serve  to  determine  the 
dimensions  of  the  particular  mem- 
bers, as  in  plate  B11. 

The  other  designs  of  balusters 
exhibited  in  the  same  plate,  are 
likewise  very  perfect  in  their 
kinds,  and  are  collected  from  the 
works  of  Palladio  and  other  great 
masters.  The  double-bellied  ones, 
being  the  highest,  are  most  proper 
to  accompany  windows,  or  other 
compositions,  whose  parts  are 
small,  and  whose  profiles  are 
delicate.  The  base  and  rail  of 
these  balusters  may  be  of  the  same 
profile  as  the  single-bellied;  but 
they  must  not  be  quite  so  large. 
Two-ninths  of  the  baluster  will 
be  a  proper  height  for  the  rail, 
and  three  for  the  base.  The  pro- 
portions of  the  balusters  may 
easily  be  found  by  reference  to 
the  plate,  where  the  height  of 
each  is  divided  into  such  a  num- 
ber of  parts  as  is  most  convenient 
for  the  distribution  of  the  inferior 
divisions  ;  one  of  which  parts  is 
the  module  divided  into  nine 
minutes. 

In  balustrades,  the  distance  be- 
tween two  balusters  should  not 
exceed  half  the  diameter  of  the 
baluster,  measured  in  its  thickest 
part  3  nor  be  less  than  one-third 
of  it.  The  pedestals  which  sup- 
port the  rails  should  be  kept  at 
such  a  distance,  that  the  balus- 
trades have  not  a  heavy  look  by 


TRADE. 

their  being  too  frequent,  nor 
weak  appearance  by  their  bein 
too  far  asunder.    The  most  eligi 
ble  distance  between    them  i< 
when  room  is  left  in  each  intern 
for  eight  or  nine  whole  baluster; 
besides  the  two  half  ones  engage 
in  the  flanks  of   the  pedestal.'. 
But  as  the  disposition  of  the  pej 
destals  depends  on  the  situatio; 
of  the  piers,  pilasters,  or  column; 
in  the  front,  it  being  customar; 
to  place  a  pedestal  directly  ov(i 
the  middle  of  each  of  these, 
frequently  happens  that  the  inter 
vals  are  sufficient  to  contain  si> 
teen  or  eighteen  balusters.  I 
this  case,  each  range  may  be  d 
vided  into  two,  by  placing  a  d: 
in  the  middle,  flanked  with  tvv 
half  balusters.     The  breadth  < 
this  die  may  be  from  one-half! 
two-thirds  of  the  breadth  of  a  p< 
destal ;  and  it  will  be  best  to  coi 
tinue  the  rail  and  base  in  a  straigl 
line,    without    having   a  bre; 
round  it :  for  frequent  breaks 
any  kind  are  defective  j  and  raui 
more  so  when  they  are  of  differe 
dimensions,    because   they  thi 
render  the  confusion  greater. 

The  breadth  of  the  pedesta 
when  they  are  placed  on  colum 
or  pilasters  is  regulated  by  then 
the  die  never  being  made  broad 
than  the  top  of  the  shaft,  nor 
much  narrower  dimensions.  Wh 
there  are  neither  columns  n 
pilasters  in  the  front,  the  ( 
should  never  be  much  lower,  a 
seldom  higher  than  a  square. 

On  stairs,  or  any  other  inclin 
planes,  the  same  proportions  i 
to  be  observed  as  on  horizon 
ones.  Sometimes  it  is  custom; 
to  make  the  mouldings  of  t 
balusters  follow  the  inclination 
the  plane  ;  but  this  is  difficult 
execute,  and  not  very  handsoi 
when  done  ;  consequently  it  I 
better  to  keep  them  horizon*, 
and  to  make  the  abacus  and  plijl 


B  A  L 


BAN 


in  the  form  of  wedges,  making 
the  height  at  the  axis  of  the  ba- 
luster the  same  as  usual.  See  fig. 
D,  plate  B  11 .  The  distance  be- 
tween two  balusters  on  inclined 
planes,  must  not  be  so  much  as 
when  they  are  on  a  horizontal 
situation  j  because  the  thickest 
parts  do  not  then  come  on  the 
same  level.  Le  Clerc  thinks  it  best 
,o  finish  the  inclined  balustrades 
)f  stairs,  or  steps,  with  horizontal 
bedestals,  placed  on  the  floor  or 
pavement  to  which  they  descend. 
The  method  of  joining  the  hori- 
zontal mouldings  of  these  to  the 
nclined  ones  of  the  rail  and  base 
of  the  pedestal  is  shown  in  fig.  D, 
tfateB11. 

As  the  intention  of  balustrades 
s  to  enclose  terraces,  and  other 
ieights,  where  persons  walk,  with 
'.  vfew  to  prevent  accidents,  it  is, 
s  D'Avila  observes,  an  impro- 
priety to  place  them  on  the  in- 
lined  cornices  of  pediments,  as 
t  Santa  Susanna  and  Santa  Maria 
ella  Vittoria,  near  Dioclesian's 
aths,  at  Rome  j  or  in  any  other 
laces  where  it  is  not  apparently 
racticable   for    men    to  walk. 
V  hen  balustrades  are  used  in  in- 
>rior  decoration,  as  on  stairs,  or 
>  enclose  altars,  thrones,  tribu- 
als,  alcoves,  &c.  ;  or  are  used 
i  gardens,  to  enclose  basins  of 
ater,  fountains,   or  any  other 
jcoration,    the  figures  of  the 
'dusters  may  be  varied  and  en- 
ched  with  suitable  ornaments. 
If  statues  are  to  be  placed  on  a 
dustrade,  their  height  must  not 
:ceed  one  quarter  of  the  column 
id  entablature  on  which  the  ba- 
strade  stands.     Their  attitude 
ust  be  upright,  or,  if  any  thing, 
'tiding  a  little  forward  ;  but  must 
ver  incline  to  either  side.  Their 
*s  must  be  close  to  each  other, 
(1  the  drapery  close  to  their 
dies  ;    for   when    they  stand 
■  addling,  with  their  bodies  tor- 


tured into  half  a  dozen  bends,  and 
their  draperies  waving  in  the  wind, 
as  on  the  colonnades  of  St.  Peter's, 
they  have  a  most  disagreeable 
effect,  especially  at  a  distance, 
from  whence  they  appear  like 
lumps  of  unformed  materials, 
ready  to  drop  upon  the  heads  of 
the  passengers. 

Band.  A  flat  member,  or 
moulding,  smaller  than  the  facia. 
The  face  of  the  band  is  in  a  verti- 
cal plane,  as  also  is  that  of  the 
facia  :  but  the  word  band  is  ap- 
plied to  narrow  members*  some- 
what wider  than  fillets  j  and  the 
word  facia  to  broad  members,  as 
the  facia  of  an  architrave.  The 
cincture  round  the  shaft  of  a  rus- 
ticated column  is  called  the  band. 

Banded  column.  A  column 
encircled  with  bands,  or  annular 
rustics. 

Bandelet,  bandlet,  or  band. 
Any  little  band,  or  flat  moulding, 
that  encompasses  a  column  like  a 
ring. 

Banister.  A  vulgar  term  for 
baluster. 

Banker.  A  stone  bench  on 
which  masons  cut  and  square 
their  work. 

Banquet.  The  foot-way  of  a 
bridge,  raised  above  the  carriage- 
way. 

Banqueting  -  room.  In  the 
early  ages  of  Rome,  the  inhab- 
itants supped  in  the  atrium  or  ves- 
tibule of  their  houses ;  but  in  after 
times,  magnificent  saloons,  or 
banqueting-rooms,  were  built  for 
the  more  commodious  and  splen- 
did entertainment  of  their  guests. 
Lucullus  had  several  of  these, 
each  distinguished  by  the  name  of 
some  god  ;  and  there  was  a  par- 
ticular rate  of  expense  appropri- 
ated to  each.  Plutarch  relates 
with  what  magnificence  he  enter- 
tained Cicero  and  Pompey,  who 
went  with  the  design  to  surprise 
him,  by  his  telling  the  slave  in 

331 


BAR 


BAR 


waiting,  that  the  cloth  should  be 
laid  in  the  Apollo.  The  emperor 
Claudius,  among  others,  had  a 
splendid  banqueting-room  named 
Mercury  j  but  every  thing  of  the 
kind  was  outdone  by  the  lustre 
of  that  celebrated  banqueting- 
house  of  Nero,  call  domus  aurea, 
the  house  of  gold  ;  which  by  the 
circular  motion  of  its  ceilings  and 
partitions,  imitated  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and 
represented  the  different  seasons 
of  the  year,  which  changed  at 
every  service,  and  showered  down 
flowers,  essences,  and  perfumes, 
on  the  guests.  Heliogabalus, 
however,  is  said  to  have  improv- 
ed as  much  upon  Nero,  as  the 
latter  had  done  upon  Lucullus. 

Baptismal-font.  The  vessel 
which  contains  the  water  used  in 
the  administration  of  baptism. 

Baptistry.  An  apartment  or 
edifice  where  baptism  is  adminis- 
tered. 

Bar.  This  word  is  used  in 
courts  of  justice  to  denote  an  en- 
closure made  with  a  strong  parti- 
tion of  timber,  3  or  4  feet  high, 
where  the  counsel  are  placed  to 
plead  causes.  The  same  term  is 
also  given  to  the  benches  where 
the  lawyers  or  advocates  are 
seated  j  hence  the  lawyers  who 
are  licensed  to  plead  are  called 
barristers. 

Bar.  A  piece  of  wood  or  iron 
used  for  fastening  doors,  window- 
shutters,  &c. 

Bars  for  the  shutters  of 
windows.    See  Shutters. 

Bars  of  a  boarded  door.  See 
Ledges. 

Bars  of  a  sash.  Light  pieces 
of  wood  or  metal  which  divide  the 
window-sash  into  several  compart- 
ments for  the  admission  of  the 
several  panes  of  glass.  Angle-bars 
are  those  which  stand  in  the  in- 
tersection of  two  vertical  planes. 
Bar-iron.     Iron-ore,  when 

332 


first  dug  from  the  pits,  is  found 
to  consist  of  iron  united  with  oxy- 
gen, and  various  proportions  of 
earthy  matter.  The  earthy  mat- 
ter when  abounding  in  alumine,or 
clay,  is  called  argillaceous;  and | 
when  abounding  in  lime,  calcare- 
ous. Iron-ore  is  first  subjected  to 
a  process  called  roasting,  in  order 
to  extract  the  arsenic  and  sulphur. 
This  process  consists  in  laying 
the  iron-stone  in  strata,  with  re- 
fuse pit-coal,  or,  as  it  is  called  in 
Staffordshire,  slack,  and,  setting 
fire  to  it  on  the  windward  side, 
burning  it  in  large  heaps  in  the 
open  air.  When  it  has  been  roast- 
ed, it  is  taken  to  the  smelting  oi 
blast-furnace,  the  lower  part  of 
which  is  filled  with  either  char- 
coal or  coke  :  the  coke  is  always 
a  fixed  quantity,  and  the  propor- 
tion of  limestone  or  clay  added 
to  the  ore  is  according  to  the 
quantity  of  heterogeneous  matter 
with  which  the  metal  is  combined. 
If  the  ore  abound  with  calcare- 
ous ingredients,  clay  is  added  as 
flux  j  but  if  it  abound  in  argilla- 
ceous matter,  the  flux  is  lime- 
stone. 

The  materials  in  the  furnact 
are,  previously  to  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  blast,  heated  simplj 
by  the  draught  of  the  atmosphere 
the  coke  and  limestone  to  ; 
bright  red  or  white  heat,  and  th< 
iron-ore  to  a  melting  heat.  Th( 
blast  is  then  introduced,  and  tht 
ore  is  soon  brought  into  a  state  0 
fusion.  It  is  then  tapped,  aiu 
run  into  moulds  made  in  sand 
and  when  cold   is  called  pig-iron 

The  pig-iron  which  has  th( 
smallest  portion  of  carbon  is  th( 
best  adapted  for  conversion  int( 
malleable  iron  :  and,  as  a  proo 
that  pig-iron  has  only  to  lose  it 
carbon  to  become  wrought  0 
malleable  iron  we  shall  state  thi 
fact,  that  we  have  in  this  country; 
at  this  present  time,  many  manu 


BAR-IRON. 


ictories  upon  a  large  scale,  for 
le  express  purpose  of  convert- 
•g  articles  made  of  cast-iron,  as 
ills,  cutlery,  &c.  into  iron  per- 
ctly  malleable,  without  altering 
the  slightest  degree  the  figure 
ven  to  them  in  casting.  We 
ive  even  seen  nails  made  in  this 
ay,  welded  together,  and  when 
ild  bent  at  right  angles  in  a 
ce. 

The  method  of  releasing  the 
g-iron  of  its  carbon,  or  of  con- 
rting  it  into  what  is  called 
-ought  or  malleable  iron,  is  by 
facing  it  in  any  open  furnace, 
ymed  a  refinery,  and  by  some  a 
m-out  furnace,  heated  by  coke, 
id  subjected  to  the  operation  of  a 
Jry  powerful  blast.  The  pig- 
Mi  is  laid  upon  cakes,  and  is 
sjn  melted,  leaving  much  of  its 
i  purity  behind.  This  is  termed 
lining  it.  The  metal  when  melt- 
(  is  run  into  plates,  about  4 
i|hes  thick,  and  as  soon  as  it 
homes  set  is  thrown  into  water, 
Mich  makes  it  more  frangible 
rd  easier  to  be  broken. 
Che  cake  of  metal  is  then  broken 
i  o  lumps  of  a  convenient  size, 
m  taken  to  the  puddling-furnace 
'v  ere  it  is  heated  with  coals,  with- 
djt  the  aid  of  an  artificial  blast. 
A  soon  as  the  metal  becomes 
1  ited  and  begins  to  melt, 
c  has  a  frosty  appearance,  the 
f  nace-man  throws  in  a  small 
cj  mtity  of  water  to  keep  it  at 
a  roper  temperature,  and  keeps 
B  ring  and  moving  it  about,  so 
t  it  the  carbon  makes  its  escape, 
le  water  that  is  thrown  in  to 
p  serve  the  temperature,  also 
aists  in  some  degree  the  decar- 


bonization.  The  quality  of  iron 
depends  much  upon  the  attention 
that  is  paid  to  it  during  this  pro- 
cess. 

When  the  iron  is  deprived  of 
the  carbon,  or  fusible  property 
that  it  before  possessed,  the  fur- 
nace-man rolls  it  up  into  balls  of 
one-half  or  three-quarters  of  a 
hundred-weight  each.  It  is  then 
brought  out  of  the  furnace  and 
placed  under  a  tilt-hammer,  or 
passed  through  rollers,  which 
consolidates  it,  and  forces  out 
more  of  the  impure  parts.  A  con- 
siderable loss  in  weight  is  sustain- 
ed in  this  process,  not  only  from 
the  iron  losing  its  impurities,  but 
also  from  the  surface  of  the  bloom 
or  bar  oxydizing  and  falling  off 
in  scales  whilst  being  worked. 
The  loss  which  is  thus  sustained 
in  weight  is  generally  estimated 
at  one-sixth,  or  one-seventh,  of 
the  whole. 

Having  undergone  this  process, 
the  iron  is  taken  to  the  shears, 
and  cut  into  lengths  of  about  1  or 
2  feet,  and  in  order  to  impart 
closeness  and  solidity  is  piled  into 
pieces  of  seven  or  eight  together, 
and  heated  in  another  furnace. 
There  is  no  occasion  this  time  to 
remove  the  iron  about,  for,  hav- 
ing lost  its  carbon,  it  is  infusible. 
When  it  is  of  sufficient  heat, 
which,  from  practice,  the  furnace- 
man  can  easily  tell  by  his  eye,  it 
is  again  carried  to  either  the  ham- 
mer or  rollers,  and  is  worked  into 
a  bar;  this  is  called  bar-iron.  Iron 
thus  made  is  called  No.  2  j  but 
being  cut  up,  piled  and  worked 
over  again,  it  is  denominated  No. 
3,  or  best  iron. 

333 


BAR-IRON. 


Tables  of  the  average  weight  of  Bars,  Squares,  and  Bolts,  10  feet 

in  length. 


BARS. 


Inches. 

Cwt.  qr.  lbs. 

T  1  

Inches. 

Cwt.  qr.  lbs. 

Inches. 

Cwt.  qr.  lbs 

6  +  4 

x 

1 

10 

3  4+4 

*-> 

12 

24  +  4 

0 

1 

4 

1 

n 

V7 

xo 

4 

0 

v/ 

2 

24 

4 

0 

1 

X 

in 

* 

Q 

1  Q 

Xi7 

1 

~T 

ft 

V/ 

M 

Q 
0 

4 

0 

1 

1 

X 

51+4 

1 

1 

X 

3 

O 

\ 

20 

24  +  4 

0 

2 

9 
A 

_s_ 

i 
1 

(\ 

0 

34+4 

n 

V/ 

0 

K 
«J 

4 

0 

1 

X 

1ft 

1 

T 

Q 

IO 

XV/ 

4 

0 

2 

18 

0 

1 

14. 

XI 

5+4 

0 

13 

4 

0 

2 

4 

4 

0 

1 

Q 

4 

yj 

2S 

3 

0 

1 

16 

3 
•5- 

0 

1 

0 

4 

0 

Q 
O 

2 

3^  +  4 

0 

2 

27 

2  +  4 

0 

1 

24 

44  +  4 

1 

0 

10 

5 

"8" 

0 

2 

14 

4 

0 

1 

JiO 

5 

"B" 

3 

19 

4 

0 

1 

27 

■A 

0 

1 

1 1 

X  x 

4 

0 

9 

it 

25 

4 

0 

14 

1 

T 

0 

] 

ft 

3 

n 

9 

K 

3+4 

0 

2 

3 

■8" 

0 

9fi 

4  +  4 

i 

X 

O 
yj 

4 

4 

0 

2 

g 

14  +  4 

0 

X 

90 

5 
"S 

0 

\J 

Q 
O 

13 

1 

T 

0 

2S 

5 

q 

1 

X 

19 

X  (1 

4 

0 

2 

21 

3 

0 

1 

10 

0 

1 

9 

3 

T3T 

0 

2 

11 

24  +  4 

0 

2 

14 

1 

T 

0 

1 

5 

0 

3 

25 

TT 

0 

2 

2 

3 

0 

0 

24 

4 

0 

3 

7 

0 

1 

20 

H  +  4 

0 

1 

17 

4 

0 

2 

17 

4 

0 

1 

7 

4 

0 

1 

10 

3 

-g 

0 

2 

0 

24  +  4 

0 

2 

8 

tV 

0 

1 

5 

4+4 

0 

3 

19 

4 

0 

1 

25 

1 

■2" 

0 

1 

2 

5 

"8" 

0 

3 

1 

h 

0 

1 

15 

3 

0 

0 

23 

T 

0 

2 

12 

3 

0 

1 

4 

H   +  4 

0 

1 

11 

3 

0 

1 

24 

24+4 

0 

2 

5 

4 

0 

1 

3 

0 

1 

0 

SQUARES.  BOLTS. 


Inches 

Cwt. 

qr.  lbs. 

Inches 

Cwt. 

qr 

.  lbs. 

Inches 

Cwt. 

qr 

lbs. 

Inches 

Cwt. 

qr.  lbs. 

h 

2 

3  0 

14 

0 

3 

2 

3 

2 

0 

IS 

H 

0 

2  16 

2 

2  3 

14 

0 

2 

21 

24 

1 

3 

22 

1 1 

AT 

0 

2  3 

24 

2 

1  8 

14 

0 

2 

11 

24 

1 

3 

6 

1  3 

*TT 

0 

1  24 

£i 

2 

0  11 

H 

0 

1 

25 

24 

1 

2 

17 

1  ! 

0 

1  14 

24 

1 

3  18 

H 

0 

1 

15 

24 

1 

1 

23 

i  1 

0 

1  5 

21- 

1 

2  24 

1 

0 

1 

6 

24 

1 

1 

11 

0 

0  27 

24 

1 

2  5 

7 

•g- 

0 

0 

26 

24 

1 

0 

24 

4 

0 

0  20 

24 

1 

1  14 

3 

T 

0 

0 

19 

24 

1 

0 

9 

3 

T 

0 

0  15 

2 

1 

0  25 

4 

0 

0 

13 

2 

0 

3 

24 

4 

0 

0  10 

1 

0  8 

1 

0 

0 

8 

H 

0 

3 

9 

1 

T 

0 

0  7 

U 

0 

3  21 

H 

0 

2 

26 

334 


BAR 


BAR 


Bar-posts.  Posts  driven  into 
\\e  ground  to  form  the  sides  of  a 
•ld-gate.  These  posts  are  mor- 
;ed,  to  admit  of  horizontal  bars 
ting  placed  in,  or  taken  out,  at 
easure. 

Babbacan.  A  long  narrow  ca- 
ll, or  opening,  left  in  the  walls 

a  building,  erected  on  a  place 
Jat  is  liable  to  be  overflowed,  to 
low  the  water  to  flow  through  : 
1  L  to  drain  off  the  water  from  a 
1  trace,  or  the  like. 
1  Barbacan,  or  barbican.  In 
1  jcient  Fortification.  An  outer 
1  « fence,  or  fortification  to  a  city, 
1  J  castle  j  used  especially  as  a 
1  nee  to  the  gates  or  walls.  In 
J  -is  sense,  barbacan  amounts  to 
1  |e  same  thing  with  what  is  other- 
I  jse  called  ante-murale,  pro-mu- 
1  -de,  murus  exterior,  or  outer  wall. 
1     |e  same  word  also  expresses  a 

0  jlrt  at  the  entrance  of  a  bridge, 

1  «:  in  the  outlet  of  a  city,  having  a 
!  i  uble  wall  with  towers  ;  also  an 
1     ;  erture  in  the  wall  of  a  city, 

rough  which    muskets  were 

0  >inted  at  the  enemy.    See  Em- 

1  mure. 

!      Barge-course.     That  part  of 
e  tiling  which  projects  over  the 
-   |-bleofa  building,  and  is  made 
i  below  with  mortar. 
IUrkary.  A  tan-house,  or  house 
i  which  tanners  keep  their  bark. 
Barn.  A  covered  building  used 
I    d  agriculturists,  for  laying  up 
;  1  preserving  all  sorts  of  grain, 
;    1  v',  straw,  &c. 

Barns  should  be  erected  on  a 
and  rather  elevated  situation; 
c  the  north  or  north-east  side  of 
t :  farm-yard ;    and  the  barns, 
j    c;houses,  and  stables,  should  be 
Bpate  near  to  each  other.  Barns 
*  D^y  be  constructed  on  wooden 
fmes  with  weather  boarding,  or 
b  It  of  stone  and  brick,  and  the 
r  f  may  be  thatched  or  tiled,  ac- 
c  ding  as  either  of  these  mate- 
r  s  are  the  easiest  to  be  pro- 


cured. With  the  view  of  keeping 
the  grain  as  dry  as  possible,  and 
prevent  it  from  moulding,  the 
gable  ends  should  be  constructed 
of  brick,  and  apertures  should  be 
left  in  the  walls  for  the  free  ad- 
mission of  air.  Two  pair  of  fold- 
ing doors,  exactly  opposite  to 
each  other,  must  also  be  made 
to  the  barn,  for  the  convenience 
of  carrying  in  and  out  a  cart  or 
waggon  load  of  corn  in  sheaves, 
or  any  other  sort  of  bulky  pro- 
duce. These  doors  should  be  of 
the  same  breadth  as  the  threshing 
floor,  to  afford  light  to  the  thresh- 
ers, and  air  for  winnowing  the 
grain.  A  barn  has  sometimes  a 
large  penthouse  over  the  great 
doors,  which  is  made  to  project 
sufficiently  to  cover  a  load  of  corn 
or  hay,  in  case  a  sudden  storm 
should  come  on  before  it  can  be 
housed  j  and  also  to  shelter  the 
poultry  from  the  effects  of  the 
weather. 

Hay-barns  should  always  be 
constructed  of  wood,  and  not  be 
placed  too  close  to  each  other. 

They  are  sometimes  built  on 
rollers,  which  admit  of  their 
being  removed  from  one  place  to 
another. 

It  is  observed  in  the  sixteenth 
volume  of  the  "Annals  of  Agricul- 
ture," in  speaking  of  the  construc- 
tion of  barns,  that  the  under-pin- 
ning should  be  of  brick  or  stone, 
2  feet  high  above  the  ground,  and 
the  sides  boarded  ;  the  roof  of  the 
barn  is  best  covered  with  reed  or 
straw,  and  those  of  the  stables  on 
its  sides  with  slate  or  glazed  tile 
because  they  must  be  more  flat, 
and  the  water  which  runs  from 
the  roof  of  the  barn  would  injure 
most  other  coverings.  At  each 
end  of  the  barn,  and  over  the 
back  door,  small  doors,  4  feet 
square,  should  be  fixed  at  the 
height  of  12  feet  from  the 
ground  ;  the  two  former  for  put- 


BAR 

ting  corn  in  at  the  ends,  and  the 
latter  for  filling  the  middle  of  the 
barn  after  the  bays  are  full.  All 
the  bays  should  have  a  floor  of 
clay  or  marl,  and  the  threshing 
floor  be  made  with  hard  bricks, 
which  will  be  sufficient  for  all 
sorts  of  grain  except  wheat  and 
rye ;  and  for  threshing  them,  it 
will  be  good  economy  to  have 
planks  of  oak  or  red  deal  well  fit- 
ted together  and  numbered,  to  be 
laid  down  occasionally,  and  con- 
fined by  a  frame  at  their  ends.  A 
barn  built  on  such  a  plan  would 
hold  a  great  deal  of  corn,  and  be 
filled  most  conveniently ;  and  if 
the  stacks  of  corn  were  built  at 
each  end,  they  might  be  taken  in 
without  any  carting.  If  more 
buildings  are  requisite,  two  may 
be  added  on  the  back  side,  like 
the  stables  in  front ;  otherwise  if 
doors  be  made  under  the  eaves  on 
the  back  side,  as  directed  at  the 
ends,  and  stacks  be  placed  oppo- 
site to  them,  just  far  enough  to 
avoid  the  eaves  dropping,  by 
placing  a  waggon  between  them 
and  the  barn  by  way  of  a  stage, 
these  stacks  may  be  taken  in 
without  carting  ;  which  method 
spares  a  great  waste  of  corn  and 
much  trouble.  The  spars  of  the 
roofs  of  the  stables  rest  upon  the 
upper  cills  of  the  sides  of  the 
barn,  and  the  outside  wall  of  the 
stables  is  8  feet  high  j  the  barn 
supplying  the  highest  side  and 
one  end  of  each  stable,  and  the 
stables  in  return  are  buttresses 
to  the  barn  and  strengthen  it 
greatly. 

It  is  remarked  by  the  author  of 
the  "Agricultural  Survey  of  the 
County  of  Somerset,"  that  the 
practice  lately  introduced  of  pla- 
cing barns  on  a  declivity  cannot 
be  too  much  recommended  •  as  a 
warm  and  commodious  range  of 
stalls  for  cattle,  covered  by  the 
same  roof,  is  by  that  means  ob- 

336 


B  AS 

tained.  Besides,  the  barn  floor, 
by  being  thus  elevated,  is  ren- 
dered more  durable,  and  less  sub- 
ject to  vermin ;  the  grain  is  kept 
more  dry  and  sweet  than  on  a 
ground  floor,  and  cannot  slip 
through  it  without  discovery.  The 
plan,  indeed,  is,  in  his  opinion, 
almost  unexceptionable.  Barns 
when  built  in  this  way  should 
have  a  southern  aspect,  the  arches 
of  the  cattle  stalls  facing  that 
way.  In  respect  to  the  size  of 
barns  in  Gloucestershire,  52  feet 
by  24  feet  in  the  clear,  and  fronr 
16  to  20  feet  in  height  to  the 
plate,  is  considered  a  good  barn : 
these  dimensions  admitting  of 
four  bays  of  10  feet  each,  with  a 
floor  in  the  middle. 

The  invention  of  threshing 
machines  has,  in  some  measure, 
varied  the  construction  of  barns, 
as  where  they  are  made  use  of, 
they  should  be  contrived  chiefly 
with  a  view  to  the  distribution  of 
the  straw.  The  machines  being 
built  in  the  centre,  with  the  grain 
stacks  adjoining  them,  in  such 
manner,  that  they  may  be  supplied 
without  the  assistance  of  carts 
and  horses.  The  barns  in  these 
cases  need  not  be  so  large,  but 
they  should  have  granaries  provi- 
ded in  them,  which,  probably, 
may  be  most  conveniently  placed 
over  the  floors.  In  most  of  the 
old  barns,  threshing  machines 
may  be  erected  without  much  in- 
convenience or  trouble. 

Barrel-drain.  A  drain  of  the 
form  of  a  hollow  cylinder. 

BaRYCE,  OR BARYCEPHALiE.  From 
/3a/3W,  low,  Or  flat,  and  Ke(pa\r). 

a  head  ;  the  Greek  name  for  thel 
temple  in  Araeastyles. 

Bas-relief.  See  Basso-relievo, 
Basalt.  A  stratified  rock; 
very  useful  in  building,  paving. 
&c.  When  calcined  and  pulver- 
ized, it  forms  an  excellent  substi- 
tute for  puzzolana,  in  the  compo 


B  A  S 


B  AS 


sition  of  mortar  ;  and  has  the 
property  of  hardening  under 
water. 

Base.    In  Geometry.   The  low- 
est part  of  a  figure  or  body. 

Base  of  a  solid.    The  surface 
on  which  it  rests. 

Base  of  a  column.    That  part 
which  is  between  the  shaft  and 
the  pedestal ;  or,  if  there  be  no 
pedestal,  between  the  shaft  and 
he  zocle,  or  plinth. 

Each  column  has  its  particular 
)ase.     The  tuscan   base  is  the 
nost  simple,  having  only  a  torus 
ind  a  plinth.    The  doric  base  has 
in  astragal  more  than  the  tuscan  ; 
>ut  this  was  introduced  by  the 
noderns,  as  the  ancients  gave  no 
>ase  to  the  doric  order.    In  the 
onic  base  there  is,  according  to 
itruvius,  a  torus  and  fillet,  rest- 
ag  upon  two  scotias,  divided  by 
stragals  and  fillets ;    but  both 
ncient   and   modern  architects 
ave,  with  very  few  exceptions, 
hen  to  this  order  the  attic  base, 
the  attic  base  consists  of  two 
oruses,  or  tori,  and  a  scotia,  and 
3  applicable  to  every  order  except 
|      he  tuscan.     The  corinthian  base 
I,      as  two  toruses,  two  scotias,  and 
.      wo  astragals.    And  the  compo- 
te base  has   one    astragal  less 
iau  the  corinthian  ;  but  in  this 
,*(ler,  the  ionic  and  corinthian 
t      ises  are  used  indifferently.  See 
Jtic,  or  Atticurgic  Base,  and  plate 
j     f,  Bases. 

When  a  column  and  its  base 
|e  required  to  be  of  wood,  it  is 
st  to  make  the  base  of  several 
fetinct  ])ieces,  joined  together  by 
lue,  so  that  the  grain  of  the 
)od  may  be  in  a  horizontal,  in- 
'  ad    of    a   vertical,  direction, 
•e  best  mode  of  forming  bases 
(  this  kind  is  as  follows :  let 
!  \     fj'eral  pieces  of  wood,  of  equal 
1  gth,  be  closely  jointed  together 
b      Ipn  a  perfectly  flat  surface,  or 
Urd,  so  that  the  diameter  of 
;  2U 


these  several  pieces  when  united 
make  somewhat  more  than  the 
intended  diameter  of  the  base  of 
the  column  let  them  be  firmly 
united  by  glue,  and,  when  dry, 
let  the  upper  surface  be  planed 
smooth,  in  a  line  exactly  parallel 
with  the  flat  surface  of  the  board 
on  which  they  rest.  Upon  this 
course  let  a  second  course  of  the 
same  number  of  pieces  be  placed, 
taking  care  that  the  centres  of 
the  several  pieces,  of  which  this 
second  course  is  composed,  rest 
exactly  on  the  division  line  of 
every  two  pieces  of  the  course 
below  j  and  let  them  be  glued  to- 
gether, and  to  the  upper  surface 
of  the  said  course  below.  When 
the  glue  of  this  second  course  is 
dry,  its  surface  may  be  planed 
similarly  to  the  first,  and  a  third 
course,  in  like  manner,  may  be 
added.  The  horizontal  joints  of 
these  courses  must  be  so  regula- 
ted as  to  fall  at  the  junction  of 
two  mouldings,  forming  an  in- 
terior, or  a  re-entering  angle. 
When  the  glue  is  become 
thoroughly  hard,  the  base  may 
be  sent  to  be  turned. 

Base  of  a  room.  The  lower 
projecting  part  of  a  room,  con- 
sisting of  a  plain  board,  which 
adjoins  the  floor,  called  the  plinth, 
and  one  or  two  mouldings  above 
it,  called  the  base-mouldings.  In 
the  best  work,  the  plinth  is 
tongued  into  a  groove  in  the  floor, 
with  a  view  to  prevent  any  crevice 
appearing  between  the  bottom  of 
the  plinth  and  the  surface  of  the 
floor,  which,  in  works  where  this 
precaution  has  not  been  taken, 
is  frequently  the  case,  from  the 
shrinkage  of  the  wood.  The  up- 
per part  of  the  plinth  is  rebated 
upon  the  base.  In  rooms  with 
pavement  floors,  the  plinth  of  the 
base  is  generally  of  stone,  and  the 
mouldings  are  of  wood,  which  is 
not  so  liable  to  be  injured  as  stone 

337 


B  A  S 


B  AS 


mouldings.  Bed-rooms,  passages, 
lobbies,  stair-cases,  and  some- 
times vestibules  and  halls  are 
finished  without  the  dado  and 
surbase. 

Basement.  The  lower  part  or 
story  of  a  building,  on  which  an 
order  is  placed,  with  a  base  or 
plinth,  die,  and  cornice. 

The  height  of  the  basement 
varies  in  modern  buildings,  ac- 
cording as  it  is  the  cellar  or  ground 
story  j  and  wh  n  it  is  the  ground 
story,  according  to  the  nature  or 
destination  of  the  rooms  on  that 
floor.  In  Italy,  where  the  sum- 
mer apartments  are  frequently  on 
the  ground  floor,  the  basements 
are  sometimes  very  high.  At  the 
palace  of  the  Porti,  in  Vicenza, 
the  height  of  the  basement  is 
equal  to  that  of  the  order  5  and  at 
the  Thieni,  in  the  same  city,  its 
height  exceeds  two-thirds  of  that 
of  the  order,  which,  nevertheless, 
is  almost  of  a  sufficient  size  to 
comprehend  two  stories  :  but  at 
the  Villa  Capra,  and  at  the  Loco 
Arsieri,  both  near  Vicenza,  the 
basement  is  only  half  the  height 
of  the  order  ;  because  the  ground 
floor  consists  of  nothing  but  offi- 
ces. These  four  examples  are 
from  the  works  of  the  great  Pal- 
ladio,  and  sufficiently  authorize 
any  variations  that  it  may  be 
necessary  to  make  in  basements. 
It  will  not,  however,  be  advisa- 
ble ever  to  make  the  basement 
higher  than  the  order  it  supports ; 
for  the  order  being  the  richest 
part  in  the  composition,  and  in- 
dicating the  principal  part  in  the 
fabric,  ought  to  be  predominant : 
nor  ought  it  to  be  lower  than  half 
the  height  of  the  order,  as  other- 
wise the  rooms  will  be  low,  and 
the  windows  ill-proportioned.  But 
if  the  only  use  of  the  basement  be 
to  raise  the  ground  floor,  it  need 
not  be  above  3,  4,  or  at  most 
5,  feet  high 


If  the  cellar  story  be  the  base- 
ment, and  the  height  does  not  ex- 
ceed 5  or  6  feet,  it  may  be  made 
quite  plain,  or   with  rustics,  or 
formed  into  a  continued  pedestal  j 
but  when  it  is   on  the  ground 
floor,  it  is  usual  to  decorate  it  with 
rustics,  supported  on  a  base,  and 
supported  with  a  crowning  string- 
course.   The  rustics  best  appro- 
priated tobuildings  where  neatness 
and  finishing  are  aimed  at,  are  such 
as  have  a  smooth  surface.  Their 
height  including  the  joint,  should 
never  be  less  than  one  module  of 
the  order  placed  upon  the  build- 
ing, nor  much  more.    They  arei 
made  either  of  a  rectangular  or 
triangular   section,  by  imagining 
one  of  the  sides  of  these  sections 
to  be  a  line  extending  across  the 
front  of  the  joints  :  and  these 
joints  may  be  either  square  or 
chamfered.      The  square  joints 
should  not  be  broader  than  one- 
eighth  of  the  height  of  the  rustic, 
nor  narrower  than  one-tenth  ;  and 
their  depth  must  be  equal  to  their 
breadth.  Those  that  are  chamfer- 
ed must  form  a  rectangle;  and  thf 
breadth  of  the  whole  joint  maj 
be  from  one-fourth  to  one-thin 
of  the  height  of  the  flat  surface  0 
the  rustic.    Sometimes  the  verti 
cal  joints  are  omitted  ;  but  thi; 
has  a  very  bad  effect,  and  give: 
the  building  more  the  appearand 
of  being  constructed  of  planks  0 
wood,  than  of  stones.  PalUdic 
in  imitation  of  the  ancients,  al 
ways  marked  both  the  vertical  an 
the  horizontal  joints.    When  th 
former  of  these  are  regularly  an 
artfully  disposed,  the  rustic  worl 
hath  a  very  beautiful  appearance. 

The  basement  when  high  j 
sometimes  finished  with  a  cornice 
but  the  usual  method  is  only  t 
crown  it  with  a  plat-band,  whos 
height  should  not  exceed  th 
height  of  a  rustic  with  its  joint, 
nor  ever  be  lower  than  the  rusti 

1 


BAS 


B  AS 


exclusive  of  the  joint.  The  zocle, 
>r  plinth,  at  the  foot  of  the  base- 
nent,  may  be  of  the  same  height 
pith  the  plat-band,  or  a  trifle 
igherj  and  when  there  are  arches, 
be  plat-band,  which  supplies  the 
lace  of  the  impost,  must  be  of 
■ie  height  of  a  rustic,  exclusive 
f  the  joint. 

Basil.  A  word  used  by  car- 
enters  and  joiners,  to  denote  the 
igle  to  which  the  edge  of  an  iron 
>ol  is  ground.  To  work  on  soft 
ood,  they  usually  make  the  basil 
velve  degrees  :  for  hard  wood, 
irhteen  degrees :  it  being  ob- 
rved  that  the  more  acute  or 
in  the  basil  is,  the  better  and 
aoother  it  cuts  ;  and  the  more 
>tuse,  the  stronger  and  fitter  it 
for  service. 

"Basilic,  or  basilica.  Denotes 
ancient  architecture  a  kind  of 
!      iblic  hall,  or  court  of  judicature, 
■iere  the  princes  or  magistrates 
t  to  administer  justice.  The 
silica  consisted  of  a  great  hall, 
t     tth  aisles,porticoes, tribunes,  and 
burials.  With  us,  Westminster- 
s'   III  is  properly  a  basilica  ;  but 
;chitects   generally    apply  this 
)rd  to  any  spacious  building,  as 
-  Kill  or  church.    When  applied 
t  a  church,  it  conveys  an  idea  of 
iJ    £.2at  magnificence. 

Among  the  Romans,  the  basi- 
lp  was  a  large  hall  adjoined  to 
t  forum,  and  is  thus  described 
(J1  I  Vitruvius  :  "  The  basilica 
s'mld  be  adjoined  to  the  forum 
c  the  warmest  side,  that  the 
n/ociants  may  confer  together, 
v.hout  being  incommoded  by  the 
v-ither.  The  breadth  is  not  made 
h  than  the  third,  nor  more  than 
tl  half  of  the  length,  unless  the 
n  ure  of  the  place  opposes  the 
p  portions  and  obliges  the  sym- 
,  nr  ry  to  be  different.  But  if 'the 
bjilica  have  too  much  length, 
d  'cidicce  (supposed  to  be  some 
kil  of  apartments  separated  by  a 


partition  at  the  ends  of  the  basilica,) 
as  is  t  he  case  in  the  basil  ica  of  Julia 
Aquilina.  The  columns  of  the 
basilica  are  made  as  high  as  the 
posticus  is  broad.  The  posticus  is 
the  third  part  of  the  space  in  the 
middle.  The  upper  columns  are 
less  than  the  lower,  as  above  writ- 
ten. The  pluteumca  podium,  or 
continued  pedestal)  which  is  be- 
tween the  upper  columns,  should 
also  be  made  a  fourth  part  less 
than  the  same  columns,  that  those 
who  walk  in  the  floor  above  may 
not  be  seen  by  the  negociators 
below."  The  epistylium,  zophorus, 
and  coronas,  are  proportioned  to 
the  columns  as  explained  in  the 
third  book  of  the  architecture  of 
Vitruvius. 

"  Nor  will  basilicas  of  the  kind 
of  that  at  the  colony  of  Julia  of 
Fanurn,  which  I  designed  and 
conducted,  have  less  dignity  and 
beauty  ;  the  proportions  and  sym- 
metry of  which  are  as  follows. 
The  middle  testudo  (the  middle 
part  or  nave)  between  the  columns 
is  120  feet  long,  and  60  feet  broad. 
The  posticus  around  the  testudo, 
between  the  walls  and  columns, 
is  20  feet  broad.  The  height  of 
the  continued  columns,  including 
their  capitals,  is  50  feet,  and 
the  thickness  5,  having  behind 
them  parastatae  (attached  pilas- 
ters) 20  feet  high,  2  feet  and  a 
half  broad,  and  1  foot  and  a  half 
thick,  which  sustain  the  beams 
that  support  the  floors  of  the 
porticoes.  Above  these  are  other 
para(*tatae,  18  feet  high,  2  feet 
broad,  and  1  foot  thick,  which 
also  receive  beams  sustaining  the 
canthers  of  the  porticoes,  which 
are  laid  below  the  roof  of  the  tes- 
tudo. The  remaining  space  left 
between  the  beams  that  lay  over 
the  parastatae,  and  those  which 
lay  over  the  columns,  is  left  open 
in  the  intercolumns,  in  order  to 
give  light.  The  columns  in  the 
33a 


BASILICA. 


breadth  of  the  testudo,  including 
those  of  the  angles  to  the  right 
and  left,  are  four ;  and  in  the 
length,  on  that  side  which  is  next 
the  forum,  including  the  same 
angle  columns,  eight.  On  the 
other  side  there  are  but  six 
columns,  including  those  of  the 
angles,  because  the  middle  two 
on  this  side  are  omitted,  that  they 
may  not  obstruct  the  view  of  the 
pronaos  of  the  temple  of  Augustus, 
which  is  situate  in  the  middle  of 
the  side  wall  of  the  basilica,  look- 
ing towards  the  centre  of  the  fo- 
rum and  temple  of  Jupiter.  The 
tribunal  in  this  building  is  formed 
in  the  figure  of  a  hemicycle  j  the 
extent  of  this  hemicycle  in  front 
is  46  feet,  and  the  recess  of  the 
curvature  inward  15  feet,  so  that 
those  who  attend  the  magistrates 
obstruct  not  the  negociants  in  the 
basilica. 

"  Upon  the  columns,  the  com- 
pacted beams,  made  from  three 
timbers  of  c2  feet,  are  placed 
around  ;  and  these,  from  the  third 
columns,  which  are  the  interior 
part,  are  returned  to  the  antae  that 
procur  from  the  pronaos,  and 
on  the  right  and  left  touch  the 
hemicycle. 

"  Upon  the  beams,  perpendicu- 
larly to  the  capitals,  the  pike  (a 
kind  of  blocking  for  supporting 
the  plates)  are  placed,  3  feet  high 
and  4  feet  broad,  on  every  side. 
Over  these  other  beams,  well- 
wrought  from  timbers  of  2  feet, 
are  placed  around  ;  upon  which 
the  transtrse  and  capreols,  Qhe 
principal  rafters  and  braces,)  being 
placed  coincident  with  the  zopho- 
rus,  antse,  and  walls  of  the  pro- 
naos, sustain  one  culmen  (the 
horizontal  piece  of  timber  in  the 
ridge  of  the  roof)  the  whole  length 
of  the  basilica,  and  another  trans- 
versely from  the  middle  over  the 
pronaos  of  the  temple  :  so  that  it 
causes  a  double  disposition  of  the 

340 


fastigium  (the  triangle,  or  pedi- 
ment of  the  roof),  and  gives  a 
handsome  appearance  to  the  roof 
on  the  outside,  and  to  the  lofty 
testudo  within.  The  omission  of 
the  ornaments  of  the  epistylium, 
and  of  the  upper  columns  and 
plutei,  diminishes  the  labour  of 
the  work,  and  saves  great  part  of 
the  expense.  The  columns  like- 
wise being  carried  in  one  con- 
tinued height  up  to  the  beams  of 
the  testudo,  increases  the  magni- 
ficence and  dignity  of  the  work." 

From  the  preceding  descrip^ 
tions  it  should  appear,  that  the 
ancient  basilicas  consisted  of  a 
great  nave  in  the  middle,  sur- 
rounded with  only  one  range  of 
porticoes  and  it  is  thus  that  it  has 
been  represented  in  the  designs 
of  all  who  have  restored  it  from 
the  words  of  Vitruvius. 

"  It  is  not  probable/'  says  the 
author  of  this  article  in  Dr. 
Rees's  "  Cylopeedia,"  "  that  the 
ancient  basilicas  were  ever  con- 
verted into  christian  churches  j  as  i 
in  that  case,  we  should  still  be  in 
possession  of  some  of  these  monu- 
ments of  antiquity.  The  most 
ancient  basilicas  of  the  christians, 
those  which  date  from  the  first 
centuries  of  the  public  exercise  of 
our  religion,  were  built  expressly 
for  their  use ;  and  the  details  of 
their  architecture,  announce  but! 
too  clearly  the  time  of  their  con-: 
struction.  But  these  new  temples 
resembled  so  much  the  antique 
basilicas,  that  they  retained  their 
name  ;  and  indeed  if  we  examine 
the  buildings  of  antiquity,  we 
shall  find  no  other  so  well  calcu- 
lated for  the  purposes  of  our  reli- 
gion. These  edifices,  at  once  sim- 
ple in  plan  and  magnificent  in 
decoration,  were  of  form  and  dis- 
position the  most  advantageous 
that  can  be  imagined  for  large 
halls,  and  their  construction  com- 
bined   solidity   with  economy! 


BASILICA. 


Their  solidity  is  proved  by  the 
duration  of  fourteen  centuries  of 
some  of  their  buildings  ;  and  their 
economy  consists  in  the  lightness 
of  the  points  of  support,  and  in 
that  of  the  covering  which  was 
only  of  carpentry.  In  most  of 
the  basilicas,  the  walls  and  points 
of  support  only  occupy  one-tenth 
of  the  total  space  ;  which,  in 
buildings  vaulted  and  supported 
with  arcades,  like  many  modern 
churches,  take  up  at  least  twice 
that  superficies,  and  require  be- 
sides materials  and  modes  of  con- 
struction which  quadruple  the  ex- 
pense. 

"  It  is  to  Constantine  that  the 
first  christian  churches  known  by 
the  name  of  basilicas  may  be  re- 
ferred.    This   prince  signalized 
his  zeal  by  the  erection  of  monu- 
ments which  announced  the  tri- 
umph of  the  religion  which  he 
1      had  embraced.    He  gave  his  own 
1     'palace  on  the  Coelian  mount  to 
!     'construct  on  its    site  a  church 
which  is  recognised  for  the  most 
1      ancient  christian  basilica.    A  mo- 
]      dern  building  has  so  much  marked 
and  disfigured  the  ancient,  that 
only  the  situation  and  plan  of  this 
monument  can  be  discovered. 

"  Soon  after,  he  erected  the 
basilica  of  St.  Peter  of  the  Vatican. 
This  magnificent  edifice  was  con- 
structed about  the  year  3*24,  upon 
the  site  of  the  circus  of  Nero, 
md  the  temples  of  Apollo  and 
Mars,  which  were  destroyed  for 
hat  purpose.  It  was  divided  in- 
ernally  into  five  aisles  from  east 

0  west,  which  terminated  at  the 
nd  in  another  aisle  from  north  to 
louth,  in  the  centre  of  which  was 

1  large  niche  or  tribunal,  giving 
lie  whole  the  form  of  a  cross. 
The  largest  aisle  was  enclosed  by 
orty-eight  columns  of  precious 

'"narble  and  the  lateral  aisles  had 
orty-eight  columns  of  smaller 
limensions  ;    two  columns  were 


placed  in  each  wing  of  the  termi- 
nating aisle.  The  whole  was  co- 
vered with  a  flat  ceiling,  compo- 
sed of  immense  beams  which  were 
cased  with  gilt  metal,  and  Corin- 
thian brass  taken  from  the  tem- 
ples of  Romulus  and  Jupiter 
Capitolinus.  A  hundred  smaller 
columns  ornamented  the  shrines 
and  chapels.  The  walls  were 
covered  with  paintings  of  reli- 
gious subjects,  and  the  tribunal 
was  enriched  with  elaborate  mo- 
saics. An  incredible  number  of 
lamps  illuminated  this  temple  ;  in 
the  greater  solemnities  two  thou- 
sand four  hundred  were  reckoned, 
of  which  one  enormous  candela- 
brum contained  one  thousand 
three  hundred  and  sixty.  The 
tombs  of  pontiffs,  kings,  cardinals, 
and  princes,  were  reared  against 
the  walls,  or  insulated  in  the 
ample  porticoes. 

"  This  superb  temple  was  re- 
spected by  Alaric  and  Totila,  and 
remained  uninjured  in  the  various 
fortunes  of  Rome,  during  the 
lapse  of  twelve  centuries  ;  but 
crumbling  with  age,  it  was  at  last 
pulled  down  by  Julius  IL  and  upon 
its  site  has  arisen  the  famous 
basilica  the  pride  of  modernRome. 

"  The  third  great  basilica  built 
by  Constantine,  that  of  St.  Paul,  on 
the  road  to  Ostia,  still  exists.  The 
interior  of  this  building  resembles 
precisely  that  of  St.  Peter  which 
has  just  been  described.  Of  the 
forty  columns  enclosing  the  great 
aisle,  twenty-four  are  supposed  to 
have  been  taken  from  the  mauso- 
leum of  Adrian  ;  they  are  Corin- 
thian, about  3  feet  in  diameter, 
fluted  their  whole  length,  and 
cabled  to  one-third ;  the  columns 
are  of  blue  and  white  marble,  and 
antiquity  presents  nothing  in  this 
kind  more  precious  for  the  ma- 
terials and  workmanship.  But 
these  beautiful  remains  seem  only 
to  be  placed  there  to  the  disgrace 

341 


BASILICA. 


of  the  rest  of  the  construction, 
which  is  of  the  age  of  Constantine 
and  Theodosius,  and  which  most 
strikingly  exemplifies  the  rapid 
decline  of  the  arts. 

"  The  churches  we  have  hither- 
to described  bear  a  complete  re- 
semblance to  the  antique  basilica 
in  plan  and  proportion.  The  only 
remarkable  difference  is,  that  the 
superior  galleries  are  suppressed, 
in  the  place  of  which  a  wall  is 
raised  upon  the  columns  of  the 
great  aisle,  which  is  pierced  with 
windows,  and  supports  the  roof. 

*'  The  church  of  St.  Agnese  out 
of  the  walls,  though  not  one  of 
the  seven  churches  of  Home, 
which  retain  the  title,  is  however 
a  perfect  imitation  of  the  antique 
basilica.  This  resemblance  is  so 
complete,  that  without  the  testi- 
mony of  writers  who  tell  us  it 
was  built  by  Constantine,  at  the 
request  of  Constantia  his  sister 
or  daughter,  and  without  the  de- 
tails of  its  architecture  which  for- 
bid us  to  date  it  higher,  it  might 
be  taken  rather  for  an  ancient 
tribunal  of  justice  than  a  modern 
church.  It  forms  an  oblong  in- 
ternally, three  sides  of  which  are 
surrounded  with  columns  forming 
the  porticoes  ;  the  fourth  side  op- 
posite the  entrance  is  recessed  in 
a  semicircle  ;  this  is  the  tribunal. 
The  first  order  of  columns  carries 
a  second,  forming  an  upper  gal- 
lery, above  which  begins  the 
ceiling  of  the  edifice.  The  short- 
ning  of  the  columns,  recommend- 
ed by  Vitruvius,  is  observed  in 
the  upper  order. 

<4  We  have  hitherto  observed 
in  the  christian  basilicas  but 
small  variations  from  the  antique 
construction  :  they  were  still  sim- 
ple quadrilateral  halls  divided  into 
three  or  five  aisles,  the  numerous 
columns  of  which  support  the 
flat  ceiling  ;  but  the  cross  form, 
the  emblem  of  Christianity,  which 

342 


began  to  be  adopted  in  these 
buildings,  operated  the  most  es- 
sential changes  in  their  shape. 
The  intersection  of  the  crossing 
aisles  produced  a  centre,  which 
it  was  natural  to  enlarge  and 
make  principal  in  the  composi- 
tion ;  and  the  invention  of  domes 
supported  on  pendentives  enabled 
the  architects  to  give  size  and 
dignity  to  the  centre,  without  in- 
terrupting the  vista  of  the  aisles. 
The  church  of  St.  Sophia  at  Con- 
stantinople was  the  first  example 
of  this  form. 

"  The  seat  of  the  Roman  Em- 
pire being  transferred  to  Con-i 
stantinople,  it  is  natural  to  sup- 
pose that  the  disposition  of  the 
ancient  St.  Peter's  of  Rome,  es- 
teemed at  that  time  the  most 
magnificent  church  in  the  world, 
was  imitated  in  that  which  Con- 
stantine erected  for  his  new  capi- 
tal under  the  name  of  St.  Sophia. 
This  last  did  not  exist  long: 
Constantius  the  son  of  Constan- 
tine, raised  a  new  one  which  ex- 
perienced many  disasters.  De- 
stroyed in  part,  and  rebuilt  under 
the  reign  of  Arcadius,  it  was 
burnt  under  Honorius,  and  re- 
established by  Theodosius  the 
younger  ;  but  a  furious  sedition 
having  arisen  under  Justinian,  it 
was  reduced  to  ashes.  This  em- 
peror having  appeased  the  tumult; 
and  wishing  to  immortalize  his 
name  by  the  edifice  he  was  about 
to  erect,  assembled  from  various! 
parts  the  most  famous  architects,! 
Anthemius,  of  Tralles,  and  Isidore, 
of  Miletus,  were  chosen  ;  and  as 
they  had  the  boldness  to  attempt 
a  novel  construction,  they  ex- 
perienced many  difficulties  and 
disasters  :  but  at  last  they  had 
the  glory  of  finishing  their  design. 

"  The  plan  of  this  basilica  is  a 
square  of  about  250  feet.  The 
interior  forms  a  Greek  cross,  that 
is,  a  cross  with  equal  arms  j  the 


BASILICA. 


aisles  are  terminated  at  two  ends 
by  semicircles,  and  at  the  other 
two  by  square  recesses,  in  which 
are  placed  two  ranges  of  tribunals. 
The  aisles  are  vaulted,  and  the 
centre,  where  they  intersect, 
forms  a  large  square,  upon  which 
is  raised  the  dome,  of  about  1 10 
feet  diameter.  The  dome,  there- 
fore, is  supported  upon  the  four 
arches  of  the  naves,  and  the  pen- 
dentives  or  spandrels  which  con- 
nect the  square  plan  of  the  centre 
with  the  circle  of  the  dome. 

"  The  general  effect  of  the  in- 
terior is  grand ;  but  whatever 
praises  the  bold  invention  of  this 
immense  dome  may  merit,  it 
must  be  confessed  that  there  are 
times  in  which  princes,  however 
great  and  liberal,  can  only  pro- 
duce imperfect  monuments,  of 
which  this  edifice  is  a  striking 
example.  All  the  details  of  its 
architecture  are  defective  and 
barbarous. 

1    "  However,    from    the  com- 
munication established  between 
'Greece  and  Italy  at  the  revival  of 
'letters,  this  basilica,  the  last,  as 
well  as  the  most  magnificent  of 
the  lower  empire,  was  that  which 
i     influenced    most   the   form  and 
irchitecture  of  the  new  temples. 
The    Venetians,    in    the  tenth 
:entury,  copied  with  success  the 
>est  parts  of  the  disposition  of 
>t.  Sophia  in  the  church  of  St. 
\h\vk.    This  is  the  first  in  Italy 
vhich  was    constructed  with  a 
lome  supported  on  pendentives  -} 
ntl  it  is  also  this  which  gave  the 
'irst  idea,  which  has  been  imitated 
n  St.  Peter's,  of  the  Vatican,  of 
ccompanying  the  great  dome  of 
church  with  smaller  and  lower 
omes,   to  give  it  a  pyramidal 
fleet." 

ti  1  From  this  time  to  the  erection 
f  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter's,  we 
nd  the  churches  approach,  more 

i       r  leas,  to  the  form  of  the  ancient 


basilica,  or  the  new  construction. 
The  church  of  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore  of  Florence,  from  the  mag- 
nitude of  its  dome,  and  the  skill 
which  Brunelleschi  displayed  in 
its  construction,  acquired  a  cele- 
brity which  made  the  system  of 
domes  prevail  J  and  this  system 
was  finally  established  in  the  noble 
basilica  of  the  Vatican,  which  has 
become  the  type  and  example  of 
later  ones.  The  form  of  the  an- 
tique basilica  was  entirely  lost, 
and  the  name,  which  has  been 
retained,  is  the  only  remains  of 
their  ancient  resemblance. 

"  In  the  pontificate  of  Julius  II. 
the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth 
century,  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter's 
was  begun  from  the  designs  of 
Bramante.  This  great  man  form- 
ed the  idea  of  suspending  in  the 
centre  of  the  building  a  circular 
temple,  as  large  as  the  Pantheon, 
or,  as  he  expressed  it,  to  raise 
the  Pantheon  on  the  temple  of 
Peace  ;  and,  in  fact,  we  find  great 
resemblance  in  size  and  disposi- 
tion between  these  two  edifices 
and  the  design  of  Bramante.  He 
was  succeeded  in  his  office  by  San 
Gallo,  who  almost  entirely  lost 
sight  of  the  original  plan  j  but 
Michael  Angelo,  to  whom  at  his 
death  the  undertaking  was  com- 
mitted, concentered  the  discord- 
ant parts,  and  contracted  the 
whole  into  the  form  of  a  Greek 
cross.  Michael  Angelo  died  in 
1563,  while  he  was  engaged  in 
erecting  the  dome  ;  but  he  left 
plans  and  models,  which  were 
strictly  adhered  to  by  his  suc- 
cessors, Vignola,  J  del  Porte, 
and  Fontana,  who  terminated  the 
dome.  The  building  was  carried 
on  under  many  succeeding  pon- 
tiffs ;  and  at  last,  by  lengthening 
the  longitudinal  naves,  it  acquired 
the  form  of  a  lantern  cross  j  in 
that  particular,  approaching  to 
the  original  design  of  Bramante. 


13  A  S 


B  A  S 


C{  The  general  form  of  this 
edifice  externally  is  an  oblong, 
with  circular  projections  in  thcee 
of  the  sides  j  the  plan  of  the  in- 
terior consists  of  a  Latin  cross  ; 
the  intersection  of  the  arcus  of 
which  is  enlarged  and  formed 
into  an  octagon  ;  the  head  of  the 
long  aisles,  and  the  ends  of  the 
cross  aisles  are  terminated  in 
hemicycles,  and  the  great  naves 
are  accompanied  with  lateral 
aisles,  and  with  several  enclosed 
chapels.  The  octagon  centre  sup- 
ports a  circular  wall,  enriched 
with  pilasters,  and  pierced  with 
windows,  above  which  rises  the 
magnificent  dome. 

"  Thus  we  have  traced  the  pro- 
gress of  the  basilica  from  the 
quadrilateral  hall  of  the  ancients, 
with  its  single  roof  and  flat  ceiling 
supported  on  ranges  of  columns, 
to  the  cross-shaped  plan,  central 
dome,  and  vaulted  aisles,  sup- 
ported on  piers  of  the  modern 
cathedral.  It  only  remains  to 
treat  of  the  modern  basilica. 

"  Modern  basilica.  We  give 
this  name  wiih  Palladio  to  the  civil 
edifices  which  are  found  in  many 
Italian  cities,  and  the  destination 
of  which  is  entirely  similar  to  the 
antique  basilica. 

"  In  imitation  of  the  ancients," 
says  this  celebrated  architect,  "the 
cities  of  Italy  construct  public 
halls,  which  may  be  rightly  called 
basilicas,  as  they  form  part  of  the 
habitation  of  the. supreme  magis- 
trate, and  in  them  the  judges 
administer  justice.  The  basilicas 
of  our  time  (he  continues)  differ 
in  this  from  the  ancients ;  that 
those  were  level  with  the  ground, 
while  ours  are  raised  upon  arches, 
in  which  are  shops  for  various 
arts,  and  the  merchandize  of  the 
city.  There  are  prisons  also 
placed,  and  other  buildings  belong- 
ing to  public  business.  Another 
difference  is  that  the  modern  ba- 

344 


silicas  have  their  porticoes  on  the 
outside,  while  in  the  ancient  they 
were  only  in  the  interior.  Of  these 
halls  there  is  a  very  noble  one  at ! 
Padua,  and  another  at  Brescia, 
remarkable  for  its  size  and  orna- 
ments. 

"  But  the  most  celebrated  is 
that  of  Vicenza  ;  the  exterior  part 
of  which  was  built  by  Palladio, 
and  the  whole  so  much  altered 
that  it  may  pass  for  his  work. 
The  body  of  the  building  is  of 
much  greater  antiquity,  though 
the  date  of  it  is  unknown. 

"  Time  and  various  accidents 
had  reduced  this  building  to  such 
a  state  of  decay,  that  it  was  ne- 
cessary to  think  seriously  of  pre- 
venting its  total  ruin  ;  for  this 
purpose  the  most  eminent  archi- 
tects were  consulted,  and  the  de- 
sign of  Palladio  was  approved. 
He  removed  the  ancient  loggias, 
and  substituted  new  porticoes  of 
very  beautiful  invention.  These 
form  two  galleries  in  height,  the; 
lower  order  of  which  is  ornament-! 
ed  with  doric  engaged  columns, ! 
at  very  wide  intervals,  to  answer 
to  the  internal  pillars  of  the  old 
building  ;  the  space  between  each 
column  is  occupied  by  an  archi 
resting  on  two  small  columns  of 
the  same  order,  and  a  pilaster  atj 
each  side  against  the  large  co- 
lumns, which  leaves  a  space  he-j 
tween  it  and  the  small  columns  of 
two  diameters.  The  upper  porti- 
co of  ionic  columns  is  disposed  in! 
the  same  manner,  and  a  balustrade 
is  placed  in  the  archways.  The 
entablature  of  the  large  orders  is 
profiled  over  each  column. 

"  This  edifice  is  about  150  feet 
long,  and  60  feet  broad  j  the  hall 
is  raised  above  the  ground  26  feet : 
it  is  formed  by  vaults  supported 
on  pillars,  and  the  whole  is  cover- 
ed with  a  wooden  dome." 

Basis.    See  Base. 

Basin.    A  small  reservatory  oi 


BASIN. 


vater ,  as  the  basin  of  a  jet  d'eau, 
r  fountain  j  the  basin  of  a  port, 
f  a  bath,  &c.  which  last  Vitru- 
iius  calls  labrum. 

Basins  are  made  either  with 
[ay,  cement,  or  lead  ;  but  they 
re  most  usually  made  with  clay. 
i  the  making  of  them  this  way, 
ie  diameter  must  be  made  4  feet 
>nger  on  each  side  than  the  ba- 
il is  to  be.  This  will  be  taken 
p  by  the  walls  of  clay.  For 
ie  same  reason,  it  must  be  dug 
1  feet  deeper  than  the  intended 
?pth  of  the  water  ;  because  it  is 
»  be  laid  over  18  inches  thick 
ith  clay,  and  6  inches  with 
ravel  and  paving.  The  wall  is 
t  be  made  with  shards,  rubbish, 
r  flints,  with  the  natural  earth 
r  mortar;  and  the  clay  must  be 
'ell  worked,  and  trod  firmly 
)wn  with  the  naked  feet. 

The  way  of  making  them  with 
mient  is,  to  allow  1  foot  9  in- 
les  every  way  for  the  work  then 
!it  the  banks  perpendicularly, 
id  raise  a  wall  of  masonry  a  foot 
lick,  made  of  pebble  stones,  or 
ie  like,  laid  in  mortar  of  lime 
id  sand.  The  bottom  is  then  to 
e  covered  to  the  same  thickness 
id  the  solid  lining  of  the  cement 

to  be  backed  up  against  the 
alls,  and  over  the  bottom.  This 
'  to  be  made  of  small  flints  in 
?ds  of  mortar  made  of  lime  and 
ment.  When  this  solid  is  8 
ches  thick,  it  must  be  plastered 
her  the  whole  surface  with  ce- 
cnt  well  sifted,  before  it  be 
ixed  with  the  lime  ;  with  this  it 

to  be  wrought  over  smooth 
ith  a  trowel.  The  proportion  of 
is  cement  should  be  two-thirds 

the  cement,  or  powdered  tile, 
■  one-third  of  lime.  This  cement 
Is  the  property  of  becoming  hard 
Kler  water,  like  stone  or  marble, 
d  it  will  not  be  subject  to  decay 
r  a  long  time.  After  the  finish- 
5,  the  basin  should,  for  four  or 
2X 


five  days,  be  anointed  over  very 
often  with  oil  or  bullocks'  blood 
to  keep  it  from  cracking  in  the 
drying ;  and  after  this  the  water 
may  be  let  in. 

In  selecting  the  materials,  the 
builder  should  make  choice  of  the 
best  stone  lime,  such  as  that  of 
Dorking,  Bristol,  or  DudleyCastle, 
&c.  j  and  the  clay  should  be  well 
mixed  and  kneaded  before  it  be 
used.  Parker's  cement  may  also 
be  very  beneficially  employed  in 
the  lining  of  basins,  tanks,  reser- 
voirs, &c. 

The  leaded  basins  are  made 
with  walls  a  foot  thick,  and  with 
a  bottom  of  half  that  thickness. 
These  walls  should  be  of  rubble 
stones,  cemented  with  plaster  j 
for  lime  would  injure  and  eat  the 
lead.  The  sheets  of  lead  are  to  be 
spread  over  these  walls  and  bot- 
tom, and  seamed  with  solder. 
Leaded  basins  are  now  but  seldom 
used  ;  partly  from  the  expense  of 
making  them,  and  partly  from  the 
danger  of  the  lead  being  stolen. 

The  waste  pipes  of  fountains 
should  always  be  made  of  suffici- 
ent diameter  for  the  water  to  pass 
off  freely.  When  the  waste  water 
is  to  pass  off  into  common  sewers, 
or  drains,  earthen  pipes  will 
answer  the  purpose  :  but  when  it 
is  to  pass  into  basins  that  lie 
below  it,  it  should  be  conveyed 
through  leaden  pipes. 

There  are  divers  sorts  of  ba- 
sins ;  as 

Basin  figured.  That  whose 
plan  or  circumference  makes 
several  turns  and  returns,  either 
straight,  circular,  or  the  like. 
Such  are  most  of  the  basins  and 
fountains  at  Rome. 

Basin  with  a  balustrade.  That 
whose  cavity  is  surrounded  with  a 
balustrade  of  brass,  stone,  or 
marble,  &c. 

Basin  with  a  trench,  or  bassin 

hrigole.  That  which  hath  a  border 

345 


BAT 


BAT 


of  marble,  or  other  ctone,  with  a 
trench  cut  in  it,  from  whence,  at 
certain  distances,  springs  out  a 
thread  of  water,  which  lines  the 
trench,  and  forms  a  kind  of  nape 
or  gargle  around  the  balustrade. 
Such  is  that  of  the  fountain  of  the 
rock  of  the  Belvidere  at  Rome. 

Basin  en  Coquille.  That  shaped 
like  a  shell. 

Basin  is  likewise  used  for  a 
dock. 

Basket.  A  kind  of  vase,  in  the 
form  of  a  basket  filled  with  flow- 
ers or  fruits,  serving  to  termi- 
nate some  decoration. 

Basse-covr.  A  court  separated 
from  the  principal  one,  and  des- 
tined for  the  stables,  coach-houses, 
and  livery  servants.  In  a  country- 
seat,  it  is  the  yard,  or  place,  where 
the  cattle,  fowls,  &c.  are  kept. 

Basso-relievo,  or  bas-relief. 
The  representation  of  figures,  pro- 
jecting from  a  back  ground,  with- 
out being  detached  from  it. 
Though  this  word,  in  general  lan- 
guage, implies  all  kinds  of  re- 
lievos, scientific  men  have  divided 
the  relievos  into  three  classes, 
namely  :  alto-relievo,  that  in  which 
the  figure  projects  more  than 
one-half  from  the  back  ground  ; 
mezzo-relievo,  that  in  which  the 
figure  projects  one-half  j  and 
basso-relievo,  that  in  which  the 
projection  of  the  figure  is  less  than 
one-half,  as  in  coins.  Some  very 
beautiful  specimens  of  relievo,  the 
works  of  Phidias,  are  to  be  seen 
in  the  British  Museum.  Vide 
Athenian  Architecture. 

Bastile.  A  small  antique  cas- 
tle fortified  with  turrets. 

Bastion,  or  batoon.  See  Torus. 

Bat.    A  part  of  a  brick. 

Bath.  A  receptacle  of  water, 
appropriated  for  the  purpose  of 
bathing. 

Batten.  A  scantling  of  stuff 
from  2  to  6  inches  broad,  and 
from    five-eights    to    2  inches 

346 


thick,  used  in  the  boarding  o 
floors  ;  also  upon  walls,  in  orde 
to  secure  the  lath  on  which  th 
plaster  is  laid. 

Battening.  The  act  of  fixing 
battens  to  a  wall,  with  a  view  ti 
secure  the  laths  on  which  plaster  i 
to  be  laid,  or  canvass  fastened  fo 
papering.  To  prepare  a  wall  to 
battening,  the  height  of  the  roorj 
must  be  divided  into  equidistan 
parts,  of  from  about  2  feet  6  in 
ches  to  3  feet,  at  which  place 
bond  timbers  or  plugs  must  b 
placed.  On  these  bond  timber 
or  plugs,  the  battens  are  fastene 
in  a  vertical  direction.  The  dis 
tance  from  one  plug  to  another  i 
the  horizontal  course,  or  fror 
one  batten  to  another,  is  from  Y 
to  14  inches.  The  battens  em 
ployed  are  commonly  about  a 
inch  and  a  quarter  thick,  and 
inches  and  a  half,  or  3  inche 
wide.  The  plugs  on  which  th 
battens  are  fixed,  are  generall 
made  flush  with  the  wall ;  but  i 
some  cases,  such  as  where  th 
walls  are  damp,  from  the  inorta 
being  composed  of  sea-sand,  it: 
necessary  for  the  plugs  to  projec 
an  inch,  that  the  damps  may  nc 
affect  either  the  plastering  or  pa 
pering. 

Batter.  When  a  wall  is  buil 
in  a  direction  that  is  not  perpen 
dicular  to  its  base,  it  is  said  t 
batter.  Walls  are  made  to  batter 
in  order  to  resist  the  weight  of 
body  of  water,  mound  of  earth  c 
any  other  pressure,  that  may  res 
against  it.  It  must  not,  howeve: 
be  understood  that  both  sides  t 
the  wall  are  made  to  batter  :  thf 
side  on  which  the  pressure  is  in 
mediately  acting,  is  made  perper 
dicular  above  the  footing  ;  and 
is  the  opposite  side  only  that 
made  to  batter.  The  exact  batte 
that  a  wall  should  have  niu.' 
depend  on  local  circumstances 
and  the  architect  in  planning 


! 


B  A  2 


BE  A 


should  well  consider  the  weight 
it  has  to  resist. 

Battlements.  Indentations  on 
:he  top  of  a  parapet  or  wall,  first 
jsed  in  ancient  fortifications  :  and 
lfterwards  applied  to  churches 
ind  other  buildings  for  ornament. 
Fatten  door.    See  Door. 

Batten  floor.  See  Boarded 
?loor. 

Battifolium,  or  battifollum. 

kind  of  tower  or  defence,  fre- 
uently  mentionetl  by  Latin  histo- 
ians  of  the  middle  age.   It  seems 

0  have  been  of  wood,  and  to 
lave  been  erected  on  sudden  and 
tasty  occasions. 

Baufrey.  An  old  word  for 
earn. 

Baulk.  A  piece  of  timber  from 
to  10  inches  square. 
Baulk-roofing.  This  word  is 
pplied  to  roofing,  when  the 
•aming  is  constructed  of  baulk 
niber. 

Bay.  Any  kind  of  opening  in 
building,  as  a  door,  window,  or 
iumney. 

,  Bay  of  joists,  The  joisting 
etween  two  binding  joists,  or 
,ct\veen  two  girders,  when  there 
re  no  binding  joists. 
,  Bay  of  roofing.  The  small 
ifters  and  purlins  between  prin- 
pal  rafters. 

Bay  window.  See  Bow  Window, 
j  Bazar.  A  kind  of  mart,  or  ex- 
buige,  for  the  sale  of  divers 
tides  of  merchandize.  The  word 
ems  to  be  of  Arabic  origin,  and 
that  language  implies  sale  or 
i  change  of  goods. 
Sosae  of  the  eastern  bazars  are 

<  en,  like  the  market-places  in 
J  rope,  and  serve  for  the  same 
lp,  more  particularly  for  the 
eje  of  more  bulky  and  less  valu- 
ile  commodities.     Others  are 

1  cred  with  lofty  ceilings,  or  even 

<  nes,  which  are  pierced  to  give 
lht :  and  it  is  in  these  that  the 
j  sellers,  goldsmiths,  and  other 


dealers  in  rich  wares,  have  their 
shops. 

The  bazar,  or  maidan,  of  Ispahan 
is  one  of  the  finest  places  in  all 
Persia,  and  even  surpasses  all  the 
exchanges  in  Europe :  yet,  not- 
withstanding its  magnificence,  it 
is  excelled  by  the  bazar  of  Tauris, 
which  is  the  largest  that  is  known, 
having  several  times  held  thirty 
thousand  men,  arranged  in  order 
of  battle. 

At  Constantinople  there  are  two 
bazars,  which  are  large  square 
buildings,  covered  with  domes, 
and  sustained  by  arches  and  pilas- 
ters :  one  is  appropriated  for  the 
sale  of  arms,  harness,  and  the 
like  j  in  the  other,  the  goldsmiths, 
jewellers,  furriers,  and  all  sorts 
of  manufacturers,  have  their 
shops. 

Bead.  A  moulding  of  a  circu- 
lar section,  frequently  set  on  the 
edge  of  each  fascia  of  an  architrave, 
a^go  used  as  the  mouldings  of 
doors,  shutters,  skirtings,  im- 
posts and  cornices.  When  the 
bead  is  flush  with  the  surface,  it 
is  called  quirk- bead ;  and  when 
raised,  cock- bead. 

Bead  and  butt  work.  A  piece 
of  framing  in  which  the  panels 
are  flush,  having  beads  stuck  or 
run  upon  the  two  edges,  having  the 
grain  of  wood  in  their  direction. 

Bead  butt  and  square  work. 
Framing  with  bead  and  butt  on 
one  side,  and  square  on  the  other, 
used  chiefly  in  doors.  The  fram- 
ing of  bead,  butt,  and  square  work 
is  put  together  square,  and  the 
bead  is  stuck  on  the  edges  of  the 
rising  sides  of  the  panel. 

Bead  and  flush  work.  A  piece 
of  framed  work,  with  beads  run 
on  each  edge  of  the  included 
panel. 

Bead,  flush,  and  square 
work.  Framing  with  bead  and 
flush  on  one  side,  and  square  on 
the  other,  used  chiefly  in  doors. 

317 


BE  A 

Bead  and  quirk.  A  bead  stuck  on 
the  edge  of  a  piece  of  stuff,  flush 
with  its  surface,  with  only  one 
quirk,  or  without  being  returned 
on  the  other  surface. 

Bead  and  double  quirk.  See 
Return  Bead. 

Beak.  A  small  fillet  left  on  the 
edge  of  a  larmier,  which  forms 
a  canal,  and  makes  a  kind  of 
pendant  chin,  answering  to  what 
Vitruvius  calls  the  mention.  The 
beak  is  sometimes  formed  by  a 
channel  or  groove,  recessed  on  the 
foffit  of  the  larmier  upwards : 
aid  is  used  to  prevent  the  water 
from  running  down  the  lower  bed 
of  the  cornice. 

Bkam.  A  piece  of  timber  or 
metal  of  a  rectangular  section, 
used  in  buildings  for  sustaining  a 
weight,  or  resisting  some  strain, 
either  in  a  longitudinal  or  trans- 
verse direction.  The  word  beam, 
however,  is  but  seldom  techni- 
cally used,  unless  it  be  subjoined 
to,  or  compounded  with,  another 
word,  used  adjectively,  as  tie- 
beam,  collar- beam,  camber-beam, 
&c.  &c.  when  it  is  in  frequent 
use.  See  Building  of  Beams,  Scarf- 
ing, and  Truss  Beams. 

Beam  compasses.  See  Mathe- 
matical Instruments. 

Beam-filling.  The  building  of 
masonry,  or  brickwork,  from  the 
level  of  the  under  edges  to  that 
of  the  upper  edges  of  beams  :  also 
the  filling  up  of  the  space  from 
the  top  ot  the  wall  plate  between 
the  rafters,  to  the  under  side  of 
the  slating  board,  or  other 
covering. 

Bearer.  Any  thing  which  sup- 
ports a  body  in  its  place,  as  a 
wall,  post,  strut,  8tc.  Bearers,  in 
guttering,  are  the  short  pieces  of 
timber  which  support  the  boarding. 

Bearing  of  a  piece  of  timber. 
That  part  of  a  piece  of  timber 
which  is  unsupported,  or  is  be- 
tween two  or  more  props  or  sup- 

348 


BED 

ports.  For  example,  a  piece  of 
timber  extending  over  two  rooms 
is  supported  at  each  of  its  extre- 
mities by  a  wall,  and  in  or  near 
the  centre,  accordingly  as  the! 
rooms  be  of  equal  or  unequal 
breadth,  by  a  partition  those 
parts  of  the  piece  of  timber,  there- 
fore, which  are  unsupported,  and 
which  are  of  course  equal  to  the 
breadth  of  the  respective  rooms, 
are  called  the  bearers. 

Bearing.  The  ends  of  a  piece 
of  timber  inserted  into  walls, 
piers,  &c. 

Bearing  wall,  or  partition. 
A  wall  which  is  built  upon  the 
solid,  and  is  made  to  support  an- 
other wall  or  partition,  either  in 
the  same,  or  in  a  transverse,  direc- 
tion. When  the  supported  wall  is 
built  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
wall  which  supports  it,  it  is  said 
to  have  a  solid  bearing  ;  but  when 
it  is  built  in  a  transverse  direction, 
or  not  supported  throughout  its 
length,  it  is  said  to  have  a  false 
bearing;  or  as  many  false  bear- 
ings as  there  are  intervals  below 
the  wall  or  partition. 

Beater.  An  implement  usee 
by  plasterers  for  tempering,  or 
incorporating  lime,  sand,  and  hair 
together,  to  make  the  composi- 
tion called  lime  and  hair. 

Beaufet,  buffet,  or  bufet.  A 
small  cupboard,  or  cabinet,  tc 
contain  china  ware,  &c.  For 
merly  buffets  were  much  orna 
mented,  and  were  left  open,  01 
had  glass  doors  to  them;  but  nov 
doors  are  made  to  conceal  tht 
articles  that  are  inside  from  th< 
eye  of  the  spectator. 

Bed-chamber,  or  bed-room.  I 
room  in  which  a  bed  is  placed 
In  bed-rooms,  the  finishing  of  th 
joinery  and  plaster  work  is  not  s 
good  as  those  of  the  drawing 
rooms,  parlours,  &c.j  and  the  bed 
rooms  of  good  houses  are  frequent 
ly  finished  without  the  surbase. 


BEL 


BEN 


Beds  of  a  stone.  The  horizontal 
ourses  of  a  wall  of  masonry  ;  that 
t  the  under  surface  of  any  parti- 
ular  stone  is  called  the  under-bed; 
nd  that  of  the  upper  surface,  the 
pper  bed.  The  beds  of  a  stone, 
i  general  language,  are  where 
wo  stones  meet,  without  any  re- 
►  ard  to  their  direction. 

The  bed  of  every  stone  should 
e  worked  quite  straight,  and  not 
ished  or  hollowed  out,  which 
lasons  are  but  too  apt  to  do, 
ith  the  view  of  making  a  fine 
)int.  This  practice  cannot  be 
)o  severely  deprecated,  as  stones 
hich  have  been  thus  worked,  or 
ished  out,  are  liable  to  flush  or 
teak  off  at  the  angles.  Several 
(stances  of  this  kind  have  oc- 
irred  at  Blackfriars-bridge. 
Bed  of  a  slate.  The  under  side 
fa  slate,  or  that  part  which  is 
laced  in  contiguity  with  the 
oarding  or  rafters. 

Bedding  of  a  templet.  See 
■'emplet. 

Beetle.  A  large  mallet,  used 
>r  the  cleaving  of  wood,  and 
riving  of  piles.  Large  beetles 
;ive  two  handles  inserted  about 
lirty  degrees  apart,  to  admit  of 
ieir  being  lifted  by  two  men. 
i  Selection  mouldings.  Mould- 
gs  which  project  around  the 
mels  of  a  framing.  Belection 
ouklings  are  never  stuck  on  ; 

d  are  now  but  seldom  used,  ex- 
pt  in  external  decoration,  and 

the  finishings  of  very  grand 
>uses. 

Belfry.  That  part  of  a  steeple 
which  the  bells  are  hung.  It 
sometimes  called   by  writers 
:  the  middle  ages,  campanile. 
Bell  of  the  corinthian  and 

MPOSITE    ORDERS.       Is    USed  to 

•  note  the  body  of  the  capital, 
1   reason  of  its  resemblance  to 
li  figure  of  a  bell  inverted.  In 
if    l'is  sense,  bell  is  the  same  with 


what  we  otherwise  call  vase  and 
tambour  ;  sometimes  also  corbeil. 

Bell-roof.  A  roof  shaped 
somewhat  similarly  to  a  bell ;  its 
vertical  section,  perpendicular  to 
the  wall,  being  a  curve  of  con- 
trary flexure,  convex  at  the  top, 
and  concave  at  the  bottom,  simi- 
lar to  an  ogee,  or  cima  recta  roof. 

Belt.  A  course  of  stones  pro- 
jecting from  a  brick  or  stone  wall, 
generally  placed  in  a  line  with  the 
cills  of  the  first  floor  windows  ; 
it  is  either  moulded,  fluted,  plane, 
or  enriched  with  patras  at  regular 
intervals,  which  may  be  either 
plain  or  fluted.  It  is  commonly 
weathered  on  the  upper  side,  from 
the  face  of  the  brick  or  stone 
work  ;  and  is  throated  on  the 
under  side  to  form  a  drip.  It  is 
sometimes  called  stone  string. 

Belvedere,  or  look-out.  A 
turret,  or  lantern,  raised  above 
the  roof  as  an  observatory,  or  for 
the  purpose  of  enjoying  a  "fine 
prospect.  Also  a  small  edifice  or 
temple,  erected  in  gardens  for  a 
similar  purpose.  Belvederes  are 
very  common  both  in  France  and 
in  Italy.    See  Turret. 

Bench.  A  horizontal  surface, 
supported  about  2  feet  8  inches 
from  the  ground,  on  which  joiners 
and  cabinet-makers  prepare  and 
fashion  their  work. 

Bench-hook.  A  pin  affixed  to 
the  bench  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
venting the  stuff  that  is  being 
wrought  from  sliding. 

Bend.    See  Bending. 

Benda.    See  Fascia. 

Bending.  The  act  of  the  In- 
curvation of  a  body  from  a  straight 
to  a  crooked  form.  One  of  the 
best  modes  of  bending  a  plank  is, 
by  enclosing  it  within  a  hollow 
prismatic  trunk,  and  exposing  it 
while  in  that  situation  to  the  ac- 
tion of  steam,  by  means  of  a  pipe, 
having   a   communication  with 


BER 


BER 


a  boiler,  and  with  one  of  the  ends 
or  sides  of  the  trunk.  When  the 
plank  has  been  sufficiently  exposed 
to  the  action  of  the  steam,  it  is 
taken  out  of  the  trunk,  and  im- 
mediately bent  round  the  convex 
surface  of  an  inflexible  body, 
prepared  for  the  purpose.  In  this 
situation  it  is  fastened,  and  allow- 
ed to  remain  till  quite  cold.  Planks 
thus  bent  will  retain  the  degree 
of  curvature  given  them  ;  and  the 
practice  of  ship-building  proves 
that  planks  of  almost  any  thick- 
ness may  be  bent  to  any  requisite 
curve,  by  the  application  of  heat, 
or  heated  water,  or  by  steam. 

A  plank  may  be  bent,  by  affix- 
ing one  of  its  ends  to  a  stage 
erected  for  the  purpose,  so  as  to 
sustain  it  some  height  from  the 
ground,  in  a  horizontal  direction, 
or  in  a  direction  as  nearly  hori- 
zontal as  the  weight  of  the  other 
end  of  the  plank,  which  is  un- 
supported, will  admit.  A  fire  is 
then  to  be  kindled  beneath  it : 
and  while  the  under  side  of  the 
plank  is  thus  exposed  to  the  heat 
of  the  fire,  which  will  have  a  ten- 
dency to  incurvate  it,  the  upper 
side  is  supplied  with  cold  water. 
In  this  operation,  it  is  difficult  to 
introduce  a  uniform  temperature 
throughout  the  body  to  be  bent; 
consequently,  the  other  mode 
should,  if  possible,  be  resorted  to. 

Bernini,  Giovanni  Lorenzo, 
was  born  at  Naples  in  1598,  and 
died  November,  16SO.  His  father, 
Peter  Bernini,  was  a  native  of 
Tuscany,  and  practised  sculpture 
with  some  distinction  in  his  native 
place  j  but  repairing  thence  to 
Naples,  he  married  Angelica 
Galante,  who  gave  birth  to  the 
subject  of  our  present  memoir 
Soon  after  his  marriage,  Peter 
Bernini  was  ordered  to  Rome  by 
pope  Paul  V.,  to  decorate  the 
Paulina  chapel,  Santa  Maria  Mag- 


giore.  It  was  in  this  place,  and 
while  yet  in  his  infancy,  that  the 
genius  of  Giovanni  began  to  de- 
velope  itself.  Paul  V.,  astonished 
to  find  a  skilful  artist  in  a  child 
but  ten  years  old,  recommended 
him  to  the  care  of  cardinal  Maffei 
Barberini,  as  one  who  was  likely 
to  become  the  Michael  Angelo  of 
his  age.  Encouraged  by  the 
praises  that  he  had  received,  he 
applied  himself  to  his  studies  withi 
the  greatest  diligence  and  atten- 
tion ;  and  before  he  had  attained 
his  eighteenth  year,  gave  manifest 
proofs  of  his  abilities.  Among 
the  productions  of  his  youth,  we 
may  mention  his  statues  of  St. 
Laurence,  and  of  iEneas  carrying 
ofFhis  father  at  the  siege  of  Troy; 
and  more  particularly  his  David 
and  Goliah,  which  some  have! 
reckoned  among  his  best  works.; 
To  these  may  be  added,  his  groupe 
of  Apollo  and  Daphne,  cut  from  a 
single  block  of  marble ,  and  the 
second  not  more  than  half  a  foot 
from  the  first,  executed  for  eardi- 
cal  Borghese,  which  has  been 
regarded  as  the  chef  d'ceuvre  of 
sculpture. 

During  the  pontificate  of  Gre- 
gory XV.,  Bernini  was  created 
a  knight  of  the  order  of  Christ, 
whence  he  has  been  commonly 
distinguished  by  the  appellation 
of  chevalier  Bernini.  Upon  the  death 
of  Gregory  XV.,  his  patron  Barbe- 
rini ascended  the  papal  chair, 
under  the  title  of  pope  Urban 
VIII.;  and  Bernini  was  appointed 
by  him  to  carry  into  execution  the 
projects  he  had  formed  for  the 
embellishment  of  Rome.  His  first 
work  was  the  decoration  of  the 
place  called  the  "  confession,"  in, 
St.  Peter's  ;  and  during  the  nine 
years  that  he  was  employed  on  it, 
he  was  very  liberally  rewarded, 
He  also  constructed  a  fountain, 
displaying   the  richness  of  his 


BER 


BE  V 


i  'ention  in  the  piazza  d'Espagna; 
t  :orated  the  great  niches  of  the 
I  lars  that  support  the  dome  of 
<  Peter's ;  and  constructed  a 
£ind  mausoleum  for  the  pope, 
^  ich  is  considered  one  of  the 
f  est  ornaments  of  that  cathedral. 
Louis  XIII.  of  France,  hav- 
i ;  made  some  tempting  offers 
t  Bernini  to  induce  him  to  go 
t  Paris,  pope  Urban  VIII. 
t  d  him,  that  he  was  made  for 
I  me,  and  that  Rome  was  made 
f  him  ;  and,  with  a  view  to  keep 
m  in  Rome,  prevailed  on  him 
t<  marry.  This  union  lasted 
t  rty-five  years,  and  produced  a 
n.nerous  offspring. 

The  grand  fountain  of  the 
p2za  Navona  was  constructed 
b  Bernini,  under  the  pontificate 
o,  Innocent  X. ;  and  the  fine 
prtieo  of  St.  Peter's  was  erected 

.  t  him  under  the  pontificate  of 
/pander  VII.    In  1664,  he  was 

s  cisulted  by  Louis  XIV.  of 
lince,  in  consequence  of  the 
r  nmmendation  of  Colbert,  con- 
rining  the  improvement  of  the 

ut  I  uvre;  and  at  the  age  of  sixty-eight 
)irs,  he  yielded  to  an  urgent  in- 
vaiion  to  visit  Paris  for  that  pur- 
Hpe.    In  his  journey  thither,  he 

i  vh  honoured  in  various  places 
tmugh  which  he  passed  by  the 

id  rust  respectful  attention ;  and 
v  en  he  arrived  in  Paris  and  saw 
tl  front  of  the  Louvre  bv  Per- 
r;lt,  he  said  publicly,  that  his 
ciing  to  France  was  useless, 
vore  there  were  artists  of  the 
fi|  class.    This  trait  does  much 

(    n  -e  honour  to  Bernini,  than  all 

i  h  abilities  as  an  architect.  His 
d<  gn  for  the  completion  of  the 
Livre  was  not  executed.  He 
mle  the  king's  bust  ;  and  dur- 
in  the  eight  months  that  he  staid 
inr Vance,  he  was  paid  at  the  rate 
of  ve  pounds  a  day,  and  received 
at  ast  a  gift  of  fifty  thousand 
cr  vns,  and  an  annual  pension  of 


two  thousand,  and  a  pension  for 
his  son,  whom  he  took  with  him, 
of  five  hundred. 

He  returned  to  Rome  before 
winter,  and  as  an  acknowledge- 
ment of  his  obligation,  for  the 
civility  and  munificence  with 
which  he  was  treated  by  Louis, 
he  formed  a  colossal  equestrian 
statue,  representing  the  king  as 
supported  by  a  rock.  Upon 
its  removal  to  Paris,  Girarden 
changed  it,  on  account  of  its  want 
of  sufficient  resemblance  to  that 
monarch,  into  a  Curtius  leaping 
into  a  fiery  gulph.  Among  the 
remaining  works  in  which  Ber- 
nini employed  himself,  the  most 
considerable  was  the  tomb  of 
Alexander  VII.,  in  St.  Peter's. 
Whilst  he  was  repairing  the  old 
chancery  palace,  by  order  of  In- 
nocent XL,  he  was  seized  with  a 
fever,  which  terminated  in  an 
apoplexy,  that  closed  his  life  in 
16SO,  in  the  eighty-second  year 
of  his  age. 

Bevel.  In  masonry,  and  among 
joiners,  a  kind  of  square  j  one 
leg  whereof  is  frequently  straight, 
and  the  other  curved,  according 
to  the  s  weep  of  an  arch  or  vault  j 
being  also  movable  on  a  point,  or 
centre,  so  that  it  may  be  set  to 
any  angle.  The  make  and  use  of 
the  bevel  are  pretty  much  the 
same  as  those  of  the  common 
square  or  mitre,  except  that  these 
latter  are  fixed ;  the  first  at  an 
angle  of  ninety  degrees,  and  the 
second  at  forty-five  ;  whereas  the 
bevel  being  movable,  may,  in 
some  measure,  supply  the  office  of 
both  5  and  yet,  which  it  is  chiefly 
intended  for,  supply  their  defici- 
encies, serving  to  set  off  or  trans- 
fer angles,  either  greater  or  less 
than  ninety  or  forty-five  degrees. 

Bricklayers  have  also  a  bevel, 
by  which  they  cut  the  under  sides 
of  the  bricks  of  arches,  straight 
or  circular,  to  such  oblique  angles 

351 


BEVEL. 


as  the  arches  require,  and  also  for 
other  uses. 

Bevel  Angle  is  used  among 
the  workmen,  to  denote  any  other 
angle  besides  those  of  ninety  or 
forty -five  degrees. 

The  simple  bevel,  Plate  G4, 
Geometry,  Jig  1,  consists  of  two 
rulers  movable  on  a  com- 
mon centre,  like  a  carpenter's  rule, 
with  a  contrivance  to  keep  them 
fixed  at  any  required  angle.  The 
centre  C  must  move  on  a  very 
fine  axis,  so  as  to  lie  in  a  line 
with  the  fiducial  edges  CB,  CD  of 
the  rulers,  and  projects  as  little 
as  possible  before  them.  The 
fiducial  edges  of  the  legs  repre- 
sent the  sides  of  any  given  angle, 
and  their  intersection  or  centre  C, 
its  angular  point.  A  pin,  fixed  in  the 
lower  ruler,  and  passing  through 
a  semicircular  groove  in  the  up- 
per, serves,  by  a  nut  A,  which 
screws  upon  it,  to  fix  the  rulers, 
or  legs,  when  they  are  placed  at 
the  desired  angle. 

The  use  of  this  instrument  may 
be  illustrated  in  the  following 
examples  : 

1.  Let  three  points  A,  B,  C,  be 
in  the  circumference  of  a  circle, 
which  is  too  large  to  be  described 
by  a  pair  of  compasses  ;  and  let 
it  be  required  to  find  any  other 
number  of  points  in  the  same  cir- 
cumference. Bring  the  centre  of 
the  bevel  to  B  (fig.  <2.),  the  mid- 
dle point  of  the  three  given  ones 
A,  B,  and  C,  and  holding  it  there, 
open  or  shut  the  instrument  till 
the  fiducial  edges  of  the  legs  lie 
upon  the  other  two  points,  and 
fix  them  there  by  means  of  the 
screw  A  (Jig.  1.)  :  this  operation 
is  called  setting  the  bevel  to  the 
given  points.  Then  removing  the 
centre  of  the  bevel  to  any  part  be- 
tween B  and  A  or  C,  the  legs 
being  at  the  same  time  kept  upon 
A  and  C,  that  centre  will  describe, 
or  be  always  found  in,  the  arc 

352 


which  passes  through  the  givei 
points,  and  will  thus  ascertain  as 
many  others  as  may  be  requirec 
between  the  limits  of  A  and  C| 
In  order  to  find  points  without 
those  limits,  proceed  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner  :  the  bevel  bein£ 
set,  bring  the  centre  to  C,  am! 
mark  the  distance  CB  upon  th( 
left  leg  ;  remove  the  centre  to  B 
and  mark  the  distance  BA  upor 
the  same  leg  ;  then  placing  thi 
centre  on  A,  bring  the  right  le£ 
upon  B,  and  the  first  mark  wil 
fall  upon  a,  a  point  in  the  circum 
ference    of  the    circle,  passing 
through  A,  B,  and  C,  whose  dis 
tance  from  A  is  equal  to  the  (lis 
tance  BC.    Removing  the  centr 
of  the  bevel  to  the  point,  a,  las 
found,  and  bringing  the  right  lef 
to  A,  the  second  mark  will  fin 
another  point,  a" ',  in  the  same  cir 
cumference,  whose  distance  aa 
is  equal  to  AB.    By  proceedin, 
in  this  manner,  any  number  c 
points  may  be  found,  whose  dis 
tances  on  the  circumference  ar 
alternately  BC  and  BA.    In  th 
same  manner,  by  making  simik 
marks  on  the  right  leg,  points  o 
the  other  side  as  at  c  and  c"  ar 
found,  whose  distances  Cc',  tfd 
are  equal  to  BA,  BC  respective! 
Intermediate  points  between  ar, 
of  the  above  are  given  by  ti 
bevel  in  the  same  manner  wil 
those  between  the  original  point 
2.  Three  points,  A,B,andC,  heir 
given,  to  draw  a  line  from  any 
them,  tending  to  the  centre  of  tl 
circle,  which  passes  through  the 
all.    Set  the  bevel  to  the  thn 
given  points  A,  B,  and  C,  (Jig.  3 
lay  the  centre  on  A,  and  the  rig 
leg  to  the  point  C,  and  the  oth 
leg  will   give    the  tangent  A" 
Draw  AD  perpendicular  to  AC 
for  the  line  required.    For  BA 
being  =  BCA,  the  angle  EAC 
the  supplement  to  the  angle  AB 
or  that  to  which  the  bevel  is  se 


BEVEL. 


hence,  when  one  leg  is  applied  to 
C,  and  the  centre  brought  to  A, 
the  direction  of  the  other  leg 
mast  be  in  that  of  the  tangent 
G'E. 

3.  Three  points  being  given  as 
before,  let  it  be  required  to  draw 
from  a  fourth  given  point,  D,  a 
line  tending  to  the  centre  of  a 
circle  passing  through  the  first 
three  points.  On  D,  {jig.  4.)  with 
:he  radius  DA  describe  an  arc  AK ; 
*et  the  bevel  to  the  three  given 
joints  A,  B,  and  C,  and  bring  its 
centre,  always  keeping  the  legs  on 
V  and  C,  to  fall  on  the  arc  AK,  as 
it  H  on  A  and  H  severally, with  any 
•onvenient  radius,  strike  two  arcs, 
rossing  each  other  at  I  j  and  the 
equired  lineDd  will  pass  through 
he  points  I  and  D.  For  a  line 
ravvn  from  A  to  H  will  be  a 
omrnon  chord  to  the  circles  AHK 
nd  ABC  ;  and  the  line  ID  bi- 
ecting  it  at  right  angles,  must 
ass  through  both  their  centres. 

4.  Three  points  being  given  as 
efore,  together  with  a  fourth 
oint,  to  find  two  other  points, 
ich,  that  a  circle  passing  through 

"     jiem  and  the  fourth  point,  shall 
e  concentric    to    that  passing 
i rough  three  given  points.  Draw 
c  and  Cc  tending  to  the  centre, 
'  a  former  problem  ;   set  the 
;vel  to  the  three  given  points 
B,  and  C  j  bring  the  centre  of 
e  bevel  to  D,  and  move  it  upon 
at  point  till  its  legs  cut  off  equal 
rf*  AN,  CQ,  of  the  lines  Aa  and 
and  N  and  Q  will  be  the 
j  ints  required.    For,  supposing 
)  os  drawn  from  A  to  C,  and  from 
1  to  Q,  the  segments  ABC  and 
will  be  similar  ones  ;  and 
( isequently,  the  angles  contained 
111    ijthem  will  be  equal. 

>.  Two  lines  tending  to  a  distant 
I,  nt  being  given,  and  also  a  point 
i  one  of  them  ;  to  find  two  other 
p  nts  (one  of  which  must  be  in 
t  other  given  line),  such,  that 
[(!'     '  2Y 


a  circle  passing  through  these 
three  points  may  have  its  centre 
at  the  point  of  intersection  of  the 
given  lines.  Draw  EH  (fig.  5.) 
at  right  angles  to  AB,  and  make 
FH  =  FE  :  set  the  bevel  to  the 
angle  GDO,  and  keeping  its  legs 
on  the  points  H  and  E,  bring  its 
centre  to  the  line  AB,  which  will 
give  the  point  1. 

An  improved  bevel  is  exhibited 
in  Jig.  6.  by  which  the  ares  of  cir- 
cles of  any  radius,  without  the 
limits  attainable  by  a  common 
pair  of  compasses,  may  be  de- 
scribed. It  consists  of  a  ruler 
AB,  composed  of  two  pieces  ri- 
vetted  together  near  C,  the  centre 
or  axis,  and  of  a  triangular  part 
CFED.  The  axis  is  a  hollow 
socket  fixed  to  the  triangular  part, 
about  which  another  socket,  fixed 
to  the  arm  CB  of  the  ruler  AB, 
turns.  These  sockets  are  open 
in  the  front  for  part  of  their  length 
upwards,  as  represented  in  the 
section  at  I,  which  shows  the 
point  of  a  tracer,  or  pin,  fitted 
for  sliding  in  the  socket.  The 
triangular  part  is  furnished  with  a 
graduated  arc  DE,  by  which  and 
the  vernier  at  B,  the  angle  DcB 
may  be  determined  to  a  minute. 
In  this  arc  is  a  groove,  by  means 
of  which,  as  well  as  by  the  nut 
and  screw  at  B,  or  some  similar 
contrivance,  the  ruler  AB  may  be 
fixed  in  any  required  position , 
A  scale  of  radii  is  put  on  the  arm 
CB,  by  which  the  instrument  may 
be  set  to  describe  arcs  of  given 
circles,  not  less  than  20  inches  in 
diameter.  In  order  to  set  the  in- 
strument to  any  given  radius,  the 
number  expressing  it  in  inches  on 
CB,  is  brought  to  cut  a  fine  line 
drawn  on  CD,  parallel  and  near 
to  the  fiducial  edge  of  it,  and  the 
arms  are  fastened  in  that  position 
by  the  screw  at  B.  Two  heavy 
pieces  of  lead  or  brass,  G,  G,  made 
in  form  of  the  sector  of  a  circle, 

353 


h  jS  V  E  L. 


the  angular  parts  being  of  steel, 
and  wrought  to  a  true  upright 
edge,  as  shown  at  H,  are  used 
with  this  instrument,  whose  arms 
are  made  to  bear  against  those 
edges  when  the  arcs  are  drawn. 
The  under  sides  of  these  sectors 
are  furnished  with  fine  short  points 
to  prevent  them  from  sliding.  The 
fiducial  edges  of  the  arms  CA  and 
CD,  are  each  divided  from  the 
centre  C  into  two  hundred  equal 
parts.  This  instrument  might  be 
furnished  with  small  castors,  like 
thepentagraph  ;  but  little  buttons, 
fixed  on  its  under  side,  near  A,  E, 
and  D,  will  enable  it  to  slide  with 
sufficient  ease. 

The  use  of  this  instrument  may 
be  exemplified  in  the  following 
problems  : 

It  To  describe  an  arc,  which 
shall  pass  through  three  given 
points.  —  Place  the  sectors  G,  G', 
with  their  regular  edges  over  the 
two  extreme  points  ;  apply  the 
arms  of  the  bevel  to  them, 
and  bring  at  the  same  time  its 
centre  C,  that  is,  the  point  of  the 
tracer,  or  pen,  put  into  the  soc- 
ket, to  the  third  point,  and  there 
fix  the  arm  CB  ;  then,  bringing 
the  tracer  to  the  left  hand  sector, 
slide  the  bevel,  keeping  the  arms 
constantly  bearing  against  the  two 
sectors,  till  it  comes  to  the  right 
hand  sector,  by  which  the  required 
arc  will  be  described  by  the  mo- 
tion of  its  centre  C.  If  the  arc 
be  wanted  in  some  part  of  the 
drawing  without  the  given  points, 
find  by  case  1.  under  simple  bevel, 
other  points  in  those  parts  where 
the  arc  is  required  ;  and  thus  a 
given  arc  may  be  lengthened  as  far 
as  is  necessary. 

2.  To  describe  an  arc  of  a  given 
radius,  not  less  than  10  inches. — 
Fix  the  arm  CB  so  that  the  part 
of  its  edge  corresponding  to  the 
given  radius,  always  reckoned  in 
inches,  may  lie  over  the  fine  line 

354 


drawn  on  CD  for  that  purpose , 
bring  the  centre  to  the  point 
through  which  the  arc  is  required 
to  pass,  and  dispose  the  bevel  in 
the  direction  in  which  it  is  intend- 
ed to  be  drawn  ;  place  the  sectors 
G,  G,  exactly  to  the  divisions  one 
hundred  in  each  arm,  and  strike 
the  arc  as  above  described. 

3.  The  bevel  being  set  to  strike 
arcs  of  a  given  radius,  as  in  the 
last  instance,  let  it  be  required  to 
draw  other  arcs,  whose  radii 
shall  have  a  given  proportion  to 
that  of  the  fir«t  arc.  Suppose  the 
bevel  to  be  set  for  describing  arc? 
of  fiftv  inches  radius,  and  it  be  re- 
quired to  draw  arcs  of  60  inches 
radius,  with  the  bevel  so  set.  Say 
as  50  is  to  60,  so  is  the  constant 
number  100  to  120,  the  number 
on  the  arms  CA  and  CD,  to  which 
the  sectors  must  be  placed,  ir! 
order  to  describe  arcs  of  60  inche: 
radius.  When  it  is  said  that  th( 
bevel  is  set  to  draw  arcs  of  a  par 
ticular  radius,  it  is  always  under 
stood  that  the  sectors  G,  G,  an 
to  be  placed  at  N°.  100  onCA  am 
CD,  when  those  arcs  are  drawn 

4.  An  arc  ACB  (Jig.  7.)  beinj 
given,  let  it  be  required  to  dra\ 
other  arcs  concentric  to  it,  whic 
shall  pass  through  given  point: 
e.  g.  P.    Through  the  extremitie 
A  and  B  of  the  given  arc,  dr<n 
lines   AB,   BP,  tending   to  il 
centre,  by  case  3,  under  simp 
bevel.  Take  the  nearest  distant 
of  the  given  point  P  from  thenar 
and  set  it  from  A  to  P,  and  fro: 
B  to  P.    Hold  the  centre  of  u 
bevel  on  C,  any  point  near  tl 
middle  of  the  given  arc,  and  brir. 
its  arms  to  pass  through  A  and 
at  the  same  time,  and  fix  the 
there.    Place  the  sectors  to  tl 
points  P  and  P,  and    with  tl 
bevel,  set  as  before  directed,  dra 
an  arc,  which  will  pass  throw 
P'  the  given  point,  and  be  co 
centric  to  the  given  arc  ACB. 


BE  V 


B  I  S 


5.  Through  a  given  point  A 
{fig.  8.)  in  the  given  line,  to  strike 
an  arc  of  a  given  radius,  and  whose 
centre  shall  lie  in  that  line,  pro- 
duced if  necessary.  Set  the  bevel 
to  the  given  radius,  by  case  2. 
Through  A,  at  right  angles  to 
AB,  draw  CD  j  lay  the  centre  of 
the  bevel,  set  as  above,  on  A,  and 
the  arm  CA  on  the  line  AC,  and 
draw  a  line  AE  along  the  edge  CD 
of  the  other  arm.  Divide  the  an- 
gle DAE  into  two  equal  parts  by 
the  line  AF,  and  place  the  bevel 
so  that,  its  centre  being  at  A,  the 
arm  CD  shall  lie  on  AF  ;  while  in 
this  situation,  place  the  sectors  at 
N°.  100  in  each  arm,  and  then 
strike  the  arc. 

6.  An  arc  being  given,  to  find 
the  length  of  its  radius.  — Place 
the  centre  of  the  bevel  on  the 
middle  of  the  arc,  and  open  or 
shut  the  arms  till  N°.  100  on  CA 
and  CD,  fall  upon  the  arc  on  each 
side  of  the  centre  ;  the  radius  will 
be  found  on  CB  (in  inches)  at 
that  point  of  it,  where  it  is  cut  by 
the  line  drawn  on  CD.  If  the  ex- 
tent of  the  arc  be  not  equal  to 
that  between  the  two  Nos.  100, 
make  use  of  the  N°.  50,  in  which 
case  the  radius  found  on  CB,  will 
be  double  of  that  sought ;  or  the 
arc  may  be  lengthened  by  prob.  1. 
"till  it  be  of  a  sufficient  extent  to 
admit  the  two  Nos.  100.  "Adam's 
Geometrical  andGraphicalEssays," 
by  Jones,  1797. 

'  This  work  is  now  in  its  fourth 
edition,  and  may  be  had  of  W.  and 
S •  'ones,  Mathematical  Instrument 
Makers,  No.  30,  Holborn,  Lon- 
lon  ;  and  of  all  booksellers. 
;  Bevel,  Graduated.  That  which 
ias  about  the  centre  of  one  of  its 
•i*ms  a  semicircle  graven,  and 
livided  into  one  hundred  and 
■  ighty  degrees,  whose  diameter 
tands  square  with  the  sides  of  the 
'ame  arm  j  so  that  the  end  of  the 
ther  arm,  being  divided  at  right 


angles  almost  to  the  centre,  shows 
by  its  motion  the  number  of  de- 
grees contained  in  the  angle  to  be 
measured.  This  is  also  called 
recipiangle  and  pantameter. 

Billet  moulding.  SeeMoulding. 

Binding  joists.  Beams  arrang- 
ed in  a  floor,  at  from  3  to  4  feet 
apart,  to  support  transversely  the 
bridgings  above,  and  the  ceiling 
joists  below.  See  Bridging  Floors, 
Trimmers,  and  Trimming  Joists. 

Binding  rafters.    See  Purlins. 

Bird's-mouth.  An  interior  an- 
gle, made  in  the  upper  end  of  a 
piece  of  timber,  to  shore  up  bres- 
summers,  &c.  It  is  sometimes 
reversed,  as  in  the  foot  of  a  rafter 
which  butts  against  a  plate. 

Bistre,  or  bister.  A  compo- 
sition made  of  the  most  glossy 
and  highest  burnt  soot,  pulverized 
and  passed  through  a  tine  sieve, 
then  baked  in  a  little  gum  water 
and  made  into  cakes  ;  or  it  is  the 
burnt  oil,  extracted  from  the  soot 
of  wood.  It  is  of  a  brown  trans- 
parent colour,  and  has  much  the 
same  effect  in  water  painting, 
where  alone  it  is  used,  as  brown 
pink  has  in  oil. 

The  best  is  prepared  from  the 
soot  of  dry  beech  wood,  by  grind- 
ing in  with  urine  or  water,  into  a 
smooth  paste,  and  then  diluting  it 
with  more  water ;  after  the  grosser 
substance  has  subsided,  the  liquor 
is  poured  off  into  another  vessel, 
and  left  to  settle  three  or  four 
days  :  the  fine  matter  that  re- 
mains is  bistre.  That  which  is 
good  is  transparent  when  moisten- 
ed with  water,  and  of  a  warm 
deep  brown  colour. 

Another  mode  of  making  it  is, 
by  putting  the  soot  of  dry  beech, 
or  other  wood,  into  water,  in  the 
proportion  of  two  pounds  to  a 
gallon,  and  boiling  them  for  half 
an  hour.  Then,  after  the  fluid 
has  stood  some  time  to  settle,  but 
while  yet  hot,  pour  off'  the  clearer 

355 


BL  I 


BLO 


part  from  the  earthy  sediment  at 
the  bottom  j  and  if  on  standing 
longer,  it  form  another  earthy 
sediment,repeat  the  same  method  j 
but  this  should  be  done  only 
while  the  fluid  remains  hot. 
Evaporate  the  fluid  to  dryness  ; 
and  that  which  remains  will,  if 
the  soot  were  of  the  proper  kind, 
be  good  bistre. 

Bit.    See  Stock  and  Bit. 

Bitumen.  A  tenacious  matter, 
used  in  former  ages  instead  of 
mortar.  The  walls  of  Babylon 
are  said  to  have  been  cemented 
with  this  matter. 

Blade  of  a  chisel.  See  Chisel. 

Blade  of  a  saw.    See  Saw. 

Blank-door.  A  doorway  that 
has  been  blocked  up  to  prevent 
entrance  :  also  a  false  door  placed 
in  an  apartment  opposite  to  the 
real  door,  or  in  a  correspondent 
recess  to  that  in  which  the  real 
door  is,  for  the  sake  of  uni- 
formity. 

Blank-window.  Sash-frame, 
sashes,  and  glass,  fixed  into  a 
recess  corresponding  with  the 
real  windows,  to  preserve  the 
uniformity  of  an  elevation.  Be- 
hind the  sash  the  brickwork  is 
usually  plastered  and  painted 
black. 

Blinds.  Consist  generally  of 
two  quadrangular  frames,  hung 
with  hinges  to  the  bead  at  each 
extremity  of  a  window.  Each  of 
these  frames  are  made  of  ma- 
hogany, or  other  wood,  having 
vertical  laths,  about  seven-eighths 
of  an  inch  wide,  and  the  eighth 
of  an  inch  thick,  affixed  to  two 
horizontal  pieces,  the  one  at  the 
top  and  the  other  at  the  bottom, 
in  lines  that  are  parallel  to,  and 
nearly  touching,  the  upper  and 
lower  bars  of  the  quadrangular 
frame.  The  vertical  laths  are  so 
arranged  with  regard  to  each 
other,  that  when  they  are  moved, 
either  to  the   right  or  left,  by 

356 


means  of  a  small  lever  or  thumb 
screw  connected  with  the  upper 
horizontal  piece,  they  fall  over 
each  other,  and  prevent  passen- 
gers, and  others,  from  looking 
into  the  interior  of  an  apartment. 

Blinds,  Venetian.  Consists 
of  a  series  of  thin  pieces  of  wood, 
about  2  inches  and  a  half  or  3 
inches  wide,  and  a  sixth  of  an 
inch  thick,  suspended  by  means 
of  tapes,  attached  to  two  rollers, 
from  the  top  of  a  window,  in  a 
horizontal  direction,  and  so  ar- 
ranged with  regard  to  each  other, 
that,  when  their  breadth  is  in- 
clined, they  lap  over,  and  effect- 
ually exclude  the  sun's  rays.  In 
each  of  these  thin  horizontal 
pieces,  at  a  certain  distance  from 
each  of  the  ends,  two  holes  are 
made,  through  which  cords,  fas- 
tened at  the  bottom,  ascend,  and 
thence,  passing  over  pullies,  de- 
scend  to  a  convenient  height  from 
the  ground.  By  pulling  these 
cords,  and  vice  versd,  the  blinds  can 
be  drawn  up  and  let  down  at 
pleasure. 

Block  of  wood.  A  piece  of 
wood  cut  into  a  required  shape  for 
some  particular  purpose. 

Block  of  marble.  A  piece  of 
marble  in  the  rough,  out  of  which 
One  or  more  things  may  be  made. 

Blocking,  or  blocking-course. 
In  Masonry.  A  course  of  stones 
placed  on  the  top  of  a  cornice, 
crowning  the  walls. 

Blockings.  In  Joinery.  Small 
pieces  of  wood,  fitted  and  glued 
to  the  interior  angle  of  two  boards, 
or  other  pieces,  with  a  view  to 
strengthen  the  joint.  In  gluing 
up  a  column,  the  staves  are  all 
successively  glued,  and  strength- 
ened with  blockings  j  as  also  are 
the  treads  and  risens  of  stairs? 
and  in  short,  every  other  sort  of 
joint,  which  requires  additional 
stre  ngth.  Blocks  are  always  hid- 
den from  the  sight. 


BLO 


BOA 


Blondel,  Francis.  An  eminent 
mathematician  and  military  en- 

,  gineer,  was  born  in  16 17,  at 
Ribemont,  inPicardy.  In  1652,116 
was  appointed  travelling  governor 
to  the  young  count  of  Brienne. 
After  a  tour  of  three  years  he  re- 
turned, and  was  advanced  to  con- 
siderable posts,  both  in  the  army 
and  navy,  and  was  employed  in 
various  negotiations  with  foreign 
princes.  In  1659,  being  deputed 
by  Louis  XIV.  as  his  envoy- 
extraordinary  to  Constantinople, 
he  visited  Egypt,  and  at  the  ter- 

,  mination  of  his  embassy,  was  ap- 

1  pointed  counsellor  of  state,  tutor 
in  mathematics  and  belles-lettres 
to  the  dauphin,  and  one  of  the 
mathematical  professors  of  the 
Royal  College.  In  1665,  he  began 
to  display  his  talents  for  architec- 

,  ture,  and  was  employed   by  the 

,  court  to  construct  a  bridge  over 

j  the  Charante,  at  the  town  of 
Saintes.  In  1670,  he  was  honour- 
ed with  letters  patent  from  the 
king,  for  the  superintendence  of 
all  the  public  works  in  Paris.  To 

,  him  were  intrusted  the  repair  and 
decorations  of  the  gates  of  St.  An- 
thony and  St.  Bernard  ;  and  the 
gate  of  St.  Denis,  one  of  the  most 
finished  pieces  of  French  archi- 
tecture, was  designed  and  erected 

.  by  himself.  In  the  office  of  direc- 
tor and  professor  of  the  Academy 
of  Architecture,  established  in 
167 1,  he  gave  "  a  Course  of 
Architecture,"  which  was  pub- 
lished in  large  folio,  in  1698,  and 
was  long  considered  as  a  standard 
book.  He  published  many  other 
philosophical  works,  and  died  in 
Paris,  February  1,  1686. 

1  *  Blondel,  John  Francis.  An 
eminent  architect,  was  born  at 
Rouen,  in  1705, and  died,  January 

I  9, 1774.  He  constructed  the  royal 
abbey  of  St.  Louis,  and  also  a 
stroet  and  square,  lending  directly 
Opposite  to  the  cathedral  j  like- 


wise the  town-house,  on  an 
elevated  site,  with  a  building  op- 
posite j  farther  on  he  constructed 
barracks,  with  magazines  over 
them,  and  opposite,  the  fine  front 
of  the  parliament ;  and,  finally, 
the  sumptuous  palace  of  the  bi- 
shop in  a  regular  square.  In 
1768,  he  took  a  plan  of  Strasburg, 
and  to  make  it  regular,  built  bar- 
racks for  infantry  and  cavalry,  a 
hall  or  amphitheatre  with  three 
tiers  of  boxes,  a  royal  square,  a 
senate-house,  a  market,  and  vari- 
ous stone  bridges.  He  was  known 
not  only  as  architect  to  the  king, 
member  of  the  Academy  of  Archi- 
tecture, and  royal  professor  of 
the  arts  at  the  Louvre,  but  by  seve- 
ral useful  publications :  as,  "A 
Discourse  on  Architecture,"  12moj 
"  A  Treatise  on  the  Decoration  of 
Buildings,"  1738,  two  vols.,  4to  j 
a  work  of  great  utility,  called, 
"A  Discourse  on  Architecture," 
six  vols.,  8vo.,  1771,  1773.  He  was 
also  the  author  of  the  articles  re- 
lating to  architecture  in  the  "Ency- 
clopaedia 5"  and  after  his  death  a 
posthumous  work  of  his  was  pub- 
lished, entitled,  "  L'Homme  du 
Monde  eclaire,  par  les  Arts,"  two 
vols.,  8vo. 

Boarded-floor.    See  Floor. 

Boarding  joists.  Joists  in 
naked  flooring  to  which  the  boards 
are  fixed. 

Boarding  for  leaden  plat- 
forms and  gutters.  The  boards 
used  for  this  purpose  are  generally 
from  an  inch  and  an  eighth,  to  an 
inch  and  a  quarter  thick,  and  fre- 
quently have  only  rough  joints. 

Boarding  for  lining  walls. 
Boards  of  this  description  are 
from  about  five-eights  to  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  thick,  and  are 
ploughed  and  tongued  together. 

Boarding,  luffer.  See  Luffer- 
Boardj,  and  Lever  Boards. 

Boarding  for  pugging,  or 
deafening.    See  Sounding  Boards. 

357 


BOF 


BON 


Boarding  for  slating.  See 

Slating. 

Boards,  lever.  Boards  placed 
in  the  opening  of  an  aperture,  and 
made  to  turn  on  centres,  to  admit 
or  shut  out  the  air  at  pleasure. 

Boards  listed.  Boards  re- 
duced in  breadth  by  taking  away 
the  sap  wood. 

Boasted,  or  boasting-tool. 
See  Tools  used  by  Masons. 

Boasting.  In  Stone-cutting 
The  paring"  of  a  stone  with  a 
broad  chisel  and  mallet. 

Body  of  a  niche.    See  Niche. 

Body-range  of  a  groin.  See 
Gro'm. 

Boffrand,  Germain.  A  cele- 
brated French  architect  and  engi- 
neer, was  born  at  Nantes  in  1667, 
and  having  been  educated  at  Paris, 
he  employed  himself  for  some 
time  in  sculpture  during  the  win- 
ter, and  studied  architecture  in 
the  summer.  His  talents  at  length 
engaged  the  attention  and  patron- 
age of  Hardouin  Mansart,  an  em- 
inent architect,  who  obtained  for 
him  a  place  in  the  commission  for 
the  royal  buildings.  In  1709,  he 
became  a  member  of  the  Royal 
Academy  of  Architecture,  and  was 
much  employed  at  Paris,  and  by 
several  German  princes,  in  fur- 
nishing designs  for  various  edifices. 
His  style  of  building  was  grand 
and  noble,  and  formed  after  the 
model  of  Palladio.  He  was  like- 
wise a  skilful  engineer,  and  con- 
structed a  great  number  of  canals, 
sluices,  bridges,  and  similar  works. 
As  architect  to  the  general  hospi- 
tal of  Paris,  he  gratuitously  served 
the  institution  ;  and,  as  he  was 
disinterested  in  his  temper,  he 
was  lively  and  amusing  in  con- 
versation ;  and  he  indulged  his 
taste  for  literature,  by  the  com- 
position of  several  pieces,  adapted 
to  the  purpose  of  producing  tem- 
porary mirth  and  gaiety,  for  the 
Italian  comedy.    His  <(  Book  of 


Architecture,"  with  plates,  in  folic, 
was  printed  at  Paris  in  1745; 
and  contains  an  account  of  the 
general  principles  of  the  art,  ex- 
emplified in  his  own  works.  In 
this  work  he  has  introduced  a 
curious  memoir,  describing  the 
method  of  casting  the  bronze 
equestrian  statue  of  Louis  XIV. 
He  retained  his  gaiety  of  disposi- 
tion to  the  age  of  eighty-seven 
years  ;  and  died  in  Paris  in  1755.  | 

Bolsters  of  the  ionic  capital. 
See  Baluster. 

Bolt.  In  Joinery.  An  iron 
fastening  for  a  door,  moved  by 
the  hand,  and  catching  in  a  staple 
or  notch  to  receive  it.  Bolts  are 
of  various  kinds,  of  which  plate, 
spring,  and  flush  bolts,  are  for 
fastening  doors  and  windows. 

Bolts  are  also  large  cylindrical 
iron  pins,  having  a  round  head  at 
one  end,  and  a  slit  at  the  other. 
Through  this  slit  a  pin  or  forelock 
passes,  to  make  fast  the  bar  of  a 
door,  window-shutter,  or  the 
like.  These  are  generally  called 
round  bolts,  or  window  bolts. 

Bolt  of  a  lock.  The  iron 
part  that  enters  into  a  staple  or 
jamb,  when  the  key  is  turned,  to 
fasten  the  door.  Of  these  there 
are  two  sorts ;  one  shuts  of  itself 
by  only  putting  to  the  door,  and 
is  called  a  spring-bolt ;  the  other, 
which  only  moves  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  key,  is  called  a  dormant- 
bolt 

Bolt  of  iron.  In  Carpentry. 
A  square  or  cylindrical  piece  of  } 
iron,  with  a  knob  at  one  end  and  llf 
a  screw  at  the  other,  made  to 
pass  through  holes  made  for  its 
reception  in  two  or  more  pieces  of 
timber,  to  fasten  them  together, 
by  means  of  a  nut  screwed  on  the 
end  that  is  opposite  to  the  knob. 

Bomon.      In  Grecian  Antiquity. 
An  altar  to  a  god. 

Bonarrotti,  Buonaroti,  Bo- 
narota,    Michael   Angelo.  A 


BONARROTTI. 


celebrated  painter,  sculptor,  and 
architect,  was  born  at  the  castle 
of  Chiusi,  in  the  territory  of 
Arezzo,  in  Tuscany,  in  1474.  He 
was  sent  to  be  nursed  at  his 
father's  villa,  called  Settignano, 
situate  about  three  miles  distant 
from  Florence,  and  was  intrusted 
to  the  care  of  a  woman,  who  was 
the  wife  of  a  stone-mason,  and 
who  was  also  the  daughter  of  a 
person  of  the  same  employment : 
hence  Michael  Angelo  sometimes 
facetiously  remarked,  that  it  was 
ino  wonder  that  he  was  delighted 
with  a  chisel,  since  it  was  given 
to  him  with  his  nurse's  milk. 

His  talents  for  designing  and 
painting  were  so  early  developed, 
that  he  is  figuratively  said  to  have 
been  born  a  painter.  His  father 
and  his  uncles  perceiving  the  bias 
his  mind  had  taken  often  treated 
him  harshly,  conceiving  that  the 
arts  would  degrade  the  dignity  of 
the  family  j  but,  though  their  dis- 
pleasure was  to  Michael  Angelo 
a  source  of  great  uneasiness,  it 
could  not  restrain  the  natural  bent 
of  his  inclination.  His  father, 
therefore,  perceiving  it  was  hope- 
less to  give  his  mind  any  other 
direction,  resolved,  by  the  advice 
of  his  friends,  to  place  him  under 
Dominico  Ghirlandaio,  who  had 
:hen  a  numerous  school  of  pupils, 
and  was  himself  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  painters  in  Italy. 

Michael  Angelo's  progress  in  the 
irts  was  so  rapid,  that  he  soon 
iurpassed  not  only  his  contempo- 
rary students,  but  even  his  master 
"ihirlandaio ;  which  excited  so 
nuch  jealousy,  that  one  of  his  fel- 
ow  students,  named  Torrigiano, 
^ave  him  such  a  blow  on  the 
•lose,  that  he  carried  the  marks 
)f  it  to  his  grave.  Lorenzo  de 
•ledicis,  one  of  the  greatest  pa- 
ron9  the  arts  ever  had,  being 
lesirous  of  establishing  a  school 
or  sculpture  in  Florence,  made  a 


garden  near  to  the  piazza  of  St. 
Mark,  which  he  amply  supplied 
with  antique  statues,  basso-re- 
lievos, busts,  &c.  j  and  requested 
Ghirlandaio  to  permit  any  of  his 
scholars  to  study  there,  who 
were  desirous  of  drawing  from 
the  antique.  Of  this  permission 
Michael  Angelo  availed  himself ; 
and,  having  attracted  Lorenzo's 
attention,  was  taken  under  his 
immediate  patronage. 

In  the  house,  or  rather  palace, 
of  his  patron,  Michael  Angelo  was 
provided  with  a  room,  and  every 
accommodation  that  he  could  de- 
sire j  he  was  introduced  to  men 
of  rank  and  genius,  and  his 
leisure  hours  were  passed  with 
Lorenzo  himself,  in  examining 
and  contemplating  his  extensive 
cabinet  of  gems  and  medals. 

The  death  of  Lorenzo,  which  hap- 
pened on  the  Sth  of  April,  1492, 
and  the  troubles  of  the  house 
of  Medici,  caused  Michael  An- 
gelo to  remove  to  Bologna,  where 
he  executed  an  image  of  Cupid  ; 
and,  having  broken  off  one  of  its 
arms,  took  the  image  to  Rome, 
and  buried  it  in  a  vineyard.  As 
he  intended,  the  statue  was  soon 
found  by  the  labourers,  and  sold 
as  an  antique  to  cardinal  St.  Gre- 
gory, for  two  hundred  ducats. 
The  cardinal  had  not  been  long 
in  possession  of  his  treasure, 
before  Bonarrotti  made  known 
his  pretensions,  and  produced  the 
other  arm  to  confirm  his  asser- 
tions. This  established  his  repu- 
tation as  a  sculptor.  Though 
the  cardinal  bestowed  the  most 
flattering  commendation  on  our 
artist,  he  gave  him  no  commis- 
sion j  but,  his  abilities  being  now 
known,  he  was  employed  by  a 
Roman  gentleman,  and  by  cardi- 
nal Rovano.  For  the  first  he  exe- 
cuted a  statue  of  a  Cupid,  and 
another  of  a  Bacchus  j  and  for  the 
last  a  groupe  in  marble,  of  the 


BONARROTTI. 


virgin  with  a  dead  Christ  in  her 
lap,  called  in  Italy,  La  Pieta. 
This  last  was  so  much  admired, 
that  it  gave  him  the  precedence 
of  his  contemporaries. 

From  this  time,  1498  to  1503, 
he  executed  many  excellent  works, 
and  in  the  year  last  mentioned 
produced  his  celebrated  painting, 
or  cartoon,  of  the  war  between 
the  Florentines  and  the  Pisans. 
In  his  thirtieth  year,  he  was  com- 
missioned by  pope  Julius  II.  to 
construct  a  grand  mausoleum  j 
but  before  it  was  finished,  he  re- 
turned to  Florence  in  disgust, 
from  having  been  refused  admis- 
sion to  the  pope,  with  whom  he 
had  been  on  terms  of  the  strictest 
intimacy.  The  pope  was  no 
sooner  informed  of  his  hasty  de- 
parture, than  he  sent  five  couriers 
after  him,  to  reconduct  him  to 
Rome  ;  but  he  was  not  overtaken 
until  he  was  in  a  foreign  state, 
where  their  authority  was  useless. 
He  purposed  going  thence  to  Con- 
stantinople, whither  he  had  been 
invited  by  the  grand  signor,  to 
build  a  bridge  between  Constanti- 
nople and  Pera ;  but  Solderini. 
the  gonfalonier,  or  holy  standard- 
bearer,  diverted  his  attention,  and 
prevailed  on  him  to  return  to 
Rome.  He  had  an  interview  with 
the  pope  at  Bologna,  and  was  im- 
mediately restored  to  his  friend- 
ship. Soon  after  this,  and  in  the 
thirty-fourth  year  of  his  age,  he 
was  appointed  to  decorate  with 
paintings,  the  ceilings  and  walls 
of  the  Sistine  chapel  ;  which 
stupendous  work,  however  diffi- 
cult it  may  be  to  credit,  was  actu- 
ally begun  and  completed  by  him 
in  twenty  months. 

From  the  time  of  the  death  of 
Julius  II.,  which  happened  on  the 
21st  of  February,  1513,  to  the 
end  of  the  pontificate  of  Leo 
X.,  in  December,  1521,  there  is 
an  entire  blank  in   the   life  of 

360 


Michael  Angelo,  he  having  been 
employed,  much  against  his  incli- 
nation, by  that  pontiff,  in  opening 
the  marble  quarries  of  Pietra 
Santa,  in  the  territories  of  Flo- 
rence. Upon  the  death  of  Leo, 
cardinal  di  Tortoso  was  chosen  to 
fill  the  papel  chair,  by  the  title 
of  Adrian  VI.  ;  and  during  his 
short  reign,  our  artist  was  com-  ! 
missioned  by  cardinal  Giuliano 
de  Medici,  who  at  that  time  held 
the  government  of  Florence,  to 
build  a  library  and  new  sacristy 
to  the  church  of  St.  Lorenzo,  to 
serve  as  a  mausoleum  for  the  | 
Medici  family  j  and  to  execute 
monuments  to  the  memory  of  the 
dukes  Giuliano  and  Lorenzo,  to 
be  placed  in  it.  Adrian  died  in 
September,  1523,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  cardinal  Giuliano  de 
Medici,  with  the  title  of  Clement 
VII.  During  the  wars  that 
now  followed,  Michael  Angelo 
was  appointed  military  architect 
and  master  of  the  ordinance ;  and 
in  that  capacity,  he  fortified 
Monte  San  Miniato,  a  height  com- 
manding Florence  and  the  sur- 
rounding country.  On  the  capi- 
tulation of  the  city,  he,  knowing 
the  vindictive  spirit  of  the  pope, 
hid  himself  in  an  obscure  retreat 
by  the  assistance  of  a  friend,  to 
whom  alone  the  knowledge  of  his 
seclusion  was  intrusted.  The 
pope,  finding  all  his  attempts  to 
discover  him  were  ineffectual,, 
issued  a  proclamation,  offering! 
him  a  free  pardon,  on  condition 
that  he  would  finish  the  two  mon- 
uments of  Giuliano  and  Lorenzo 
de  Medicis,  already  begun  in  the 
church  St.  Lorenzo. 

On  the  death  of  Clement  VII. 
on  the  25th  of  September,  1534,, 
Paul  III.  succeeded  to  the  pon- 
tificate. Bonarrotti  now  com- 
menced painting  the  great  work; 
of  the  Last  Judgment  in  the  Sistine 
chapel j  but,  according  to  Vasaria,; 


BONARROTTI. 


would  appear,  that  this  cartoon 
is  begun   about   nine  months 
fore  the  death  of  Clement  VII.  3 
d  from  a  letter  still  existing, 
ritten  by  Michael  Angelo  him- 
If  to  Pietro  Aretino,  he  had  not 
tirely  finished  the  composition 
the  year  1537,  two  years  after 
e  decease  of  that  pontiff,  al- 
ough  he  was  then  advancing  it 
i1  fresco.     Whatever  may  have 
1  en  the  precise  date  of  the  cora- 
]?ncement  of  this  picture,  it  was 
jished  in  the  year  1541,  and  the 
<apel  opened  on  Christmas  day. 
jrsons  are  described   to  have 
<me  from  the  most  distant  parts 
( Italy  to  see  it,'  and  the  public 
m  the  court  were  rivals  in  admi- 
1  ion.  Near  to  the  Sistine  chapel, 
i1  the  Vatican,  Antonio  de  San 
Ullo  built    another    chapel  by 
(per  of  Paul  III.,  which,  in  like 
j  inner,  is  called  after  its  founder, 
ie  chapel  Paolina  5  and  the  pope, 
!!ing    solicitous    to   render  it 
itare  honourable    to  his  name, 
ilmmissioned  Michael  Angelo  to 
int  the  walls  in  fresco.  Although 
now  began  to  feel  that  he  was 
;  old  man,  (being  in  his  sixty- 
:venth  year,)  he  undertook  the 

•  mmission,  and  on  the  sides 
1  posite  to  each  other,  painted 
Jo  large  pictures,  representing 
Ie  conversion  of  St.  Paul,  and 
ie  Crucifixion  of  St.  Peter  j  and 
;  the  desire  of  his  holiness,  he 
wistrticted  the  bold  projecting 
<rnice  that  surrounds  the  top  of 
fle  Farnese  palace. 

In  the  year  1546,  San  Gallo, 
fe  architect  of  St.  Peter's,  died, 
'd  Michael  Angelo,  in  the  seven- 
t,  second  year  of  his   age,  was 

<  led  upon  to  fill  the  situation, 
ft  at  first  declined  the  honour, 
it  the  pope  laid  his  commands 

•  on  him,  which  admitted  neither 

<  apology  nor  excuse  j  he,  there- 
jre  accepted  the  appointment 
i  on  these  conditions  ;   that  he 

2Z 


should  receive  no  salary,  and  that 
it  should  be  so  expressed  in  the 
patent,  since  he  undertook  the 
office  purely  from  devotional  feel- 
ings 5  and  that,  as  hitherto  the 
various  persons  employed  in  all 
the  subordinate  situations  had 
only  considered  their  own  interest 
to  the  extreme  prejudice  of  the 
undertaking,  he  should  be  em- 
powered to  discharge  them,  and 
appoint  others  in  their  stead  j  and 
lastly,  that  he  should  be  permitted 
to  make  whatever  alterations  he 
chose  in  San  Gallo's  design,  or 
entirely  supply  its  place  with 
what  he  might  consider  more 
simple,  or  in  a  better  style.  To 
these  conditions  his  holiness 
acceded,  and  the  patent  was  made 
out  accordingly. 

San  Gallo  had  left  a  model 
for  finishing  this  building,  which 
had  cost  upwards  of  a  thousand 
pounds,  and  had  occupied  some 
years  in  making.  The  first  use 
that  Bonarrotti  made  of  his  ex- 
tensive commission  was,  to  set 
aside  this  model  ;  and  in  the  space 
of  fifteen  days  he  produced  an- 
other, for  the  small  sum  of  twenty- 
five  crowns,  by  which  he  proposed 
to  raise  the  building  with  far 
greater  facility  and  expedition, 
and  with  more  majestic  grandeur, 
than  the  plans  of  any  of  his  pre- 
decessors could  have  given  it 
This  model,  which  was  on  the 
plan  of  a  Greek  cross,  met  with 
the  pope's  approbation  3  for, 
although  the  dimensions  were 
less,  the  form  was  more  grand 
than  that  of  San  Gallo's  model. 
It  appears  by  a  letter  of  Michael 
Angelo,  still  extant,  that  he  had 
a  high  opinion  of  Bramante's 
general  plan,  and  would  most 
probably  have  adopted  it,  with 
trifling  alterations,  if  the  difficulty 
of  raising  money  had  not  made  it 
necessary  to  contract  the  original 
size,  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the 

3G1 


BON  AR 

times.  Bramanle  had  erected  the 
four  great  piers,  by  which  the 
cupola  was  to  be  supported,  but 
they  were  so  very  weak,  that  the 
architects  who  succeeded  him 
h**d  found  it  necessary  to  give 
them  additional  strength.  Bo- 
narrctti,  thinking  them  still  in- 
sufficient for  the  purpose,  enlarged 
them  to  their  present  gigantic 
size,  and  contrived  to  leave  voids 
like  wells  in  them,  probably  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  them  dry. 
He  also  left  similar  vacuities  in 
the  principal  walls,  through  which 
he  carried  a  winding  staircase, 
so  wide,  and  upon  so  gentle  an 
ascent,  that  he  was  enabled  to 
convey  materials  on  beasts  of 
burthen,  to  the  height  of  the  level 
of  the  arches.  Bonarrotti  lived 
to  see  the  building  carried  to  the 
height  of  the  tambour  on  which 
the  cupola  Avas  to  be  laid,  when, 
on  account  of  his  age,  his  friends 
urged  him  to  frame  a  model  of 
the  dome,  as  will  be  seen  here- 
after. 

Notwithstanding  that  the  build- 
ing of  St.  Peter's  might  reasonably 
be  supposed  more  than  sufficient 
for  the  attention  of  an  old  man, 
it  was  but  a  part  of  his  extensive 
engagements.  He  was  commis- 
sioned to  carry  on  the  building  of 
the  Farnese  palace,  left  unfinished 
by  the  death  of  San  Gallo  ;  and 
employed  to  build  a  palace  on  the 
Capitoline  Hill  for  the  senator  of 
Rome,  two  galleries  for  the  recep- 
tion of  sculpture  and  pictures, 
and  also  to  ornament  this  cele- 
brated site  with  antique  statues 
and  relics  of  antiquity,  from  time 
to  time  dug  up,  and  discovered  in 
Rome  and  its  environs.  These 
buildings  form  the  three  sides  of 
a  square,  and  the  principal  entrance 
on  the  fourth  is  defined  by  balus- 
trades, and  ornamented  with 
statues  and  fragments  of  anti- 
quity.   At  this  time  he  also  made 


ROT  T  I. 

a  flight  of  steps  leading  up  to  th 
church  of  the  convent  of  th. 
Araceli,  situated  on  the  highest  par 
of  the  hill,  where  anciently  stoo< 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus 
and  where  there  are  now  som. 
columns,  supposed  to  have  mad. 
a  part  of  that  celebrated  building 

In  the  year  1555,  pope  Juliu 
III.,  who  had  succeeded  Paul  III. 
died,  and  was  succeeded  in  th 
papal  chair  by  Marcellus  II.  j  buj 
he  dying  in  the  same  month  tha 
he  was  advanced  to  the  pontifi 
cate,  the  election  fell  on  Paul  IV 
Michael  Angelo  Bonarrotti,  no\ 
in  his  eighty-first  year,  was  con 
suited  with  respect  to  strengthen 
ing  the  fortifications  of  Rome 
and  during  the  troubles  whic! 
now  followed,  he  employed  him 
self  on  a  groupe  of  sculpture 
"  Christ  taken  down  from  th 
cross."  In  Bonarrotti's  eighty 
fifth  year,  Pius  IV.  was  elected  t 
the  .  pontificate  :  and  notwith 
standing  his  duties  as  architect  t 
St.  Peter's,  he,  at  the  desire  of  th 
pope,  made  a  number  of  design 
for  the  gates  of  the  city  of  Rom< 
for  which  that  called  "  Porta  Pia 
was  carried  into  execution.  H 
also  converted  the  ruined  baths  < 
Dioclesian  into  a  christian  churcl 
and  was  employed  by  the  card  in; 
Santa  Fione  to  build  a  chapel 
St.  Maria  Maggiore,  but  vvhic 
remained  unfinished  in  consr 
quence  of  the  death  of  the  card 
nal,  and  was  afterwards  complete 
from  the  original  designs  by  Gil 
como  della  Porta. 

Having  now  attained  his  eight 
seventh  year,  his  friends  urg< 
him  to  form  a  model  of  his  intern 
ed  dome  for  St.  Peter's,  lest  whj 
he  had  already  done  should  1 
spoilt  by  the  incapacity  or  whi 
of  a  succeeding  architect.  Wi 
this  request  he  complied,  ai 
formed  one  of  clay,  which  w 
universally  admired.    This  mot 


BON 

v|s  afterwards  made  of  more 
d-able  materials  by  Giovanni 
I  nese  ;  and  St.  Peter's  was  finally 
e  cuted  according  to  it  in  the 
pitificate  of  Sextus  V.  See 
I  ilka. 

Michael  Angelo  Bonarrotti  was 
a  icked  by  a  slow  fever  in  Feb- 
n  rv,  1563,  and  died  on  the  seven- 
t(  ith  day  of  the  same  month,  aged 
enty-nine  years.  His  body  was 
tnsported  to  Florence,  where  it 
reived  the  most  splendid  funeral 
h  .ours,  and  a  superb  mausoleum 
mi  erected  to  his  memory,  at  the 
e:ense  of  the  grand  duke.  His 
n  hod  of  execution  is  thus  spoken 
oi by  M.  Vigeneres,  a  writer  of 
tl  sixteenth  century  : — "  I  saw 
Mhael  Angelo  when  sixty  years 
oige,  and  by  no  means  of  the 
mist  robust  habit  of  body,  strike 
oi  more  chips  from  a  very  hard 
pi;  e  of  marble,  in  less  than  a 
q  rter  of  an  hour,  than  three 
y<'ng  masons  would  have  done 
in  chree  or  four  hours  :  a  fact 
in  edible  to  any  who  had  not 
b«,a  eye-witnesses.  He  struck 
w  i  such  impetuosity  and  fury, 
tl  I  expected  to  see  the  work 
bi  <en  to  pieces  ;  taking  off  at  a 
lirle  blow  large  pieces,  3  or  4 
in  es  thick,  and  so  close  to  the 
m«k,  that  had  the  tool  gone  be- 
sirt  it  never  so  little,  the  whole 
m|t  have  been  spoiled,  as  the 
wi \  would  admit  of  neither  re- 
pa  tion  nor  pargeting,  like  those 
in  tucco  and  argil."  But  per- 
ha  the  highest,  as  also  the  most 

u  commendation  that  we  can 
gi'  him  is,  to  repeat  the  words 
of  ir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  the 
sp'1  ted  and  masterly  sketch  which 
lie  as  given  of  the  character  of 
M |  iael  Angelo,  in  his  "  Discourse 
del  cred  to  the  Students  of  the 
il  Academy,"  December  10, 
1?'.  He  is  there  described,  "  as 
th(  xalted  founder  and  father  of 
mc  irn  art,  of  which  he  was  not 


BON 

only  the  inventor,  but  which  he, 
by  the  divine  energy  of  his  own 
mind,  carried  at  once  to  its  highest 
point  of  possible  perfection." — 
"  Were  I  now  to  begin  the  world 
again,"  says  sir  Joshua,  "  how- 
ever unequal  I  feel  myself  to  that 
attempt,  I  m  ould  tread  in  the  steps 
of  that  great  master  ;  to  kiss  the 
hem  of  his  garment,  to  catch  the 
slightest  of  his  perfections,  would 
be  glory  and  distinction  enough 
for  an  ambitious  man.  I  feel  a 
self-congratulation  in  knowing 
myself  capable  of  such  sensations 
as  he  intended  to  excite.  I  re- 
flect, not  without  vanity,  that 
these  discourses  bear  testimony 
of  my  admiration  of  that  truly 
divine  man  j  and  I  should  desire 
that  the  last  words  which  I  should 
pronounce  in  this  academy,  and 
from  this  place,  might  be  the 
name  of  Michael  Angelo."  Dup- 
pa's  "  Life  of  Michael  Angelo,"  sir 
Joshua  Keynolds's"  Discourses," 
&c. 

Bond.  The  manner  of  making 
two  or  more  bodies  fast  together. 

Bond.  In  Masonry,  or  Brickwork. 
The  disposition  of  stones  or  bricks 
in  a  building.  It  is  a  principle  in 
building  never  to  allow  two  verti- 
cal joints  to  fall  upon  one  an- 
other ;  but  to  make  the  vertical 
joint  that  is  between  two  bricks 
or  stones  in  one  course,  fail  upon 
the  body  of  the  brick  or  stone  in 
the  course  below. 

In  brickwork,  there  are  two  de- 
scriptions of  bond — the  English 
bond,  and  the  Flemish  bond.  In 
the  English  bond,  a  row  of  bricks 
is  laid  lengthwise  on  the  length 
of  the  wall,  and  is  crossed  by 
another  row,  which  has  its  length 
in  the  breadth  of  the  wall,  and  so 
on  alternately.  Those  courses, 
in  which  the  lengths  of  the  bricks 
are  disposed  through  the  length 
of  the  wall,  are  termed  stretching 
courses,  and  the  bricks,  stretcliers ; 

303 


BON 


BON 


and  those  courses  in  which  the 
bricks  run  in  the  thickness  of 'the 
length  of  the  walls,  heading  courses, 
and  the  bricks,  headers. 

The  other  description  of  bond, 
called  Flemish  bond,  consists  in 
placing  a  header  and  a  stretcher 
alternately  in  the  same  course. 
This  is  deemed  the  neatest  and 
most  elegant  ;  but,  in  the  execu- 
tion, is  attended  withgreat  incon- 
venience, and,  in  most  cases,  does 
not  unite  the  parts  of  a  wall  with 
the  same  degree  of  firmness  as  the 
English  bond.  See  Masonry  and 
Brickwork. 

Boxd-heart.  When  two  stones 
placed  in  a  longitudinal  position 
extend  the  exact  thickness  of  a 
wall,  another  stone  is  frequently 
put  over  the  joint  in  the  centre  of 
the  wall  :  this  is  called  heart-bond. 

Bond-stones.  Stones  used  in 
uncoursed  rubble-walling,  having 
their  length  placed  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall.  These  stones 
are  placed  at  regular  intervals, 
both  horizontally  and  vertically, 
so  that  every  stone  of  one  row 
falls  on  the  vertical  joint  that  is 
in  the  course  below.  Bond-stones 
inserted  the  whole  thickness  of 
the  masonry  are  called  perpends, 
or  perpend- stones. 

Bond- timbers.  Timbers  placed 
in  a  horizontal  direction  in  the 
walls  of  buildings,  in  tiers,  at 
certain  distances  apart,  and  on 
which  the  battens,  laths,  &c.  are 
secured  :  also  the  horizontal 
mouldings,  or  finishings  of  wood 

Common-bond  implies  timbers 
disposed  in  tiers  at  certain  heights, 
corresponding  to  the  height  of 
the  horizontal  mouldings  in  the 
finishing  of  apartments,  as  behind 
bases,  surbases,  and  skirting.  The 
scantling  of  common-bond  is 
about  2j  inches  thick  in  the 
direction  of  the  course  of 
bricks,  and  4  inches  broad  in 
its  depth  in  the  wall. 


Chain-timbers,  or  chain-bond,  a 
timbers  placed  in  or  near  to  t) 
middle  story  of  a  building,  ai 
arranged  similarly  to  commo; 
bond.  They  are  twice  the  size 
the  common-bond  ;  being  5  i 
ches  thick  in  the  direction  of  ti 
course  of  brickwork,  and  imbe 
ded  8^-  inches  in  the  wall. 

Bond-timber  is  difficult  to  e 
ecute  in  rubble-work,  owing 
the  necessity  there  is  of  bringii 
the  upper  surface  of  the  stone 
a  perfect  level,  to  admit  of  t 
insertion  of  the  timber ;  cons 
quently,  in  work  of  this  descri 
tion,  the  walls  are  better  plugge 
which  is    effected   by  inserti; 
plugs  of  wood  in  the  wall  at  r 
quisite  distances,  to  secure  t 
laths  and  battens.    Both  bon 
timber  and  plugging  have  tlx 
respective   advantages.  Bon 
timber,  having  its  length  plac 
horizontally  in  the  wall,  has 
tendency  to  secure  the  walls  fro 
cracks,  should  the  foundations 
the  building  be  bad  :  and  plu 
ging,  though  possessing  not  t 
same  advantage  in  this  respei 
has  another,  of  which  the  former 
deficient ;  that  is  of  making  t 
walls  much  less  liable  to  era 
and  fall  in  case  of  fire.   When  t 
lintels  of  a  range  of  windows  i 
considerably  below  the  ceiling 
a  brick  building,  the  lintels  m 
be  carried  throughout  the  wa 
as  bond-timbers  ;  in  such  case,  t 
thickness  of  the  bond  is  regulat 
by  the  thickness  of  the  lintels :  a 
when  bond-timbers  act  as  t 
wall  plates  of  floors  or  roofs,  tr. 
have  generally  the  same  scantli 
as  the  chain-bond. 

Bonds.    This  general  term 
eludes  the  whole  of  the  timb 
that  are  disposed  in  the  walls  OJJ 
building,  as  bond-timbers,  WJ 
plates,  lintels,  and  templets,  ft 
Fir-in-bond. 

Bone.    To  make  or  judge  oi  l 

*  IK  I 


BOR 


B  OR 


pie  surface  by  the  direction  of 
"  eye.  For  example,  when  an 
hitect  hasalloted  out  a  portion 
o ground  to  several  builders,  for 
tlm  to  erect  houses,  to  form  a 
si  et  on  a  given  plan,  and  which 
si  et,  we  will  suppose,  is  to  be 
ii  ontinuation  of  another  already 
b  un,  he  will  place  a  rod  at  any 
gen  distance,  with  its  vertical 
si  ace  in  a  line  with  the  walls  of 
U  houses  already  begun,  and 
p  :ing  his  eye  close  to  the 
v  tical  surface  of  that  rod,  and 
li  king  thence  down  the  intended 
li:  of  street,  will  be  enabled 
t<  ascertain  whether  the  build- 
e  are  erecting  their  houses 
c  formably  to  the  given  plan  ; 
tit  is,  with  their  surfaces  in  a 
m  with  the  surfaces  of  those 
a  ady  built.  If  this  should  not 
b  he  case,  he  must  make  them 
a  r  them  accordingly.  In  cases 
were  an  architect  has  to  form  a 
n.v  street,  not  in  continuation 
o  mother,  he  may  erect  two  or 
n  re  poles  each  of  which  has 
} : ;  one  of  its  sides  perfectly  ver- 
t  il,  to  bone  by.  This  term  is 
(  very  frequent  use  among  archi- 
t  ts,  surveyors,  and  every  one 
c  inected  with  the  art  of  building. 

3oning.  The  act  of  judging 
o  or  making  a  plane  surface  by 
tl  direction  of  the  eye.  By 
b  ing  with  two  straight  edges, 
jf  ers,  and  others,  try  whether 
tl  r  work  be  out  of  winding. 
'•ook-case.  See  Library. 
»ooth.  A  stall  or  standing  in 
a  ir  or  market ;  the  term  is  also 
ft]  lied  to  any  temporary  struc- 
Pf,  designed  for  shade  and 
si  ter. 

'order.  Pieces  of  wood  put 
rrr.d  the  upper  edges  of  any 
tl  g,  either  as  useful  or  orna- 
D  ital :  thus  the  three  pieces  of 
^  >d  which  are  mitred  together 
r<  id  the  slab  of  a  fire-place  are 
ci}ed  the  border. 


Boring.  The  act  of  perforating 
a  solid.  For  the  tools  used  in  the 
boring  of  wood,  see  Slock  and  Bit. 

Borromini,  Francis.  An  Ita- 
lian architect,  was  born,  in  1599, 
at  Bissona,  in  the  diocese  of 
Como.  In  his  seventeenth  year, 
he  repaired  to  Rome,  and  Carlo 
Maderno,  who  was  his  rela- 
tion, and  the  architect  of  St. 
Peter's,  perceiving  that  he  had 
talents  and  perseverance,  had  him 
instructed  in  geometry.  Borro- 
mini's  progress  was  such,  that 
Maderno  employed  him  in  the 
making  of  fair  copies  from  his 
designs,  and  also  employed  him 
in  some  works  that  he  had  to  ex- 
ecute for  pope  Urban  VIII.  Amidst 
these  occupations,  Borromini 
found  time  to  execute  in  sculp- 
ture the  cherubim  on  either  side 
of  the  small  door  of  St.  Peter's, 
which,  with  the  drapery  and 
festoons  over  the  arches,  are  the 
only  works  of  his  chisel.  On 
Maderno's  death,  in  1629,  Bernini 
was  appointed  the  architect  of  St. 
Peters,  and  Borromini  worked 
under  him  ;  but  the  latter,  be- 
coming first  emulous,  then  envi- 
ous, and  finally  the  enemy  of 
Bernini,  endeavoured  to  get  other 
commissions  ;  and,  in  fact,  was 
employed  about  the  church  of 
Sapienza,  and  the  Barbarini  palace, 
the  convent  of  St.  Philippe  de 
Neri,  the  churches  of  the  college 
Propaganda,  and  of  St.  Agnes, 
and  in  decorating  St.  Jean-de- 
Latran.  The  reputation  he  ac- 
quired by  these  works  induced  the 
king  of  Spain  to  engage  him  to 
furnish  a  design  for  the  enlarge- 
ment of  his  palace  at  Rome  ;  and 
though  it  was  never  executed,  he 
received  the  liberal  recompense  of 
a  thousand  pistoles,  and  was  ho- 
noured with  the  order  of  St.  James. 
The  pope  also  bestowed  upon  him 
the  order  of  Christ,  and  a  pension. 
He  was  now  intrusted  with  the 

305 


BOR 


BOS 


building  of  St.  Andrew,  the  resto- 
ration of  the  palace  of  the  Falco- 
nieri  at  Rome,  and  those  of  Delia 
Ruffini  and  of  the  prince  Scavolina, 
with  numerous  other  works  ;  but 
in  this  career  of  prosperity,  his 
jealousy  of  Bernini  was  such,  that, 
vith  an  attempt  to  surpass  him  in 
novelties,  he  laid  aside  the  com- 
mon rules,  and  bewildered  his 
imagination  and  talents  in  a  laby- 
rinth of  extravagances.  He,  by 
these  means  incurred  the  censure 
of  several  critics  ;  and  he  was 
charged,  by  Bernini,  with  corrupt- 
ing the  sound  principles  of  the 
art.  The  clamour  against  him 
prevailed,  and  his  rival  obtained 
the  direction  of  a  building,  for 
which  he  had  prepared  the  de- 
signs ;  upon  which  he  retired  in 
disgust  into  Lombardy.  On  his 
return,  he  employed  himself  in 
preparing  a  set  of  grotesques  for 
engraving  •  but  the  mortification 
he  had  experienced  preyed  upon 
his  spirits,  and  produced  occasional 
derangement  of  mind  ;  and  in 
one  of  his  paroxysms,  he  seized  a 
sword  and  gave  himself  a  mortal 
wound,  in  the  sixty-eighth  year  of 
his  age. 

Borromini  affected  singularity, 
and  indulged  a  capricious  and 
fantastic  taste  in  his  designs  and 
decorations,  which  was  utterly 
inconsistent  with  simplicity  and 
propriety.  Accordingly,  some  have 
represented  his  style  in  archi- 
tecture as  resembling  the  literary 
style  of  Seneca,  and  the  poet 
Marino.  Vain  of  his  own  imagined 
superiority,  and  jealous  of  his 
brethren,  he  declined  to  concur 
with  them  ;  and  before  his  death, 
destroyed  all  his  designs,  lest  any 
other  architect  should  pass  them 
off  as  his  own.  His  best  work, 
among  many  performances,  in 
churches  and  palaces  at  Rome, 
which  blend  striking  beauties  with 
singularity,  is  accounted  to  be  the 


college  of  the  Propaganda, 
oratory  of  the  Chiesa  Nuova,  n 
withstanding  that  it  has  undu 
ting  coronas,  delicate  mouldii 
under  great  weights,  mouldings 
a  strange  and  new  form,  bre; 
in  the  architrave  of  the  entab 
ture  only,  with  prominences,  cc 
tortions,  and  every  kind  of  absi 
dity,  has  a  something  that  is  h| 
monious  and  handsome  j  but, 
Bernini  has  very  justly  obsei 
ed,  it  is  more  adapted  to  a  coun 
house,  or  villa,  than  to  the  seco 
edifice  of  a  city.  The  house 
the  fathers  has  also  been  admir 
Bosphoricum  marmor.  Ana 
given  by  the  ancients  to  a  si 
cies  of  marble,  of  a  yellow 
white  colour,  with  beautiful  ve 
of  a  somewhat  darker  hue  ;  cal 
also,  from  its  transparency,  ph 
gites. 

Boss,  or  bosse.  In  Sculpti. 
Signifies  relievo,  or  prominen. 
The  word  is  French,  bosse,  wbji 
signifies  the  same;  whence  also > 
emboss. 

Boss,  among  Bricklayers.  L 
hod  without  a  staff,  wherein  the  • 
bourers  put  the  mortar  to  be  u  l 
in  tiling.  It  has  an  iron  ho  , 
by  which  it  may  be  hung  on 
laths,  or  on  a  ladder. 

Bossage.  A  projecting  sto, 
laid  rough  in  building,  to  be  aft- 
wards  carved  into  moulding 
capitals,  arms,  or  the  like.  B- 
sages  also  denote  rustic  wo, 
which  seems  to  advance  bef|3 
the  naked  of  a  building,  by  rea .1 
of  indentures,  or  channels,  lefn 
the  joinings ;  used  chiefly  in  2 
corners  of  buildings,  and  the  e 
called  rustic  coins.  The  cavit  , 
or  indentures,  are  sometirs 
square,  sometimes  chamfered  r 
bevelled,  sometimes  circular,  |i 
sometimes  in  the  diamond  for : 
sometimes  they  are  enclosed  w 
a  cavetto,  and  sometimes  wit  a 
listel. 


BOU 


BOW 


Bott,  Jean  de.  An  architect, 
\cn  in  France,  in  1674,  and  died 
i  Dresden,  in  1745.  He  accom- 
pied  William,  prince  of  Orange, 
aerwards  king  of  England,  to 
ts  country ;  and  after  that 
jnce's  death,  repaired  to  Bran- 
dburgh,  where  he  was  made 
otain  of  the  guards,  and  built 
s  eral  structures,  particularly  the 
c  ebrated  arsenals  at  Berlin.  He 
\  s  afterwards  raised  to  the  rank 
(  major-general,  and  displayed 
1  skill  in  the  construction  of  the 
f  tifications  ofWeissel,  of  which 
}  was  commandant.  In  1728, 
1  entered  into  the  service  of  the 
lig  of  Poland,  as  lieutenant- 
£  ieral,  and  chief  of  the  engineers. 

BOUCIJARDON,       EDMOND.  A 

Ibnch  sculptor  and  architect, 
^  s  born  in  1698,  at  Chaumont, 
i  Bassigny,  where  his  father  ex- 
cised those  arts,  and  was  edu- 
(  ed  in  Paris,  in  the  school  of 
(  uston  the  younger.  He  erected 
weral  fine  buildings  in  Paris; 
id  having  acquired  a  decent  for- 
'■ne  by  his  industry  and  regu- 
jrity,  and  attained  high  eminence 
Shis  profession,  he  died  in  1762. 

BoULANGER,   NICHOLAS  AnTHO- 

|.  An  architect  and  a  mathe- 
ikician,  was  born  in  Paris  in 

1%  and  died  in  1759.  He  ac- 
ompanied  the  baron  de  Thiers  to 
m  army,  as  engineer ;  and,  on 
|  return,  was  employed  in  the 
( istruction  of  bridges  and  cause- 
1  ys  and  executed  various  public 
wrks  in  Champagne,  Burgundy, 
*  1  Lorraine.  He  was  a  good 
5  lolar,  wrote  several  works,  and 
c  Uributed  the  articles,  "  De- 
%e," — "  Carvee,"  and  "  So- 
fty," to  the  "Encyclopaedia." 

'Boulder- walls,  are  those  built 
( round  flints  or  pebbles,  laid  in 
a  trong  mortar.  Walls  of  this 
lid  are  usually  built  where  the 
4  haa  n  beach  cast  up,  or  where 
t  re  is  plenty  of  Hints. 


BOULTINE,    OR    BOLTEL.  The 

workmen's  term  for  a  convex 
moulding,  whose  periphery  is  just 
a  quarter  of  a  circle  next  below 
the  plinth,  in  the  tuscan  and 
doric  capitals.  This  moulding  is 
not  at  present  in  use. 

Bound  masonry.    See  Masonry. 

Boutant.  An  arc  boutant  is 
an  arch  or  buttress,  serving  to 
sustain  a  vault ;  and  which  is  itself 
sustained  by  some  strong  wall,  or 
massive  pile.  The  word  is  French, 
and  comes  from  the  verb  bouter,  to 
but,  or  abut.  A  pillar  boutant  is  a 
large  chain  or  pile  of  stone,  made 
to  support  a  wall,  terrace,  or  vault. 

Bow.  That  part  of  a  building 
which  projects  from  a  straight 
wall,  most  commonly  of  the  form 
of  a  segment  of  a  cylinder,  though 
sometimes  it  is  built  on  a  plan 
consisting  of  three  sides.  In  the 
first,  the  plan  is  the  arc  of  a  circle  j 
and  in  the  second,  it  is  two  exter- 
nal obtuse  angles,  formed  by  the 
two  projecting  walls  and  the  wall 
which  unites  them,  and  two  inter- 
nal obtuse  angles,  formed  by  the 
two  projecting  walls  and  the 
straight  wall  of  the  building  from 
which  they  project.  Sometimes 
the  bow  is  carried  the  whole 
height  of  a  building,  and  some- 
times it  is  carried  no  higher  than 
to  the  first  or  second  stories. 

Bow.  Canted,  or  polygonal.  A 
bow  which  has  three,  four,  or 
five  vertical  sides,  raised  from  a 
polygonal  plan ;  or  from  a  prism, 
so  disposed. 

Bow.  A  beam  of  wood,  or 
brass,  with  three  long  screws,  that 
governs  or  directs  a  lath  of  wood 
or  steel  to  any  arch  ;  chiefly  used 
in  drawing  draughts  of  ships,  and 
projections  of  the  sphere,  or 
wherever  it  is  requisite  to  draw 
large  arches. 

Bow.    See  Drill-bow. 

Bow- com  pass.  See  Mathema- 
tical Instruments. 

367 


BOX 

Bow-room.  A  room  that  in- 
cludes part  of  the  bow  of  a  build- 
ing. 

Bow-saw.    See  Saw. 

Bow-window.  A  window 
placed  in  the  bow  of  a  building. 
(See  Oral  Window.)  The  building 
act  requires,  that  no  bow-window, 
or  other  projection  shall  be  built 
to  any  building  of  first,  second, 
third,  or  fourth  rate,  except  such 
projection  or  bow-window  was 
originally  built  with  the  house  or 
building  to  which  the  same  be- 
longs, or  unless  such  bow-window 
or  other  projection  be  within  the 
original  line  of  the  street,  square, 
place,  court,  or  way,  in  which  it 
is  erected.  And  none  shall  be 
built  with,  or  added  to,  any  first, 
second,  third,  or  fourth  rate  build- 
ing, unless  the  same,  and  the 
columns  and  pilasters,  if  any,  be- 
longing to  the  same,  be  built  of 
the  materials  directed  for  external 
enclosures. 

Box.  This  word,  in  its  most 
general  acceptation,  denotes  a  case 
for  holding  things. 

Box  of  a  rib-saw.  Two  thin 
iron  plates  fixed  to  a  handle.  In 
one  of  these  iron  plates  is  an  open- 
ing to  receive  a  wedge  by  which 
it  is  fixed  to  the  saw. 

Boxings  of  a  window.  Two 
cases,  one  on  each  side  of  a  win- 
dow, and  opposite  to  each  other, 
into  which  the  shutters  are  folded, 
or  fall  back.  Shutters  of  princi- 
pal rooms  are  most  commonly 
made  in  two  distinct  divisions  or 
halves,  each  of  these  divisions 
having  as  many  subdivisions  or 
leaves,  as  are  requisite  for  their 
being  folded  within  the  boxings. 
These  subdivisions  or  leaves  rarely 
exceed  three  in  number :  and  are 
so  arranged,  that  that  subdivision, 
or  leaf,  whose  face  is  visible,  term- 
ed the  front-shutter,  is  flush  with, 
and  of,  the  exact  breadth  of  the 
boxings  )  that  the  second,  which 


BOX 

is  hidden  in  the  boxing,  is  less  i 
breadth  than  the  first ;  and  tl 
third  less  in  breadth  than  the  s( 
cond.    For  example,  suppose 
window  4  feet  wide  be  placed  i 
a  wall  that  is  two  bricks,  or  1 
inches  thick  :  then,  with  a  vie 
to  ascertain  the  number  of  sul 
divisions  or  leaves,  each  of  tl 
principal  divisions  of  a  shutti 
should  have  add  to  the  thickne 
of  the  wall  that  of  the  lath  ai 
plaster,  say  2  inches :  thus  18 
2  =  20   inches ;   and  from  tl 
thickness   of  the  sash-frame, 
inches,  and  the  distance  of  tl 
sash-frame  from  the  face  of  t! 
building,  4\  inches,  thus  20  — 
—  A\  =  9\  inches.  Thiswillgi 
three  leaves,  or  subdivisions ;  an 
as  it  is  customary  to  make  t 
back-flaps,  or  those   which  fo 
back  completely  within  the  bo 
ings,  less  than  the  front-shuti* 
or  that  whose  face  is  visible,  (b 
ing  flush  with,  and  of  the  ex; 
breadth  of,  the  boxings,)  theym 
be  arranged  thus, — front  shutti 
or  first  leaf,  9\  inches,  seco 
leaf  S  inches,  and  third  leaf  ( 
which  gives  24  inches,  the  si 
of  each  of  the  principal  divisio: 
In  this  calculation,  the  reader u 
perceive  that  we  have  made 
allowance  for  the  shutters  bei 
rebated  into  each  other,  as 
frequently  the  case  ;  when  sh 
ters  are  therefore  rebated  ir 
each  we  must  allow  four-eighi 
of  an  inch  more  for  the  two 
bates  of  the    three  leaves,  m 
one-eighth  of  an  inch  for  the 
bate  at  the  meeting  of  the  t» 
principal  divisions  in  the  mid 
of  the  window,  making  with  B 
breadth  of  the  three  subdivisk' 
24  -f-  -f-  =  24  1-  inches  j  the  fljl 
may  therefore  be  arranged  th» 
first  leaf  9 \  inches,  the  second  B 
8J,  and  the  third  leaf  6*1  wM 
is  equal  to  24f  inches,  the  i 
extent  of  each  principal  divisit 


BRA 


BRA 


To  ascertain  the  depth  of  the 
Ixings,  add  to  the  thickness  of 
<ch  of  the  leaves  one-sixteenth 
<  an  inch;  and  if  there  be  a 
ick-lining  add  the  thickness  of 
lit  to  the  account.  As  the  se- 
<ad  and  third  leaves  are  generally 
ide  thinner  than  the  first  leaf, 
apiay,  in  the  present  case,  stand 
t  is,— first  leaf  1  \  inch,  second 
I  f  lj,  and  third  leaf  \\ ;  to 
lich  add  TV  for  the  three  leaves, 
il  the  amount  will  be  +  lj 
.  1-1  -}-  Tv  =  4  Tv  inches  for  the 
ipth  of  the  boxing. 

When  walls  are  only  a  brick 
B 1  a  half  thick,  or  the  windows 
c  an  apartment  are  very  wide,  it 
i  usual  to  make  the  architrave 
pject  considerably  before  the 
I  ster,  or  to  bring  the  lath  and 
]  ?ter  a  considerable  distance 
t  m  the  rough  wall,  in  order 
t  t  the  leaves  of  a  shutter  may 
I  as  few  as  possible,  and  not 
t  ublesome  to  shut,  as  would  be 
t  case  were  this  rule  not 
Hppted. 

;15race.  A  piece  of  timber 
filmed  in  with  bevel  joints ; 
s  ring  to  keep  the  building  from 
B  irving  either  way.  See  Truss 
a\  Angle  Braces. 

Bracket.  A  support  for  shelves, 
&  When  small  shelves  are  to 
b,  supported,  the  bracket  is  ge- 
D  illy  made  of  a  solid  piece  of 
wd  in  the  form  of  an  ogee} 
b  when  the  shelves  are  of  large 
d  ensions,  the  brackets  are  small 
tUiseSj  consisting  of  a  horizontal 
pil  e,  a  vertical  piece,  and  a  strut. 
Bckets  are  sometimes  used  un- 
M  the  ends  of  the  wooden  steps 
olstair-cases,  next  to  the  well- 
In    for  ornament  only. 

i  racketting.    See  Joinery. 

rads.  A  slender  kind  of  nail, 
usl  in  joinery,  hav  ing  no  spread- 
in  head  as  other  nails  have,  but  a 
sr.  11  projection  on  one  side.  Of 
th  e  some  are  called  joiner  s- brads 
3A 


and  are  for  hard  wainscots  ;  others 
batten-brads,  for  soft  wainscots  ; 
and  some  bill-brads  or  quarter-brads, 
used  when  a  floor  is  laid  in  haste, 
&c.  When  brads  are  used,  it  is 
customary  to  drive  them  beneath 
the  surface  of  the  wood  with  a 
punch  and  hammer,  and  to  fill  up 
the  hole  with  putty,  that  the 
nailing  may  not  be  visible. 

Bramante,  Lazzari,  D' Urbino. 
A  celebrated  architect,  was  born, 
according  to  some  at  Castel  Du- 
rante, and  according  to  others  at 
Femaghano,  in  the  province  of 
Urbino,  in  the  year  1544.  The 
parents  of  Bramante,  who  were 
poor,  beheld  with  pleasure  their 
child's  talent  for  design,  and  placed 
him  in  a  school  for  pain  ting,  kept  by 
Fra  Bartaloraeo  of  Urbino,  where 
he  made  rapid  progress  ;  but  his 
taste  and  talents  for  architecture, 
outran  every  other  consideration, 
and  he  eventually  applied  himself 
solely  to  it.  Led  by  his  genius 
for  architecture,  he  visited  Milan. 
The  superb  dome  of  the  cathedral 
in  that  metropolis,  made  a  strong 
impression  upon  his  mind ;  and 
he  studied  the  principles  of  the 
art  under  the  best  masters  he 
could  procure.  He  afterwards 
went  to  Rome,  where,  and  at 
other  towns  in  Italy,  he  carefully 
examined  the  architectural  re- 
mains of  antiquity.  At  Napies 
he  was  employed  by  cardinal 
Caraffa  in  rebuilding  the  convent 
Delia  Place  ;  and  the  reputation  he 
acquired  by  this  work  gained  him 
the  protection  of  pope  Alexander 
VI.,  for  whom  he  executed  several 
considerable  designs.  Julius  II. 
made  him  superintendant  of  his 
buildings.  It  was  under  this  pon- 
tiff, that  Bramante  conceived  the 
noble  project  of  connecting  the 
Belvedere  palace  with  the  Vatican, 
by  means  of  two  grand  galleries 
carried  across  a  valley.  The  im- 
patient character  of  the  pope  was 

369 


BRA 


B  R  A 


gratified  by  the  amazing  celerity 
with  which  his  architect  brought 
his  plans  into  effect  ;  often,  how- 
ever, at  the  expense  of  their  dura- 
bility, so  that  many  of  his  new 
buildings  required  early  repair. 
Bramante  accompanied  pope  Julius 
to  Bologna  in  1504,  where  he  was 
employed  to  fortify  the  town  ; 
and  during  the  war  of  Mirandola 
he  gave  several  proofs  of  his 
knowledge  of  the  military  art. 
Returning  to  Rome  he  embellish- 
ed that  city  with  a  variety  of  fine 
buildings,  which  led  the  way  to 
the  mighty  work  which  has  prin- 
cipally immortalized  his  name. 
This  was  the  cathedral  of  St. 
Peter's,  which,  at  his  persuasion, 
pope  Julius  substituted  for  the 
ancient  church  of  that  name,  with 
the  express  intention  of  making 
an  edifice  worthy  of  the  capital  of 
Christendom. 

Bramante  gave  several  designs 
for  this  structure,  one  of  which 
being  adopted,  the  work  was 
commenced  with  great  ardour, 
and  an  indelicate  precipitation 
was  shown  in  demolishing  the 
ancient  church,  with  its  tombs 
and  fine  monuments.  Before  the 
death  of  the  pope,  in  1513,  the 
building  was  advanced  to  the  en- 
tablature, and  the  four  greatarches 
for  the  support  of  the  dome  were 
erected  at  the  time  of  the  death  of 
Bramante,  in  1514.  This  was  the 
only  part  of  his  workmanship  left 
standing  by  the  architects  who 
succeeded  him,  and  who  almost 
entirely  deviated  from  the  original 
design,  to  the  injury  as  has  been 
thought  to  the  structure.  Michael 
Angelo  Bonarrotti,  (see  Bonarrofti) 
who  at  length  obtained  the  super- 
intendence of  this  building;  gave 
liberal  praises  to  his  plan,  and 
afFected  as  much  as  possible  to 
return  to  his  ideas. 

Bramante  was  much  honoured 
during  life,  and  lamented  at  his 

370 


death.    His  character  was  gent 
and  obliging.    He  was  fond  I 
encouraging  young  artists ;  at 
he   invited   to  Rome   the  gre; 
Raphael,   who  was  his  cousii 
whom  he  instructed  in  archite. 
ture,  and  caused  to  be  employ* 
in  the  Vatican.     He  cultivate 
poetry  with  success,  and  som 
times    composed    extern  po  ran 
ously  to  his  harp.    The  style 
his  first  performances  in  archite 
ture  partook  of  the  dryness  of  h 
age,  but  his  imagination  openi 
as   he  advanced.    He  has  be* 
accused  of  making  a  variety 
faults  through  precipitation,  ai 
through  his  practice  of  beginni' 
works  before  he  had  taken  tin 
to  combine  and  perfect  his  ide; 
He  was  the  inventor  of  a  mann 
of  constructing  arches  by  castii 
in  wooden  moulds  a  mixture 
lime,   marble-dust,   and  wat< 
supposed  to  be  a  renovation  of  t 
stucco  of  the  ancients.    His  pot 
ical  works  were  printed  in  Mila 
in  1756. 

Branches  of  arches.  Sevei 
portions  of  arches  springing  frc 
the  same  summer. 

Branches  of  argives.  The  rei 
or  arches  of  gothic  vaults  ;  whi 
traversing  from  one  angle 
another,  diagonal-wise,  form 
cross  between  the  other  arcl 
which  make  the  sides  of  t 
square,  whereof  those  arches  < 
diagonals. 

Branches  of  vaults.    A  te 
sometimes  used   to    denote  I! 
arches  of  vaults. 

Brandrith.  A  fence  round  \l 
mouth  of  a  well. 

Bray,  Sir  Reginald.  j 
English  politician  and  ingeni" 
architect  of  the  fifteenth  ?entti 
was  the  second  son  of  sir  Rich  1 
Bray,  one  of  the  privy  counci1) 
king  Henry  VI.,  and  descend 
from  an  ancient  family  who  r 
companied  William  the  conquc  f 


BRA 


BRA 


ito  England,  and  flourished  in 
ie  counties  of  Northampton  and 
Warwick.  He  took  an  active 
irt  in  the  measures  which  seated 
ic  earl  of  Richmond  on  the 
rone,  and  was  liberally  reward- 
I  by  that  monarch  with  honours 
id  estates  :  and  he  was,  says 
nomas,  in  his  "  History  of  Mal- 
m,"  in  prosperity  and  adversity 
ways  faithful  to  his  king.  He 
is  a  knight  banneret,  and  of 
e  garter,  chancellor  of.  the 
ichy  of  Lancaster,  high-stew- 
d  of  Oxford,  &c.  &c.  Such 
?re  his  abilities,  and  such  was 
e  king's  opinion  of  him,  that  he 
is  taken  into  his  most  intimate 
uncils,  and  enjoyed  an  uninter- 
pted  favour  for  seventeen  years, 
the  time  of  his  death.  The 
racter  given  of  him  by  histo- 
ids is,  "that  he  was  the  very 
her  of  his  country,  a  sage  and 
rave  person,  a  fervent  lover  of 
j;tice,  and  one  who  would  admo- 
i|h  the  king,  if  he  did  any  thing 
<ntrary  to  right."      That  the 

•  apel  of  St.  George,  at  Windsor, 
res  much  to  the  skill,  as  well  as 
1  the  munificence  of  sir  Reginald, 
1 2re  can  be  no  doubt.  His  arms, 
5  netimes  single,  sometimes  ini- 
}  ing  those  of  Huse,  whom  he 
i  rried,  and  his  device  of  a  flax- 
taker,  are  in  so  many  parts  of 
t  ceiling  and  windows,  that 
t  y  could  not  have  been  plac- 
e  there  without  a  more  than 
o  inary  claim  to  the  situa- 
tm.  The  chapel  on  the  south 
B  ',  still  called  "  Bray's  chapel," 
W  built  by  him  to  receive  his 
b'y,  as  appears    by   his  will, 

*  ch  is  dated  August  4,  1503, 
B  he  thereby  directs  that  his 
b  y  shall  be  buried  in  the  chapel 
<>  he  south  side  of  the  church  of 
o  Lady  and  St.  George,  in  the 
c«'  le  of  Windsor,  which  had 
b<i  new  made  for  that  intent, 
a'1  also  in  honour  of  Almighty 


God,  &c.  He  wills  that  his  ex- 
ecutors, after  his  decease,  should, 
with  his  goods  and  the  issues  and 
profits  of  his  lands,  make  and 
perform  the  new  works  of  the  body 
of  the  said  church,  and  thoroughly 
finish  them,  according  to  the 
form  and  intent  of  the  foundation, 
in  stonework,  timber,  lead,  iron, 
and  glass,  and  all  other  things 
necessary  j  that  they  should  cause 
a  tomb  to  be  made  for  him  in  the 
said  chapel  :  and  he  gave  forty 
marks  a  year  to  the  dean  and 
canons,  to  distribute  thirteen- 
pence  every  day  to  thirteen  poor 
men  or  women  at  the  door  of  the 
said  chapel.  He  died  the  next 
day,  and  in  the  November  follow- 
ing, his  will  was  proved  in  the 
prerogative  court  of  Canterbury. 
No  tomb  was  erected,  but  his 
body  probably  lies  under  the  stone 
which  is  placed  over  Dr.  Water- 
land.  From  the  expressions  in 
the  will  as  to  finishing  this  church, 
it  may  fairly  be  inferred,  not  only 
that  great  works  had  there  been 
carried  on  at  his  expense,  but 
that  he  had  a  share,  at  least,  in 
the  designing  them.  After  seeing 
what  he  did  here,  it  may  not, 
perhaps,  be  too  much  to  conjecture 
that  he  had  also  a  share  in  the  de- 
sign of  Henry  the  seventh's  chapel 
at  Westminster,  where  he  assisted 
in  laying  the  first  stone.  As  sir 
Reginald  died  without  issue,  he 
bequeathed  the  bulk  of  his  for- 
tune to  Edmund,  the  eldest  son 
of  his  younger  brother  John,  who 
was  summoned  to  *parliament  in 
1530,  as  baron  of  Eaton  Bray  j 
and  he  also  left  considerable  es- 
tates to  Edmund  and  Reginald, 
younger  brothers  of  Edmund. 

Brazing.  The  soldering  or 
joining  of  two  pieces  of  iron  by 
means  of  thin  plates  of  brass, 
melted  between  the  two  pieces  to 
be  joined.  If  the  work  be  very 
fine,  as  when  the  two  leaves  oi 

371 


-a 


B  RE 

broken  saws  are  to  be  joined,  it 
is  to  be  covered  with  beaten 
borax,  moistened  with  water,  that 
it  may  incorporate  with  the  brass- 
dust,  which  is  here  added  ;  and 
the  piece  is  exposed  to  the  fire, 
without  touching  the  coals,  till 
the  brass  be  observed  to  run.  To 
braze  with  a  still  greater  degree 
of  nicety,  they  use  a  solder  made 
of  brass,  with  a  tenth  part  of  tin  5 
or  another  one-third  brass,  and 
two-thirds  silver ;  or  borax  and 
resin  ;  observing  in  all  these  ways 
of  brazing,  that  the  pieces  be 
joined  close  throughout;  the  solder 
only  holding  in  those  places  that 
touch. 

Breadth.  The  measure  of  any 
plane  superficies  from  side  to  side, 
at  right  angles  to  the  length. 

Break.  A  projecting  part  of 
the  front  of  grand  buildings.  See 
Building. 

Break.  A  recess,  or  giving 
back  of  a  part  behind  its  ordinary 
range  or  projecture.  In  this  sense 
we  say,  a  break  of  pediment,  a 
break  of  entablatures,  whereby  it 
shrinks,  as  it  were,  between  the 
columns. 

Break-in.  To  cut  or  break  a 
hole  in  the  brickwork  with  a  ripp- 
ing chisel  for  the  insertion  of  a 
plug,  or  the  end  of  a  beam,  &c. 

Break-joint.  One  stone  placed 
on  the  joint  of  two  stones  in  the 
course  below,  to  bind  the  work 
together. 

Breast  of  a  chimney.  See 
Chimney. 

Breast  of  a  window.  The 
masonry  or  brickwork  forming 
the  back  of  the  recess  and  the 
parapet  under  the  window  ciM. 

Breeze.  Small  ashes  and  cin- 
ders made  use  of  instead  of  coals, 
for  the  burning  of  bricks. 

Bressummer,  breast-summer, 
or  brest-summer.  A  lintel  beam 
i.i  the  exterior  wall  of  a  building, 
principally  used  over  shop-win- 

372 


B  It  1 

j 

dows,  to  sustain  the  superincurr 
bent  part  of  the  wall.  Bressuni 
mers  are  most  commonly  sup 
ported  by  iron  or  wooden  post 
though  sometimes  pillars  of  brie 
or  stone  are  used  for  the  purpose 
In  the  inner  parts  of  a  buildinj 
the  pieces  into  which  the  girdei 
are  framed  are  called  summer 
See  Summer.  ? 

Brewhouse.  An  apartment  < 
building  for  the  preparation  < 
malt  liquors. 

Brick.     A  kind  of  factitim 
stone,  composed  of  an  argillaceoi 
earth    tempered   and  formed 
moulds,  dried  in    the  sun,  ar 
finally  burnt  to  a  proper  degree 
hardness  in  a  clamp  or  kiln. 

The  use  of  bricks  is  of  tl 
highest  antiquity  j  and  bo 
burned  and  unburned  bricks  we 
used  by  the  ancient  Greeks  ai 
Romans.  The  method  of  makii 
unburnt  bricks  is  thus  describ< 
by  Vitruvius.  "  They  should  n 
be  made  of  sandy,  stony, 
gravelly  loam  j  for  such  kinds 
earth,  in  the  first  place,  rend 
them  heavy  j  and  in  the  seco 
place,  upon  being  wetted  wi 
rain,  after  they  are  laid  in  t 
wall,  they  swell  and  dissolve,  a 
the  straw  which  is  put  in  th< 
does  not  adhere,  on  account 
their  roughness.  Bricks  shoi 
be  made  of  earth  that  is  wh 
and  chalky,  or  red,  or  havini 
masculine  large  sand  3  for  th 
kinds  being  light  and  strong,  ' 
not  weighty  in  working,  and  ! 
laid  with  facility.  They  shojl 
also  be  made  in  the  spring  r 
autumn,  as  being  the  best  time  f 
drying  -}  for  those  made  in  e 
summer  are  not  so  sound,  P 
account  of  the  intense  heat  of  ^ 
sun,  which  parches  the  outie 
before  the  inside  is  suflicieiy 
dry  j  which  afterwards  drying* 
the  building,  causes  themjo 
shrink  and  break  others  wl* 


BRICK. 


ere  dry,  by  that  means  rendering 
ie  structure  infirm,  and  full  of 
actures.     They  are  best  when 
lade  two  years  before  they  are 
?ed  j  for  they  cannot  be  suffici- 
itly  dry  in  less  time.    If  they 
;  used  when  newly  made,  and 
oist,  the  plaster  work  which  is 
id  on  them  remaining  firm  and 
iff,  and  they  shrinking,  and  con- 
quently  not  preserving  the  same 
aght  with  the  incrustation,  it  is 
such  contraction  loosened  and 
parated,  by  this  means  the  plas- 
ring  breaks,  and  falls  from  the 
lilding  ;  for,  on  account  of  its 
inness,  it  cannot  stand  of  itself  j 
id  the   walls    themselves  are 
inetimes  damaged  thereby.  At 
tica,  therefore,   the  laws  allow 
i  bricks  to  be  used  before  they 
tve  lain  to  dry  five  years,  as 
just  be  proved  to  the  magistrates, 
j  whose  authority  they  may  then 
:  used  for  the  building  of  walls. 
"There   are    three    sorts  of 
icks  ;  one  of  which  the  Greeks 
ill  didoron,  which  are  such  as 
e  use,  they  are  a  foot  long  and 
ilf  a  foot  broad.    The  other  two 
>rts  are  used  in  the  buildings  of 
ie  Greeks,  one  of  which  they  call 
mtadoron,  and  the  other  tetra- 
gon; for  the  Greeks  call  the  palm 
ran,  because   a  gift  which  is 
ways  presented  with  the  palm 
the  hand  is,  in  Greek,  called 
ron :  those    bricks,  therefore, 
ii ch  have  on  every  side  five 
lms  are  called  pentadoron,  and 
ose  which  have  four  tetradoron  ; 
public  works  they  use  the  for- 
r,  and  in  private  works  the 
ter.    Of  these  bricks  they  also 
ike  half-bricks  ;  and  in  work- 
.:,  the  whole  bricks  are  placed 
<<ne  course,  and  the  half-bricks 
the  other :  so  that  when  both 
jrts  are  built  to  a  level,  they 
fpear  to  be  laid  in  the  walls  with 
!  crnate  faces  outward,  the  mid- 
fe  of  the  bricks  being  disposed 


perpendicularly  over  the  joints, 
giving  strength,  and  not  an  un- 
handsome appearance,  to  both 
parts.  At  Calentum,  in  the  far- 
ther Spain,  at  Marseilles  in  Gaul, 
and  at  Pitome  in  Asia,  there  are 
bricks  which  when  made  and 
dried  will  swim,  if  thrown  into 
the  water.  The  reason  that  they 
swim  is,  because  the  earth  or 
which  they  are  made  is  pumi- 
cosius,  and  replete  with  air,  not 
relieving  or  imbibing  the  water  j 
being  therefore  light  and  porous, 
and  not  suffering  the  water  to 
penetrate  into  its  substance.  The 
Calentines  have  therefore  a  great 
advantage  j  for  these  bricks  are 
not  weighty  in  the  building,  and, 
when  once  made,  cannot  be  im- 
paired by  the  weather." 

In  the  above  description,  Vitru- 
vius  does  not  mention  the  thick- 
ness of  the  bricks  j  the  reader, 
therefore,  should  be  apprized 
that,  from  some  remains  of  bricks, 
it  appears,  the  ancients  made  their 
bricks  very  thin,  almost  like  tiles. 
The  bricks  tetradoron  and  penta- 
doron, used  by  the  Greeks,  were 
square,  having,  as  Vitruvius  states, 
every  side  equal,  each  side  of  the 
former  measuring  four  palms,  and 
of  the  latter  five  palms.  The 
didoron  bricks  which  the  Romans 
used  were  oblong,  being  a  foot 
long,  and  half  a  foot  broad  ;  that 
is  four  palms  long  and  two  broad, 
which  is  exactly  equal  to  half  a 
tetradoron  thick.  As  the  Greeks 
made  half-bricks  of  each  of  the 
sort  that  they  used,  the  half  tetra- 
doron bricks  of  the  Greeks  were 
exactly  similar  to  the  didoron 
bricks  of  the  Romans,  and  might 
be  laid  in  the  same  manner,  and 
make  just  the  same  appearance  in 
the  work. 

Barbaro,  Alberti,  and  some 
others,  have  supposed  that  these 
half-bricks  were  made  by  dividing 
the  whole  brick  diagonally,  so 


BRICK. 


that  they  become  triangular  j  of 
which  kind  some  are  still  to  be 
seen  in  the  remains  of  the  walls 
of  Rome,  in  that  part  particularly 
which  was  built  by  the  emperor 
Aurelian.    But  Newton,   in  his 
translation  of  Vitruvius,  states, 
that  Vitruvius  does  not  mean  that 
triangular  sort,  but  a  quadrangu- 
lar kind,  made  by  dividing  the 
whole  brick  quadrilaterally  j  for 
he  speaks  of  their  appearing  to  be 
laid  in  the  wall  with  alternate 
faces  outward,  thereby  implying 
that  the  faces  were  of  different 
dimensions,  which  is  not  the  case 
of  the  two  sides  of  such  triangular 
bricks.    The  diagonal  side  is  in- 
deed of  a  different  dimension  from 
the  other  two ;  but  it  cannot  be 
supposed,  that  Vitruvius  means 
that  side  to  be  used  alternately 
with  the  others  ;  its  measure  be- 
ing so  disproportionate  and  in- 
congruous to  the  square  sides, 
that  they  can  never  be  made  to 
agree  together  in  any  regular  or- 
der. M.  Quatremere  de  Quincy,  in 
the  "  Encyclopedic  Methodique," 
observes,  that  in  his  researches 
among  the  antique  buildings  of 
Rome,  he  has  found  bricks  of 
three  sizes.     The  least  were  7 
inches  and  a  half  square,  and  1 
inch  and  a  half  thick  ;  the  medium 
ones  16  inches  and  a  half  square, 
and  from  eighteen  to  twenty  lines 
in  thickness  j  and  the  larger  ones 
23  inches  square,  by  twenty-one 
or  twenty-two  lines  thick.  The 
smaller  bricks  were  employed  to 
face  walls  of  rubble-work  ;  and, 
to  make  a  better  bond  with  the 
wall,  they   were  cut  diagonally 
into  two   triangles ;  the  longer 
side  was  placed  on  the  outside, 
and  the  point  towards  the  interior 
of  the  work.    To  tie  more  effect- 
ually the  facing  with  the  rubble, 
they  placed  at  every  4  feet  in 
height  one  or  two  courses  of  the 
large  square  bricks.    The  large 

374 


bricks  were  also  used  in  t 
arches  of  openings  or  dischar^ 
which  were  necessary  in  t 
building. 

In  modern  times,  bricks  ha 
been  used  in  all  countries.  Chi 
din  thus  describes  the  manufa 
ture  of  bricks  in  Persia.  T 
material    of   Persian  buildin 
is  bricks,  either  dried  in  the  su 
or  burnt  in  the  fire.    The  til 
or  bricks  of  earth  are  made 
thin  wooden   moulds,  8  inch 
long,  6  wide,  and  2J  inches  thic 
The    labourers     temper  wi 
their   feet   the   earth,  which 
generally  mixed  with  straw  c 
very  small,  to  give  it  more  cons 
tence,  and  that  the  bricks  may  lJ 
longer  and  not  break.    They  pa 
the  hands   over   the  bricks 
smooth  them,  after  having  dipp 
them  in  a  vessel  of  water  mix 
with  straw,  still  finer  than  was 
first  used.    Then,  taking  off  t] 
moulds,  they  leave  the  bricks 
dry  for  two  or  three  hours,  aft 
which  they  are  ranged  over  o 
another,  where  they  remain  t 
the  drying  is    completed.  T 
baked  bricks  are  made  of  t\ 
parts  of  earth  and  one  of  cintk 
well-tempered  together,  in  moul 
larger  than  for  the  others.  Th 
leave  them  to  dry  in  the  sun  i 
several  days,  then  place  them 
a  large  furnace,  ranged  one  ov 
the  other,  at  some  distance,  whij 
they  fill  with  plaster.   They  tie 
the  furnace  and   light  the  fi 
which  is  kept  up  for  three  dc 
and  nights. 

In  England,  the  earth  bi 
adapted  for  the  manufacture 
brick  is  of  a  clayey  loam,  neitl 
containing  too  much  argillacec 
matter,  which  causes  it  to  shri 
in  the  drying,  nor  too  much  sai 
which  has  a  tendency  to  rem 
the  ware  both  heavy  and  britf 
It  should  be  dug  two  or  thi- 
years  before  it  is  wrought,  that; 


BR 

may,  by  an  exposure  to  the  action 
if  the  atmosphere,  lose  the  extra- 
eous  matter  of  which  it  is  pos- 
essed  when  first  drawn  from  its 
edj  or,  at  least,  should  be  al- 
>wed  to  remain  one  winter,  that 
he  frost  may  mellow  and  pulver- 
•  e  it  sufficiently  to  facilitate  the 
peration  of  tempering.  As  the 
uality  of  the  brick  is  greatly 
ependant  upon  the  tempering  of 
le  clay,  great  care  should  be 
nken  to  have  this  part  of  the  pro- 
ess  well  done.  Formerly  the 
tanner  of  performing  it  consisted 
p  throwing  the  clay  into  shallow 
its,  and  subjecting  it  to  the  tread 
f  men  and  oxen  ;  but  this  method 
as  of  late  been  superseded  by  the 
lay  or  pug  mill,  for  which,  see 
le  respective  articles. 
When  the  clay  has  been  suffi- 
ently  tempered  by  either  of  the 

ii     )ove  modes,   it  is  taken  to  the 

;  loulder's  bench,  and  is,  either 
y  a  lad  or  a  woman,  cut  into 

i  ieces  somewhat  larger  than  the 
umld,  and  passed  on  to  the  mould- 
r ;  who  throws  it  smartly  into  a 

i     lould,  which  has  been  previously 
ipped  in  sand,  then  presses  it  down 
i  fill  all  the  cavity,  and  strikes  off 
le  overplus  with  a  flat  smooth 
iece  of  wood.    He  then  turns  the 
wly  formed   brick    from  the 
ould  on  to  a  thin  board,  somewhat 
rger  than  the  brick,  which  is  re- 
oved  by  a  boy  to  a  light  latticed 
heelbarrow,  and  is    thus  con- 
yed,  covered  slightly  with  fine 
y  sand,  to  the  hack. 
In  the  hack,  the  bricks  are  ar- 
inged  somewhat  diagonally  one 
ove  the  other,  and  two  edgewise 
ross,  with  a  passage  between 
ch  for  the  admission  of  air,  till 
y  be   eight  bricks  in  height, 
ley  are  then  left  to  dry.  The 
ne  they  take  ere  they  require 
ifting  depends  entirely  upon  the 
rather,  which,  when  fine,  will 
but  a  few  days  :  they  are  then 


CK. 

turned,  and  reset  wider  apart, 
and  in  six  or  eight  days  are  ready 
for  the  clamp  or  kiln. 

In  showery  weather,  care  should 
be  taken  to  cover  the  bricks  in  the 
hack  with  wheat  or  rye  straw,  to 
keep  them  dry  :  and,  as  it  is  of 
consequence  that  the  bricks  should 
be  thoroughly  dried  before  they 
are  set  in  the  clamp  or  kiln,  a  few 
bricks  should  be  selected  from 
various  parts  of  the  hack  and 
broken  in  half,  in  order  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  operation  of 
drying  has  been  properly  per- 
formed j  for,  if  this  be  not  attend- 
ed to,  the  moisture  ascending  from 
them,  in  the  form  of  vapour, 
will  render  the  bricks  very  un- 
sound. 

In  the  vicinity  of  London,  bricks 
are  generally  burned  in  clamps, 
which  are  of  an  oblong  form.  The 
foundation  is  made  either  with  the 
driest  of  the  bricks  just  made, 
or  with  the  commonest  kind  of 
bricks,  called  place  bricks.  The 
bricks  to  be  burnt  are  arranged 
tier  upon  tier,  as  high  as  the 
clamp  is  intended  to  be,  and  a 
stratum  of  breeze  or  cinders,  to 
the  depth  of  2  or  3  inches,  is 
strewed  between  each  layer  of 
bricks,  and  the  whole  is  finally 
covered  with  a  thick  stratum  of 
breeze.  At  the  west  end  of  the 
clamp,  a  perpendicular  fireplace, 
about  3  feet  in  height,  is  con- 
structed, and  flues  are  formed  by 
arching  the  bricks  over  so  as  to 
leave  a  space  of  about  a  brick  in 
width.  The  flues  run  straight 
through  the  clamp,  and  are  filled 
with  a  mixture  of  coals,  wood,  and 
breeze,  which  are  pressed  closely 
together.  If  the  bricks  are  re- 
quired to  be  burnt  off  quickly, 
(which  can  be  accomplished  in  the 
space  of  from  twenty  to  thirty 
days,  according  to  the  state  of  the 
weather,)  the  flues  must  not 
exceed  6  feet  distance  apart  j  but 

375 


BR 

if  there  is  no  urgent  demand,  the 
flues  need  not  be  nearer  than  9 
feet,  and  the  clamp  may  be  allowed 
to  burn  slowly. 

Kilns  are  also  used  :  in  these, 
twenty  thousand  bricks  can  be 
burned  at  a  time.  The  walls  of  a 
kiln  are  about  a  brick  and  a  half 
thick,  and  incline  inwards  towards 
the  top,  so  that  the  area  of  the 
upper  part  is  not  more  than  114 
square  feet.  The  bricks  are  set 
on  flat  arches,  with  holes  left 
between  them,  resembling  lattice- 
work ;  and  when  the  kiln  is  com- 
pleted, they  are  covered  with 
pieces  of  broken  bricks  and  tiles, 
and  some  wood  is  put  in  and 
kindled,  to  dry  them  gradually. 
When  sufficiently  dried,  which  is 
known  by  the  smoke  changing 
from  a  dark  to  a  light  transparent 
colour,  the  mouths  of  the  kiln  are 
stopped  with  pieces  of  brick,  called 
shinlog,  piled  one  upon  another, 
and  closed  over  with  wet  brick 
earth.  The  shinlog s  are  carried 
so  high  as  just  to  leave  room  for 
one  faggot  to  be  thrust  into  the 
kiln  at  a  time;  and  when  the 
brush-wood,  furze,  heath,  faggots, 
&c.  are  put  in,  the  tire  is  kindled, 
and  the  burning  of  the  kiln  com- 
mences. The  fire  is  kept  up  till 
the  arches  assume  a  white  appear- 
ance, and  the  flames  appear 
through  the  top  of  the  kiln  ;  upon 
which  the  lire  is  allowed  to 
slacken,  and  the  kiln  to  cool  by 
degrees.  This  process  of  alter- 
nately heating  and  slacking  the 
kiln  is  continued  till  the  bricks 
are  thoroughly  burnt,  which  is,  in 
general,  in  the  space  of  forty- 
eight  hours. 

The  practice  of  steeping  bricks 
in  water  after  they  have  been 
burnt,  and  burning  them  again, 
has  the  effect  of  considerably  im- 
proving the  quality. 

Bricks  are  of  several  kinds,  the 
most  usual  of  which  are  malm- 

376 


C  K. 

stocks,  and  place  bricks  ;  but  ther 
is  little  difference  in  the  mode  o 
manufacturing  them,  except  thai 
great  care  is  taken  in  preparing 
and  tempering  the  first  mentioned 

As  marl  is  not  always  to  b 
found  where  malm-stock  brick 
are  required,  the  mode  of  manu 
facture  as  adopted  by  Mr.  Lee,  ot 
Lewisham,  is  well  worth  the  at 
tention  of  builders,  who  may  wis] 
to  manufacture  these  beautiful 
bricks  without  marl.  After  man  ! 
experiments,  occasioned  by  th 
paucity  of  marl  in  the  Londo: 
districts,  Mr.  Lee  discovered  tha 
chalk,  mixed  in  certain  propor 
tions  with  loam,  and  treated  in  th 
usual  manner,  produced  an  ex 
cellent  substitute.  For  this  dis 
covery  he  took  out  a  patent,  whicl 
having  now  expired,  his  mode  o 
mixing  a  small  quantity  of  ehall 
with  the  brick  earth,  is  generall 
adopted  round  London,  for  th 
purpose  of  giving  colour  am 
soundness  to  the  brick.  At  Ems 
worth,  in  Hampshire,  and  a, 
Southampton,  ooze,  or  sludg 
from  the  sea-shore,  which  con 
tains  much  saline  matter,  is  use 
for  a  similar  purpose  ;  but  how 
ever  sound  those  bricks  are,  the 
have  neither  the  rich  brimston 
colour  of  the  London  malm-stocl 
nor  the  regular  stone-coloure 
creamy  hue  of  the  Ipswich  brick; 

The  finest  marls,  called  first: 
are  selected  for  the  arches  ( 
doorways,  &c,  and  are  rubbed  t 
their  proper  form  and  dimension? 
and  the  next  best,  called  second 
for  the  principal  fronts.  Tl 
colour,  a  light  yellow,  added  1 
the  smooth  texture  and  superic 
durability  of  the  marls,  give  thei 
the  precedence  of  ihe  other  M 
scriptions  of  brick. 

Grey  stocks  are  somewhat  lil 
the  seconds ;  but  are  of  inferh 
quality, 

Place  bricks,  sometimes  calk 


BRICK. 


andal,  pickings,  or  samel  bricks, 

re  soft,  of  uneven  texture,  and  of 
red  colour,  arising  from  their 
icing  the  outermost  in  the  clamp 
Ir  kiln,  and  not  having  been  suffi- 
ciently burned. 

Burrs  and  clinkers  are  such 
►ricks  as  have  been  violently 
turned j  and  sometimes  several 
•ricks  are  found  run  together,  or 
mited  in  the  kiln. 

The  red  bricks  derive  their  co- 
our  from  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
>f  which  they  are  composed,  and 
vhich  in  general  is  very  pure, 
.'he  best  are  used  for  cutting 
tricks,  and  are  called  red  rubbers, 
n  old  buildings  they  are  very 
requently  to  be  seen  set  in  putty, 
nd  used  as  ornaments  over 
rches,  windows,  doorways,  &c. 

Fire-bricks  are  made  at  the  vil- 
age  of  Hedgerly,  near  Windsor, 
t  Stourbridge,  at  Nonsuch,  and 
n  various  parts  of  Wales.  These 
ast  are  called  Welsh  lumps. 
!  In  some  experiments  made  by 
Air.  Adcock,  to  ascertain  the 
.omparative  value  of  west  and 
lorth  country  coals,  a  very  cu- 
ious  fact  was  elicited  relative  to 
he  Stourbridge  and  Nonsuch 
)ricks,  which  is  well  worthy  the 
ttention  of  all  connected  with 
he  construction  of  furnaces. 

By  those   experiments  it  ap- 
ears,  that  the  Nonsuch  bricks 
nil  not  resist  the  action  of  fire  of 
lie  Staffordshire  coal  so  well  as 
he  bricks  made  at  Stourbridge  $ 
ut  that  the  best  of  the  Nonsuch 
:i  icks  will  resist  the  action  of  the 
rc  of  the   north  country  coal 
mch  better  than  those  made  at 
1  >e  latter  place.  By  this,  therefore, 
appears,  that  in  the  erection  of 
irnaces,  where  the  Staffordshire 
oal  is  to  be  used,  the  Stourbridge 
'ricks  should  be  employed  j  but 
1  erecting  such  furnaces  as  arc 
3  consume   the    north  country 
oal,  as,  for  examole,  those  near 
3B 


London,  where  the  excessive  duty 
on  the  Staffordshire  coal  amounts 
to  a  prohibition  of  its  use,  prefer- 
ence should  be  given  to  the  Non- 
such. 

These  experiments  were  tried 
in  a  reverberatory  welding  fur- 
nace, having  a  stack  (chimney) 
40  feet  high  j  and  the  utility  of 
the  Nonsuch  for  these  purposes 
has  been  proved  by  a  trial  of 
several  years. 

Besides  the  bricks  above  enu- 
merated, there  are  paving-bricks, 
which  are  generally  about  1 J  inch 
in  breadth j  and  paving-tiles,  which 
are  made  of  a  stronger  clay,  and 
are  of  a  red  colour.  The  largest  are 
about  12  inches  square,  and  l£ 
inch  thick  :  the  next,  though  call- 
ed 10-inch  tiles,  are  about  9  inches 
square,  and  lj  inch  thick. 

About  the  year  1?95,  Mr.  Cart- 
wright  obtained  a  patent  for  an 
improved  system  of  making  bricks, 
of  which  the  following  extract  will 
furnish  the  reader  with  every  ne- 
cessary information: — 

"  Imagine  a  common  brick, 
with  a  groove  or  rabate  on  each 
side  down  the  middle,  rather  more 
than  half  the  width  of  the  side  of 
the  brick ;  a  shoulder  will  thus 
be  left  on  either  side  of  the  groove, 
each  of  which  will  be  nearly  equal 
to  one  quarter  of  the  width  of  the 
side  of  the  brick,  or  to  one-half 
of  the  groove  or  rabate.  A  course 
of  these  bricks  being  laid  shoulder 
to  shoulder,  they  will  form  an 
indented  line  of  nearly  equal  divi- 
sions, the  grooves  or  rabates  being 
somewhat  wider  than  the  adjoin- 
ing shoulders,  to  allow  for  the 
mortar  or  cement.  When  the 
course  is  laid  on,  the  shoulders  of 
the  bricks,  which  compose  it,  will 
fall  into  grooves  of  the  lirst 
course,  and  the  shoulders  of  the 
first  course  will  fit  into  the 
grooves  or  rabates  of  the  second  ; 
and  so  with  every  succeeding 
377 


BRICK. 


course.  Buildings  constructed 
with  this  kind  of  brick  will  re- 
quire no  bond  timbers,  as  a  uni- 
versal bond  runs  through  the 
whole  building,  and  holds  all  the 
parts  together,  the  walls  of  which 
will  neither  crack  nor  bilge  with- 
out breaking  through  themselves. 
When  bricks  of  this  construction 
are  used  for  arches,  the  sides 
of  the  grooves  should  form  the 
radii  of  the  circle,  of  which  the  in- 
tended arch  is  a  segment  ;  yet  if 
the  circle  be  very  large,  the  differ- 
ence of  the  width  at  the  top  and 
bottom  will  be  very  trifling,  as  to 
render  a  minute  attention  to  this 
scarcely,  if  at  all,  necessary.  In 
archwork,  the  bricks  may  either 
be  laid  in  mortar,  or  dry,  and  the 
interstices  afterwards  filled  up  by 
pouring  in  lime,  putty,  plaster  of 
Paris,  &c.  Arches  upon  this  prin- 
ciple, having  any  lateral  pressure, 
can  neither  expand  at  the  foot, 
nor  spring  at  the  crown  j  conse- 
sequently  they  want  no  abut- 
ments, requiring  only  perpendi- 
cular walls  to  be  let  into,  or  to 
rest  upon  ;  neither  will  they  want 
any  superincumbent  weight  on 
the  crown  to  prevent  their  spring- 
ing up.  The  centres  may  also  be 
struck  immediately,  so  that  the 
same  centre,  which  never  need  be 
many  feet  wide,  may  be  regularly 
shifted  as  the  work  proceeds.  But 
the  most  striking  advantage  at- 
tending this  invention  is,  the 
security  it  affords  against  the 
ravages  of  fire  ;  for,  from  the 
peculiar  properties  of  this  kind  of 
arch,  requiring  no  abutments,  it 
may  be  laid  upon,  or  let  into  com- 
mon walls,  no  stronger  than  what 
is  required  for  timbers  so  as  to 
admit  of  brick  floorings." 

Bricks  are  subject  to  a  duty  ; 
and  the  first  rise  of  materials  com- 
menced in  1784,  when  the  first 
duties  were  laid  on  bricks  and 
tiles,    and  additional    duties  on 

378 


timber  and  deals.  The  duties  on 
bricks  and  tiles  have  been  twice 
augmented  since  that  time.  The 
first  duties  laid  on,  as  extracted 
from  the  act,  were  as  follow; 
and  were  to  be  paid  by  the  ma- 
ker. For  and  upon  all  bricks, 
by  whatsoever  name  or  names 
they  now  are,  or  hereafter  mayi 
be  called  or  known,  a  duty  of  two 
shillings  and  sixpence  for  every 
thousand  j  and  so  in  proportion 
for  any  greater  or  less  quantity. 

For  and  upon  all  tiles,  com- 
monly called  or  known  by  the! 
name  of  plain  tiles,  a  duty  of  three 
shillings  for  every  thousand  j  and 
so  in  proportion  for  any  greater  or 
less  quantity. 

For  and  upon  all  tiles,  com- 
monly called  or  known  by  the 
name  of  pan  or  ridge-tiles,  a  duty 
of  eight  shillings  for  every  thou- 
sand j  and  so  in  proportion  for  any 
greater  or  less  quantity. 

For  and  upon  all  tiles,  com- 
monly called  or  known  by  the 
name  of  paving-tiles,  not  exceed- 
ing 10  inches  square,  a  duty  oi 
one  shilling  and  sixpence  for  everj 
hundred  ;  and  so  in  proportion 
for  any  greater  or  less  quantity.  ! 

For  and  upon  all  tiles,  com- 
monly called  or  known  by  the, 
name  of  paving-tiles,  exceeding 
10  inches  square,  a  duty  of  thret 
shillings  for  every  hundred  j  anc! 
so  in  proportion  for  any  greater  oi 
less  quantity. 

For  and  upon  all  tiles,  othe: 
than  such  as  are  herein-befon 
enumerated  and  described,  m 
whatever  name  or  names  sucl 
tiles  now  are,  or  hereafter  may  b< 
called  or  known,  a  duty  of  thre< 
shillings  for  every  thousand  j  anc 
so  in  proportion  for  any  greater  o; 
less  quantity, 

The  next  duty,  being  additional; 
took  place  in  March,  1794,  o, 
bricks  and  tiles,  and  is  extracted 
from  the  act,  as  follows  :  — 


BRICK. 


For  every  thousand  of  bricks, 
which  shall  be  made  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, and  so  in  proportion  for  any 
o-reater  or  less  quantity,  one  shil- 
ling and  sixpence  ;  making  toge- 
ther with  the  former  duty  of  two 
shillings  and  sixpence,  four  shil- 
lings per  thousand. 

For  every  thousand  of  plain 
iles,  which  shall  be  made  in  Great 
Britain,  and  so  in  proportion  for 
my  greater  or  less  quantity,  one 
Shilling  and  tenpence  ;  making, 
;ogether  with  the  former  duty  of 
hree  shillings,  four  shillings  and 
enpence  per  thousand. 

For  every  thousand  of  pantiles, 
>r  ridge-tiles,  which  shall  be  made 
n  Great  Britain,  and  so  in  propor- 
ion  for  any  greater  or  less  quanti- 
y,  four  shillings  and  tenpence  j 
'naking  with  the  former  duty  of 
iight  shillings,  twelve  shillings 
ind  tenpence  per  thousand. 

For  every  hundred  of  paving 
iles,  which  shall  be  made  in  Great 
kitain,  not  exceeding  10  inches 
square,  and  so  in  proportion  for 
iny  greater  or  less  quantity, 
Eleven-pence  3  making  together 
vith  the  former  duty  of  one  shil- 
ing  and  sixpence,  two  shillings 
ind  rivepence  per  hundred. 

For  every  hundred  of  paving- 
'iles  which  shall  be  made  in  Great 
iritain,    exceeding    10  inches 
quare,  and  so  in  proportion  for 
ny  greater  or  less  quantity,  one 
nilling   and  tenpence  ;  making 
')gether  with  the  former  duty  of 
'iree  shillings,  four  shillings  and 
:npence  per  hundred. 
For  every   thousand    of  tiles 
hich  shall  be  made   in  Great 
ritain,  other   than  such  as  are 
rein-before  enumerated  or  de- 
ribed,  by  whatsoever  name  or 
,imes  such  tiles  are,  or  may  be 
died  or  known,  and  so  in  pro- 
>rtion    for  any  greater  or  less 
lantity,   one   shilling  and  ten- 
ence  ;  making  together  with  the 


former  duty  of  three  shillings, 
four  shillings  and  tenpence  per 
thousand. 

The  said  duties  on  bricks  and 
tiles  respectively  to  be  paid  by  the 
maker  thereof. 

And  in  May,  1794,  a  duty  ot 
twenty  per  cent  ad  valorem,  was 
laid  on  all  stone  for  building, 
coming  coastways. 

And  by  an  act  passed  the  4th  day 
of  July,  1S03,  to  consolidate  the 
duties  of  excise  in  Great  Britain, 
certain  additions  were  laid  on 
bricks,  leaving  the  duties  on  tiles 
as  before.  The  whole  of  which 
duties  are  as  follows  : — 

For  every  thousand  of  bricks 
made  in  Great  Britain,  not 
exceeding  10  inches  long,  3 
inches  thick,  and  5  inches  wide, 
five  shillings.  Exceeding  the 
foregoing  dimensions,  ten  shil- 
lings. 

For  every  thousand  of  bricks 
made  in  great  Britain,  and  smooth- 
ed or  polished  on  one  or  more 
sides,  not  exceeding  the  superfi- 
cial dimensions  of  10  inches  long, 
by  5  inches  wide,  twelve  shil- 
lings. 

For  every  hundred  of  such  last 
mentioned  bricks,  exceeding  the 
aforesaid  superficial  dimensions, 
the  duties  the  same  as  on  paving- 
tiles. 

For  every  thousand  of  plain 
tiles,  four  shillings  and  tenpence. 

F'or  every  hundred  of  paving- 
tiles,  not  exceeding  10  inches 
square,  two  shillings  and  five- 
pence. 

For  every  hundred  of  paving- 
tiles,  exceeding  10  inches  square, 
four  shillings  and  tenpence. 

For  every  thousand  of  tiles, 
other  than  such  as  are  herein- 
before enumerated,  four  shillings 
and  tenpence. 

The  said  duties  to  be  paid  by 
the  makers. 

In  June,  1804,  an  additional  duty 
379 


BRI 


BRI 


was  laid  of  twelve  per  cent,  on 
all  stone  for  building,  coming 
coastvvays. 

An  act  for  granting  to  his  ma- 
jesty additional  duties  within  Great 
Britain,  on  certain  goods,  wares, 
and  merchandize,  imported  into, 
or  carried  coastwise,  5th  of  April, 
1805. 

For  every  hundred  pounds  of 
the  produce,  and  amount  of  duties 
of  customs  due  and  payable  on 
slate  and  stone  of  all  sorts,  an 
additional  duty  of  twenty  pounds. 

N.B.  Three  shillings  per  thou- 
sand extra  were  laid  on  all  kinds  of 
bricks  by  the  brickmakers,  1st  of 
January,  1805,  although  no  act  of 
parliament  for  advance  had  pass- 
ed ;  but  an  act  passed  in  March, 
1805,  laying  a  further  duty  on 
bricks  and  tiles  of  tenpence  per 
thousand,  which  makes  an  ad- 
vance in  general  on  all  brickwork, 
with  the  above  three  shillings, 
of  eighteen  shillings  per  rod  prime 
cost. 

Brick-kiln.  A  kiln  in  the  form 
of  a  frustum  of  a  cone,  in  which 
bricks  are  burnt.    See  Brick. 

Bricklayer.  A  workman  who 
builds  with  bricks.  The  brick- 
layers in  London  are,  by  a  charter, 
granted  in  156'8,  a  corporate  com- 
pany, consisting  of  a  master,  two 
wardens,  twenty  assistants,  and 
seventy-eight  on  the  livery. 

As  the  building  act  relates  more 
particularly  to  bricklayers,  than 
to  any  other  class  of  artificers 
connected  with  building,  we  shall 
in  this  place,  present  the  reader 
with  an  abstract  of  it.  By  this 
act,  passed  in  the  14  Geo.  III., 
all  buildings  within  the  cities 
of  London  and  Westminster,  the 
liberties  thereof,  the  bills  of  mor- 
tality, the  parishes  of  St.  Mary- 
la-bonne,  Haddington,  St.  Pancras, 
and  St.  Luke  at  Chelsea,  in  the 
county  of  Middlesex,  are  divided 
into  seven  several  rates  or  classes, 


and  such  several  rates  or  classes 
of  buildings  are  under  the  follow- 
ing rules  and  regulations. 

First  rate  building. — Every 
church,  chapel,  meeting-house, 
and  other  place  of  public  worship  j 
and  every  house  or  building  for 
distilling  and  brewing  of  liquors 
for  sale  ;  for  making  of  soap,  for 
melting  of  tallow,  for  dyeing,  for 
boiling  or  distilling  turpentine,  for 
casting  brass  or  iron,  for  refining 
of  sugar,  for  making  of  glass  for 
chemical  works  for  sale,  of  what 
dimension  soever  the  same  respec- 
tively are  or  may  be  j  and  also 
every  warehouse  and  other  build- 
ing whatsoever,  not  being  a  dwell- 
ing-house now  built,  or  hereafter 
to  be  built,  (except  such  buildings 
as  are  herein-after  particularly 
declared  to  be  of  the  fifth,  sixth, 
or  seventh  rate  or  class  of  build- 
ing,) which  does  or  shall  exceed 
three  clear  stories  above  ground, 
exclusive  of  the  rooms  (  if  any)  in 
the  roof  thereof,  or  which  is  or 
shall  be  of  the  height  of  31  feet 
from  the  surface  of  the  pavement, 
ground,  or  way,  above  the  area 
before  either  of  the  fronts  thereof, 
to  the  top  of  the  blocking-course 
or  the  coping  on  the  parapet 
thereof  j  and  every  dwelling- 
house,  now  built,  or  hereafter  to 
be  built,  which,  with  the  offices 
thereto  belonging  and  adjoining, 
or  connected  otherwise  than  by  a 
fence  or  fence-wall,  or  covered 
passage  open  on  one  or  both  sides, 
when  finished,  does  or  shall  ex- 
ceed the  value  of  eight  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  ;  and  also  every 
dwelling-house,  which  does  or 
shall  exceed  nine  squares  of  build- 
ing on  the  ground-floor,  each 
square  containing  100  superficial 
feet,  shall  be  deemed  the  first  rate 
or  class  of  building;  and  must  be 
built  as  follows,  viz. 

The  thickness  of  external  walls, 
not  being  a  party-wall  to  any  first 


BRICKLAYER. 


•ate  building,  or  to  any  addition 
>r  enlargement,  shall  be  built  and 
•emain,  at  the  foundation  thereof, 
>f  the  thickness  of  two  bricks  and 
i  half  in  length,  or  1  foot  9j  in- 
:hes  at  the  least ;  and  shall  from 
hence  regularly  and  gradually 
liuiinish  on  each  side  of  the  wall 
|i  inches  to  the  top  of  the  footing 
»f  every  such  wall,  except  where 
,ny  immediate  adjoining  building 
rill  not  admit  of  such  footing 
>eing  made  on  the  side  of  such 
vail  next  such  adjoining  building; 
;n  which  case  such  footing  shall 
;>e  made  as  near  to  the  dimensions 
ierein  directed  as  the  case  will 
dtnit ;  which  footing  shall  be  9 
nches  high  at  the  least,  and 
Vholly  below  the  upper  surface 
If  the  pavement  and  flooring- 
Idards  of  the  cellar  story,  2  in- 
ches at  the  least  ;  and  every  such 
vail  shall,  from  the  top  of  such 
ooting,  be  of  the  thickness  of 
wo  bricks  in  length,  or  1  foot 
J  inches  at  the  least,  up  to  the 
tnder  siue  of  the  one  pair  of 
pairs'  floor  j  and  from  thence  of 
|he  thickness  of  one  brick  and  a 
ualf  in  length,  or  13  inches  at  the 
east,  up  to  the  under  side  of  the 
'late  under  the  roof  or  gutter  of 
very  such  building  j  and  from 
hence  of  the  thickness  of  one 
rick  in  length,  or  8j inches  at 
ie  least  up  to  the  under  side  of 
ie  blocking-course  or  coping  on 
ie  parapet  of  every  such  first 
ite  building  ;  except  such  parts 
If  every  such  wall  as  shall  be 
holly  of  stone,  which  parts,  so 
eing  of  stone,  shall  be  of  the 
lickness  of  14  inches  at  the  least 
elOw  the  ground-floor,  and  of 
;  inches  at  the  least  above  the 
round-floor  j  and  except  all  re- 
uses above  the  ground-floor  in 
>e  said  walls,  which  shall  be 
,'ched  over  in  every  story,  so 
ivertheless  as  that  the  arch  and 
ie  back  of  such  recess  shall  be 


respectively  of  the  thickness  of 
one  brick  in  length,  or  8j  inches 
at  the  least. 

The  thickness  of  party-walls  to 
any  first  rate  building,  or  to  any 
addition  or  enlargement  shall  be 
built  and  remain,  at  the  founda- 
tion thereof,  of  the  thickness  of 
three  bricks  and  a  half  in  length, 
or  2  feet  6j  inches  at  the  least  ; 
and  shall,  from  thence,  regularly 
and  gradually  diminish  on  each 
side  of  the  wall  4  J  inches  to  the  top 
of  the  footing  of  every  such  wall, 
which  footing  shall  be  1  foot  high 
at  the  least,and  wholly  below  the 
upper  surface  of  the  pavement  and 
flooringboards  of  the  cellar  story  2 
inches  at  the  least  j  and  every 
such  party-wall  shall,  from  the 
top  of  such  footing,  be  of  the 
thickness  of  two  bricks  and  a  half 
in  length,  or  1  foot  9j  inches  at 
the  least,  up  to  the  under  side  of 
the  ground-floor  ;  and  from  thence 
of  the  thickness  of  two  bricks  in 
length,  or  1  foot  5j  inches  at  the 
least,  up  to  the  under  side  of  the 
floor  of  the  rooms  (if  any)  in  the 
roof  of  the  highest  building  adjoin- 
ing to  such  party-wall,  and  from 
thence  of  the  thickness  of  one 
brick  and  a  half  in  length,  or  13 
inches  at  the  least,  up  to  the  top 
of  every  such  party-wail. 

Second  rate  building.  Every 
warehouse,  stable,  and  other  build- 
ing, not  being  a  dwelling-house, 
except  such  buildings  as  are  here- 
in particularly  declared  to  be  of 
the  first,  fifth,  sixth,  or  seventh 
rate  or  class  of  building,  now 
built,  or  hereafter  to  be  built, 
which  does  or  shall  exceed  two 
clear  stories,  and  shall  not  contain 
more  than  three  clear  stories 
above  ground,  exclusive  of  the 
rooms  (if  any)  in  the  roof  thereof, 
or  which  is,  or  shall  be,  of  the 
height  of  22  feet,  and  shall  not  be 
of  the  height  of  31  feet  from  the 
surface  of  the  pavement,  ground, 

381 


BRICKLAYER. 


way,  above  the  area  before 
either  of  the  fronts  thereof,  to 
the  top  of  the  blocking-course  or 
coping  on  the  parapet  thereof ; 
and  every  dwelling-house  now 
built,  or  hereafter  to  be  built, 
which,  with  the  offices  thereto 
'  elonging  and  adjoining,  or  con- 
nected otherwise  than  by  a  fence 
or  fence-wall,  or  covered  passage 
open  on  one  or  both  sides  when 
finished,  does  or  shall  exceed  the 
value  of  three  hundred  pounds, 
and  shall  not  amount  to  more  than 
the  value  of  eight  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds;  and  also  every  dwell- 
ing-house, which  does  or  shall 
exceed  five  squares  of  building 
on  the  ground  plan,  and  shall  not 
amount  to  more  than  nine  squares 
of  building  on  the  ground  plan 
thereof,  shall  be  deemed  the 
second  rate  or  class  of  building  ; 
and  must  be  built  as  follows,  viz. 

The  thickness  of  external  walls, 
(not  being  a  party-wall,)  to  any 
second  rate  building,  or  to  any 
addition  or  enlargement,  shall  be 
built  and  remain,  at  the  founda- 
tion thereof,  of  the  thickness  of 
two  bricks  in  length,  or  1  foot  5j 
inches  at  the  least,  and  shall  from 
thence  regularly  and  gradually 
diminish  on  each  side  of  the  wall 
2|  inches  to  the  top  of  the  footing 
of  every  such  wall,  except  where 
any  immediate  adjoining  building 
will  not  admit  of  such  footing 
being  made  on  the  side  of  such 
wall  next  such  adjoining  building; 
in  which  case  such  footing  shall 
be  made  as  near  to  the  dimensions 
herein  directed  as  the  case  will 
admit ;  which  footing  shall  be 
9  inches  high  at  the  least,  and 
wholly  below  the  upper  surface  of 
the  pavement  and  flooring-boards 
of  the  cellar  story  c2  inches  at  the 
least ;  and  every  such  wall  shall, 
from  the  top  of  such  footing,  be  of 
the  thickness  of  one  brick  and 
a  half  in  length,  or  13  inches  at 


the  least  up  to  the  under  side  of 
the  one  pair  of  stairs  floor ;  and 
from  thence  of  the  thickness  of! 
one  brick  in  length,  or  8J  inches  1 
at  the  least,  up  to  the  under  side  • 
of  the  blocking-course  or  the  co- 
ping  on  the  parapet  of  every  such 
second  rate  building;  except  such 
parts  of  every  such  wall,  being 
above  the  ground-floor,  as  shall  be 
wholly  of  stone,  which  parts,  so  j 
being  of  stone,  shall  be  of  the 
thickness  of  9  inches  at  the  least, 
and  except  all  recesses  above  the 
ground-floor    in  the  said  walls, 
which  shall  be   arched  over,  so ! 
nevertheless  as  that  the  arch,  and 
the  back  of  each  such  recess,  shall 
respectively  be  of  the  thickness  of 
one  brick  in  length,  or  inches 
at  the  least. 

The  thickness  of  party-walls  to 
any  second  rate  building,  or  to 
any  addition  or  enlargement,  shall 
be  built  and  remain,  at  the  foun- 
dation  thereof,  of  the  thickness  of 
three  bricks  and  a  half  in  length, 
or  2  feet  6j  inches  at  the  least, 
and  shall  from  thence  regularly 
and  gradually  diminish  on  each 
side  of  the  wall  4j  inches  to  the 
top  of  the  footing  of  every  such 
wall  ;  which  footing  shall  be  9 
inches  high  at  the  least,  and  wholly 
below  the  upper  surface  of  the 
pavement  and  flooring-boards  of 
the  cellar  story  2  inches  at  the 
least,  and  every  such  party-wall 
shall,  from  the  top  of  such  foot- 
ing, be  of  the  thickness  of  two 
bricks  and  a  half  in  length,  or  1 
foot  9j  inches  at  the  least,  up  to 
the  under  side  of  the  ground-floor; 
and  from  thence  of  the  thickness 
of  two  bricks  in  length,  or  1  foot 
5J  inches  at  the  least,  up  to  the 
under  side  of  the  floor  of  the  two 
pair  of  stairs  story  ;  and  from 
thence  of  the  thickness  of  one 
brick  and  a  half  in  length,  or  I3i 
inches  at  the  least,  up  to  the  top 
of  every  such  party- wall. 


BRICKLAYER. 


Third  rate  building.  Every 
urehouse,  stable,  and  other  build- 
jr,  not  being  a  dwelling-house, 
(cept  such  buildings  as  are  herein 
jrticularly  declared  to  be  of  the 
Ut,  fifth,  sixth,  or  seventh  rate 
<■  class  of  building,  now  built, 
(  hereafter  to  be  built,  which 
(?s  or  shall  exceed  one  clear 
Jry,  and  shall  not  contain  more 
tin  two  clear  stories  above 
dmnd,  exclusive  of  the  rooms 
(i  any)  in  the  roof  thereof,  or 
Vich  is  or  shall  be  of  the  height 
c'more  than  13  feet,  and  shall  not 
t  of  the  height  of  22  feet  from 
t|  surface  of  the  pavement, 
g  mnd,  or  way  above  the  area  be- 
te either  of  the  fronts  thereof, 
t  the  top  of  the  blocking-course 
c  the  coping  on  the  parapet 
t  reof ;  and  every  dwelling-house 
n.v  built,  or  hereafter  to  be  built, 
vich,  with  the  offices  thereto 
h'onging,  and  adjoining  or  con- 
i  ted,  otherwise  than  by  a  fence 
<  fence-wall,  or  covered  passage 
on  one  or  both  sides,  when 
!  shedi  does  or  shall  exceed  the 
«ue  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
dpnds,  and  shall  not  amount  to 
r  re  than  the  value  of  three 
h'idred  pounds ;  and  also  every 
(i'clling-house,  which  does  or 
s  11  exceed  three  squares  and  a 

i  hf  of  building  on  the  ground 
p  l,  and  shall  not  amount  to  more 

if  tin  five  squares  of  building  on 
tl  ground  plan  thereof,  shall  be 
d  ined  the  third  rate  or  class  of 
b  cling,  and  must  be  built  as 
f< .":>\vs,  viz. 

V/e  thickness  of  external  walls, 
(it  being  a  party-wall)  to  any 
d  rate  building,  or  to  any 
action  or  enlargement,  shall  be 
" '  t  and  remain,  at  the  foundation 
tH'eof,  of  the  thickness  of  two 
biks  in  length,  or  1  foot  5 J 
i»  es  at  the  least,  and  shall  from 
^hice  regularly  and  gradually 
di  inish,  cn  each  side  of  the  wall, 


2J  inches,  to  the  top  of  the  foot- 
ing of  every  such  wall,  except 
where  any  immediate  adjoining 
building  will  not  admit  of  such 
footing  being  made  on  the  side  of 
such  wall  next  such  adjoining 
building  ;  in  which  case  such  foot- 
ing shall  be  made  as  near  to  the 
dimensions  herein  directed  as  the 
case  will  admit ;  which  footing 
shall  be  6  inches  high  at  the  least, 
and  wholly  below  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  pavement  and  flooring- 
boards  of  the  cellar  story  2  inches 
at  the  least,  and  every  such  wall 
shall,  from  the  top  of  such  footing, 
be  of  the  thickness  of  one  brick  and 
a  half  in  length,  or  13  inches  at 
the  least,  up  to  the  under  side  of 
the  ground-floor  j  and  from  thence 
of  the  thickness  of  one  brick  in 
length,  or  8|  inches  at  the  least, 
up  to  the  under  side  of  the  block- 
ing course  or  coping,  on  the 
parapet  of  every  such  third  rate 
building. 

The  thickness  of  party  walls,  to 
any  third  rate  building,  or  to  any 
addition  or  enlargement,  shall  be 
built  and  remain,  at  the  foundation 
thereof,  of  the  thickness  of  three 
bricks  in  length,  or  2  feet  2  inches 
at  the  least,  and  shall  from  thence 
regularly  and  gradually  diminish 
on  each  side  of  the  wall,  4j  inches 
to  the  top  of  the  footing  of  every 
such  wall,  which  footing  shall  be 
9  inches  high  at  the  least,  and 
wholly  below  the  upper  surface  of 
the  pavement  and  flooring-boards 
of  the  cellar  story,  2  inches  at  the 
least  ;  and  every  such  party-wall 
shall,  from  the  to})  of  such  footing, 
be  of  the  thickness  of  two  bricks 
in  length,  or  1  foot  5 J  inches  at 
the  least,  up  to  the  under  side  of 
the  ground-Moor  j  and  from  thence 
of  the  thickness  of  one  brick  and 
a  half  in  length,  or  13  inches  at 
the  least,  up  to  the  top  of  every 
such  party-wall. 

Fourth    rate   building.  Every 

383 


BRICKLAYER. 


warehouse,  stable,  and  other  build- 
ing not  being  a  dwelling-house, 
except  such  buildings  as  are  herein 
particularly  declared  to  be  of  the 
first,  fifth,  sixth,,  or  seventh  rate  or 
class  of  building,  now  built,  or 
hereafter  to  be  built,  which  does 
not  or  shall  not  exceed  one  clear 
story  above  ground,  exclusive 
of  the  rooms  (if  any)  in  the  roof 
thereof,  or  which  is  not  or  shall 
not  be  of  the  height  of  more  than 
13  feet  from  the  surface  of  the 
pavement,  ground,  or  way,  above 
the  area  before  either  of  the  fronts 
thereof  to  the  top  of  the  blocking- 
course  or  coping  on  the  parapet 
thereof ;  and  every  dwelling-house 
now  built,  or  hereafter  to  be  built, 
which,  with  the  offices  thereto 
belonging  and  adjoining,  or  con- 
nected otherwise  than  by  a  fence 
or  fence-wall,  or  covered  passage 
open  on  one  or  both  sides,  when 
finished,  does  not,  or  shall  not 
exceed  the  value  of  one  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  j  and  also  every 
dwelling-house  which  does  not 
or  shall  not  exceed  three  squares 
and  a  half  of  building  on  the 
ground  plan  thereof,  shall  be  deem- 
ed to  be  of  the  fourth  rate  or  class 
of  building ;  and  must  be  built 
as  follows,  viz. 

The  thickness  of  external  walls 
to  any  fourth  rate  building,  or  to 
any  addition  or  enlargement,  shall 
be  built  and  remain  at  the  foun- 
dation thereof,  of  the  thickness  of 
two  bricks  in  length,  or  1  foot  5j 
inches  at  the  least,  and  shall  from 
thence  regularly  and  gradually 
diminish  on  each  side  of  the  wall 
2j  to  the  top  of  the  footing  of 
every  such  wall,  except  where  any 
immediate  adjoining  building  will 
not  admit  of  such  footing  being 
made  on  the  side  of  such  wall  next 
such  adjoining  building  ;  in  which 
case  such  footing  shall  be  made 
as  near  to  the  dimensions  herein 
directed   as  the  case  will  admit, 

384 


which  footing  shall  be  6  inch 
high  at  the  least,  and  wholly  bek 
the  upper  surface  of  the  paveme 
and  flooring-boards  of  the  eel! 
story  2  inches  at  the  least ;  a 
every  such  wall  shall,  from  the  t 
of  such  footing,  be  of  the  thic 
ness  of  one  brick  and  a  half 
length,  or  13  inches  at  the  lea' 
up  to  the  under  side  of  the  groui 
floor  j  and  from  thence  of  t 
thickness  of  one  brick  in  leng- 
or  8  J  inches  at  the  least,  up  to  t 
under  side  of  the  blocking-corn 
or  coping  on  the  parapet  of  ev( 
such  fourth  rate  building. 

The  thickness  of  party-walls, 
any  fourth  rate  building,  or  to  i 
addition  or  enlargement,  shall 
built  and  remain  at  the  foundat' 
thereof,  of  the  thickness  of  t 
bricks  in  length,  or  1  foot  5jinc] 
at  the  least ;  and  shall  from  thei 
regularly  and  gradually  dimin 
on  each  side  of  the  wall  9,\  incl 
to  the  top  of  the  footing  of  eve 
such  wall,  which  footing  shall  : 
9  inches  high  at  the  least,  d 
wholly  below  the  upper  surfaced 
the  pavement  and  flooring-boa  i 
of  the  cellar  story  2  inches  at  s 
least  j  and  every  such  party-vl 
shall,  from  the  top  of  such  footi , 
be  of  the  thickness  of  one  br; 
and  a  half  in  length,  or  13  inc  > 
at  the  least,  up  to  the  under  side  f 
the  ground-floor;  and  from  the  i 
of  the  thickness  of  one  brick  l 
length,  or  8j  inches  at  the  let 
up  to  the  top  of  every  such  par  - 
wall. 

Further  regulations  of  fi, 
second,  third,  and  fourth  it 
buildings.  Jt  is  also  further  r 
acted,  that  every  house  or  bu  - 
ing  of  the  first,  second,  third,  f 
fourth  rate  or  class  of  build : 
herein-before  directed,  and  p 
having  each  of  them  a  sepaie 
and  distinct  side-wall  on  the  j  t 
or  parts  where  they  are  or  sP 
be  contiguous,  shall  have  pai  ■ 


BRICKLAYER. 


alls  between  house  ana  nouse, 
r  other  buildings,  or  between  so 
uch  of  such  house  and  house,  or 
her  buildings,  as  shall  not  re- 
>ectively  have  such  separate  and 
stinct  walls  as  aforesaid  ;  and 
ch  party-walls  shall  extend  to 
e  outer  surfaces  of  external 
closures  of  each  of  the  adjoin- 
g  houses  or  buildings  :  and  all 
rty-walls,  and  also  all  chimneys 
,  d  chimney-shafts,  hereafter  to 
built,  shall  be  built  wholly  of 
j iod  sound  bricks  or  stone,  or  of 
j  od  sound  brick  and  stone  to- 
jther,  except  such  timber,  wood, 
M,  or  iron  work,  as  shall  or 
*y  be  laid  therein,  according  to 
t directions  herein-after  contain- 
(  and  also  except  such  piling, 
1  dging,  or  planking,  as  may  be 
1  :essary  for  the  foundation  there- 
O;  and  every  such  party-wall 
stll  be  topped  or  coped  with 
s  ne,  tile,  or  brick,  and  shall  be 
c  the  dimensions  herein-before 
elected;  and  one-half  of  every 
abh  party-wall  between  house 
I  eu  house,  or  between  other  build- 
i  ;Sj  shall  be  built  on  the  ground 

0  site  of  one  of  the  adjoining 

1  ises  or  buildings,  and  the  other 
h  f  thereof  shall  be  built  on  the 

,,   giund  or  site  of  the  other  of  the 
||  a«|pining  houses  or  buildings  ;  and 
j?  it|hall   be   lawful  for    the  first 
n  bijder  of  any  such  party-wall, 
(t  air,  for  the  workmen  employed 
i    unbuilding  the  same,   to  enter 
ujin  the  ground  adjoining  thereto, 
morder    to  the    building  such 
p;  y-wall  in  manner  aforesaid. 
'Provided,  nevertheless,  that 
f  evly  party-wall  which  shall  be 
(ii  ouff  to  any  dwelling-house,  ex- 
celing   four    stories   in  height 
fr<ii  the  foundation  thereof,  ex- 
clave of  the  rooms  (if  any)  in 
Unroof  of  either  of  the  buildings 
idjinine:  thereto,  shall  be  built 
,;    in  u'cry  particular  according  to 
th(.:lirections  herein-before  con- 
3C 


tained  with  respect  to  the  party- 
walls  of  the  first  nrre  or  class  of 
building,  notwithstanding  such 
house  shall  not  be  of  the  first  rate 
or  class  of  building  ;  and  every 
party-wall  which  shall,  after  the 
time  aforesaid,  be  built  to  any 
dwelling-house  containing'  four 
stories  in  height  from  the  founda- 
tion thereof,  exclusive  of  the 
rooms  (if  any)  in  the  roof  of  either 
of  the  buildings  adjoining  thereto, 
shall  be  built  in  every  particular 
according  to  the  directions  herein- 
before contained  with  respect  to 
party-walls  of  the  third  rate  or 
class  of  building,  notwithstanding 
such  house  shall  be  of  the  fourth 
rate  or  class  of  building  only. 

And  it  is  also  further  enacted, 
that  every  internal  enclosure  to  be 
made,  for  separating  any  building 
of  the  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth 
rate  or  class  of  building,  from  any 
other  building,  where  such  build- 
ings shall  be  in  separate  occupa- 
tions, and  every  addition  or  en- 
largement to  such  internal  enclo- 
sure, shall  be  of  brick  or  stone, 
or  artificial  stone  or  stucco,  or  of 
brick  and  stone,  or  artificial  stone 
or  stucco  together  j  except  such 
timber,  wood,  lead,  or  iron  work, 
as  may  be  laid  therein,  according 
to  the  directions  herein-after  con- 
tained for  external  enclosures  to 
such  first,  second,  third,  or  fourth 
rate  or  class  of  building,  and  also 
except  such  piling,  bridging,  or 
planking,  as  may  be  necessary 
for  the  foundation  of  the  same. 

And  it  is  also  enacted,  that  in 
valuing  the  several  buildings  here- 
in-before declared  to  be  of  the 
first,  second,  third,  or  fourth  rate 
or  class  of  building,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  ascertaining  the  rate  there- 
of, such  valuation  to  be  made  by 
the  surveyor  or  surveyors,  to  be 
appointed  pursuant  to  this  act, 
for  the  district  in  which  the  build- 
ing is  or  may  be  situated,  by  as 

385 


BRICKLAYER. 


true  a  measure  and  estimation  as 
the  nature  or  the  case  will  admit ; 
and  every  such  building  shall,  not- 
withstanding any  decay  therein, 
be  estimated  and  valued  as  if  the 
materials  whereof  the  same  con- 
sists were  sound,  and  the  work 
new ;  and  every  such  building 
shall  be  estimated  and  valued  at 
the  several  prices  the  like  mate- 
rials and  workmanship  shall  be 
worth  at  the  time  such  valuation 
shall  be  made ;  but  neither  the 
soil  whereon  any  such  building 
stands,  nor  any  fence  or  fence- 
wall,  (except  the  railing  to  areas, 
and  steps  before  or  behind  such 
building,  made  for  the  purpose  of 
enclosing  the  said  building,  with 
the  offices,  yard,  or  appurtenances 
thereto  belonging,  from  any  neigh- 
bouring ground,)  nor  any  brick 
or  stone  arched  vault  or  vaults, 
under  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
either  before  or  behind  such  build- 
ing, nor  any  lead,  covering,  or 
pavements  over  such  vaults,  nor 
such  parts  of  the  party-wall,  or 
party-walls,  to  such  building,  as 
stand  upon  ground  not  belong- 
ing to  such  house  shall  be  in- 
cluded in  any  such  valuation  j 
and  in  ascertaining  the  squares  of 
building  contained  in  every  such 
building,  being  a  dwelling-house, 
the  same  shall  be  taken  by  the 
surveyor  or  surveyors  as  aforesaid, 
on  the  level  of  the  floor  at  the 
principal  entrance  to  such  dwell- 
ing-house, and  no  more  than  such 
parts  of  the  party-walls  as  belong 
to  such  dwelling-house  shall  be 
included  in  such  admeasurement  ; 
and  in  case  the  owner,  or  any 
other  person  interested  in  such 
building,  shall  apprehend  him  or 
herself  to  be  injured  by  the  ad- 
measurement or  valuation  made 
by  such  surveyor  or  surveyors  as 
aforesaid,  it  shall  be  lawful  for  such 
owner  or  other  person  to  apply  to 
the  mayor,  or  any  two  justices 

386 


of  the  peace  for  the  city  of  Lor 
don,  if  such  building,  or  any  pa 
thereof,  is  situated  within  the  sa 
city,  or  otherwise  to  any  two  ju,< 
tices   within   whose  jurisdictic 
the  same  is  situated  ;  and  the  sa 
mayor  or  justices   shall  inqui 
into  the  matter,  and  shall,  by  h 
or  their  order,  declare  such  built 
ing  to  be  of  such  rate  or  class , 
the  same  shall  to  him  or  the 
appear  to  be  of,  according  to  t! 
description  of  the  several  rates 
classes    herein-before  container 
and  it  shall  be  lawful  for  any 
the  parties  between  whom  su< 
order  shall  be  made  to  appeal 
the  justices  of  the  peace  at  th< 
general   quarter   sessions  of  t 
peace,  whose  order  and  deterir 
nation  shall  be  binding  and  co 
elusive  to  all  parties. 

Fifth  rate  of  building.  Eve 
dwelling-house,  warehouse,  stab 
and  other  building  (except  su 
buildings,  not  being  dwelling-hd 
ses,asare  herein-before  particulr 
ly  declared  to  be  of  the  first, 
seventh  rate  or  class  of  building 
which  is  or  shall  be  at  the  distai 
of  4  feet,  and  not  8  feet,  fn 
any  public  road,  street,  or  can 
way,  and  is  or  shall  be  detach 
from  any  other  building  not  in  t 
same  possession  therewith  16  f 
at  the  least,  and  not  30  feet, 
connected  with  any  other  build) 
only  by  a  fence  or  fence-wall,  sh 
be  deemed  to  be  of  the  fifth  rjl 
or  class  of  building,  and  shall  aj 
may  be  built  of  any  dimensMl 
whatever. 

Sixth  rate  building.  Evjf 
dwelling-house,  warehouse,  stal » 
and  other  building,  (except  su 
buildings,  not  being  dwelli  - 
houses,  as  are  herein-before  J* 
ticularly  declared  to  be  of  the  M 
rate  or  class  of  building,)  whic  5 
or  shall  be  at  the  distance  o8 
feet  from  any  public  road,  strjb 
or  causeway,  and  is  or  shall  ;'e 


BRICKL 

letached  from  any  other  building 
lot  in  the  same  possession  there- 
with at  least  30  feet,  or  connected 
vith  any  other  building  only  by  a 
fence  or  fence-wall,  shall  be  deem- 
|d  to  be  of  the  sixth  rate  or  class 
f  building,  and  shall  and  may  be 
uilt  of  any  dimensions,  and  with 
ay  materials  whatever. 

Seventh  rate  building.  Every 
ranehouse  now  built,  or  hereafter 
>  be  built,  on  any  wharf  or  quay, 
id  every  shamble,  windmill,  or 
atermill,  and  also  every  build- 
g  which  is  or  shall  be  situated 
ithout  the  cities  of  London  and 
'eslminster,  and  the  liberties 
ereof,  used  for  workshops  or 
ving-places  for  tanners,  fell- 
ongers,  glue-makers,  size-ma- 
rs, calico-printers,  whisters, 
hiting-makers,  curriers,  leather 
lessers,  buckram-stifFeners,  oil- 
;)th  painters, wool-staplers,throw- 
,  >rs,  parchment-  makers,  and  pa- 
ir-makers,  so  long  and  at  such 
nes  as  they  are  or  shall  be  used 
r  some  or  one  of  those  purposes 
Id  no  longer,  shall  be  deemed 
e  seventh  rate  or  class  of  build- 
and  may  be  built  of  any 
i  nensions  whatever. 
Every  cranehouse,  and  every 
;dition  to,  or  enlargement  there- 
(  shall  be  of  stone,  brick,  slate, 
t  i,  oak,  elm,  steel,  iron,  or  brass ; 
1 1  every  other  building  of  the 
s  enth  rate  or  class  of  building 
i  y  be  erected  of  any  materials 
v,atever.  No  cranehouse  or  other 
raiding  of  the  seventh  rate  or 
c  ss  of  building,  or  any  external 
p  t  thereof,  shall  be  covered  with 
P  h,  tar,  or  any  other  inflamma- 
b  composition  or  material  what- 
e,r,  nor  shall  be  converted  to 
a  other  use  than  as  aforesaid. 

aid,  in  order  to  prevent  doubts 
n  ch  may  arise  concerning  the 
or  class  of  building  of  any 
ol  :e  or  offices  now  built,  or  here- 
li  r  to  be  built,  belonging  to  any 


A  YER, 

building  herein  before  declared  to 
be  of  the  first,  second,  third,  or 
fourth  rate  or  class  of  building,  it 
is  further  enacted  and  declared, 
that  every  such  office  which  shall 
be  entirely  free  and  detached  from 
such  building  to  which  the  same 
belongs,  or  shall  be  connected 
therewith  only  by  a  fence  or  fence- 
wall,  or  covered  passage  open  on 
one  or  both  sides,  shall  be  deemed 
to  be  of  the  rate  or  class  of  build- 
ing such  office  would  be  of,  if  the 
same  did  not  appertain  to  any 
dwelling-house  or  other  building. 

Particulars  relative  to  old  party- 
walls.  And  whereas  some  houses 
or  other  buildings,  erected  pre- 
viously to  the  passing  of  this  act, 
may  have  one  or  more  good 
sound  party-wall  or  party-walls, 
although  not  built  agreeably  to 
the  several  rules  herein-before 
directed,  and  in  such  case  it  may 
happen  that  one  of  the  adjoining 
houses  may  have  been,  or  may 
hereafter  be  built,  without  making 
use  of  such  party-wall  or  party- 
walls  :  it  is  therefore  enacted,  that 
•very  such  wrall  may  remain  as  a 
party-wall,  until  both  the  houses 
or  buildings  to  which  the  same 
belongs,  shall  be  built  (if  such 
wall  shall  so  long  continue  sound,) 
and  that  in  case  either  of  the 
houses  or  buildings  to  which  any 
such  party- wall  does  belong,  has 
been,  or  shall  hereafter  be  rebuilt 
with  a  wall  against  such  party- 
wall,  (without  making  use  of  such 
party-wall,)  of  the  heights  and 
thicknesses  herein-before  prescrib- 
ed for  side-walls,  the  proprietor 
of  such  remaining  house  or  build- 
ing shall  not,  when  such  remain- 
ing house  or  building,  or  when 
such  old  party-wall  shall  be  taken 
down,  be  entitled  to  more  than 
one-half  of  the  materials  of  such 
old  party-wall,  nor  to  more  than 
one-half  of  the  ground  on  which 
such  old  party-wall  was  erected  ; 


BRICKLAYER. 


nor  shall  such  proprietor  build  on 
more  than  one-half  of  the  said 
ground,  unless  he  shall  have 
agreed  with  and  satisfied  the 
owner  or  owners  of  such  adjoin- 
ing rebuilt  house,  for  the  other 
half  thereof  -f  and  in  case  the 
parties  cannot  agree  concerning 
the  same,  and  both  or  either  of 
them  shall  be  desirous  of  buying 
or  selling,  the  price  and  the  mat- 
ters in  difference,  shall  be  settled 
by  a  jury  j  but  if  such  remaining 
house  or  building  be  of  the  first, 
second,  or  third  rate  or  class  of 
building,  or  be  four  stories  high 
from  the  foundation,  exclusive  of 
the  rooms  (if  any)  in  the  roof, 
and  if  in  that  case,  such  old  party- 
wall  shall  not  be  of  the  thickness 
of  two  bricks  in  length,  or  1 
foot  5j  inches  from  the  foundation 
to  the  under  side  of  the  ground- 
floor,  and  from  thence  upwards  to 
the  top,  of  the  thickness  of  one 
brick  and  a  half  in  length,  or  13 
inches,  then  such  old  party-wall 
shall,  when  either  of  the  houses 
or  buildings  to  which  the  same 
belongs  be  rebuilt,  be  considered 
as  if  the  same  had  been  condemn- 
ed, or  adjudged  ruinous,  pursuant 
to  the  directions  herein-after 
contained  for  condemning  or  ad- 
judging ruinous,  any  unsound 
party-wall  j  or  if  such  old  party- 
wall  shall  have  any  timber  or 
timbers  of  any  adjoining  building 
lying  through  the  same,  and  if, 
when  either  of  the  houses  or  build- 
ings to  which  the  same  belongs, 
shall  be  rebuilt,  the  owner  or 
owners  of  such  adjoining  or  re- 
maining house  or  building,  will 
not  permit  so  much  of  such  tim- 
ber to  be  cut  off  as  shall  leave 
full  6  inches  of  clear  brickwork 
beyond  the  end  of  every  such  tim- 
ber, then  every  such  wall  shall  be 
considered  as  if  the  same  had  been 
condemned,  or  adjudged  ruinous, 
pursuant  to  this  act,  and  the  same 

338 


shall  be  taken  down  and  rebuih 
in  such  manner  as  is  herein-afte 
directed  concerning  party-walls 
which  shall  be  so  condemned,  c 
adjudged  ruinous. 

And  whereas  some  houses  c 
other  buildings  erected  previousl 
to  the  passing  of  this  act,  ma 
have  one  or  more  good  and  soun 
timber  partition  or  timber  part 
tions  between  the  same  and  tr 
adjoining  house  or  building,  it 
further  enacted,  that  every  sue 
timber  partition  may  remain  unt 
one  of  the  adjoining  houses,  J 
buildings  to  which  the  same  hi 
longs  shall  be  rebuilt,  or  sha 
have  one  of  the  fronts  which  sha 
abutt  on  such  timber  partition,  ( 
two-third  parts  of  one  of  sue 
fronts,  taken  down  to  the  bressun 
mer,  or  one  pair  of  stairs  floo 
and  rebuilt ;  or  until  such  tifiibl 
partition  shall  be  condemns 
pursuant  to  the  directions  hen 
in-after  contained,  concernin 
ruinous  or  defective  party-wall 
and  party-partitions. 

External  walls  shall  not  bf 
come    party-walls ;    and  eve. 
party-wall,    addition  or  enlary 
ment  shall  be  carried   up,  at 
remain    1  foot  6  inches  at  \] 
least  above  the  roof  of  the  higl 
est  building  which   shall  gab 
against  such  party-wall,  in  eve 
part  where  such  building  sh; 
gable  or  adjoin  thereto,  measurii 
at  a  right  angle  with  the  back 
the  rafters  of  such  roof ;  and  eve 
such  party-wall  shall  be  carri- 
up  and  remain  1  foot  at  the  le;i| 
above  the  gutters  of  the  highest 
such  buildings,  except  the  heig' 
of   such  party-wall,  where 
carried  up,  shall  exceed  the  heig 
of  the  blocking-course  or  para}, 
of  either  of  the  fronts,  abuttii 
on  the  same  of  the  highest  huil 
ing  adjoining  thereto  j  in  whi 
case,  the  end  only  of  every  su 
party-wall  next   such  blockin 


BRICKLAYER. 


jursc   or  parapet  may  be  less 
urn  1  foot  above  the  gutter,  for 
ie  distance  of  2  feet  6*  inches 
om  the  front  of  such  blocking- 
>urse  or  parapet  ;  and  in  case 
iv  dormer  or  other  erection  is  or 
all  be  fixed  in  the  flat  or  roof  of 
iv  building  within  4  feet  of  any 
irty-wall,  then  every  such  party- 
all'  shall  be  carried  up  against 
ery  such  dormer  or  other  erec- 
>d,   and   shall  extend  for  the 
eadth  of  at  least  2  feet  wider, 
d  to  the  full  height  of  every 
rt  of   every   such   dormer  or 
her  erection  as  shall  be  within 
feet  of  such  party-wall. 
No  recess  shall  be  made  in  any 
rty-wall  hereafter  to  be  built 
any  building  of  the  first,  second, 
ird,  or  fourth  rate,  or  class  of 
ilding,  (except    for  chimneys, 
es,  girders,  and  beams,  and  other 
,nbers,  and  for  the  ends  of  walls 
piers,  as  herein-after  is  direct- 
,)  so  as  to  reduce  such  wall  in 
v  part  thereof  under  the  thick- 
ss  by  this  act   required  for  the 
rty-wall  to  the  highest  rate  or 
iss  of  building  to  which  such 
rty-wall  belongs  :     and  there 
all  not  be  any  opening  made  in 
v  party-wall,  except  for  com- 
iik'ation   from    one    stack  of 
nrehouses  to  another,  and  from 
(e  stable  building  to  another; 
i    which  communications  shall 
l;ve  thereto  iron  doors,  in  such 
i  inner  as  is  herein-after  directed, 
;  <>.  except  such  passages  or  ways 
(  the  ground,  for  foot  passengers, 
title,  or   carriages,  as  may  be 
rpessary  ;  all  which  passages  or 
i  ys  shall  be  arched  over  with 
Ick  or  stone,  or  brick  and  stone 
t  ,ether  throughout,  of  the  thick - 
'  s  of  13  inches  at  the  least,  in 
cry  building  of  the  first  and 
8  ond  rate  or  class  of  building, 
al  of  the  thickness  of  S£  inches 
athe  least,  in  every  building  of 
t  third  or  fourth  rate  or  class  of 


building  ;  and  if  there  be  any  cel- 
lar, or  vacuity,  under  any  such 
passage,  every  such  cellar  or  va- 
cuity shall  be  arched  over  through- 
out with  brick  or  stone,  or  brick 
and  stone  together,  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  passage  or  way 
over  such  cellar  or  vacuity  is  here- 
by directed  to  be  arched. 

And  it  is  also  further  enacted, 
that  no  timbers  shall  be  laid  into 
any  party-arch,  except  for  bond 
to  the  same,  nor  into  any  party- 
wall,  other  than  such  templets, 
chains,  and  bond  timbers,  as  shall 
be  necessary  for  the  same ;  and 
other  than  the  ends  of  girders, 
beams,  purlins,  and  of  binding  or 
trimming  joists,  or  of  other  prin- 
cipal timbers  j  all  which  timbers 
shall  have  at  least  8j  inches  of 
solid  brickwork  between  the  ends 
and  sides  of  every  such  piece  of 
timber,  and  the  timber  of  any 
building  adjoining  thereto  :  and 
the  end  of  every  girder,  beam, 
purlin,  binding  or  trimming  joist, 
and  of  every  other  piece  of  princi- 
pal timber,  may  be  laid  beyond 
the  centre  of  any  party-wall  here- 
after to  be  built,  so  nevertheless 
as  that  there  be  left  8j  inches 
at  the  least,  of  solid  brick  or  stone 
work  at  the  end  of  every  such 
piece  of  timber,  except  in  places 
where  any  part  of  the  ends  of  any 
such  timber  shall  lie  opposite  to, 
and  level  with,  any  part  of  the 
end  of  any  timber  of  any  adjoin- 
ing building  or  buildings,  in  which 
case  no  part  of  such  timbers  shall 
approach  nearer  than  4  inches  to 
the  centre  of  the  said  wall. 

And  it  is  further  enacted,  that 
no  person  shall  cut  or  maim  any 
party-arch,  nor  the  shaft  of  any 
chimney  now  built,  or  hereafter 
to  be  built,  on  any  party-wall,  for 
any  purpose  whatsoever  and 
that  no  person  shall  cut  or  main 
any  party-wall  now  built  or  here- 
after to  be  built,  other  than  for 

3S9 


BRJCKLA  YER. 


the  purposes  and  in  the  manner 
herein-after  mentioned  ;  that  is 
to  say,  when  the  front  or  back 
wall  of  any  house  or  building, 
being  in  a  line  with  the  front  or 
back  wall  of  the  house  or  building 
adjoining  thereto,  shall  at  any 
time  hereafter  be  built,  it  shall  be 
lawful  to  cut  a  break  not  more 
than  9  inches  deep  from  the  ex- 
ternal face  of  such  front  or  back 
wall  and  to  the  centre  of  such 
party-wall,  for  the  purpose  of  in- 
serting therein  the  end  of  such 
new  front  or  back  wall ;  and  in 
every  such  case  where  a  bressum- 
mer  and  story-post  shall  be  fixed 
in  the  ground  story  of  such  new 
front  or  back  wall,  such  break 
may  be  cut  from  the  foundation  of 
such  new  front  or  back  wall,  to 
the  top  of  such  bressummer,  14 
inches  deep  from  the  external 
face  of  such  front  of  back  wall, 
and  the  same  may  be  4  inches 
wide  in  the  cellar  story,  and  2 
inches  wide  in  the  ground  story, 
for  the  purpose  of  placing  therein 
such  story-posts  and  bressum- 
mers  agreeably  to  the  directions 
of  this  act :  And  it  shall  be  lawful 
to  cut  into  any  party-wall  for  the 
purpose  of  tailing  in  stone  steps, 
or  stone  landings,  or  for  placing 
in  such  party-wall  timber  for 
bearers  to  wood  stairs,  so  as  no 
timber  bearer  be  laid  into  any 
party- wall  nearer  than  8 J  inches 
to  any  chimney  or  flue  whatever, 
or  to  any  timber  of  the  adjoining 
house  or  building,  or  nearer  than 
4  inches  to  the  internal  finishing 
of  such  adjoining  house  or  build- 
ing, and  for  the  purpose  of  laying 
therein  stone  corbels  for  the  sup- 
port of  chimney  jambs,  girders, 
beams,  purlins,  binding  or  trim- 
ming joists,  or  of  other  principal 
timbers  ;  and  it  shall  also  be  law- 
ful to  cut  perpendicular  recesses 
into  any  party-wall,  not  being  less 
than  13  inches  thick,  for  the  pur- 

390 


pose  of  inserting  walls  and  pier 
therein,  so  nevertheless  as  that  n 
such  recess  be  more  than  15  inche 
wide,  or  more  than  4  inches  deej 
and  that  no  such  recess  be  neare 
than  10  feet  to  any  other  recess 
and  it  shall  be  lawful  to  cut  o 
the  footing  on  the  side  of  an 
party-wall  where  either  of  th 
adjoining  buildings  shall  be  rebui 
with  a  wall  against  such  party 
wall  5  but  every  person  who  sha 
cut  into  any  party-wall  for  any  ( 
the  purposes  aforesaid,  shall  irr 
mediately  make  good,  and  we 
and  effectually  pin  up  with  bricl 
stone,  slate,  tile,  shell,  or  iroi 
bedded  in  mortar,  every  defd 
which  shall  be  occasioned  by  tr 
cutting  of  any  such  party-wall 
and  no  party-wall  shall  be  cut  f( 
any  of  the  purposes  aforesaid, 
the  cutting  thereof  will  injur 
displace,  or  endanger  the  timber 
chimneys,  flues,  or  internal  finisl 
ings  of  the  adjoining  buildings. 

Chimneys  in  party-walls.  Tl 
back  of  every  chimney  shall  I 
at  least   13  inches  thick  in  tl 
cellar  story,  and  8j  inches  thick 
every  other  story  from  the  hear 
of  ever  ysuch  chimney  to  the  heig! 
of  12  inches  above  the  mantl 
and  no  chimney  in  any  party-wai 
where  either  of  the  buildings  a 
joining  thereto  is  of  the  first  rat 
or  class  of  building,  shall  be  bu 
with  the  back  thereof  against  tl 
back  of  any  other  chimney,  unle 
the  back  of  each  chimney  in  tl 
cellar  story  be  at  least  8j  inciu 
and  the  back  of  each  chimney 
any  of  the  upper  stories,  at  lei 
4 J  inches  from  the  centre  of  su 
party-wall  :  and  no  chimney 
any  party-wall,  where  either 
the  buildings  adjoining  thereto 
of  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  r; 
or  class  of  building,  shall  be  bu 
with  the  back  thereof  against  t 
back  of  any  other  chimney,  unl< 
the  back  of  each  chimnev  in  I 


BRICKLAYER. 


cellar  story  be  at  least  6|  inches, 
and  the  back  of  each  chimney  in 
any  of  the  upper  stories  at  least 
*J  inches  from  the  centre  of  such 
wall  :  and  no  flue  shall  be  built 
Opposite  to  another  flue  in  any 
mrty-wall,  unless    the   back  of 
•acb  flue  be  at  least  2  inches  from 
he  centre   of  such  party-wall  ; 
he  breast  of  every  flue,  whether 
uch  flue   be  in  a  party- wall  or 
Lot,  shall  be  of  brick  or  stone  at 
east  S|  inches  thick  in  every  cel- 
ar  story,  and  at  least  4  inches 
hick  in  every  other  story.  All 
he  withs  or  partitions  between 
ues  shall  be  of  brick  or  stone, 
[nd  every  such  with  or  partition 
f  brick  shall  be  at  least  half  a 
rick  thick  :  and  every  breast  and 
jack  of  every  chimney,  and  every 
reast,  back,  and  with  or  partition 
f  any  flue  shall  be  tendered  or 
iargetted   within    and  without, 
xcept  the  outside  thereof  which 
pall  be  next  to  vacant  ground, 
1  which  case  the  back  of  every 
himney  and  flue  next  such  vacant 
round  shall  be   by  lime  or  in 
pme  durable  manner  marked  and 
islinguished,  except  in  a  four- 
ont,  back-front,  or  side-front  of 
iy  building  not  likely  hereafter 
)  be  built  against  3   and  every 
tck  of  every  such  chimney  and 
le  so  being  against  such  vacant 
ound  shall  be  rendered  or  par- 
tted  as  soon  as  any  building 
all  be  erected  to  such  wall. 
Provided  always,  and  be  it  en- 
ted,  that  if  any  person  or  persons, 
ling  possessed  of,    or  entitled 
to,   any    part    of  the  ground 
,  icreon  a  party-wall  is  intended 
be  built,  shall  be  desirous  of 
ving  chimney-  jambs,  breasts, 
|d  flues  of  chimneys,  made  in 
iy  such  party-wall  on  his,  her,  or 
ir   part  thereof,   or    shall  be 
•  sirous  of  having  a  recess  or 
'•esses  left  in  the  said  party- 
all,  for  the  purpose  of  insert- 


ing external  or  internal  walls 
or  piers,  or  for  any  other  pur- 
pose allowed  by  this  act,  and 
shall  give  notice  of  such  desire  in 
writing  under  his,  her,  or  their 
hands,  particularly  describing 
every  such  chimney-jamb,  breast, 
and  flue,  and  every  such  recess,  to 
the  builder  or  builders  of  such 
party- wall,  or  any  one  of  them, 
at  any  time  before  such  party- 
wall  shall  be  begun  to  be  built, 
then  such  builder  or  builders 
of  such  party-wall  shall,  after 
such  notice  so  given,  erect  in 
a  proper,  substantial,  and  work- 
manlike manner,  such  and  so 
many  chimney-jambs,  breasts, 
and  flues  of  chimneys,  in  all 
such  parts  of  every  such  party- 
wall  as  shall  be  by  the  person  or 
persons  giving  such  notice  re- 
quired ;  and  shall  also  leave  such 
recesses  in  every  such  party-wall, 
not  being  in  any  respect  contrary 
to  the  rules,  regulations,  and 
restrictions  in  and  by  this  act 
prescribed  ;  and  from  and  after 
the  erecting  such  jambs,  breasts, 
and  flues  of  chimneys  so  required, 
the  person  or  persons  giving  such 
notice,  his,  her,  or  their  executors 
and  administrators,  shall  be 
deemed  to  have  made  use  of  such 
party-wall,  and  shall  from  thence- 
forth be  liable  to  pay  the  whole 
expense  of  erecting  and  setting 
up  all  such  jambs,  breasts,  and 
flues  of  chimneys  erected  in  pur- 
suance of  such  notice,  and  also 
such  proportional  part  of  the 
expense  of  erecting  such  wall  as 
is  herein-after  directed  concerning 
party-walls. 

And  whereas  several  houses 
and  other  buildings  are  built 
within  the  aforesaid  limits,  over 
a  public  way,  and  several  of  the 
rooms  or  floors  of  such  houses  or 
buildings  are  the  property  of 
different  owners,  and  lie  inter- 
mixed without  being  separated 


BRICK 

by  any  party-wall,  and  without 
being  arched  over  and  under  each 
other  with  brick  or  stone,  or 
brick  and  stone  throughout ;  be 
it  therefore  enacted,  that  when 
any  house  or  other  building,  ex- 
cept as  herein-after  is  excepted, 
so  built,  in  any  part  thereof,  over 
a  public  way  or  any  house  or 
building,  except  as  herein-after 
is  excepted,  having  any  rooms  the 
property  of  different  persons,  and 
intermixed  as  aforesaid,  shall  be 
rebuilt,  there  shall  be  a  party- 
wall,  according  to  the  directions 
herein-before  contained  for  the 
highest  rate  or  class  of  building 
adjoining  thereto,  with  a  party- 
arch  or  party-arches^pf  the  thick- 
ness of  one  brick  and  a  half  in 
length,  or  13  inches  at  the  least, 
in  every  building  of  the  first  and 
second  rate,  and  of  the  thickness 
of  one  brick  in  length,  or  8^  in- 
ches at  the  least  in  every  build- 
ing of  the  third  and  fourth  rate, 
between  house  and  house,  or 
other  building,  or  between  the 
different  rooms  or  floors,  being 
the  property  of  different  persons 
as  aforesaid. 

This  last  mentioned  clause 
does  not  extend  to  any  of  the  four 
inns  of  court,  or  to  any  of  the 
inns  of  chancery,  or  any  other 
inns  set  apart  for  the  study  or 
practice  of  the  law  j  except  that 
the  walls  or  divisions  between  the 
several  rooms  and  chambers,  be- 
longing to,  and  communicating 
with,  each  separate  and  distinct 
staircase  of  such  inns  shall  be 
deemed  and  taken  to  be  party- 
walls  within  this  act,  and  subject 
to  the  regulations  and  clauses 
herein  contained  relating  to  other 
party-wails  within  the  aforesaid 
limits. 

And  whereas  it  may  sometimes 
happen,  that  no  party-wall,  or 
party-arch,  can  be  built  upon 
proper  foundations  between  such 

392 


LAYER. 

houses  and  other  buildings,  ovei 
public  ways,  or  having  rooms  anc 
floors  the  property  of  different 
persons,  lying  intermixed,  with-! 
out  pulling  down  such  houses  ant 
buildings ;    it    is  enacted,  that! 
when  any  owner  of  a  house  oi 
building,  that  is  intermixed,  01 
built  over  a  public  way,  shall  b( 
desirous  of  rebuilding  the  same 
and  the  owner  of  the  adjoining 
bouse  or  building  shall  not  b( 
willing,  or  shall  not,  by  reason  o 
some  legal  disability,  or  other 
wise,  be  able  to  join  in  such  re ! 
buildings,  then  the  party  desirou; 
of  rebuilding,  shall  give  notice  ii: 
writing  to  the  owner  of  the  ad 
joining  house,  of  his  intention  t( 
apply  to  the  court  of  mayor  anc 
aldermen  of  the  city  of  London 
or  to  the  justices  of  peace  for  tht 
counties  of  Middlesex  or  Surrey 
or  of  the  liberties  of  Westminster 
as  the  case  may  be,  at  the  gen 
eral  or  quarter  sessions,  to  be  nex 
holden,  after  fourteen  days  fron, 
the  delivery  of  such  notice;  ii 
order  to    obtain   judgment  and 
determination  touching  the  re 
building  of  such  house  or  houses 
or  other  buildings,  or  of  ascer 
taining  the  site  of  a  par  ty-wall  o 
party-walls,   or  of  the  situatioi( 
of  any  party-arches  to  be  buil 
according  to  the  directions  anil 
restrictions  contained  in  this  act; 
by  delivering  a  true  copy  of  sucij 
notice  to  the  owner  of  such  ad 
joining  house,  or  other  part  o 
such  intermixed  house  or  build 
ing ;  or  in    case    the  adjoining 
house  be  uninhabited  by  fixing 
such  copy,  wrote  fair  and  in 
legible  hand,  to  or  upon  the  door 
or  some  other  notorious  part  o 
such    adjoining    or  intermixe) 
house  5  and  by  this  act,  jury  ar 
to  determine  the  expense  to  b 
paid  by  the  owner  or  owners  c 
the  adjoining  house  or  houses 
and  after  the  expiration  of  four 


BRICKLAYER. 


;en  davs  from  and  after  the  ob- 
ainittg  such  judgment,  and  pay- 
ment or  tender  of  the  money 
warded,  the  owner  of  the  inter- 
mediate house  may  pull  it  down  ; 
nd  to  that  end  shall  and  may,  in 
ie  presence  of  a  constable  or 
ead- borough,  or  other  officer  of 
lie  peace,  enter  upon  the  site  of 
ie  ground,  and  into  the  house  or 
ther  building  adjoining  to  the 
art  v- wall,  &c.  intended  to  be 
3built,  at  any  time  between  the 
ours  of  six  in  the  morning  and 
»ven  in  the  afternoon,  (Sundays 
xcepted  ;)  and  if  the  outer  door 
f  such  house,  or  other  building 
e  shut,  and  the  occupier  or  any 
ther  person  therein  refuse  to 
pen  the  same  ;  or  if  such  house 
r  other  building  be  empty  and 
noccupied,  he  shall  and  may  break 
pen  such  outer  door,  and  remove 
p  some  other  part  of  the  same 
demises,  or  in  case  there  be  not 
efficient  room  on  the  premises 
)r  that  purpose,  to  remove  to 
ny  other  place,  any  goods,  fur- 
iture,  shelves,  or  other  thing 
Instructing  the  building  of  such 
ptended  party-wall  or  party- 
Valls,  party-arch  or  party-arches, 
r  the  pulling  down  any  wall, 
lartition,  or  other  thing  necessary 
)  be  pulled  down  and  removed, 
1  order  to  the  building  such  in- 
pnded  party-wall  or  party-walls, 
arty-arch  or  party-arches,  and 
om  and  after  such  entry,  and  at 

1  usual  times  of  working,  it  shall 

2  lawful  for  the  builder  or  build - 
n  employed  to  erect  such  in- 

nded  party-wall  or  party-walls, 
irty-arch  or  party-arches,  and  his 
id  their  servants,  and  all  others 
nployed  by  him  or  them,  to  enter 
to  and  upon  the  premises,  and 
Side  therein  the  usual  times  of 
orking,  for  the  shoring  up  the 
lid  house  or  other  building  so 
'roke  into  or  entered  upon,  and 
>r  taking  down   and  removing 
3D 


any    party-wall  or  party-walls, 

partition,  wainscot,  or  other  thing 
necessary  to  be  taken  down  and 
removed  for  the  purpose  aforesaid, 
and  to  build  such  intended  party- 
wall  or  party-walls,  party-arch 
or  party  arches  :  and  if  any  such 
owner  or  occupier  or  other  per- 
son or  persons,  shall  in  any  man- 
ner hinder  or  obstruct  any  work- 
man or  workmen  employed  for 
any  of  the  purposes  aforesaid,  or 
wilfully  damage  or  injure  the 
said  works,  every  such  owner  or 
occupier,  or  other  person  so 
offending,  shall,  for  every  such 
offence,  forfeit  and  pay  the  sum 
of  ten  pounds. 

Provided  also,  and  it  is  hereby 
further  enacted,  that  within  ten 
days  after  such  party-wall  or 
party-walls,  party-arch  or  party- 
arches,  shall  be  so  built,  the  per- 
son who  shall  have  rebuilt  the 
same  shall  leave  a  true  account 
in  writing  of  the  expense  of  re- 
building with  the  party  or  parties 
so  awarded  by  the  jury  as  afore- 
said to  contribute  to  the  expense, 
or  at  his,  or  their  last  or  usual 
place  of  abode  j  who  shall  pay  to 
the  person  or  persons  who  shall 
have  rebuilt  such  party-wall  or 
party-walls,  party-arch  or  party- 
arches,  the  proportion  of  the 
expense  of  building  the  same  as 
awarded  by  the  jury,  within 
twenty-one  days  after  demand,  or, 
in  case  the  same  be  not  so  paid, 
it  shall  be  lawful  for  the  tenant 
or  occupier  of  the  house  or  build- 
ing so  chargeable  therewith,  to 
pay  the  same,  and  to  deduct  the 
money  so  paid  out  of  the  next 
rent  which  shall  become  due  to 
the  owner  or  owners  of  such 
house  or  building  ;  or  the  same 
may  be  recovered  from  the  party 
or  parties  so  awarded  to  pay 
the  same  by  action  of  debt,  bill, 
plaint,  or  information,  in  any  of 
his  majesty's   courts   of  record 


BRICKLAYER. 


at  Westminster,  with  double 
costs  of  suit. 

And  whereas  it  may  happen, 
that  party- walls,  or  party-arches, 
or  party  fence-walls,  may  be  de- 
fective, or  so  far  out  of  repair,  as 
to  render  it  necessary  to  pull 
down  and  rebuild  the  same,  or 
some  part  or  parts  thereof ;  it  is 
enacted,  that  every  owner  of  any 
building  within  the  limits  of  this 
act,  who  may  think  it  necessary 
to  repair  or  rebuild  the  party-wall 


between  his  and  the  adjoining 
premises,  is  to  give  three  month! 
notice  in  writing,  to  the  owner  o 
the  adjoining  building,  appoint- 
ing a  survey  to  be  made  of  the 
said  wall,  and  naming  two  sur- 
veyors, or  able  workmen,  on  hie 
part,  and  requiring  the  other, 
party  also  to  name  two  surveyors 
to  meet  at  an  appointed  place,  te 
view  and  certify  the  state  of  the 
wall.  This  notice  must  be  in  the 
form  or  to  the  effect  following, 


Apprehending  the  party-wall,  party-arch,  or  party  fence-wall,  01 
some  part  thereof  (as  the  case  shall  be,)  between  the  house  or  building 
or  ground  (as  the  case  shall  be,)  thereto  adjoining,  situate 

inhabited  or  occupied  by 
and  my  house  or  building,  or  ground  (as  the  case  shall  be,)  adjoining 
thereto,  to  be  so  far  out  of  repair  as  to  render  it  necessary  to  repair  or 
pull  down  and  rebuild  the  same,  or  some  part  thereof :  take  notice 
that  I  intend  to  have  the  said  party-wall,  party-arch,  or  party  fence 
wall  (as  the  case  shall  be)  surveyed,  pursuant  to  an  act  of  parliament 
made  in  the  fourteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  king  George  the  third 
and  that  I  have  appointed  of  am 

of  my  surveyors,  to  meet  a 

in  (being  at  some  place  within  the  limit, 

aforesaid,)  on  my  behalf,  on  the  day  of  next,  a;1 

of  the  clock  in  the  of  the  same  day  (being  between 

the  hours  of  six  in  the  morning  and  six  in  the  afternoon :)  and  I  d( 
hereby  require  and  call  upon  you  to  appoint  two  other  surveyors  or  abk 
workmen  on  your  part,  to  meet  them  at  the  time  and  place  aforesaid 
to  view  the  said  party-wall,  party-arch,  or  party  fence-wall,  (as  thi, 
case  shall  be,)  and  to  certify  the  state  and  condition  thereof,  and  whethei 
the  same,  or  any  part  thereof,  ought  to  be  repaired  or  pulled  dowr 


and  rebuilt.    Dated  this 

If  the  owner  of  the  adjoining 
premises  shall  neglect  to  appoint 
two  surveyors  on  his  part,  accord- 
ing to  notice,  then  the  two  sur- 
veyors first  named,  together  with 
two  other  surveyors,  to  be  named 
by  the  party  giving  notice, 
may,  within  six  days  after  the 
time  appointed  in  the  notice, 
view  the  party-wall,  and  certify 
in  writing,  under  their  hands,  to 
the  court  of  mayor  and  alderman, 
or  to  the  justices  of  the  peace, 
in  their  next  quarter  or  general 
sessions,  as  the  case  mav  be,  the 

394 


day  of 


A.  B. 


condition  of  the  party-wall,  ancj 
whether  the  same,  or  any  pan 
thereof,  ought  to  be  repaired  and 
rebuilt,  and  in  case  the  major  par! 
of  the  surveyors  shall  not,  withifl 
the  space  of  a  month  from  th<i 
time  of  appointment,  sign  the 
certificate,  then  it  shall  be  lawfii 
for  any  one  or  more  of  the  justice! 
of  the  peace  for  London  or  West 
minster,  or  the  county  of  Middle 
sex  or  Surrey,  as  the  case  may  b< 
to  appoint  one  other  surveyor  td 
be  added  to  the  surveyors  befon 
appointed,  all  or  the  major  par 


BRICKLAYER. 


f  whom  are  to  meet,  and  view 
ie  party- wall ;  and  in  case  the 
lajor  part  of  them  shall  certify 
ie  wall  to  be  decayed  or  ruinous, 
id  not  sufficiently  secure  from 
re,  then,  within  three  days  from 
ie  making  of  such  certificate,  a 
)py  of  it  is  to  be  delivered  to 

owner  of  the  adjoining  build- 
er, or  affixed  to  the  door  if  it  be 
ioccupietl,  and  also  filed  with 
te  clerk  of  the  peace  of  the  city, 
unity,  or  liberty,  where  such 
all  is  situate  ;  and  the  last  men- 
med  owners  may  appeal  from 
e  certificate  to  the  next  general 

quarter  sessions,  when  the  jus- 
res  are  to  summon  before  them 
le  or  more  of  the  surveyors, 
id  examine  the  matter  upon 
.th,  and  thereupon  make  such 
ders  as  they  think  just. 
And  whereas  several  old  houses 
Id  other  buildings  of  the  first, 
eond,  or  third  rate  or  class  of 
.ulding  within  the  limits  of 
e  act,  have  instead  of  party- 
ills  of  the  respective  thicknesses 
■rein-before  directed,  party- 
ills  of  not  greater  thickness 
an  one  brick  and  a  half  in 

lirth,  or  13  inches  from  the 
undation  to  the  ground  floor, 
|  than  one  brick  in  length,  or 
I  inches  from  thence  to  the 
•  ping:  and  as  disputes  may 
i  se  concerning  the  pulling  down 
dph  old  party  walls,  and  rebuild- 
ir  the  same  agreeably  to  the 
i'es  and  directions  herein  con- 
t  ned,  it  is  enacted,  that  when- 

r  the  owner  or  owners  of  any 
( either  of  the  houses  or  budd- 
ies adjoining  to  any  such  party- 
^Ils  shall  be  desirous  of  pulling 
(  >vn  and  rebuilding  such  house, 
c  so  much  of  the  same  as  may 
S)ject  the  party-walls  to  the 
res  and  regulations  contained 
U  this  act,  and  of  such  desire 
SMI  give  three  months'  notice  in 
Viting  to  the  owner  or  occupier 


of  the  next  adjoining  house  or 
building,  then  and  in  that  case, 
from  and  after  the  expiration  of 
the  three  months  expressed  in 
such  notice,  it  shall  be  lawful  for 
the  owner  of  such  house  or  build- 
ing so  intended  to  be  rebuilt,  to 
pull  down  the  said  party-wall, 
and  to  have  and  exercise  the  like 
power  of  entering  into  and  upon 
the  said  adjoining  house  or  build- 
ing, or  of  breaking  open  the  same, 
in  the  presence  of  a  peace  officer, 
in  case  the  same  be  unoccupied, 
or  be  refused  to  be  opened,  and 
of  removing  any  wainscot,  shelves, 
furniture,  or  other  things,  and  of 
shoring  up  the  said  adjoining 
house  or  building,  as  by  this  act 
is  given  and  allowed  to  the 
owners  of  intermixed  houses  cr 
buildings,  and  shall  and  may,  in 
the  place  and  stead  pf  every  such 
old  party-wall,  build  a  new  party- 
wall  of  such  materials,  thickness, 
and  height,  and  in  such  manner, 
and  subject  to  such  restrictions 
and  directions,  as  are  in  and  by 
this  act  prescribed. 

And  whereas  several  old  houses 
or  other  buildings  within  the 
limits  of  the  act,  have  instead  of 
a  party-wall,  one  timber  or  wood 
partition,  or  two  old  timber  or 
wood  partitions,  with  or  without 
brick  nogging,  it  is  enacted  that, 
whenever  it  may  be  expedient  to 
rebuild  any  such  house  or  build- 
iug,  or  so  much  thereof  as  may 
subject  the  same,  and  the  parti- 
tions abutting  on  the  same,  to  the 
rules  and  regulations  contained 
in  this  act  j  the  owner  shall  in 
like  manner,  give  three  months' 
notice,  and  proceed  as  directed 
above. 

And  it  is  further  enacted,  that 
the  person,  at  whose  expense  a 
party-wall  or  party-arch  is  built, 
shall  be  reimbursed  by  the  owner 
of  the  adjoining  premises,  who 
makes  use  of  the  wall  a  part  of 

395 


BRICKLAYER. 


the  expense  in  the  following  pro- 
portion. If  the  adjoining  build- 
ing be  of  the  same,  or  of  a  supe- 
rior class,  to  the  building  belong- 
ing to  the  person  at  whose 
expense  the  party-wall  was  con- 
structed, the  owner  of  such 
adjoining  building  shall  pay  one 
moiety  of  the  expense  of  so  much 
of  the  party-wall  as  he  shall  make 
use  of :  but  if  the  adjoining  build- 
ing be  of  an  inferior  rate,  the 
owner  shall  pay  a  sum  equal  to 
a  moiety  of  the  expense  in  building 
a  party- wall,  as  required  by  this 
act  for  such  class  of  building  : 
and  in  the  mean  time,  and  until 
such  moiety  or  other  proportionate 
part  of  the  expense  of  building 
such  party-wall  or  party-arch  be 
paid,  the  sole  property  of  the 
party-wall  or  party-arch,  and  the 
ground  on  which  it  stands,  is  to 
be  vested  entirely  in  the  person  or 
persons  at  whose  expense  the 
same  has  been  built.  And  with 
respect  to  the  mode  of  payment, 
it  is  directed,  that  the  party,  at 
whose  expense  the  party-wall  has 
been  built,  shall  be  paid  by  the 
owner  of  the  adjoining  premises, 
who  makes  use  of  the  said  party- 
wall,  as  follows ;  first,  if  such 
party-wall  were  built  before  any 
other  house  adjoined  it,  the  owner 
of  the  adjoining  ground  shall  pay 
his  portion  of  the  expense  before 
he  begins  to  cut  into  or  make 
use  of  such  party-wall ;  and 
secondly,  if  such  party-wall  or 
party-arch  be  built  against  or 
adjoining  to  any  other  house  or 
building,  then  the  owner  of  such 
adjoining  house  or  building  shall 
pay  his  proportion  of  the  expense 
of  building  such  party-wall,  as 
also  a  proportional  part  of  all 
other  expenses  which  shall  have 
been  necessary  to  the  pulling 
down  the  old  party-wall,  or  tim- 
ber or  wood  partition,  the  shor- 
ing up  of  the  adjoining  building, 

396 


the  pulling  down  of  wainscot  ot 
partition,  &c,  but  not  the  expense 
of  pulling  down  and  clearing  away 
such  party-wall,  &c,  immediately 
that  the  said  party-arch  or  party- 
wall  be  completely  built  and 
finished. 

It  is  also  directed  by  the  act, 
that  the  expense  of  building  such 
party- wall  or  party- arch  shall  be 
estimated  after  the  rate  of  seven 
pounds  fifteen  shillings  by  the 
rod  for  the  new  brickwork,  de- 
ducting therefrom  after  the  rate 
of  twenty-eight  shillings  by  the 
rod  of  9,72  feet  for  the  materials 
(if  any)  of  so  much  of  the  old 
wall  or  arch  as  did  belong  to 
such  adjoining  building  or  ground, 
and  also  after  the  rate  of  two- 
pence by  the  cubical  foot  for  the 
materials  of  so  much  of  the  old 
timber  partition  as  may  have  be- 
longed to  the  adjoining  ground 
or  building  j  but  as  materials  and 
labour  have  greatly  advanced 
since  the  act  was  passed,  it  is 
usual  to  allow  an  extra  priee  ac- 
cording to  the  work,  by  survey- 
ors ;  and  an  extra  for  the  old 
brickwork,  as  also  for  the  old 
sound  timber. 

It  is  also  further  enacted,  that; 
within  ten  days  after  such  party- 
wall  or  party-arch  has  been  built, 
the  builder  shall  leave  at  the  ad- 
joining house  a  true  account  in 
writing  of  the  number  of  rods  in 
such  party-wall  or  party-arch 
and  of  the  deductions  to  which 
such  owner  is  entitled  ;  where- 
upon it  is  lawful  for  the  tenant  01 
occupier  of  the  adjoining  building 
or  ground  to  pay  one  moiety,  01 
other  proportional  part,  to  the 
builder  of  the  party-wall,  as  alsc 
all  such  other  expenses  as  art, 
herein-before  directed,  and  to  de 
duct  the  same  out  of  the  rent 
In  case  the  same  be  not  pak 
within  twenty-one  days,  it  paj 
be  recovered  with  full  costs  of  sui 


BRICKLAYER. 


f  action  of  debt ;  and  if  the 
aintiff  give  three  months'  notice 
the  defendant  before  he  brings 
e  action,  and  recover  the  whole 
nount  of  charge,  he  is  entitled 
double  costs. 

Every  party-wall  or  addition 
ule    thereto,     shall    be  built 
;  reeably  to  the  directions  con- 
ned in  the  act  concerning  the 
rtv-wall  of  the  highest  rate  or 
(iss  of  building  to  which  such 
jrty-wall  adjoins  ;  and  no  party- 
Mil  shall,  after  the  same  and  the 
1  ildings  adjoining  thereto  is  and 
i  completed,  be  raised,  unless 
ip  same  when  raised  be  of  the 
i  \  thickness  such  party-wall  is 
<  in  the  story  next  under  the 
i  >f  of  the    highest  adjoining 
1  ilding  ;  nor  shall  any  party-wall 
1  raised,  unless  the  same  can  be 
one  with  safety  to  such  wall,  and 
tie   several  buildings  adjoining 
l2reto  ;  but  all  such  party- walls 
will,  when  n.ised,  be  of  the 
iterials,   heights,    and  thick- 
sses  required  by  the  act,  or  as 
n  be  safely  raised,  may,  toge- 
er  with  the  shaft  or  shafts  of 
e  chimneys,  be  raised,  by  and 
the  expense  of  the  proprietor 
i  occupier  of  any  building  to 
lich  the  same  belong,   to  any 
i  psired  height ;  but  if  the  pro- 
ipet-or  or 1  occupier  of  any  build- 
K  adjoining  to  the  said  party- 
dl  and  chimney  shafts,  shall 
ike  use  of  any  part  of  such 
ny-wall    and  chimney  shaft, 
uer  than  the  use  he  makes  of 
jp  chimney  flues,  then  such  per- 
m  shall  be  chargeable  with  a 
Import  ion  able  share  of  the  ex- 
]nse  of  raising  such  party-wall 
i  d  chimney  shafts  j  and  in  com- 
1'ting  such  charge  the  same  shall 
1  rated  in  manner  herein-before 
J'ntioned,  and    the  proportion 
ich  person  shall  be  liable  to  pay 
I  ill  be  recovered  in  such  man- 
W  as  is  herein-before  particu- 


larly declared  concerning  the  first 
building  of  a  party-wall. 

Any  party  fence-wail  may  be 
raised  by,  and  at  the  expense  of, 
the  proprietor  or  occupier  of  the 
ground  on  either  side  of  it  ;  but 
no  party  fence-wall  is  to  be  built 
upon,  or  against,  or  used  as  a 
party-wall,  unless  the  same  be  of 
materials,  height,  and  thickness 
herein-before  directed  for  party- 
walls  to  the  rate  or  class  of  build- 
ing so  to  be  erected  against  or 
upon  the  same  :  and  in  case  of 
the  insufficiency  of  such  wall  for 
the  aforesaid  purpose,  or  if  in- 
stead of  such  party  fence-wall 
there  be  only  a  wooden  fence,  the 
proprietor  or  occupier  of  either  of 
the  adjoining  premises  shall  be  at 
liberty,  at  his  own  expense,  to 
take  down  such  wall  or  fence, 
and  erect  a  new  party- wall  in  lieu 
of  it,  provided  he  makes  good 
every  damage  that  may  accrue  to 
the  adjoining  premises  by  such 
rebuilding,  and  that  the  new 
party-wall  does  not  extend  on  the 
surface  of  such  adjoining  ground 
more  than  7  inches  beyond  the 
centre  line  of  such  party  fence- 
wall,  but  no  proprietor  or  occu- 
pier of  such  adjoining  premises 
is  to  make  use  of  such  party- wall, 
otherwise  than  as  a  party  fence- 
wall,  unless  he  pay  a  proportion- 
able share  of  the  whole  expense 
of  erecting  such  parts  of  such 
wall  according  to  the  use  he  shall 
make  of  the  same. 

If  any  party-wall  extend  fur- 
ther upon  the  ground  of  the  party 
building  the  same  than  the  party 
fence-wall  did,  the  party  rebuilding 
the  same  are  not  to  lose  any  part 
of  the  soil  whereon  such  party- 
wall  be  built,  nor  shall  the  owner 
or  owners  of  the  other  part  of 
such  party-wall  claim  or  be 
entitled  to  any  right  or  soil  more 
than  what  he  was  before  en- 
titled to. 

3i>7 


BRICK 

If  the  fore  or  back  front  of  any 
building  now  built  shall  hereafter 
be  rebuilt  as  low  as  the  bressum- 
mer,  or  one  pair  of  stairs  floor, 
within  the  space  of  five  years 
from  each  other,  then  the  party- 
walls  shall,  in  all  respects  be 
subject  to  the  several  regulations 
of  the  act. 

Regulations  respecting  chimneys 
that  are  not  in  party -walls.  The 
back  of  every  chimney  from  the 
hearth  to  the  height  of  12  inches 
above  the  mantle,  in  every  first 
rate  or  class  of  building,  not  being 
in  a  party-wall,  shall  in  the  cellar 
story  be  at  the  least  13  inches 
thick,  and  in  every  other  story 
8j  inches  ;  and  in  every  second, 
third,  or  fourth  rate  or  class 
of  building,  Sj  inches  thick  in 
every  story  j  excepting  where  any 
such  chimney  shall,  in  either  case 
be  built  against  a  wall j  in  which 
case  the  back  of  every  such  chim- 
ney from  the  hearth  to  the  height 
of  12  inches  above  the  mantle 
may  be  half  a  brick  thinner.  It 
is  also  directed  that  no  timber 
whatever  shall  be  placed  over  the 
opening  of  any  chimney  to  sup- 
port the  breast  j  but  that  the 
breast  shall  be  supported  by  an 
iron  bar,  or  by  an  arch  of  brick 
or  stone :  and  that  no  timber 
shall  be  laid  in  any  wall  under  the 
hearth  of  any  chimney,  unless  the 
same  be  at  the  least,  18  inches  be- 
low the  surface  of  such  hearth. 
The  hearth  of  every  chimney  shall 
be  laid  wholly  on  brick  or  stone, 
except  the  same  be  in  a  cellar  or 
ground  story,  and  be  laid  and 
bedded  on  the  solid  earth  ;  and 
every  such  chimney  shall  have  a 
slab  or  slabs,  or  foot  paces  before 
the  same,  of  tile,  stone,  marble, 
or  iron,  at  least  18  inches  broad, 
and  1  foot  longer  than  the 
opening  of  every  such  chimney 
when  finished  ;  and  such  slab  or 
slabs,  or  foot  paces,  shall  be  laid 

393 


jAYE  R. 

on  brick  or  stone  trimmers,  a: 
least  18  inches  broad  from  tht 
opening  of  such  chimney,  or  fron 
the  perpendicular  face  of  the  arc! 
over  the  opening  which  support; 
the  breast,  except  the  same  be  ir 
a  cellar  or  ground  floor,  and  b( 
laid   and    bedded  on   the  solic 
earth.  No  timber  or  wood-worl 
whatever  shall  be  laid    in  the! 
brickwork  of  any  oven,  stove 
copper,  still,  boiler,  or  furnace 
nor  within  2  feet  of  the  inside  o 
any   such  oven,   stove,  copper 
still,  boiler,  or  furnace  ;  nor  shal 
any  timber  whatever  be  laid  \i 
the  brickwork  of  any  chimney 
nearer  than  9  inches  to  the  open 
ing  of  such  chimney,  or  than  ; 
inches  to  the  inside  of  the  flue  o 
any  chimney,  oven,  stove,  copper 
still,  boiler,  or  furnace,  or  than  \ 
inches  to  the  inside  of  the  fiu« 
where  any  such  timber  shall  lie  j  0| 
be  placed  nearer  than  5  feet  abov< 
the  mouth  of  the  same.   No  worn 
work  whatever  shall  be  affixed  t( 
the  front  of  any  jamb  or  mantle 
or  to  the  front  or  back  of  an; 
chimney    or   flue,    except  sue! 
wood  work  be  affixed  by  iroi 
nails  or  holdfasts,  or  other  iror 
fastenings  ;  which  fastenings  shal; 
not  be  driven  more  than  3  inche 
into  the  wall,  or  nearer  than 
inches  to  the  inside  of  the  open 
ing  of  any   chimney  :    And  nj 
chimney  shall  be  erected  on  an 
timber-work  whatever,  except  o 
such  piling,  bridging,  or  plank 
ing,  as  may  be  necessary  belov 
the  foundation  of  the  building 
but  shall  be    erected    on  sue 
piling,  bridging,  or  planking,  o 
on  solid  ground,  or  on  a  brick  o 
stone  foundation,  or  shall  be  se 
upon  brick  or  stone  corbels,  o 
iron  brackets,  or  upon  iron  shore.' 
which  iron  shores  shall  be  sup 
ported  by  brick  or  stone  founda 
tions. 

Materials   of  external  vail 


BRICKLAYER. 


very  external  wall  or  external 
ldosure  of  every  building  of  the 
•st,  second,  third,  fourth,  or  fifth 
te  or  class  of  building,  and  of 
ery   addition    or  enlargement 
all  be  of  brick,  stone,  artificial 
one,  lead,  copper,   tin,  slate, 
e,  or  iron,  or  of  brick,  stone, 
tificial  stone,  lead,  copper,  tin, 
ite,  tile,  and  iron  together,  ex- 
Ipt  the  necessary  piling,  bridg- 
kr,  and  planking  for  the  foun- 
tion,  and  also  except  the  ne- 
ssary  templets,   chains,  bond 
'nbers,  doors,  sashes,  window 
utters,  and  door  and  window 
ames  to  such  buildings,  and  the 
:rs  or  stories  of  door  cases  and 
tors  to  all  such  warehouses  as 
e  or  shall  be  of  the  first,  second, 
ird,  or  fourth  rate  or  class  of 
aiding;  all  which  window  and 
or  frames  with  the  exception 
those  belonging  to  warehouses 
all  be  let  in  reveals,  and  recess- 
at  least  4  inches  from  the  front 
the  building.    Also  except  all 
"all  boards,  bressummers,  story 
>sts,  and  plates  on  the  ground 
cry,  which  bressummers  and 
ory  plates  shall  not  be  fixed 
ore   than    cz   inches  deep,  in 
y  party- wall,  nor  placed  in  any 
pnt  nearer  than  7  inches  to  the 
ntre  line  of  the  party-wall,  when 
ch  party-wall  is  of  the  thick- 
sa  of  two  bricks,  or  nearer  than 
inches  to  the  centre  of  such 
ity-wall,    when  it   does  not 
•'ceed  one  brick  and  a  half  in 
ickness  j  but  no  timber  work 
iatever,  other  than  and  except 
:ch   bressummer,    story  posts, 
:d   plates,   and  such    tiers  or 
i  >ries  of  door  cases  and  doors, 
wall  be  laid  in  any  such  external 
mil  nearer  than  4  inches  to  the 
'  ternal  surface  ;  and  every  such 
try  post  which  shall  be  fixed  as 
Support  to  two  fronts,  being  the 
•  rner   of   any    street,  square, 
pee,  court,  or  way,  shall  be  of 


oak  or  stone,  and  at  least  12  in- 
ches square. 

It  is  also  further  directed,  that 
every  flat,  gutter,  and  roof  of 
every  building  of  the  first,  second, 
third,  fourth,  or  fifth  rate  or  class 
of  building,  and  every  turret, 
dormer,  and  lantern  light,  or 
other  erection,  which  shall  be 
placed  in  the  flat  or  roof,  and 
which  shall,  at  any  time,  be 
ripped  or  uncovered,  shall  be 
covered  with  glass,  copper,  lead, 
tin,  slate,  tile,  or  artificial  stone  ; 
with  the  exception  of  the  doors, 
door  frames,  windows,  and  win- 
dow frames. 

Materials  of  external  decorations. 
Every  coping,  cornice,  facia,  win- 
dow dressing,  portico,  balcony, 
balustrade,  or  other  external  de- 
coration or  projection  to  any 
build  infer  of  the  first,  second,  third, 
or  fourih  rate  j  and  also  every 
frontispiece  to  any  building  of 
the  first  rate  or  class  of  building, 
or  to  any  addition  or  enlargement 
of  such  building,  shall  externally 
be  of  brick,  stone,  burnt  clay,  or 
artificial  stone,  stucco,  lead,  or 
iron  j  except  the  cornices  and 
dressings  to  shop  windows  5  and 
also  except  such  covered  ways  as 
may  hereafter  be  made  to  any 
building,  so,  nevertheless,  as  that 
the  said  covered  way,  or  any  part 
thereof,  shall  not  extend  beyond 
the  original  line  of  the  houses  in 
the  street  or  way  in  which  the 
same  shall  be  or  is  erected,  and 
such  covered  way  shall  be  cover- 
ed with  stone,  lead,  copper,  slate, 
tile,  or  tin  ;  and  neither  the  said 
covered  way,  nor  the  cornice, 
or  dressings  to  any  shop  window, 
nor  the  roof  of  any  such  portico, 
shall  be  higher  than  the  under 
side  of  the  cill  of  the  window 
frame  of  the  one  pair  of  stairs 
window.  It  is  also  directed  that 
no  water  shall  be  suffered  to  drip 
next  to  any  public  way,  from  tho 


BRICKLAYER. 


roof  of  any  building  of  the  first, 
second,  third,  or  fourth  rate  or 
class  of  building,  except  from  the 
roofs  of  porticoes  or  other  en- 
trances ;  but  that  all  water  from 
such  roofs  shall  be  conveyed  by 
lead,  copper,  tin,  or  iron  gutters 
or  pipes,  or  by  wooden  trunks,  or 
by  brick  or  stone  funnels,  to  the 
drains  or  channel  stones,  on  or 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
or  to  some  cistern  or  other 
reservoir  made  to  receive  the 
same.  And  no  bow- window  or 
other  projection  shall  be  built 
with,  or  added  to  any  first,  second, 
third,  or  fourth  rate  building  next 
to  any  public  street  or  way,  so  as 
to  extend  beyond  the  general  line 
of  the  fronts  of  the  houses  in  the 
said  street,  except  such  projec- 
tions as  may  be  necessary  for 
copings,  cornices,  facias!  door 
and  Avindow  dressings,  omor  por- 
ticoes, steps,  or  iron  palisades  ; 
and  also  except  such  window  to 
any  shop  or  shops  on  the  ground 
floor  story  ;  the  stall  boards  of 
which  windows  shall  not,  in  any 
street  or  way  that  is  less  than  30 
feet  wide  or  more,  project  above  10 
inches,  nor  in  any  street  or  way  that 
is  less  than  30  feet  wide,  above  5 
inches  from  the  upright  line  of 
building  in  such  street  or  way 
respectively  :  and  no  cornice  or 
covering  to  any  such  shop  win- 
dow, shall,  in  any  street  or  way 
that  is  30  feet  wide  or  more,  pro- 
ject more  than  IS  inches,  nor  in 
any  street  or  way  that  is  less  than 
30  feet  wide,  more  than  13  inches 
from  the  upright  line  of  the  build- 
ing to  which  such  shop  window 
belongs  :  and  no  bow-window  or 
other  projection,  except  as  before 
excepted,  shall  be  built  with  or 
added  to  the  front  of  any  building 
of  the  first,  second,  third,  or 
fourth  rate  or  class  of  building, 
unless  the  same,  and  the  columns 
and  pilasters  (if  any)  which  sup- 

400 


port  the  same,  be  built  of  thi 
several  materials  herein-befon 
directed  to  be  used  in  all  externa 
walls  or  external  enclosures. 

Repair  of  old  external  walls 
Every  external  wall,  or  other  ex 
ternal  enclosure,  to  any  building 
which  was  built  before  the  passing 
of  this  act,  and  which  is  notoi 
the  several  materials  therein  re  - 
quired may  at  all  times  be  repair 
ed  with  the  same  sort  or  sorts  o 
materials  as  the  materials  o 
which  such  external  wall  c 
other  external  enclosure  i; 
erected,  (except  the  external  en 
closures  of  roofs,  flats,  gutters 
and  of  the  dormers,  turrets,  am 
lantern  lights,  or  other  erection; 
on  the  same,  which  shall  be  re 
paired  with  the  materials  herein 
before  directed  for  the  same; 
but  in  case  any  such  external  wall 
or  other  external  enclosure,  be  a 
any  time  hereafter  taken  down  o 
otherwise  demolished  to  the  bres 
summer  or  one  pair  of  stair 
floor,  or  the  place  where  the  bres 
summer  is  usually  fixed,  thei 
every  part  of  the  same,  not  beinj 
built  of  the  several  materials  i 
and  by  this  act  required  for  ex 
ternal  walls  or  other  externa 
enclosures,  shall  be  taken  dam 
and  the  same  shall  be  entirel 
rebuilt  of  such  materials,  and  i 
such  manner,  in  all  respects,  as  i 
by  this  act  required  for  all  extern; 
walls,  or  other  external  enclosure; 
according  to  the  rate  or  clas 
of  building  to  which  such  wall  e 
other  external  enclosure  belong 
And  no  bow-window  or  otht 
projection  shall  be  rebuilt,  execj 
such  projections  as  are  in  and  b 
this  act  allowed,  unless  such  bov 
window  or  other  projection  w; 
built  at  the  same  time  the  hou: 
or  building  to  which  the  same  br 
longs  was  built,  or  unless  sue 
bow-window,  or  other  projectir 
be  within  the  original  line  of  tl 


BRICKLAYER. 


reet,  square,  place,  court,  or 
ay,  in  which  the  same  is 
ccted. 

Sundry  particulars  relative  to 
Mings.  No  stack  of  ware- 
uses  shall  contain  more  than 
urty-five  squares,  and  no  stables 
pre  than  twenty-^:  squares,  of 
Hiding  on  the  g^lnd  plan,  in- 
Iding  all  the  external  and  in- 
t  nal  walls,  and  so  much  of  the 
j.ty- walls  (if  any)  as  belong 
(tench  stack  of  warehouses  or 
Hiding  for  stables  j  and  no 
e  argument  shall  be  made,  so  as 
t  increase  the  same  beyond  the 
Bp  number  of  squares  on  the 
gmnd  plan,  except  such  stack 
o warehouses  or  stables  be  sepa- 
r  L'd  and  divided  by  one  or  more 
pity-wall  or  party-walls,  built 
itpery  respect  according  to  the 
dictions  herein-before  contained 
c  cerning  party-walls,  into  divi- 
si  is  of  not  more  than  the  said 
njnber  of  squares  each,  including 
B  li  walls  as  aforesaid  on  the 
gfund  plan ;  and  no  stack  of 
w  -chouses  or  building  for  stables 
communicate  with  any  other 
u  chouse,  stable,  or  building 
tl  tugh  a  party-wall,  unless  the 
d(,r  case  and  cill  of  every  such 
cqmunication  be  of  stone,  and 
ui  .ss  there  be  to  every  such 
c<  munication  a  door  of  wrought 
ir< ,  of  the  thickness  of  a  quarter 
of|n  inch  at  least  in  the  panels  ; 
ar<  no  timber,  bond,  or  lintel, 
shjl  be  laid  into  the  brickwork  of 
an  wall  in  any  such  stack  of 
w;  'houses  or  building  for  sta- 
bly nearer  than  18  inches  to 
tht  opening  of  such  communi- 
ca  m. 

any  building  of  the  first, 
Be«[nd,  third,  or  fourth  rate  or 
cla  of  building,  (except  the 
se^ral  inns  of  court  or  chancery, 
the.  royal  exchange,  companies 
haj|t  and  warehouses  and  dwell- 
ing mouses  let  at  a  rack  rent  for 
3E 


not  more  than  twenty-five-pounds 
per  annum,)  be  at  any  time  here- 
after converted  into  two  or  more 
dwelling-houses,  workshops,  sta- 
bles, or  other  buildings,  which 
shall  be  in  distinct  tenures  on  the 
ground  floor,  then  each  tenement 
shall  be  considered  as  a  separate 
building,  and  the  same  shall  be 
divided  from  each  other  by  a 
party-wall  or  party-walls  ;  and 
every  such  party-wall  shall  be  of 
the  materials,  height,  and  thick- 
ness, and  shall  be  from  time  to 
time  under  the  several  regulations 
respecting  party-walls  herein  di- 
rected to  be  observed  with  re- 
spect to  the  party-wall  of  the 
highest  rate  or  class  of  building 
adjoining  to  such  party-wall. 

Provided,  nevertheless,  that  no- 
thing which  this  act  contains  shall 
prevent  any  person,  being  the 
proprietor  or  leaseholder  of  any 
stack  of  warehouses  or  building 
for  stables  from  dividing  the  said 
warehouses  or  stables  from  time 
to  time  into  divisions,  for  the 
conveniency  of  letting  the  same 
to  under  tenants. 

Jf  any  building  of  the  fifth  or 
sixth  rate  or  class  of  building 
be  divided  into  two  or  more  dis- 
tinct tenures,  and  the  several 
parts  of  such  building  in  such 
separate  tenures  be  not  at  the 
several  distances  from  each  other 
herein-before  particularly  direct- 
ed for  every  such  fifth  or  sixth 
rate  building ;  then  every  such 
several  part  of  such  building  in 
every  such  separate  and  distinct 
tenure,  being  nearer  to  each  other 
than  the  said  several  distances, 
shall  be  deemed  a  public  nuisance, 
and  shall  be  immediately  taken 
down. 

And  no  pipe  or  funnel,  for  con- 
veying smoke  or  steam,  shall  be 
fixed  next  any  public  street, 
square,  court,  or  way,  on  the  front 
of  any  building  of  the  first,  second, 

4U1 


BRICKLAYER. 


third,  or  fourth  rate  or  class  of 
building ;  nor  shall  any  such 
pipe  or  funnel  be  fixed  on  the 
inside  of  any  such  building  nearer 
than  14  inches  to  any  timber  or 
other  combustible  material  what- 
ever ;  nor  shall  any  brick  funnel 
be  placed  on  the  outside  of  any 
front,  next  to  the  public  way, 
of  any  building  of  the  first, 
second,  third,  or  fourth  rate  or 
class  of  building,  so  as  to  extend 
beyond  the  general  line  of  the 
houses  in  the  public  way  in  which 
the  same  is  erected. 

Every  church,  chapel,  meeting- 
house, dwelling-house,  or  other 
building,  and  every  party-wall 
and  other  wall  within  the  limits 
of  this  act,  shall  be  built  pursuant 
to  such  rules  and  regulations,  and 
with  such  materials,  as  are  here- 
in-before  particularly  appointed  ; 
and  if  any  person  presume  to  build 
contrary  to  these  regulations, 
and  be  convicted  within  three 
months  after  the  building  is  finish- 
ed, by  the  oaths  of  two  or  more 
credible  witnesses  before  the 
magistrate  in  whose  jurisdiction 
such  may  be,  then  the  said  house, 
building,  or  wall,  so  irregularly 
built  or  begun  to  be  built,  or 
altered,  shall  be  deemed  a  com- 
mon nuisance  j  and  the  builder 
shall  enter  into  a  recognizance, 
in  such  sum  as  the  magistrate 
shall  appoint,  for  abating  and 
demolishing  the  same  within  a 
convenient  time,  or  otherwise  to 
amend  the  same  according  to 
such  rules  and  regulations  as  are 
herein-before  contained  j  and  in 
default  of  entering  into  such  re- 
cognizance, he  shall  be  com- 
mitted to  the  common  goal,  there 
to  remain  without  bail  or  main- 
prize  until  he  shall  have  abated, 
demolished,  or  otherwise  amend- 
ed the  same. 

The  magistrates  are  empowered 
to  order  every  house  or  building 

402 


so  irregularly  built  or  begun  t( 
be  built,  or  altered  as  is  by  thi 
act   declared  to  be  a  commoij 
nuisance,  to  be  abated  or  takei 
down,  by  the  person  or  person 
authorized  to  abate  or  take  (low 
the  same,  and  to  order  the  sal 
and  disposal       the  materials  t 
pay  the  chai^^  of  so  abating  c 
taking  it  down,  and  if  there  b 
any  surplus   of  moneys  arisin 
from  such  sale,  it  is  to  be  paid  t 
the  owner  or  owners  of  the  mate 
rials ;  but  if  the  moneys  arisin 
from  such  sale  be  not  sufficient  t 
pay  the  charges,  the  defieienc 
shall  be  made  good  by  the  own. 
or  owners,  and  may  be  levied  as 
herein-after  directed  concerniti 
the    expense    of    taking  dov 
ruinous   buildings    and  puttii 
up  hoards  for  the  safety  of  pa 
sengers. 

The  mayor  and  aldermen 
London,  the  justices  of  the  pea 
for  the  county  of  Middlesex, 
Surrey,  the  city  and  liberty 
Westminster,  and  the  liberty 
his  majesty's  tower  of  Londo 
may  nominate  and  appoint  pt 
sons,  skilled  in  the   rt  of  buil 
ing,   to  be  surveyors  or  supt 
visors  to  see  the  said  rules  a 
regulations  well  and  truly  c 
served.     And  the  said  justices 
their  respective  quarter  sessic  ' 
shall  administer  to  the  said  si 
veyors  and  supervisors  by  thj 
respectively  appointed,   an  o; 
for  the  true  and  impartial  exe< 
tion  of  their  office,  and  win 
oath  shall  be  in  the  form,  on 
the  effect  following  ;  that  isJ 
say  :  — 

"  I,  A.  B.  being  one  of  the  a- 
veyors  or  supervisors  appoint 
in  pursuance  of  an  act  of  par  - 
mant,  passed  in  the  fourteen 
year  of  the  reign  of  king  dm 
the  third,  for  the  further  and  - 
ter  regulation  of  buildings  and  pall- 
malls  ;  and  for  the  more  effectv'H 


BRICKLAYER. 


I  ctenting  mischiefs  by  fire  within 
e  cities  of  London  and  Westmin- 
er,  and  the  liberties  thereof,  and 
her  the  parishes,  precincts,  and 
aces,  wiihin  the  weekly  bills  of 
ortality,  the  parishes  of  St.  Mary- 
-bonne,  Paddington,  St.  Pancras, 
d  St.  Luke  at  .-Chelsea,  in  the 
unhj  of  Middles©!*?;  and  for  in- 
, /unifying,  under  certain  conditions, 
tUkrs,  and  other  persons,  against 
j?  penalties  to  which  they  are  or 
iy  be  liable  for  erecting  buildings 
khtn  the  limits  aforesaid,  contrary 
i  law,  do  swear,  that  upon  receiv- 
ibj  notice  of  any  building  or  wall 
l>be  built, or  other  builders'  work 
i  be  done,  within  the  district 
ider  my  inspection,  not  being  by 
i  less  or  otherwise  lawfully  pre- 
vited,  I  will  diligently  and  faith- 
flly  survey  the  same,  and  to  the 
most  of  my  abilities  endeavour 
t  cause  the  rules  and  regulations, 
i  the  said  act  prescribed,  to  be 
s  icily  observed ;  and  that  with- 
(  .  favour  or  affection,  prejudice 
(malice. 

"  So  help  me  God." 
And  such  surveyor  or  supervisor 
sill,  from  time  to  time,  leave 
n;  ice  in  writing  with  the  clerk  of 
t   peace  for  the  county,  city,  or 
Inrty,  in  which  his  district  shall 
b;  situated,  of  the  place  of  his 
al  residence  or  abode, 
t  is  also  hereby  further  enact- 
that  before  any  building  or 
wall,  or  new  or  old  foun- 
on^,    or    foundations  partly 
and  partly  old,  within  the 
hi  ts  of  this  act,  shall  be  begun 
toie  built,  the  master  workman, 
ortherperson  causing  such  build- 
in.'or  wall  to  be  built,  shall  give 
t\Mty-four  hours'  notice  thereof 


to 


he 


surveyor   or  supervisor, 


wi  in  whose  district  the  same 


be ;  and  such  surveyor  or 
rvisor  shall  view  the  said 
bufiing  or  wall,  and  see  that  all 
thrrules  and  regulations  in  this 


act  contained  are  well  and  truly 
observed  3  and  such  surveyor  or 
supervisor,  for  his  trouble  therein, 
shall  be  paid  by  such  master  work- 
man, or  other  person  causing  such 
building  or  wall  to  be  built,  such 
sum  of  money  as  a  satisfaction  for 
his  trouble  therein,  as  any  two*  or 
more  of  his  majesty's  justices  of 
the  peace  for  the  city,  county,  or 
liberty  in  which  such  building  or 
wall  is  situate,  shall,  by  any 
writing  under  their  hands,  order 
or  appoint,  not  exceeding  three 
pounds  ten  shillings  for  every  new 
building  of  the  first  rate  or  class 
of  building,  or  one  pound  fifteen 
shillings  for  every  first  rate  build- 
ing to  which  any  alteration  or 
addition  shall  be  made,  and  not 
exceeding  three  pounds  three  shil- 
lings for  every  new  building  of  the 
second  rate  or  class  of  building, 
or  one  pound  ten  shillings  for 
every  second  rate  building  to 
which  any  alteration  or  addition 
shall  be  made  ;  and  not  exceeding 
two  pounds  ten  shillings  for  every 
new  building  of  the  third  rate  or 
class  of  building,  or  one  pound 
five  shillings  for  every  third  rate 
building  to  which  any  alteration 
or  addition  shall  be  made  ;  and 
not  exceeding  two  pounds  two 
shillings  for  every  new  building  of 
the  fourth  rate  or  class  of  build- 
ing ;  or  one  pound  one  shilling 
for  every  fourth  rate  building  to 
which  any  alteration  or  addition 
shall  be  made  ;  and  not  exceeding 
one  pound  ten  shillings  for  every 
new  building  of  the  fifth  rate  or 
class  of  building,  or  fifteen  shillings 
for  every  fifth  rate  building  to 
which  any  alteration  or  addition 
shall  be  made  ;  and  not  exceeding 
one  pound  one  shilling  for  every 
new  building  of  the  sixth  rate  or 
class  of  building,  or  ten  shillings 
and  sixpence  for  every  sixth  rate 
building  to  which  any  alteration 
or  addition  shall  be  made  5  and 

403 


BRICKLAYER. 


not  exceeding*  ten  shillings  and 
sixpence  for  every  new  building 
of  the  seventh  rate  or  class  of 
building,  or  five  shillings  for  every 
seventh  rate  building  to  which 
any  alteration  or  addition  shall  be 
made  j  and,  in  default  of  payment 
of  any  of  the  said  several  sums  of 
money,  or  such  other  sums  as  the 
said  justices  shall  appoint,  the 
same  shall,  by  warrant  of  one  or 
more  of  such  justice  or  justices  as 
aforesaid,  be  levied  by  distress  and 
sale  of  the  goods  and  chattels  of 
such  master  workman,  or  other 
person  as  aforesaid,  together  with 
the  reasonable  costs  and  charges 
of  such  distress  and  sale. 

And  if  any  person  shall  begin 
any  building,  or  wall,  or  shall 
presume  to  cut  into  any  party- 
wall,  without  first  giving  notice 
to  the  surveyor,  or  supervisor, 
within  whose  district  the  same  is 
situate,  or  shall  refuse  such  sur- 
veyor or  supervisor  admittance 
from  time  to  time,  at  reasonable 
hours,  for  the  purpose  of  viewing 
the  same  j  then  every  person  so 
neglecting  to  give  such  notice,  or 
so  refusing  such  admittance,  shall, 
for  every  default  therein,  forfeit 
and  pay  to  the  said  surveyor  or 
supervisor  treble  the  satisfaction 
which  such  surveyor  or  supervisor 
would  have  been  entitled  to  re- 
ceive for  his  trouble  in  viewing 
such  building  or  wall,  in  case  such 
notice  had  been  given  ;  and  shall 
also,  for  every  such  default,  forfeit 
the  sum  of  twenty  pounds,  to  any 
person  or  persons  who  shall  sue 
for  the  same. 

And  if  any  workmen  shall  wil- 
fully, carelessly,  or  negligently, 
and  without  the  direction,  privity, 
or  consent  of  his  master  do  any 
thing  in  or  about  such  building  or 
wall  contrary  to  the  directions  of 
this  act,  every  such  workman  or 
servant  so  offending,  shall,  upon 
conviction,  forfeit  the  sum  of  fifty 


shillings  •  one  moiety  thereof  t 
be  paid  to  the  overseers  of  th 
poor  of  the  parish,  precinct,  c 
place,  wherein  the  offence  w; 
committed,  for  the  use  of  the  poc 
only,  and  the  other  moiety  therei 
to  the  informer  ;  and  if  such  foj 
feiture  be  not  paid  upon,  and  irr 
mediately  after,  such  convictioi 
then  the  offenders  shall  be  con 
mitted  to  the  house  of  correctioi 
there  to  remain,  without  bail  ( 
mainprize,  for  any  time  not  e? 
ceeding  three  months,  nor  le: 
than  one  month,  unless  the  penali 
be  sooner  paid. 

Every  master  workman  wl 
shall  build  any  house  or  oth 
building,  or  any  addition  theret 
or  any  party  or  other  wall,  or  \vl 
shall  be  employed  to  cut  into  ar 
party-wall  within  the  limits  of  tb 
act,  shall  cause  the  same  to  1 
surveyed    within    fourteen  da 
after  the  same  is  completed  H 
the  surveyor  or  supervisor  with 
whose  district  the  same  is  situati 
and,  in  case  the  said  survey 
shall  refuse,  neglect,  or  shall,  1 
illness  or  otherwise,  be  prevent* 
surveying  such  building,  wall, 
other  work,  then  the  same  sh; 
be  surveyed  by  any  other  survey 
or  supervisor  appointed  and  swo 
within  the  city,  county,  or  libert 
wherein  the  work  is  situate  j  ai 
if  such  surveyor  or  supervis 
shall,  upon  such  survey,  find  th 
the  same  is,  to  the  best  of  1 
judgment  and  belief,  built  or  ma 
good,  agreeably  to   the  seve; 
directions  contained  in  the  a 
then  such  surveyor  or  supervis 
shall,  within  fourteen  days  aft 
surveying  the  same,  make  on 
thereof,  by  affidavit  in  writin 
before  the  magistrate  within  who 
jurisdiction  the  same  is  situati 
which  affidavit  shall  be  filed  vvi 
the  clerk  of  the  peace  for  t 
county,  city,  or  liberty  in  whi 
the  said  building  or  wall  is  situa 


BRICKLAYER. 


ithin  ten    days,  and  the  said 
erk  of  the  peace  shall,  for  his 
uble  therein,   be  entitled  to 
receive  the  sum  of  one  shil- 
and  no  more  :  and  if  any 
rson  make  default  in  the  pre- 
ses,  by   neglecting   to  cause 
ch  survey  to  be  made,  or  such 
idavit  to  be  made  and  filed,  he 
iall  for  such  neglect  forfeit  the 
,  m  of  ten  pounds  ;  and  if  such 
;idavit  be  not  made  and  filed 
thin  the  space  of  one  month 
xt  after  the  recovery  of  such 
inalty,  such  master  workman, 
<  other  person  as  aforesaid,  shall 
i-feit  the  further   sum  of  ten 
|unds  per  month,  until  such 
Hiding  be  certified. 
It  is  further  enacted,  that  if  any 
rveyor,  or  supervisor,  appointed 
id  sworn  in  manner  herein-be- 
l  e  directed,  shall  at  any  time 
> It'ully  neglect  his  duty,  or  he- 
lve himself  negligently  or  un- 
f'chfull  v  in  the  discharge  thereof, 
1  shall  be  forthwith  discharged, 
; 1  shall  for  ever  afterwards  be 

i  apable  of  being  again  appoint- 
t  a  surveyor,  or  supervisor,  for 

aforesaid  purposes. 
\rit]  whereas  houses  and  build- 

ii  s  within  the  limits  of  the  act, 
often,  either  from  litigated 

68,  or  the  obstinacy,  neglect, 
poverty  of  the  owners  in  so 
mous  a  condition,  that  the 
li  s  of  passengers  are  thereby 
eiangered  ;  it  is  further  enacted, 
th  if  any  presentment  be  made 
b  an  inquest  or  grand  jury  in 
LJidon,  or  by  an  annoyance 
jur  within  the  city  and  liberty 
otWestminster,  or  by  the  jury 
s*'m  at  the  court  le'et  held  by 
th  sheriff  in  his  turn  for  any  hun- 
drl  or  place,  or  by  any  other 
ju  or  inquest  sworn  within  any 
ot^r  part  of  the  limits  aforesaid, 
th  any  house  or  building  within 
th  same  limits,  or  any  part  there- 
of is  in  a  ruinous  condition,  it 


shall  be  lawful  for  the  court  of 

mayor  and  aldermen,  in  respect 
of  any  such  house  or  building 
within  the  said  city  of  London, 
and  the  liberties  thereof,  or  for 
the  churchwardens  or  overseers 
of  the  poor  for  the  time  being  of 
such  parish,  precinct,  or  place  not 
being  in  the  city  of  London,  or 
the  liberties  thereof,  in  which 
such  house  or  building  is  situate, 
to  cause,  with  all  convenient 
speed,  a  proper  and  sufficient 
hoard  to  be  put  up  for  the  safety 
of  passengers,  and  to  cause  no- 
tice in  writing  to  be  given  to  the 
owner,  or  other  person  interested 
therein,  and  if  such  owner  cannot 
be  found,  to  cause  notice  in 
writing  to  be  affixed  to  or  upon 
the  door  or  other  notorious  part 
of  such  house  or  building,  to 
repair  the  same,  or  to  pull  down 
such  building,  as  the  case  may 
require,  within  fourteen  days  then 
next  ensuing  :  and  if  such  owner 
or  other  interested  person  do  not 
begin  to  repair  or  take  down  the 
same  within  the  said  fourteen 
days,  the  said  court  of  mayor  and 
aldermen,  by  and  out  of  the  cash 
in  the  chamber  of  London,  and 
also  every  such  churchwarden  and 
overseer  of  the  poor,  by  and  out 
of  the  moneys  in  his  hands,  are 
hereby  severally  authorized  and 
required,  with  all  convenient 
speed,  to  order  and  cause  such 
house  or  building  or  so  much 
thereof  as  the  said  court,  or  the 
said  churchwardens  or  overseers 
of  the  poor,  find  necessary  for 
the  safety  of  passengers,  to  be 
taken  down  and  secured,  in  such 
manner  as  shall  from  time  to 
time  be  requisite  ;  and  to  sell  and 
dispose  of  such  of  the  materials  as 
they  shall  judge  necessary  and 
expedient  to  reimburse,  repay,  and 
satisfy  to  themselves,  and  every 
person  by  them  respectively  em- 
ployed, the  charges  of  putting  up 

405 


BRI 


BRI 


such  hoard,  and  of  taking  down 
aud  securing-  all  or  any  part  of 
every  such  house  or  building. 
The  surplus  of  the  moneys  arising 
from  such  sale  (if  any  there  be) 
is  to  be  paid  to  the  owner  of  every 
such  house  or  building,  upon  per- 
sonal demand,  and  if  no  such 
demand  be  made  before  another 
or  other  overseer  or  overseers  of 
the  poor  of  the  said  parish,  pre- 
cinct, or  place  be  appointed,  then 
such  overplus  shall  be  added  to 
the  moneys  raised  and  collected 
by  virtue  of  the  rates  made  for 
the  relief  of  the  poor  of  the  said 
parish,  precinct,  or  place,  and 
shall  be  accounted  for  as  such. 
Provided,  nevertheless,  that  if  any 
owner,  or  his  executors  or  admin- 
istrators, shall  and  may,  at  any 
ti  me  within  the  term  of  six  years  be 
entitled  to  receive  such  overplus  j 
then  every  such  churchwarden 
or  overseer  for  the  time  being  is 
required  to  pay  the  same  within 
ten  days  after  personal  demand 
out  of  any  moneys  raised  by  any 
rate  or  rates  for  the  relief  of  the 
poor ;  but,  if  it  happen  that  the 
moneys  arising  from  such  sale 
shall  fall  short  and  are  deficient  to 
repay  and  satisfy  all  such  charges, 
then  such  deficiency  shall  be  paid 
by  the  owner  or  owners  of  every 
such  house  or  building,  if  known, 
and  to  be  met  with  j  and  if  such 
owner  or  owners,  on  demand, 
neglect  or  refuse  to  pay  the  same, 
then  such  deficiency  may  be  levied 
by  distress  and  sale  of  the  goods 
and  chattels  of  such  owner  or 
owners,  if  any  such  can  be  found  : 
and  if  no  such  owner  or  owners 
can  be  met  with,  or,  being  met 
with,  shall  not  on  demand  pay 
the  said  deficiency,  and  no  suffi- 
cient distress  of  his  goods  and 
chattels  can  be  met  with,  where- 
from  such  deficiency  of  costs 
and  charges  may  be  levied  and 
rexovered,   then  the  person  or 

406 


person  who  shall  at  any  time 
afterwards  occupy  any  sue! 
house  or  building,  or  the  grounc 
whereon  the  same  stood,  is  re 
quired  and  authorized  to  pav  ant 
deduct  the  same  out  of  the  ren 
thereof  j  and  if  the  occupiei 
neglect  or  refuse  to  pay  sue! 
deficiency  of  charges,  then  th< 
same  shall  be  levied  by  distres: 
and  sale  of  the  goods  and  chattel 
of  such  occupier  of  the  premises 
together  with  the  costs  of  sue! 
distress  and  sale. 

Having,  in  this  place,  furnisliet 
the  reader  with  a  faithful  abstrac 
of  such  parts  of  the  buildin< 
act  as  relate  particularly  to  th 
erection  of  edifices,  we  shall  fo 
further  information  relative  to  th 
business  of  the  bricklayer,  refe 
him  to  the  next  article. 

Bricklaying.  The  art  of  erect 
ing  edifices  or  walls  with  brick 
cemented  together  with  mortar. 

For  the  materials,  tools,  &c 
used  in  bricklaying,  see  the  arti 
cles  brick,  tile,  mortar,  tools,  &( 
also  the  mensuration  of  brick 
work. 

When  an  edifice  is  to  be  ereci 
ed,  the  first  thing  to  be  attende 
to  is  the  setting  out  of  the  groum 
and  the  digging  of  the  trencht 
for  the  foundation.   If  the  intent 
ed  building  is  to  have  no  bas< 
ment   story,  the   trenches  nee 
not  be  of  greater  width  than  tl 
intended  width  of  the  footings 
but  if  there  is  to  be  a  baseme 
story,  it  will  be  necessary  to  mai 
the  excavations  about  <2j  feet  j 
3  feet  wider  than  the  intend 
thickness  of  the  walls,  to  allow 
room,  not  only  for  the  footins 
but  for  the  workmen  to  perfori 
their  respective  duties.  The  fod 
ings  vary  in  thickness,  accordi 
to  the  magnitude  of  the  buildin 
and  usually  project  from  9  to 
inches  beyond  the  surfaces  of  i 
walls. 


BRICKLAYING. 


When  the  excavations  have 
>een  made,  the  ground  must  be 
ried  by  repeated  blows  of  a  ram- 
ner,  or  by  driving-  into  it  an  iron 
pit,  and  working  it  backwards 
nd  forwards,  in  order  to  ascer- 
ain  whether  it  be  sufficiently 
inn  to  sustain  the  proposed 
freight  of  the  building.  If  it  be 
ot  suffie;ently  firm,  it  must  be 
aled  and  planked,  or  sleepered 
nd  planked,  as  the  case  may  re- 
uire.  The  operation  of  piling 
nd  planking  consists  in  driving 
irge  piles  of  wood,  tapered  at 
ne  end,  and  shod  with  iron,  into 
he  earth,  till  they  extend  the 
/hole  width  of  the  footings  j  and 
ben,  at  any  distance,  not  exceed- 
ng  5  feet,  driving  another  course j 
nd  so  in  continuation  throughout 
tie  length  of  the  walling.  This 
peration  being  completed,  the 
round  between  the  different 
ourses  of  piles,  in  the  longitudi- 
al  direction  of  the  wall,  is  well 
jammed  and  made  good.  Planks 
f  wood  called  sleepers,  are  then 
kid  on  the  heads  of  the  piles,  in 
transverse  direction  to  the 
ength  of  the  building  ;  and  other 
blanks  are  laid  in  the  opposite 
.  irection,  that  is,  with  their  length 
xtending  in  the  direction  of  the 
;ngth  of  the  wall,  resting  partly 
n  the  sleepers,  and  partly  on 
ie  ground  which  has  been  made 
ood,  Sleepered  and  planked  con- 
Ms  in  placing  planks  of  wood  in 

similar  direction  to  the  above, 
rithout  having  recourse  to  piling, 
v  hen  the  intended  walling  is  to 
e  three  bricks  thick,  the  sleepers 
nd  planks  should  extend  about 

feet  on  each  side  of  the  wall, 
pat  is,  the  sleepers  should  be  6 
let  in  length. 

When  the  soil  in  general  proves 
rm,  but  hath  in  one  or  more 
laces  loose  earth,  the  parts  that 
-e  loose  must  be  excavated, 
ptU  the  bricklayer  arrives  at  a 


part  that  is  sufficiently  firm  tc 
sustain  a  pier  or  piers.  These 
piers,  similarly  to  the  walls  of  a 
building,  must  have  footings  ; 
and  must  be  carried  up  till  they 
are  on  an  exact  level  with  the 
first  course  of  the  footings  of  the 
wall,  of  which  thickness  the  piers 
must  terminate  at  the  top.  Some- 
times, when  not  very  loose,  the 
ground  may  be  made  firm,  by 
ramming  into  it  large  stones, 
after  the  manner  of  the  paviors, 
which  stones  are  close  packed 
together,  and  are  of  a  breadth  at 
the  bottom  proportioned  to  the 
intended  insisting  weight. 

In  buildings  where  wells  or 
cesspools  are  to  be  sunk,  it  would 
be  advisable  to  have  them  made 
previously  to  the  sinking  of  the 
foundations,  as  they  answer  two 
purposes  :  first,  that  of  ascertain- 
ing the  nature  of  the  ground  on 
which  the  building  is  to  be  erect- 
ed j  and  secondly,  that  of  supply- 
ing water  for  the  bricklayers  to 
slacken  their  lime. 

In  building  upon  an  inclined 
plane,  where  the  length  of  the 
wall  is  to  be  very  great,  and  the 
inclination  of  the  plane  is  very 
rapid,  the  bottoms  of  the  trenches 
for  the  foundations  should  form  a 
series  of  level  steps  ;  the  extent 
of  each  of  the  levels  being  decided 
by  the  number  of  courses  of 
brickwork  that  is  necessary  to 
bring  the  first  level  to  a  height 
with  that  of  the  second,  and  that 
of  the  second  to  a  height  with 
that  of  the  third,  and  so  on  pro- 
gressively. The  number  of  courses 
of  brickwork  necessary  to  this 
purpose  should  never  exceed 
four ;  consequently,  when,  for 
example,  a  wall  is  to  be  100  feet 
in  length,  and  the  inclination  of 
the  ground  on  which  it  is  to  oe 
built  is  10  feet,  the  distance  from 
one  step  to  another,  or  the  length 
of  each  level,  will  be  10  feet  3 

407 


BRICKLAYING. 


because  10  feet,  the  tenth  part  of 
100  feet,  or  the  length  of  the 
wall,  as  also  the  tenth  part  of 
the  amount  of  inclination,  will 
give  10  feet,  (the  amount  of  in- 
clination,) divided  by  10  feet, 
(the  number  of  levels,)  1  foot, 
which  is  equal  to  four  courses  of 
brickwork.  In  building  upon  an 
inclined  plane,  when  there  is  to  be 
a  long  range  of  buildings  sepa- 
rated by  party-walls  into  distinct 
tenures,  or  houses,  as  is  fre- 
quently the  case  in  forming  the 
streets  of  large  towns  and  cities, 
it  would  be  as  well,  and  perhaps 
better,  to  make  the  steps  extend 
from  party-wall  to  party-wall, 
which  will  make  the  distance  from 
step  to  step  15  feet,  and  upwards, 
according  to  the  extent  of  the 
frontage  of  each  house. 

In  places  where  the  soil  is  loose 
to  any  great  depth,  over  which  it 
is  intended  to  place  the  apertures 
of  the  intended  building,  as  the 
doors,  windows,  &c,  while  the 
parts  on  which  the  piers  are  to  be 
erected  are  firm,  the  best  plan  is 
to  turn  an  inverted  arch  under 
each  of  the  intended  apertures,  as 
then  the  piers  in  sinking  will  carry 
with  them  the  inverted  arch,  and 
by  compressing  the  ground  com- 
pel it  to  act  against  the  under 
sides  of  the  arch,  which,  if  closely 
jointed,  so  far  from  yielding  will, 
with  the  abutting  piers,  operate 
as  one  solid  body.  But  on  the 
contrary,  if  this  expedient  of  the 
inverted  arch  be  not  adopted,  the 
part  of  the  wall  which  is  under 
the  aperture,  being  of  less  height, 
and  consequently  of  less  weight, 
than  the  piers,  will  give  way  to 
the  resistance  of  the  6oil  acting 
on  its  base,  and  not  only  injure 
the  brickwork  between  the  aper- 
tures, but  fracture  the  window 
heads  and  cills. 

In  constructing  so  essential  a 
part  as  the  arch,  great  attention 

•  40S 


must  be  paid  to  its  curvature,  and 
we  strongly  recommend  the  para- 
bolic curve  as  the  best  adapted 
for  this  purpose  ;  but  if,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  depth,  this  cannot 
be  conveniently  introduced,  the 
arch  should  never  be  made  less 
than  a  semicircle.  The  bed  of 
the  piers  should  be  as  uniform  as 
possible  j  for,  though  the  bottom 
of  the  trench  be  very  firm,  it  will, 
in  some  degree,  yield  to  the  great 
weight  that  is  upon  it  ;  and  if  the 
soil  be  softer  in  one  part  than  in 
another,  that  part  which  is  the 
softest  will  of  course  yield  more  to 
the  pressure,  and  cause  a  fracture.! 

If  the  solid  parts  of  the  trench 
happen  to  be  under  the  intended 
apertures,  and  the  softer  parts 
where  the  piers  are  wanted,  the 
reverse  of  the  above  practice  must 
be  resorted  to  ;  that  is,  the  piersj 
must  be  built  on  the  firm  parts, 
and  have  an  arch  that  is  not 
inverted  between  them.  In  per- 
forming this,  attention  must  be 
paid  to  ascertain  whether  the  in- 
sisting pier  will  cover  the  arch  s 
for  if  the  middle  of  the  pier  rest 
over  the  middle  of  the  summit  oi 
the  arch,  the  narrower  the  piei 
is,  the  greater  should  be  the  cur- 
vature of  the  arch  at  its  apex 
When  suspended  arches  are  used 
the  intrados  should  be  kept  clea 
of  the  ground,  that  the  arch  maj 
have  its  due  effect. 

The  trenches  for  the  founda 
tions  being  completed,  the  brick 
layer  commences  to  lay  the  brick' 
In  walling  in  dry  weather,  whei 
the  work  is  required  to  be  finr 
the  best  mortar  must  be  used 
and  the  bricks  must  be  wette 
or  dipped  in  water,  as  they  ar 
laid,  to  cause  them  to  adhere  t 
the  mortar,  which  they  would  nc 
do  if  laid  dry ;  for  the  dry  sand 
nature  of  the  brick  would  absor 
the  moisture  from  the  mortar,  an 
prevent  adhesion. 


BRICKLAYING. 


If  very  heavy  walling  is  to  be 
ected  on  ground  whose  stability 
in  the  least  doubtful,  it  is  advis- 
le  to  lay  chain-timbers  on  the 
I)  of  the  footings.  The  utility 
/this  measure  has  been  proved 

the  erection  of  the  military 
;  spital  at  Gosport,  where  this 
aetice  was  carried  into  effect, 
;d  which  hospital  has  not  sus- 
i  ned  a  fracture  ;  whereas  many 
«:ier  military  hospitals,  erected 
i  precisely  the  same  principles, 
It  without  chain-timbers  being 
iced  on  the  footings,  have  not 
en  so  fortunate.   The  thickness 
J  the  first  course  of  footings  to 
:  ese  walls  is  seven  bricks  ;  and 
e  first  course  of  bricks  above 
1  chain-timbers  four  bricks  and 
lhalf.  These  chain -timbers  con- 
t  of  pieces  of  stuff  called  flitches, 
ing  timber  of  14  inches  square 
Vitled  down  the  middle. 
In  carrying  up  a  building,  the 
.ailing  should  be  carried  up  as 
'gular  as  convenience  will  per- 
it,  and  ought  never  to  be  carried 
ore  than  4  feet  out  of  level  at  a 
ne,  without  having  its  contin- 
:nt  parts  added  to  it.    This  is  a 
?ry  necessary  precaution,  for  as 
1  walls  shrink  immediately  after 
ulding,  the  part  which  is  first 
ought  up  will  settle  before  the 
jacent  part  is  brought  up  to 
This  is  not  sufficiently  attended 
by  the  London  builders,  whose 
ildings,   by   consequence,  fre- 
/ently  sustain  fractures. 
When   the  walling  has  been 
rried  up  to  about  half  the  height 

the  windows,  chain-timbers 
ouW  be  introduced  throughout, 
,  keep  the  piers  steady.  In  heavy 
.dling,  these  chain-timbers  may 
I  6  inches  by  9  inches,  but  in 
nimon  buildings  bond-timbers 
ill  answer  the  required  purpose. 
When  there  is  a  continuation 
walling,  or  great  weight  of 
ickwork  over  a  window  or  other 
3F 


aperture,  it  is  a  good  practice  to 
turn  an  arch  above  the  lintel  in  the 
interior  face  of  the  wall,  corres- 
pondent to  that  in  the  exterior  face. 
Arches  may  also  be  advantageous- 
ly turned  above  the  lintels  of  doors 
in  partition  walls,  as  also  above 
the  lintels  of  the  chimney  breasts. 
Each  of  these  arches  should  con- 
sist of  three  distinct  courses  of 
bricks,  by  means  of  which  two  ad- 
vantages will  be  gained  ;  first,  less 
mortar  will  be  used  j  and  second- 
ly, should  at  any  time  the  door 
or  the  chimney  breast  be  required 
to  be  raised,  it  can  very  easily  be 
effected  by  taking  away  the  first 
and  second  courses. 

In  bricklaying  there  are  two 
descriptions  of  bond  ;  the  English 
bond,  and  the  Flemish  bond.  In 
the  English  bond  a  row  of  bricks 
is  laid  lengthwise  in  the  direction 
of  the  length  of  the  wall,  and  is 
crossed  by  another  row  which 
has  its  length  in  the  breadth  of 
the  wall,  and  so  on  alternately. 
Those  courses  which  bind  the 
parts  of  the  wall  together  in  the 
longitudinal  direction  are  termed 
stretching  courses,  and  the  bricks 
stretchers ;  and  those  which  bind 
them  in  the  transverse  direction 
heading  courses,  and  the  bricks 
headers. 

The  Flemish  bond  consists  in  the 
disposition  of  the  bricks  on  the 
outside,  or  face-work,  so  that  in 
the  same  course  there  shall  be 
alternately  a  stretcher  and  a  head- 
er. This  latter  description  of 
bond  is  deemed  the  neatest  and 
most  elegant  j  but  in  the  execu- 
tion is  attended  with  great  incon- 
venience, and,  in  most  cases,  does 
not  unite  the  parts  of  a  wall  with 
the  same  degree  of  firmness  as  the 
English  bond. 

It  is  very  easy  to  conceive  that 
a  wall  constructed  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  English  bond  must 
have  considerable  strength  ;  for 

409 


BRI 


BRI 


the  parts  of  a  wall  are  less  liable 
to  separate  the  longer  the  bonds 
are :  the  bonds  are  greatest  in 
the  longitudinal  direction  of  the 
bricks,  for  then  one  brick  may  be 
4  inches  in  length  against  each  of 
two  others  in  the  same  course  3 
which  is  the  length  that  must  be 
moved  before  they  can  separate 
without  breaking. 

In  the  introduction  of  the 
Flemish  bond,  strength  has  been 
sacrificed  to  a  minute  difference 
in  the  outside  appearance.  The 
defects  of  the  Flemish  bond  are, 
in  one  or  both  faces,  bilging  away 
from  the  interior  substance  5  or 
the  failure  of  the  wall,  by  its  sepa- 
rating into  two  thicknesses  along 
the  middle,  which  sometimes 
takes  place  when  there  is  a  great 
superincumbent  weight  on  it,  and 
is  called  splitting.  To  prevent 
this  evil,  some  bricklayers  place 
laths,  or  the  iron  of  hoops  occa- 
sionally, in  the  horizontal  joints 
between  two  courses  :  others  lay 
diagonal  courses  of  bricks  at  cer- 
tain heights  from  each  other ;  but 
the  good  effects  of  this  last  mode 
is  much  doubted,  as  in  the  diago- 
nal course,  by  not  being  continued 
on  the  outside,  the  bricks  are 
much  mangled  where  strength  is 
wanted.  Others  again  lay  all  head- 
ing courses  within  the  outside 
Flemish  bond,  making  the  face 
alternately  of  9  and  of  4  inches 
in  thickness.  This,  as  far  as  re- 
lates to  the  splitting  of  the  wall 
is  an  effectual  preventative.  But 
curing  one  evil  another  is  increas- 
ed, for  here  is  no  stretching  btmd, 
as  the  little  that  occurs  in  Flemish 
bond  face-work  is  too  trifling  to 
be  of  any  avail ;  so  that  the  least 
inequality  of  settlement,  or  weight 
in  the  longitudinal  direction  of 
the  wall,  occasions  a  separation 
in  the  vertical  joints,  as  may  be 
often  seen  in  the  fronts  of  build- 
ings. Even  if  longitudinal  courses 


should  be  directed  to  be  alter- 
nately laid  in  the  interior  of  the 
wall,  there  is  little  chance  of  suc- 
ceeding better.  The  advantages 
of  the  old  English  over  the  Flem- 
ish bond  is  very  satisfactorily 
pointed  out  in  a  small  pamphlet, 
entitled  "  Observations  on  Brick 
Bond,"  to  which  we  must  refei 
the  reader  for  further  information 
on  the  subject. 

In  the  winter  it  is  very  neces- 
sary to  preserve  the  unfinishec 
wall  from  the  alternate  effects  oi 
rain  and  frost ;  for  if  it  be  ex- 
posed, the  rain  will  penetrate  intc 
the  bricks  and  mortar,and  by  being 
converted  into  ice  will  expand 
and  burst,  or  crumble  the  mate- 
rials in  which  it  is  contained :  con 
sequently,  as  soon  as  the  storm} 
weather  and  frost  set  in,  the  un 
finished  walls  should  be  coveret 
either  with  straw  or  weathe: 
boarding.  When  weather  board 
ing  is  employed,  it  is  advisable  t< 
have  a  good  layer  of  straw  be 
tween  the  work  and  the  weathe 
boarding  ;  and  to  place  the  board 
ing  in  the  form  of  stone  coping 
to  throw  the  water  off  equally  01 
both  sides. 

Bridge.  A  structure  of  car 
pentry,  masonry,  or  iron-work 
built  over  a  river,  canal,  or  valley 
for  the  convenience  of  passim 
from  one  side  to  the  other, 
bridge  may  therefore  be  consider 
ed  as  a  road  suspended  in  the  ai 
by  arches  or  lintels,  which  areht 
or  lintels  are  supported  by  pier 
or  abutments. 

The  extreme  supports  of 
bridge,  whether  it  have  but  on 
transverse  aperture  or  a  series  0 
transverse  apertures  or  archei 
are  called  the  hutments,  or  abut 
merits ;  the  parts  between  th 
apertures,  which  sustain  the  lintel 
or  arches,  the  piers,  or  pillars 
and  the  fences  on  the  sides  of  th 
bridge- way,  for  preventing  th 


It 


BRIDGE. 


assengers  from  falling  into  the 
rater  or  valley  below,  the  par- 
pets.  When  a  bridge  is  intended 
>r  both  foot  passengers  and  car- 
ages,  the  middle  part  is  appro- 
bated to  the  road,  or  carriage- 
ay  ;  and  on  each  side  of  this,  a 
ith  is  in  general  raised,  and 
imetimes  paved  with  flag-stones, 
>r  the  foot  passengers — these 
re  called  the  footpaths,  or  ban- 
tettes. 

The  invention  of  bridges  is 
mbtless  of  the  highest  anti- 
inty ;  but  there  are  no  records 
3\v  left  that  will  enable  us  to 
ace  it  through  its  successive 
ages  of  improvement.  In  the 
ulest  ages,  bridges  were  proba- 
v  formed  by  throwing  single 
ees  across  small  streams  ;  and 
i  case  or  broader  streams,  by 
[sterling  the  roots  of  a  tree  on 
ich  bank,  and  twisting  together 
leir  branches  in  the  middle  of 
le  stream.  Bridges  of  this  kind 
mst  have  frequently  occurred 
y  chance;  and  mankind  by  ob- 
:rving  them  may  have  been 
simulated  to  adopt  the  same 
lode  for  their  mutual  accommo- 
ation  ;  accordingly  we  find  that 
fr.  Park  found  even  the  latter 
ode  practised  on  rivers  in  the 
terior  of  Africa.  Bridges  of  this 
nd  will  only  answer  for  rivers 
a  limited  width  ;  consequently, 

broader  streams  it  became 
cessary  to  have  recourse  to 
her  modes.  One  of  these,  for 
})id  streams,  was,  perhaps,  the 
rming  of  ropes  of  rushes  or  the 
des  of  cattle,  and  stretching 
,  cm  between  trees  or  posts  on 
'  opposite  banks.    The  follow- 

accounts,  given  by  Don  Anto- 
»  de  Ulloa,  w  ill  afford  a  distinct 
•tion  how  these  sort  of  bridges 
ere  constructed  and  used  in  the 
'ountainous  parts  of  South 
'merica.  (See  vol.  ii.  p.  164. 
kffldon,  4th  edition,  Svo.) 


"  Over  the  river  Desaguadero 
is  still  remaining  the  bridire  of 
rushes,  invented  by  Capac  Yupan- 
qui,  the  fifth  ynca,  for  transport- 
ing his  army  to  the  other  side,  in 
order  to  conquer  the  provinces  of 
Collasuyo.  The  Desaguadero  is 
here  between  eighty  and  a  hun- 
dred yards  in  breadth,  flowing  with 
a  very  impetuous  current,  under  a 
smooth,  and  as  it  were  a  sleeping 
surface.  The  ynca,  to  overcome 
this  difficulty,  ordered  four  very 
large  cables  to  be  made  of  a  kind 
of  grass  which  covers  the  lofty 
heaths  and  mountains  of  that 
country,  and  called  by  the  Ind- 
ians, icku  ;  and  these  cables  were 
the  foundation  of  the  whole  struc- 
ture. Two  of  these  being  laid 
across  the  water,  fascines  of  dry 
juncia  and  tortora,  species  of 
rushes,  were  fastened  together 
and  laid  across  them.  On  these 
the  two  other  cables  were  laid, 
and  again  covered  with  the  other 
fascines  securely  fastened,  but 
smaller  than  the  first,  and  arrang- 
ed in  such  a  manner  as  to  form  a 
level  surface  j  and  by  this  means 
he  procured  a  safe  passage  for  his 
army.  This  bridge,  which  is  about 
five  yards  in  breadth,  and  one  yard 
and  a  half  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  is  carefully  repaired  or  re- 
built every  six  months,  by  the 
neighbouring  provinces,  in  pursu- 
ance of  a  law  made  by  that  ynca, 
and  since  often  confirmed  by  the 
kings  of  Spain,  on  account  of  itr 
prodigious  use  ;  it  being  the  chan- 
nel of  intercourse  between  those 
provinces  separated  by  the  De- 
saguadero." 

Again :  (vol.  i.  page  430.) 
"  When  the  rivers  are  too  deep  to 
be  forded,  bridges  are  made  at 
the  most  frequented  places.  Of 
these  there  are  two  kinds  besides 
those  made  of  stone,  which  are 
very  few  :  the  former  of  wood, 
which  are  most  common,  and  the 

411 


BRIDGE. 


latter  of  bujucos.  With  regard 
to  the  first,  they  choose  a  place 
where  the  river  is  very  narrow, 
and  has  on  each  side  high  rocks. 
They  consist  of  only  four  long 
beams  laid  close  together  over 
the  precipice,  and  form  a  path 
about  a  yard  and  a  half  in  breadth, 
being  just  sufficient  for  a  man  to 
pass  over  on  horseback ;  and 
custom  has  rendered  these  bridges 
so  natural  to  them,  that  they  pass 
them  without  any  apprehension. 
The  second,  or  those  formed  of 
bujucos,  are  only  used  where  the 
breadth  of  the  river  will  not  ad- 
mit of  any  beams  to  be  laid  across. 
In  the  construction  of  these, 
several  bujucos  are  twisted  toge- 
ther; so  as  to  form  a  kind  of  large 
cable  of  the  length  required.  Six 
of  these  are  carried  from  one  side 
of  the  river  to  the  other,  two  of 
which  are  considerably  higher 
than  the  other  four  -}  on  the  latter 
are  laid  sticks  in  a  transverse 
direction,  and  over  these  branches 
of  trees  as  a  flooring  ;  the  former 
are  fastened  to  the  four  which 
form  the  bridge,  and  by  that 
means  serve  as  rails  for  the  secu- 
rity of  the  passengers,  who  would 
otherwise  be  in  no  small  degree 
of  danger  from  the  continual 
oscillation.  The  bujuco  bridges 
in  this  country  are  only  for  men, 
the  mules  swim  over  the  rivers  j 
in  order  to  which,  when  their 
loading  is  taken  off,  they  are 
drove  into  the  water  nearly  half  a 
league  above  the  bridge  that  they 
may  reach  the  opposite  shore  near 
it,  the  rapidity  of  the  stream 
carrying  them  so  great  a  distance. 
In  the  mean  time,  the  Indians 
carry  over  the  loading  on  their 
shoulders.  On  some  rivers  in 
Peru  there  are  bujuco  bridges  so 
large,  that  droves  of  loaded  mules 
pass  over  them  ;  particularly  the 
river  Apurimac,  which  is  the 
thoroughfare  of  all  the  commerce 

412 


carried  on  between  Lima,  Cuzco, 
La  Plata,  and  other  parts  to  the 
southward. 

"  Some  rivers  instead  of  a  bujuco 
bridge,  are  passed  by  means  of  a 
tarabita;  as  is  the  case  with  re- 
gard to  that  of  Alchipichi.  This 
machine  serves  not  only  to  carry 
over  persons  and  loads,  but  also 
the  beasts  themselves ;  the  rapi- 
dity of  the  stream,  and  the  mon- 
strous stones  continually  rolling 
along  it,  render  it  impracticable 
for  them  to  swim  over  it. 

"  The  tarabita  is  only  a  single 
rope  made  of  bujuco,  or  thongs 
of  an  ox's  hide,  and  consisting  of 
several  strands,  and  about  6  or  8 
inches  in  the  thickness.  This 
rope  is  extended  from  one  side  of 
the  river  to  the  other,  and  fasten- 
ed on  each  bank  to  strong  posts. 
'On  one  side  is  a  kind  of  wheel  to 
straighten  or  slacken  the  tarabita 
to  the  degree  required.  From 
the  tarabita  hangs  a  kind  of  ham- 
mock, capable  of  holding  a  man; 
and  is  suspended  by  a  clue  at 
each  end.  A  rope  is  also  fastened 
to  either  clue,  and  extended  to 
each  side  of  the  river,  for  draw- 
ing the  hammock  to  the  side  in- 
tended. A  push  at  its  first  setting 
off  sends  it  quickly  to  the  other 
side. 

"  For  carrying  over  the  mules, 
two  tarabitas  are  necessary,  one 
for  each  side  of  the  river,  and  the 
ropes  are  much  thicker  and  slack- 
er. On  this  rope  is  only  one  clue, 
which  is  of  wood,  and  by  which 
the  beast  is  suspended,  being 
secured  by  girths  round  the  belly, 
neck  and  legs.  When  this  is  per- 
formed, the  creature  is  shoved 
off,  and  immediately  landed  on 
the  opposite  side.  Sucli  as  are 
accustomed  to  be  carried  over  in 
this  manner,  never  make  the 
least  motion,  and  even  come  ol 
themselves  to  have  the  girths  fas- 
tened round  them  j  buf  it  is  with 


BRIBG  K. 


•eat  difficulty  they  are  at  first 
•ough   to  suffer  the  girths  to  be 
it  round  their  bodies,  and  when 
ey  find  themselves  suspended, 
ck    and    fling,    during  their 
ort  passage,  in  a  most  terrible 
anner.    The  river  of  Alchipichi 
ay  well  excite  terror  in  a  young; 
iveller,  being  between  thirty 
id  forty  fathoms    from  shore 
shore  ;  and  its  perpendicular 
tight  above  the  surface  of  the 
iter  twenty-five  fathoms." 
Bridges  of  this  description  are 
mbtless  the  most  simple,  as  also 
e  best  that  men  in  an  uncivilized 
ite  can  construct  for  deep  and 
pid  streams  :   but   when  the 
reams,  though  broad,  are  neither 
|ep  nor  rapid,  one  still  more 
nple    may    be  contrived,  by 
acing  large  stones  in  the  water, 
suitable  distances   apart,  and 
ving  other  stones  or  beams  of 
uber  on  them,  so  as  to  form 
continued   pathway    over  the 
earn.  To  these  kinds  of  bridges, 
hers  of  a  similar  nature  but  of 
;eater  utility  succeeded  when 
e  arts  began  to  be  studied  and 
jiovvn,  consisting  of  piers  com- 
»sed  of  hewn  stone,  laid  with  or 
thout  mortar,  and  single  stones 
|  beams  of  timber  stretched  from 
jr  to  pier  after  the  manner  of 
h  last  mentioned.    The  bridge 
|er  the  Euphrates  at  Babylon, 
spears  to  have  been  constructed 
i  this  manner  ;    and  there  are 
i  ary  of  a  similar  nature  in  dif- 
f  ent  parts  of  China. 
With  respect  to  the  next,  and 
^ind  mode,  that  of  constructing 
i 'lies  between  the  piers,  it  ap- 
}  irs  that  the  Chinese,  (if  we  may 
c  dit  their  accounts,)  contrived 
t.form  bridges  in  this  manner, 
Hpy  centuries  before  arches  were 
I  nvn  to  the  inhabitants  of  the 
^stern  world. 

Vom  the  accounts  generally 
£  en,  it  is  not  easy  to  form  dis- 


tinct ideas  of  the  dimensions  or 

constructions  of  tiie  Chinese 
bridges,  or  to  what  extent  they 
merit  the  appellation  bestowed 
by  travellers  of  being  great  and 
magnificent.  Duhalde  informs 
us,  that  "  the  stone  bridges  are 
commonly  built  like  ours,  on 
large  piers  of  stone  capable  of  re- 
sisting the  rapidity  of  the  stream, 
and  sustaining  the  weight  of  the 
arches,  wide  enough  for  the  pas- 
sage of  large  vessels.  They  are 
exceedingly  numerous,  and  the 
e^flfjperor  spares  no  expense  when 
the  public  good  requires  them  to 
be  built. 

"  Of  these,  there  is  one  very 
remarkable  at  Foutchcou-fou,  the 
capital  of  Toukien.  The  river  over 
which  it  is  built  is  half  a  league 
in  breadth  ;  it  is  sometimes  divid* 
ed  into  small  arms,  and  some- 
times separated  by  small  islands  j 
these  are  united  in  joining  the 
islands  by  bridges,  which  make 
altogether  eight  furlongs,  or  Chi- 
nese lys,  and  seventy-six  toises. 
The  principal  of  these  has  alone 
above  one  hundred  arches  built 
of  white  stone,  with  bannisters 
on  each  side  handsomely  carved, 
upon  which,  at  the  distance  of 
every  10  feet,  are  placed  square 
pilasters,  whose  bases  are  very 
large,  resembling  hollow  barks. 

"  But  that  which  excels  the 
rest  is  at  Suentchcou-fou,  built 
over  the  point  of  an  arm  of  the 
sea,  without  which,  the  passage 
would  be  sometimes  dangerous, 
even  in  a  boat.  It  is  2500  Chinese 
feet  in  length,  and  20  in  breadth  j 
it  is  supported  by  two  hundred 
and  fifty-two  strong  piers,  one 
hundred  and  twenty-six  on  each 
side.  All  the  stones  are  of  the 
same  bigness  as  well  those  which 
are  laid  from  pier  to  pier,  as  those 
which  are  laid  crosswise,  inso- 
much that  it  is  difficult  to  com- 
prehend how  stones  of  such  an 

413 


BRIDGE 


enormous  size  could  be  placed 
in  such  a  regular  manner,  or  even 
raised  on  the  high  piers  on  which 
they  lie.  After  this  there  is 
nothing  of  the  kind  worth  men- 
tioning." 

The  only  conclusion    to  be 
drawn  from  the  foregoing  de- 
scription of  this   work,  which 
excels  all  the  rest,  is,  that  two 
rows  of  large  stones  or  piers  (each 
row  consisting  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-six,)  have  been  setup 
across  the  shallow  mouth  of  a 
river  or  arm   of  the  sea  ;  thus 
along  the  top  of  these,  other  long 
stones  have  been  laid  horizon- 
tally, like  wooden  beams ;  and 
lastly  that  long  stones  have  been 
laid  crosswise  upon  these  longi- 
tudinal beams,  in  the  manner  of 
joists  in  carpentry,  or,  more  pro- 
bably close  together,  composing 
a  compact  bed  or  roadway.  By 
dividing  2500,  the  total  length 
in  Chinese  feet,  by  127,  the  num- 
ber of  openings,  it  gives  nearly 
20  feet  between  centre  and  centre 
of  the  piers, — so  that  after  the 
thickness  of  the  pier  is  taken 
away  from  the  20  feet,  a  moder- 
ate opening  is  left  for  the  lintel 
to  cover.    The  dimensions  cross- 
wise, correspond  with  the  descrip- 
tion as  to  the  stones  being  the 
same  size,  (at  least  as  to  length  ;) 
for  the  breadth  of  the  bridge  is 
said  to   be  20  feet,  and  taking 
away  the  thickness  of  the  two 
longitudinal  beams,    leaves  the 
dimensions  of  the  opening  to  be 
covered  by  the  stones  lying  cross- 
wise. It  is  therefore  to  the  carry- 
ing from  the  quarry  and  raising 
stones  of  this  magnitude,  that  the 
praise  of  ingenuity  must  be  attri- 
buted j  there  being  nothing  else 
in   the    mode   of  construction 
which    has  a  claim    to  refined 
science,  or  great  progress  in  the 
mechanical  arts.    The  danger  to 
boats  passing   must   no  doubt 


have  arisen  from  the  shallowness 
of  the  water,  and  the  frequency 
and  violence  of  the  surfs. 

From  the  following  relation, 
extracted  from  flie  same  work, 
there  is  reason  to  expect  correct 
information.  It  is  entitled,  "  An 
account  of  the  Journey  of  the 
Fathers  Boures,  Fontenay,  Gor- 
bellou  le  Compte,  and  Vesdelore, 
from  the  port  of  Ning  Po  to  Pe- 
kin,  with  a  very  exact  and  parti- 
cular description  of  all  the  places 
throughout  which  they  passed, 
in  the  provinces  of  Tche-kiang, 
Kiang-nan,  Chan-tong  and  Pe- 
tcheli. 

"  It  is  in  this  agreeable  place 
that  the  city  of  Chao-king  has  its 
situation.    In  the  streets  are  a 
great  number  of  canals,  which 
give  occasion  for  a  great  numbei 
of  bridges.    They  are  very  high, 
and  have  generally  but  one  arch, 
which  is  so  slightly  built  towards 
the  top,  that  carriages  never  past 
over  them,  which  makes  a  grea 
number    of    porters  necessary 
They  pass  over  these  bridges  bv 
a  kind  of  stairs,  of  very  eas> 
ascent,  whose  steps  are  not  mon 
than  3  inches  in  thickness.  Then 
are  other  sorts  of  bridges,  madj 
of  stones  18  feet  long,  laid  upoi 
piles  in  the  manner  of  planks 
There  are  many  of  these  over  th 
great    canal    very  handsomel 
built. 

Again,  "about  four  leagues  froii 
Hang-tcheou  we  crossed  a  villag 
called  Tan-si.  It  is  built  on  boti 
sides  of  the  canal,  on  which  ar 
also  two  quays,  about  four  hun 
dred  or  five  hundred  geometric; 
paces  in  length.  They  are  forme 
of  the  same  freestone  which  line 
the  sides  of  the  canal.  There  ar 
stairs  for  the  conveniency  of  ever 
house,  which  are  much  bette 
built,  and  more  uniform  tha 
those  in  the  city.  In  the  mid. 
of  the  village  is  a  fine  bridge  I 


BRIDGE. 


s^en  large  arches  that  in  the 
rddle  is  45  French  feet  wide  j 
t:  rest  diminish  in  proportion 
t  the  descent  of  the  bridge. 
Tere  are   two  or  three  great 

I  (iges  of  one  arch  only. 

'  We  crossed  a  great  village  or 
cintry  town,  called  Ovan-kiang- 
hg  of  large  extent.  One  part 
cnmunicates  with  the  other  by 
Jans  of  a  bridge  of  three  great 
ajhes  very  curiously  built :  the 
r:ddle  arch  is  45  French  feet 
vie,  and  20  feet  high." 
Of  these  arches,  which  are  here 
t  med  large  and  great,  we  find 
t ;  span  to  be  only  45  feet  j  an 
e'ent  which,  in  Europe,  would 
it  be  honoured  with  those  ap- 
t  lations.  The  Chinese  arches 
a  of  various  forms,  pointed  semi- 
c'cular,  semi-elliptical,  &c,  and 
Air  construction,  as  described 

II  Mr.  Barrow,  is  very  curious. 
"  Each  stone,  from  5  to  10  feet 

i  length,  is  cut  so  as  to  form  the 
e-,rment  of  the  arch,  and  in 
sen  cases  there  is  no  keystone  ; 
m  of  wood  fitted  to  the  convex- 
i '  of  the  arch  and  bolted  through 
1.3  stones  by  iron  bars,  fixed  fast 
i  :o  the  solid  parts  of  the  bridge  ; 
fljmetimes,  howrever,  they  are 
mhout  wood,  and  the  curved 
s'»nes  are  mortised  into  long 
t'nsverse  blocks  of  stone."  Mr. 
1  rrow  proceeds  to  observe, 
"here  are,  however,  arches 
therein  the  stones  are  smaller, 
£*1  pointed  to  a  centre  as  in  ours, 
lave  understood  from  the  late 
)tain  Parish,  that  no  masonry 
dd  be  superior  to  that  of  the 
l  sat  wall,  and  that  all  the  arched 
m  vaulted  work  in  the  old 
t'vers  was  exceedingly  well 
tlned." 

inongthe  ancients,  the  arch  does 
r  :  appear  to  have  been  known 
(her  in  Egypt  or  India  j  nor  is 
8''  trace  o*'  it  to  be  met  with  in 
t  ;  ancient  works  of  Persia  or 


Phoenicia;  the  Greeks  also  have 
a  very  doubtful  claim  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  arch.  The  first 
positive  information  that  occurs 
in  historians  regarding  the  use  of 
arches  is  given  by  Livy,  who  in- 
forms us  that  Scipio  Africanus, 
and  Lucius  Mummius,  placed  ar- 
ches on  piers,  which  had  been 
formed  by  M.  Fulvius  some  years 
before  that  period,  about  one  hun- 
dred years  before  Augustus  Caesar 
was  placed  in  the  empire.  And 
Cicero,  in  his  oration  against 
Verres,  mentions  an  arch,  erected 
in  honour  of  Verres,  at  Syracuse, 
<e  and  so  early  an  existence  of 
such  a  kind  of  structure  there, 
before  we  read  of  any  thing  like 
it  any  where  else,  may  fairly  lead 
us  to  suspect  that  Sicily  was  the 
country  where  this  noble  land  of 
ornament  first  appeared,  and  that, 
indeed,  Archimedes  was  the  in- 
ventor of  it." 

Hirtius  describes  arches  at 
Alexandria  ;  Livy  also  particular- 
izes a  street  called  the  archway  at 
Rome  j  and  Virgil  has  a  plain  re- 
ference to  arches  in  some  of  his 
ideal  descriptions  and  similes; 
yet  all  these  were  after  the  era 
of  Archimedes. 

However  doubtful  the  claim  to 
the  invention  of  the  arch  may  be, 
we  know,  from  the  best  historical 
evidence,  that  the  Romans  were 
the  first  who  applied  it  generally 
to  useful  purposes ;  such  as  in  the 
construction  of  aqueducts  and 
bridges,  and  in  the  vaulting  of 
magnificent  temples. 

The  bridges  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans seem  to  have  possessed  all 
the  requisites  which  are  met  with 
in  those  of  modern  times.  They 
consisted  of  piers,  arches,  and 
abutments  ;  and  had  roads  over 
the  middle  for  carri.agcs>  and  on 
each  side,  footpaths  or  ban- 
quettes for  the  accommodation 
of   passengers.      The  footpaths 


BRIDGE, 


were  raised  above  the  carriage- 
way, and  were  divided  from  it  by 
a  railing  ;  and  sometimes  were 
covered  over,  as  in  the  Pons  iElius, 
to  shelter  the  passengers  from  the 
rain. 

The  ancient  bridges  of  Rome, 
as  described  by  Gautier,  were 
eight  in  number.  1.  Pons  iElius, 
built  by  the'emperor  Adrian,  and 
named  after  him.  It  is  said  to 
have  once  had  a  cover  -of  bronze 
supported  by  forty-two  columns. 
It  is  now  called  Sancto  Angelo. 

2.  A  triumphal  bridge,  the 
ruins  of  which  are  now  seen  in  the 
Tiber.  Over  this  bridge  the  em- 
perors and  consuls  passed  when 
they  were  decreed  a  triumph. 

3.  Pons  Janiculenses,  now  Pon- 
to  Sixtus,  it  having  been  rebuilt 
by  pope  Sixtus  IV.  in  1745. 

4.  Pons  Cestius,  at  present  St. 
Bartholomew.  It  was  rebuilt  by 
the  emperor  Valentinian. 

5.  Pons  Fabricius,  now  Ponto 
Caspi. 

6.  Pons  Senatorius,  at  present 
Sancta  Maria. 

7.  Pons  Horatius  formerly  Sub- 
licius,  built  of  stone  by  Horatius 
Cocles,  and  rebuilt  by  Emilius 
Lepidus.  The  ruins  of  this  bridge 
are  still  to  be  seen  in  the  Tiber. 

8.  Pons  Milvius,  which  is  about 
two  miles  out  of  Rome  upon  the 
Flaminian  way. 

Besides  these,  the  Romans 
constructed  many  other  bridges, 
some  of  which  were  very  magni- 
ficent. One  built  by  Augustus, 
near  Narni,  on  the  road  from 
Rome  to  Loretto,  consisted  of 
four  arches,  the  span  of  the  first 
being  75  feet  and  102  feet  high, 
and  the  spans  of  the  others  135, 
114,  and  142  feet:  another,  that 
of  Merida,  upon  the  river  Guadi- 
ana,  is,  according  to  don  Antonio 
Pouz,  1300  paces  in  length,  and 
according  to  Vargas,  contained 
sixty-four  arches ;   but,    in  the 

416 


time  of  Philip  III.,  one  of  the 

large  arches  towards  the  middk 
was  destroyed  by  an  •  inundation 
on  which  account  three  or  foui 
adjoining  were  rebuilt  in  1610 
The  most  magnificent  of  all  th< 
Roman  bridges  is,  perhaps,  tha 
of  Alcantara  upon  the  Tagus.  I 
consists  of  six  arches  :  its  wholi 
length  is  670  Spanish  feet,  an', 
from  the  bottom  of  the  river  t( 
the  roadway  the  height  is  20; 
feet. 

Beside  the  bridges  we  have  en 
umerated,  the  Romans  construct 
ed  many  others  which  are  eithe 
still  existing,  or  have  been  cor 
rectly  described  to  us.  Account 
also  have  been  handed  down  t 
us  of  other  bridges,  constructe 
for  the  temporary  purposes  c 
war,  as  that  of  Darius  upon  th 
Thracian  Bosphorus,  Xerxc- 
upon  the  Hellespont,  Pyrrhii 
upon  the  Adriatic  Gulph,  Caeso 
upon  the  Rhine,  and  Trajan  upo 
the  Danube. 

The  building  and  repairing  ( 
the  Roman  bridges  was  intruste 
first  to  the  priests,  who  wo 
named  pontijices,  then  to  the  cer 
sors  and  curators  of  the  road 
and  lastly,  the  emperors  took  tl 
management  of  the  bridges  inl 
their  own  hands. 

After  the  destruction  of  tl 
Roman  empire,  and  when  the  ar 
began  to  revive  in  Europe,  a  n 
gular  order  of  hospitallers  Wi 
founded  by  St.  Benezet,  an  ei 
thusiast,  under  the  denominatic 
of  pontifices  or  bridge-builder 
St.  Benezet  and  his  brethren  coi 
structed  the  bridge  of  Avigno 
composed  of  eighteen  arches,  ar 
about  1000  yards  in  length, 
was  begun  in  the  year  1176,  at 
finished  in  1188.  During  tl 
contentions  of  the  popes,  in  138 
some  of  the  arches  were  destro 
ed  ;  three  others  fell,  for  want 
repairs,  in  1602  ;  and  the  destru 


BRIDGE 


ion  of  the  bridge  was  completed 
n  1670,  by  large  masses  of  ice, 
vhich  floated  down  the  river  after 
severe  frost. 

The  city  of  Venice  has  nearly 
ye  hundred  handsome  bridges 
f  stone  of  one  arch,  and  of  var- 
ms  sizes,  over  the  canals,  8cc. 
he  chief  of  these,    called  the 
lalto,  erected  after  a  design  of 
lichael  Angelo  Buonarrotti,  was 
insidered  at  the  time  of  its  erec- 
on  a  masterpiece  of  art.  It 
msists  of  a  bold  flat  arch,  nearly 
X)  feet  in  span,  and  only  23  feet 
o-h  above  the  water  ;  and  was 
instructed    in    1588  to  1591. 
,he  breadth  of  the  bridge,  which 
;  43  feet,  is  divided  by  two  rows 
,*  shops  into  three  narrow  streets, 
at  in   the   middle  being  the 
klest ;  and  there  is  in  the  centre 
i  open  archway,  by  which  the 
ree  streets  communicate  with 
le  another.    At  each  end  of  the 
lidge  is  an  ascent  of  56  feet,  and 
e  prospect  from  its  summit  is 
th  lively  and  magnificent.  The 
hole  exterior  of  the  shops  and 
the  bridge  is  marble.  The 
undation  extends  90  feet,  and 
sts  upon  twelve  hundred  elm 
les.    This  structure  cost  the 
public  two  hundred  and  fifty 
fpusaod  ducats. 
One  of  the  most  magnificent  of 
B    aqueduct   bridges  hitherto 
cistructed  is  that  of  Alcantara, 
air  the  city  of  Lisbon.    It  was 
commenced  in  the  reign  of  John 
\  king  of  Portugal,  in  the  year 
113,  and  was  finished  the  6th  of 
gust,  1*32,  under  the  super- 
i  endence  of  the  brigadier  Man- 
s.  de  Maya.   The  aqueduct  com- 
n  nces  at  a    spring;   near  the 
I  m  ria  de  Caranque,  about  three 
1<  rues  and  a  half  from  Lisbon; 
ft  I  the  water  is  conveyed  thence 
tjjough  subterraneous  passages  in 
tl  lulls,  and  through  a  magnificent 
t  ge  of  arches  suspended  over 


the  vallies  by  means  of  very  high 
piers,  for  the  use  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  city  of  Lisbon,  and 
those  of  the  villages  adjacent. 
When  the  water  emerges  from 
its  subterraneous  passage,  it  is 
conveyed  along  the  top  of  the 
arches  by  two  channels,  of  the 
depth  of  12  inches  each  ;  but  it 
generally  flows  at  a  depth  of  about 
7  inches,  yielding  an  abundant 
and  never-failing  supply.  The 
interior  height  of  this  ljuilding  is 
about  13  feet ;  and  through  the 
centre,  between  the  streams,  is  a 
wide  handsome  footpath,  paved 
with  freestone.  The  building  is 
continued  the  same  height  and 
width  through  the  whole  of  the 
aqueduct  from  the  spring  to  Lis- 
bon ;  so  that  if  by  accident  any 
part  becomes  out  of  repair,  the 
workmen  can  have  easy  access  to 
it.  The  subterraneous  passages 
are  lighted  and  ventilated  by  ex- 
cavations made  from  the  surface 
of  the  hills,  through  which  they 
pass  to  the  aqueduct  j  and  over 
each  of  the  openings  thus  made, 
turrets  or  square  towers  are  erect- 
ed, having  apertures,  latticed  with 
iron  bars,  to  admit  the  light  and 
air,  and  at  the  same  time  to  prevent 
mischievous  persons  from  throw- 
ing any  thing  into  the  aqueduct 
to  injure  it.  These  turrets  are 
sixteen  in  number,  and  16  feet 
square,  and  rise  23  feet  6  inches 
above  the  roof.  The  windows, 
or  apertures,  for  the  admission  of 
light  and  air,  are  3  feet  7  inches 
long,  by  13  inches  wide.  Beneath 
every  second  turret  is  an  arched 
doorway  into  the  aqueduct,  on 
each  side  of  the  building  wherein 
the  water  flows,  and  between  that 
building  and  the  parapet  wall  is  a 
footpath,  leading  from  Lisbon 
towards  the  very  pleasant  village 
of  Bemsique,  about  four  miles 
distant,  where  several  gentlemen 
have  their  quintas,  or  country- 

417 


BRIDGE 


seats.  The  water  channel  under 
the  grand  arch  is  24  feet  m  width, 
and  7  feet  in  depth  ,  but  no 
water  passes  through  it,  except 
in  very  rainy  seasons:  the 
small  stream,  continually  passing 
through  the  vale  of  Alcantara, 
is  conveyed  by  means  of  a  very 
narrow  channel,  under  the  pave- 
ment beneath  the  grand  arch, 
and  then  continues  its  course 
through  the  valley,  in  a  stream 
between  2  and  3  feet  wide,  until 
it  empties  itself  into  the  Tagus  at 
Alcantara  bridge,  at  the  distance 
of  about  two  miles  from  the 
aqueduct.  This  remarkable  struc- 
ture consists  of  thirty-five  ar- 
ches, of  various  dimensions.  The 
eighth,  which  is  the  grand  arch, 
is  108  feet  5  inches  wide,  and  227 
feet  high  s  and  the  total  length  of 
the  piers  and  arches  is  2464  feet. 
The  expense  attending  the  ex- 
ecution of  so  magnificent  a  work, 
and  keeping  the  same  in  repair, 
though  immense,  has  hitherto 
been  defrayed  by  the  small  tax  of 
a  single  rey  on  every  pound  of 
butcher's  meat  sold  in  the  mar- 
kets of  Lisbon. 

In  France,  besides  the  bridges  of 
Pont  du  Garde,  near  Nismes,  and 
St.  Esprit,  near  Lyons,  construct- 
ed by  the  ancient  Romans,  there 
are  several  remarkable  for  their 
size  and  boldness  of  construction. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
the  bridge  of  Neuilly,  built  by 
M.  Perron et,  over  the  Seine,  on 
the  alignment  of  the  grand  avenue 
of  the  Champs  Elysees,  in  front  of 
the  palace  of  the  Thuilleries.  This 
bridge,  which  is  level  on  the  top, 
consists  of  five  equal  arches,  of 
120  feet  French,  which  is  equal 
to  12S  English  feet,  in  the  span, 
and  30  feet  French,  which  is 
equal  to  32  feet  English  in  the 
rise.  The  arches  are  elliptical, 
composed  of  eleven  arcs  of 
circles   of  different   diameters  j 

418 


thus  tne  upper  portion  of  the  arch 
was  formed  with  a  circle  of  160 
feet  radius,  which,  by  its  settle- 
ment during  the  building  and 
after  the  striking  of  the  centres, 
was  flattened,  till  it  became  an 
arc  of  a  circle  of  259  feet  radius, 
dtfFering  so  little  from  a  platband, 
that,  as  Perronet  observes,  the 
rise  of  the  curve  in  a  length 
of  33  feet,  amounted  only  to  6  j 
inches  9  lines.  The  piers  are  14 
feet  wide,  and  the  breadth  of  the 
bridge  is  48  feet.  It  was  begun 
in  the  year  1768,  and  finished 
in  17S0. 

At  Nantes  is  a  bridge  over  the  i 
Seine,  consisting  of  three  arches, 
that  in  the  centre  having  an  open- 
ing of  120  feet  French,  which  is, 
as  we  have  stated  above,  equal 
to  12S  feet  English  ;  and  that  on 
each  side  108  feet  French,  which 
is  equal  to  116  feet  English.  The 
piers  of  this  bridge  are  25  feet  6 
inches  wide,  and  the  abutments; 
29  feet.  It  was  begun  by  Mj 
Hupeau  in  1757,  and  completed; 
by  Perronet. 

On  the  river  Oise,  on  the  grea* 
road  from  Paris  into  Flanders,  u 
the  bridge  of  Pont-Sainte-Maix 
ence,  which  is  also  the  work  o 
Perronet.  It  is  41  feet  wide 
and  has  three  arches  of  77  fee 
opening,  each  being  a  segment  o 
a  circle  described  with  a  radius  o 
118  feet.  Each  pier  is  singulurl; 
composed  of  four  cylindrical  pil 
lars  9  feet  diameter,  leaving 
therefore,  three  spaces  of  in- 
ter columniations  between  then; 
which  are  arched  over,  the  fcv 
external  ones  closed  with  a  thi 
walling,  and  the  middle  one  lei 
open. 

The  bridge  over  the  Loire,  a 
Orleans,  is  composed  of  nin| 
arches,  which  spring  at  12  inchc 
above  low  water.  The  uiiddl 
arch  is  106  feet  in  span,  with  I 
rise  of  30  feet,  the  two  arches . 


BRIDGE. 


the  extremities  98  feet  wide  and 
26  feet  high  ;  and  the  others  in 
proportion.  The  four  middle  piers 
are  19  feet,  the  four  others  18 
feet,  and  the  abutments  23  feet 
6  inches  thick,  making  the  whole 
length  1100  feet  ;  the  arches  are 
oval,  described  from  three  centres. 
This  bridge  was  built  by  tl.  Hu- 
peau,  and  was  begun  in  1750  and 
finished  in  1760. 

There  is  another  bridge  built 
upon  one  of  the  arms  of  the 
Loire,  at  Saumar.  It  was  design- 
ed byM.de  Voglio,  and  executed 
by  L.  A.  de  Cessart.  This  bridge 
consists  of  twel  ve  elliptical  arches, 
each  having  a  span  of  60  feet, 
and  a  rise  of  21  feet  :  the  piers 
are  12  feet  thick,  and  the  breadth 
'of  the  bridge,  including  the  para- 
pets, is  42  feet  French,  or  42  feet 
9  inches  English.  It  was  begun 
in  1756',  and  finished  in  1770. 

The  progress  of  bridge  build- 
ing in  England  seems  to  have 
kept  pace  with  the  same  art  on 
the  continent.  The  most  ancient 
structure  of  this  kind  now  re- 
raaining  entire  is  the  triangular 
•rothic  bridge  atCroyland,  in  Lin- 
colnshire. It  is  said  to  have  been 
built  in  the  year  860,  which  date 
-  most  likely  correct,  for  Croyland 
ihbey  was  founded  in  716,  and  the 
ibhey  of  Rumsey,  in  Huntingdon- 
hire,  in  974.  It  is  formed  by 
iiree  semi-arches,  whose  bases 
tand  in  the  circumference  of  a 
ircle,  equidistant  from  each  other, 
ml  uniting  at  the  top.  The 
liune  nature  of  the  structure 
as  led  some  to  suppose  that  it 
•  as  intended  as  an  emblem  of 
tie  trinity,  which  is  not  impro- 
ahle,  considering  the  age  in 
liich  it  was  constructed.  The 
scent  on  either  side  of  the  semi- 
•rches  i-;  by  steps,  paved  with 
mall  stones,  and  is  so  steep  that 
one  but  foot  passengers  can  go 
ver  the  bridge ;  horsemen  and 


carriages  frequently  pass  under 
it,  as  the  river  is  but  shallow. 
This  singular  structure  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  built  less  with 
a  view  to  utility  than  to  that  of 
boldness  and  originality  of  design, 
still  exhibits  no  symptoms  of 
decay. 

London-bridge  was  first  built 
with  timber  in  the  reign  ofEthelred, 
between  the  years  993  and  1010 ; 
and  it  was  repaired,  or  rather  re- 
built, in  1163.  The  present  stone 
bridge  was  begun  in  1 176,  under 
king  Henry  II.,  and  finished  un- 
der king  John  in  the  year  1209  : 
and  it  is  worthy  of  remark,  that 
the  bridge  of  Avignon  was  begun 
by  St.  Benezet  in  the  same  year 
that  Peter  of  Colchester,  a  priest, 
began  to  build  London-bridge  of 
stone.  This  bridge,  which  is  in 
the  old  gothic  style,  had  formerly 
twenty  small  locks  or  arches  $ 
but  there  are  now  only  nineteen, 
as  two  arches  have  been  convert- 
ed into  one  in  the  centre.  The 
length  of  this  bridge  is  940  feet, 
its  height  44  feet,  and  there  is  a 
clear  width  of  47  feet  between 
the  parapets.  The  piers  are  from 
15  to  35  feet  thick,  with  enor- 
mous sterlings  projecting  at  each 
side  j  so  that  when  the  tide  is 
above  the  sterlings  the  greatest 
water-way  is  but  545  feet,  scarce- 
ly half  the  breadth  of  the  river  j 
and  when  the  tide  is  below  the 
sterlings,  the  water-way  is  re- 
duced to  204  feet,  which  causes 
a  dangerous  fall  of  water.  During 
many  centuries,  houses  were  on 
each  side  of  the  bridge  ;  but 
these  were  removed,  the  avenues 
to  the  bridge  were  enlarged,  and 
two  arches  were  thrown  into  one, 
in  175S.  The  repairs  amounted 
to  upwards  of  eighty  thousand 
pounds ;  but,  notwithstanding 
this  expenditure,  the  bridge  is  in 
so  dilapidated  a  condition  that  a 
new  bridge  has  been  resolved  on, 

419 


bridge. 


and  is  now  in  the  progress  of 
construction  under  the  inspection 
of  the  Messrs.  John  and  George 
Rerinie.  Of  this  we  shall  speak 
more  at  large  under  the  subhead. 
Practice. 

Other  bridges  in  England  were 
built  in  the  manner  of  London- 
bridge  ;  as  that  of  Rochester, 
which  is  550  feet  long,  and  has 
eleven  arches  ;  and  that  till  lately 
at  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  which 
was  broken  down  by  a  great  flood 
in  the  year  1771.  The  longest 
bridge  in  England  is  that  built  by 
Bernard,  abbot  of  Burton,  over 
the  Trent,  at  Burton,  in  the 
twelfth  century.  It  is  all  of 
squared  freestone,  and  is  strong 
and  lofty,  1545  feet  in  lengthy 
and  consists  of  thirty-four  ar- 
ches. 

In  1636,  Inigo  Jones  gave  a 
design  for  a  bridge,  which  was 
afterwards  erected  at  Llanwst,  in 
Denbighshire.  It  consists  of  three 
arches,  segments  of  circles.  The 
middle  arch  is  58  feet  span,  and 
has  a  rise  of  17  feet.  The  piers 
are  10  feet  thick  ;  and  the  breadth 
of  the  soffit  of  the  middle  arch 
is  14  feet.  This  bridge  has  a 
very  light  appearance. 

One  of  the  most  extraordinary 
of  the  bridges  in  Great  Britain  is 
that  over  the  river  Taaf,  near 
Llantrissent,  in  Glamorganshire, 
called  in  Welsh,  Pont  y  ty  Pry  del. 
It  is  the  work  of  William  Ed- 
wards, an  uneducated  mason  of 
the  country,  who  was  only  in- 
debted for  his  skill  to  his  own 
industry  and  the  power  of  his 
genius.  He  had  engaged,  in 
1746,  to  build  a  new  bridge  at 
this  place,  which  he  executed  in 
a  style  superior  to  any  thing  of 
the  kind  in  this  or  any  other  part 
of  Wales,  for  neatness  of  work- 
manship and  elegance  of  design. 
"  It  consisted,"  says  Malkin,  in 
his  "  To u r  in  South  Wales,"  "  of 


three  arches,  elegantly  light  in 
their  construction.  The  hewn 
stones  were  excellently  well  dress- 
ed and  closely  jointed.  It  was 
admired  by  all  who  saw  it.  But 
this  river  runs  through  a  very 
deep  vale  that  is  more  than 
usually  woody,  and  crowded 
about  with  mountains.  It  is  also 
to  be  considered,  that  many  other 
rivers  of  no  mean  capacity,  as  the 
Crue,  the  Bargoed  Taaf,  and  the 
Cunno,  besides  almost  numberless 
brooks  that  run  through  long, 
deep,  and  well  wooded  vales  or 
glens,  fall  into  the  Taaf  in  its 
progress.  The  descents  into  these 
vales  from  the  mountains  being 
in  general  very  steep,  the  water 
in  long  and  heavy  rains  collects 
into  these  rivers  with  great  rapi- 
dity and  force,  raising  floods, 
that  in  their  descriptions  would 
appear  absolutely  incredible  to 
the  inhabitants  of  open  and  flat 
countries,  where  the  rivers  are 
neither  so  precipitate  in  their 
courses,  nor  have  such  hills  on 
each  side  to  swell  them  into  tor- 
rents. Such  a  flood  unfortunately 
occurred  after  the  completion 
of  this  undertaking,  which  tore 
up  the  largest  trees  by  the  roots, 
and  carried  them  down  the  river 
to  the  bridge,  where  the  arches 
were  not  sufficiently  large  to  ad- 
mit of  their  passage.  Here,  there- 
fore, they  were  detained.  Brush- 
wood, weeds,  hay,  straw,  and 
whatever  lay  in  the  way  of  the  ! 
flood,  came  down  and  collected  1 
about  the  branches  of  the  trees 
that  stuck  fast  in  the  arches,  and 
choked  the  free  current  of  the  i 
water.  In  consequence  of  this 
obstruction  to  the  flood,  a  strong  ! 
and  thick  dam,  as  it  were,  was 
thus  formed.  The  aggregate  of  j 
so  many  collected  streams  being  i 
unable  to  get  any  further,  rose 
here  to  a  prodigious  height,  and 
with  the  force  of  its  pressure,  car-  J 


BRIDGE. 


ried  the  bridge  entirely  away  be- 
fore it.  William  Edwards  had 
given  security  for  the  stability  of 
The  bridge  during  the  space  of 
seven  years ;  of  course  he  was 
obliged  to  erect  another,  and  he 
proceeded  on  his  duty  with  all 
possible  speed.  The  bridge  had 
only  stood  about  two  years  and  a 
halt*.  The  second  bridge  was  of 
one  arch,  for  the  purpose  of  ad- 
mitting freely  under  it  whatever 
encumbrances  the  floods  might 
bring  down.  The  span  or  chord 
of  this  arch  was  140  feet,  its  alti- 
tude 35  feet,  the  segment  of  a 
circle  whose  diameter  was  170 
feet.  The  arch  was  finished,  but 
the  parapets  not  yet  erected,  when 
such  was  the  pressure  of  the  un- 
'  avoidable  ponderous  work  over 
the  haunches,  that  it  sprung  in 
the  middle,  and  the  keystones 
were  forced  out.  This  was  a 
severe  blow  to  a  man  who  had 
hitherto  met  with  nothing  but 
misfortune  in  an  enterprise  which 
was  to  establish  or  ruin  him  in 
his  profession.  William  Edwards, 
however,  possessed  a  courage 
'  which  did  not  easily  forsake  him  ; 
he  engaged  in  it  a  third  time,  and 
by  means  of  cylindrical  holes 
'  through  the  haunches,  so  re- 
'duced  their  weight,  that  there 
was  no  longer  any  danger  from 
it.  The  second  bridge  fell  in 
T/51  •  the  third  which  has  stood 
'ever  since,  was  completed  in 
1755."  The  present  arch  is  140 
feet  in  span,  and  35  feet  high, 
being  a  segment  of  a  circle  of 
1 75  feet  diameter.  In  each  haunch 
there  are  three  cylindrical  open- 
ings running  through  from  side 
to  side;  the  diameter  of  the  low- 
est is  9  feet,  of  the  next  G  feet, 
and  of  the  uppermost  3  feet.  The 
width  of  the  bridge  is  about  11 
feet*  To  strengthen  it  horizon- 
tally it  is  made  widest  at  the  abut- 
ments, from  which  it  contracts 


towards  the  centre  by  seven  off- 
sets, so  that  the  roadway  is  1 
foot  9  inches  wider  at  the  extre- 
mities than  at  the  middle. 

The  bridge  over  the  river 
Thames,  at  Westminster,  was  con- 
structed by  Mr.  Labalye.  It  is 
1220  feet  long  and  4  4  feet  wide, 
having  a  commodious  footpath, 
7  feet  broad,  on  each  side.  It  con- 
sists of  thirteen  large  and  two 
small  arches,  fourteen  interme- 
diate piers,  and  two  abutments. 
The  length  of  each  abutment  is 
76  feet  ;  the  opening  of  each  of 
the  smaller  arches  is  25  feet  ;  the 
span  of  the  first  of  the  larger 
arches,  one  being  at  each  end,  ad- 
joining the  smaller  arches,  is  52 
feet  ;  of  the  next,  56*  feet  ;  and 
so  on  progressively,  increasing 
4  feet  at  a  time,  to  the  centre  arch 
of  which  the  span  is  76  feet.  The 
piers  of  the  middle  arch  contain 
each  3000  cubic  feet,  or  near  two 
hundred  tons  of  solid  stone,  and 
are  each  17  feet  thick  ;  the  others 
decrease  equally  1  foot  on  each 
side ;  every  pier  terminating  with 
a  gallant  right  angle  against  the 
stream.  The  arches  are  semi- 
circular, and  spring  from  about 
the  height  of  2  feet  above  low 
water  mark,  leaving  a  free  water- 
way of  870  feet.  The  footway 
is  adorned  with  semi-octangular 
towers  over  every  pier,  which 
afford  passengers  commodious 
shelter  from  a  shower  of  rain. 
This  bridge  was  begun  in  1/36, 
the  centre  of  the  last  arch  was 
struck  on  the  25th  of  July,  1/47, 
and  on  the  14th  day  of  Novem- 
ber of  the  same  year  the  roads 
and  streets  were  finished.  A  cir- 
cumstance, however,  occurred, 
which  prevented  the  bridge  from 
being  opened  to  the  public  till 
the  expiration  of  three  years. 
Some  workmen,  who  were  em- 
ployed to  get  gravel  out  of  the 
bed  of  the   river  to  cover  the 

4*1 


BRIDGE. 


roadway  of  the  bridge,  finding 
some  very  suitable  near  the  third 
pier  on  the  western  side  of  the 
centre  arch,  excavated  consider- 
ably lower  than  the  foundation 
of  the  pier,  and  too  near  it ;  the 
consequence  was,  that  gravel 
run  from  under  the  platform,  and 
the  pier  sunk  so  much  as  to  render 
it  necessary  to  take  down  the  two 
arches  that  rested  upon  it.  The 
securing  the  foundation,  rebuild- 
ing the  pier  and  two  arches,  and 
replacing  the  parapets,  pavements, 
and  roadways,  occupied  the  space 
we  have  mentioned,  and  the 
bridge  was  not  opened  to  the 
public  till  the  1 8th  of  November, 
1750.  By  some  this  bridge  has 
been  spoken  of  in  terms  of  the 
highest  praise  ;  but  others  com- 
plain that  the  arches  are  too  small 
in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of 
masonry. 

The  piers  of  Westminster- 
bridge  were  laid  by  means  of 
caissons,  of  which  we  shall  take 
notice  under  the  subhead,  Prac- 
tice. The  building  of  the  bridge, 
&c.  amounted  to  the  net  expense 
of  ^62 18,800. 

About  ten  years  after  the  com- 
pletion of  Westminster-bridge, 
another  handsome  stone  structure 
was  thrown  over  the  Thames, 
near  the  centre  of  the  city  of 
London.  This  structure,  now 
generally  known  by  the  name 
of  Blackfriars-b ridge,  was  plan- 
ed and  built  by  the  late  Mr. 
Robert  Mylne,  between  1760  and 
I77I,  the  building  occupying  a 
term  of  ten  years  and  three  quar- 
ters. This  bridge  is  from  shore 
to  shore,  995  feet  in  length,  and 
43  feet  6  inches  in  width,  and  has 
nine  elliptical  arches.  The  centre 
arch  is  100  feet  in  width,  and  the 
four  arches  on  either  side  de- 
crease gradually  towards  the  shore, 
being  98,  93,  83,  and  70  feet  res- 
pectively, leaving  a  clear  water- 

422 


way  of  788  feet.  The  upper  sur- 
face of  the  bridge  forms  the  seg- 
ment of  a  very  large  circle,  guard- 
ed on  each  side  with  an  elegant 
open  stone  balustrade  j  and,  whe- 
ther viewed  from  the  water  or 
from  the  shore,  has  a  very  fine 
appearance.  Over  each  pier  is  an 
open  recess  or  balcony  supported 
by  two  slender  ionic  columns  and 
pilasters,  which  rest  on  a  circular 
projection  from  the  pier,  above 
high  water  mark.  Each  extre- 
mity of  the  bridge  is  rounded  off 
to  the  right  and  left,  in  form  of 
the  quadrant  of  a  circle,  which 
renders  the  access  commodious 
and  agreeable.  The  cost  of  erec- 
tion amounted  to  «£l5^,S40. 

In  erecting  this  edifice  Mr. 
Mylne  benefited  by  the  example 
of  Labalye  ;  and  the  general  de- 
sign of  the  bridge  bespeaks  a 
mind  emboldened  by  the  success 
of  his  predecessor,  to  advance, 
though  very  cautiously,  a  step 
further  in  the  practice  of  bridge- 
building.  The  piers  being  pro- 
portionally less  thick,  and  the 
arches  wider  and  of  an  elliptical 
form,  with  less  masonry  upon 
them,  give  this  bridge  a  much 
lighter  appearance  than  that  of 
Westminster,  though  it  has  been 
doubted,  whether  the  slender  de- 
tached ionic  columns  are  a  proper 
accompaniment  to  such  a  work, 
and  whether  the  divisions  of  the 
length  of  the  rusticated  headers 
of  the  arches  are  any  improve- 
ment. 

In  the  interval  between  the 
completion  of  Blackfriars-bridge 
and  the  commencement  of  that 
noblest  of  structures,  Waterloo- 
bridge,  many  very  neat  and  ele- 
gant bridges  have  been  erected; 
in  different  parts  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  Of  these  we  shall 
briefly  mention  the  Tees,  at  Win- 
ston, in  Yorkshire,  consisting  of 
a  single  arch  of  108  feet  9  inches! 


BRIDGE. 


span,  designed  by  sir  Thomas  Ro- 
binson ;  one  over  the  Tweed  at 
Kelso,  consisting  of  five  elliptical 
i  arches,  each  of  72  feet  span, 
)  erected  under  the  direction  of 
Mr.  John  Hennie  ;  the  aqueduct 
i  bridge   on   the  river   Lune,  at 
Lancaster,  consisting  of  five  ar- 
l  ches,  each  of  70  feet  span  ;  de- 
signed by  the  same  eminent  en- 
gineer.   Essex-bridge   over  the 
iLiffey,  designed  and  built  by  Mr. 
George    Sempie,    consisting  of 
five  arches;  one  of  the  span  of 
,  58  feet,  another  of  37  feet,  and 
i  three  of  45  feet.  Sarah's-bridge, 
constructed  by  Mr.  Stevens,  hav- 
ing an  arch  of  1  JO  feet  span,  with 
a  rise  of  22  feet,  also  over  the 
river  Liffey.  Another  bridge  over 
i tiie  same  river,  called  Carlisle- 
I bridge,  consisting  of  three  arches, 
the  middle  being  50  feet  in  span, 
and  the  other  two  40  feet  each* 
one  of  a  single  arch  of  130  feet 
span,  built  at  Aberdeen,  from  a 
idesign  by  Mr.  Telford  :  another 
by  the  same  eminent  engineer, 
upon  the  river  Dee,  having  an 
arch  of  the  span  of  1 18  feet,  and 
the  rise  or  versed  sine  38  feet; 
one  by  Mr.  G.  Burn,  over  the 
river  Spey,  near  Gordon  Castle, 
at  Fochabars,  consisting  of  four 
arches,  the  two  middle  ones  being 
95  feet  span,  and  the  breadth 
over  the  parapets  2  I  feet  6  inches  : 
and  that  built  by  the  duke  of 
Athol  over  the  river  Tay  at  Dun- 
keld,  from  a  design  by  Mr.  Tel- 
ford, consisting  of  five  large  ar- 
ches, and  two  smaller  land  arches, 
the  middle  arch  being  90  feet 
man,  with  a  rise  of  30  feet,  and 
|he  width  over  the  parapets  27 
feet  6  inches. 

,  Waterloo-bridge,  thrown  over 
,the  river  Thames,  at  London,  was 
-projected  by  Mr.  George  Dodd, 
.about  the  year  1805.  Consider- 
able time,  however,  elapsed  be- 
fore   the  ultimate  arrangement! 


necessary  to  carry  it  into  execra- 
tion were  made.  The  first  act 
was  obtained  in  the  month  of 
June,  1809,  and  incorporated  the 
proprietors  under  the  name  of 
the  "  Strand-bridge  Company," 
empowering  them  to  raise  the 
sum  of  500,000/.  in  transferable 
shares  of  100/.  each;  and  the 
further  sum  of  300,000/..  by  the 
issuing  new  shares,  or  by  mort- 
gage, in  case  it  should  be  found 
necessary,  in  July,  1 8 1 3,  a  second 
act  was  passed,  enabling  them 
to  raise  an  additional  sum  of 
200,000/.;  and  in  July,  18 1G,  a 
third  act  was  obtained,  granting 
the  company  further  powers,  and 
changing  the  name  from  the 
Strand -bridge  to  Waterloo-bridge, 
which  name  it  now  bears. 

Mr.  Ilennie,  having  been  ap- 
pointed engineer  to  the  company, 
on  the  23d  day  of  June,  1810, 
furnished  two  designs,  one  ot 
seven  and  the  other  of  nine 
arches,  the  latter  of  which  was 
finally  approved  by  the  commit- 
tee, and  ordered  to  be  put  in 
execution. 

This  noble  bridge  is  situate 
about  half  way  between  the 
bridges  of  Blackfriars  and  West- 
minster. The  river  at  this  place 
is  about  1,326  feet  wide  at  high 
water  ;  and  ordinary  spring  tides 
rise  about  13  feet,  and  ordi- 
nary neap  tides  about  9  feet  6 
inches.  The  greatest  depth  at 
low  water  is  about  9  feet.  The 
bed  of  the  river  is  composed  prin- 
cipally of  a  stratum  of  sand  and 
gravel  resting  upon  clay. 

The  bridge  is  level,  and  con- 
sists of  nine  semi-elliptical  arches, 
each  having  a  span  of  120  feet, 
and  a  rise  of  35  feet ;  thus  leav- 
ing for  the  navigation  30  feet  of 
clear  height  above  the  high  water 
of  spring  tides,  and  forming  an 
ample  water-way  of  1,080  feet. 
The  abutmants  are  40  feet  thick 
423 


BRIDGE. 


at  the  bases,  and  diminish  to  30 
feet  at  the  springing  of  the  ar- 
ches. Their  lengths,  including 
the  stairs,  are  140  feet.  The 
piers  are  30  feet  broad  at  the 
base,  and  diminish  to  two-thirds 
at  the  springing  of  the  arches. 
Their  lengths  at  the  bases  are 
87  feet.  The  points,  or  saliant 
angle-,  of  the  piers  are  in  the 
form  of  a  gothic  arch,  and  are 
terminated  above  by  two  three- 
quarter  columns  supporting  an 
entablature  which  forms  a  recess. 
The  whole  is  surmounted  with  a 
balluster,  and  a  frieze  and  cor- 
nice of  the  Grecian  doric.  The 
columns  are  doric  also,  and  were 
selected  on  account  of  the  extra- 
ordinary strength  of  their  pro- 
portions, as  being  best  suited  to 
a  structure  of  this  magnitude ; 
they  are  23  feet  9  inches  high, 
or  rather  more  than  four  diame- 
ters. 

The  clear  width  between  the 
parapets  is  42  feet  4  inches ; 
allowing  23  feet  4  inches  for  the 
carriage-way,  and  7  feet  for  each 
of  the  footpaths. 

Four  plying  places,  or  stairs, 
for  watermen,  are  formed  by 
circular  wings,  projecting  at  right 
angles  to  the  bridge,  with  arch- 
ways leading  to  the  roadway. 
These  wings  are  ornamented  with 
columns,  entablatures,  &c.  as  be- 
fore described. 

The  bridge  being  level,  and  of 
so  great  a  length,  it  became  ne- 
cessary to  provide  means  for  car- 
rying off  the  rain-water.  This  is 
effected  by  having  circular  open- 
ings in  the  centre  of  each  pier, 
which  enter  the  river  immediately 
below  low- water  mark:  these 
openings  are  connected  with  iron 
branch  pipes  up  to  the  level  of 
the  roadway,  where  gratings  are 
placed  to  receive  the  water. 

The  roads  or  approaches  to 
each  end  of  the  pier  are  70  feet 

424 


wide  throughout,  except  just  at 
the  entrance  into  the  Strand,  and 
are  carried  over  a  series  of  semi- 
circular brick  arches  of  16  feet 
span  each.  The  Surrey  or  sou- 
thern approach  is  formed  by 
thirty-nine  of  these,  besides  an 
elliptical  arch  of  26  feet  span, 
over  the  narrow  wall  road,  and  a 
small  embankment  about  one 
hundred  and  sixty-five  yards  long, 
having  an  easy  and  gradual  ascent 
of  not  more  than  1  foot  in  34 
feet. 

The  length  of  the  brick 

arches  in  the  Surrey 

approach  is  766  feet. 

Ditto  of  those  in  the 

Strand  approach  .  .  310  feet. 
Total    length    of  the 

bridge  from  the  ends 

of  abutments  .  .  .  1,380  feet. 
Total    length    of  the 

bridge  and  brick  ar- 
ches   2,456  feet. 

The  bridge  now  being  con- 
structed over  the  Thames,  in  lieu 
of  the  old  London-bridge,  is 
under  the  direction  of  Messrs.' 
Rennie,  and  will  consist  of  five 
arches.  See  the  sub-head  Prac- 
tice* 

Iron  bridges  appear  to  be  the 
exclusive  invention  of  British 
artists.  The  first  bridge  of  this 
kind  upon  a  large  scale  is  that 
erected  by  Mr.  Abraham  Darby,; 
in  the  year  1779,  over  the  river 
Severn,  at  Coaibrookdale.  It 
consists  of  a  single  arch  of  100j 
feet  6  inches  span,  and  the  wholej 
of  the  iron  in  it  weighed  one; 
hundred  seventy-eight  and  a  half 
tons.  The  second  iron  bridge  was 
constructed  by  Messrs.  Walker  ot 
Hotherham,  for  Mr.  Thomas 
Paine,  of  political  notoriety,  and 
was  intended  by  him  to  be  sent  to 
America;  but  he  being  unable 
to  defray  the  expense,  Messrs. 
Walker  took  the  arch  to  pieces, 
and  afterwards  employed  some  of 


BRIDGE. 


he  materials  in  the  bridge  of 
hicl)  we  shall  next  take  note, 
'he  iliitcl  iron  bridge,  and  that 
i  which  some  of  the  materials 
bove  alluded  to  were  used,  was 
xecuted  on  the  river  Wear,  at 
underland,  by  Rowland  Bur- 
on,  Esq.  M.  p.  for  the  county 
f  Durham,  by  the  assistance  of 
Iessrs.  Walker,  the  founders, 
[r.  W  ilson,  and  several  other 
ersons.  Tin's  bridge  was  begun 
i  the  year  J 793,  and  completed 
i  August,  1796.  The  stone 
piitments  are  JO  feet  high,  above 
le  ordinary  surface  of  low  water 
|  Sunderland  harbour,  to  the 
,)ring  of  the  arch.  The  iron 
ch  is  236  feet  span  ;  and  the 
)ringing stones  project  about  two 
Set  beyond  the  face  of  the  ma- 
>nry  :  so  that  the  whole  span, 
ora  abutment  to  abutment,  is 
10  feet.  The  versed  sine  of  this 
ch  is  30  feet :  its  soffit  is  there- 
ire  100  feet  from  the  surface 
a"  low  water  in  Sunderland  har- 
our.  The  weight  of  iron  in  this 
ridge  is  two  hundred  and  fifty 
>ns  ;  two  hundred  and  ten  tons 
f  cast,  and  forty  tons  of  wrought 
on.  The  fourth  iron  bridge  that 
as  been  executed,  is  that  over 
he  river  Severn,  at  Buildwas, 
Jout  two  miles  distant  from 
'oalbrookdale.  It  was  begun  in 
ie  year  1  7 (J o ,  and  finished  in 
r*9G,  under  the  direction  of  Mr. 
liomas  Telford.  The  arch  of 
is  bridge  is  130  feet  span,  with 
versed  sine  of  only  17  feet; 
>d  its  width  is  but  18  feet  to 
e  outside. 

About  the  same  time  as  the 
'  idge  at  Build  was  v/as  erected, 
I  hon  bridge  was  thrown  over 
le  river  Teme  in  Herefordshire; 

it  its  parts  were  so  .slender,  and 
I  ill-disposed,  that,  when  the 
ooden  centering  was  taken  from 
ider  it,  the  whole  gave  way, 
id  tumbled  into  the  river.  In 


the  same  year  also  as  the  bridge 
at  Buildwas  was  begun,  another 
was  erected  over  the  river  Parret, 
at  Bridgewater,  by  the  Coal- 
brookdale  company.  The  arch 
of  this  bridge  is  an  ellipsis  of  75 
feet  span,  with  a  rise  of  23  feet. 

From  this  period  till  about  the 
year  1808,  few  iron  bridges  of 
note  were  constructed,  in  the 
latter  period,  however,  the  stone 
bridge  erected  over  the  Thames, 
at  Staines,  gave  way ;  and  the 
magistrates  of  Middlesex  and 
Surrey  came  to  a  resolution  to 
have  an  iron  bridge  erected  there, 
on  the  abutments  of  the  late 
stone  bridge,  the  piers  of  which 
only  had  given  way.  Mr.  Wilson, 
who  was  the  agent  of  Mr.  Bur- 
don,  and  employed  for  the  pur- 
pose, undertook  the  construction 
of  an  iron  arch  of  181  feet  span, 
with  164  feet  rise  or  versed  sine: 
the  arch  being  the  segment  of  a 
circle.  We  must  here  observe, 
that  an  iron  arch  in  small  blocks, 
is  not  set  up  after  the  manner  of 
a  stone  one,  by  beginning  at  the 
abutments,  and  building  upwards, 
but  is  begun  at  the  top,  and  con- 
tinued downwards  ;  it  being  easier 
to  join  the  stone  to  the  iron,  than 
to  cut  the  iron  at  the  top,  if  it 
should  not  fit.  It  is  therefore 
somewhat  remarkable,  that  when 
these  ribs  were  put  together, 
and  before  they  joined  the  ma- 
sonry, it.  was  so  nicely  balanced, 
and  its  parts  were  so  firmly  lock- 
ed together,  that  after  all  the 
supports  were  taken  out,  except 
those  next  the  abutment,  the 
whole  was  moved  by  a  man,  by 
applying  a  crow-bar  under  the 
top  ;  and  it  seemed  to  have  but 
little  tendency  to  push  the  abut- 
ments asunder.  This,  however, 
turned  out  unfortunately  not  to 
be  the  case.  The  centering  was 
taken  away,  and  the  bridge  was 
opened  for  the  use  of  the  public, 


BRIDGE. 


about  the  end  of  the  year  I  801, 
or  beginning  of  1  802.  The  bridge 
at  first  seemed  to  stand  firm,  and 
the  public  were  delighted  with 
its  light  and  elegant  appearance. 
But  in  a  short  time  it  was  found 
that  the  arch  was  sinking ;  and 
soon  afterwards  it  went  so  much, 
that  it  was  found  necessary  to 
shut  the  new  bridge  up,  and  . open 
the  old  one  again.  The  sinking 
of  the  arch  broke  several  of  the 
transverse  frames,  and  many  of 
the  radii  at  the  haunches,  which 
left  no  doubt  that  the  abutments 
had  given  way.  But  on  examina- 
tion there  appeared  no  visible 
sign  of  such  fracture  :  there  was 
not  a  crack  in  the  masonry,  nor 
had  either  of  the  abutments  gone 
out  of  upright.  After  much  in- 
vestigation it  was  discovered,  that 
the  whole  of  the  masonry  of  the 
abutments,  to  the  very  founda- 
tions, had  slidden  horizontally 
backwards,  still  preserving  the 
perpendicular  or  upright  position. 
The  failure  took  place  in  the 
south  abutment,  which  was  sup- 
posed to  be  owing  to  a  cellar  that 
had  been  made  in  it.  The  inha- 
bitants of  Staines,  therefore,  bv 
the  advice  of  an  engineer,  whom 
they  had  consulted,  had  this  abut- 
ment strengthened  ;  but  no  sooner 
was  this  accomplished  than  the 
north  one  failed  :  this,  also,  it 
was  their  intention  to  have 
strengthened,  but  their  funds  be- 
ing nearly  exhausted,  they  finally 
resolved  to  take  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  iron-work  away, 
and  to  support  the  remainder  by 
wooden  piers.  Before  this  bridge 
was  completed,  another  was  be- 
gun on  the  same  principle,  and 
of  the  same  dimensions,  over  the 
river  Tees,  at  Yarm.  When 
finished,  this  bridge,  instead  of 
gradually  yielding,  as  Staines  had 
done,  suddenly  gave  way,  and 
tumbled  into  the  river. 

426 


These  disastrous  circumstai 
ces  may  be  principally  attribute 
to   the    injudicious  manner 
which  those  bridges  were  co 
structed ;  and  not  to  any  del 
ciency  in  the  material.    An  idi 
having  gone  forth  among  prat 
tical  builders,   that   the  later 
pressure  of  iron  bridges,  in  coi 
sequence  of  their  parts  being 
firmly  bound  together,  is  comp 
ratively  small  to  that  of  stot 
arches.    On  due  consideratio 
however,  Dr.   Button  suppos 
that  this  opinion  will  be  foui 
erroneous,  and  that  an  iron  arc 
of  the  same  weight  as  one 
stone,   requires    much  strong 
abutments   to   resist  its  latei 
pressure  and  push,  than  the  sto 
arch  does.    He  accounts  for 
thus : — stone   may,  in  a  gre 
measure,  be  considered  as  an  u 
elastic  substance,  being  very  lit! 
subject  to  expansion  or  contra 
tion.    When,  therefore,  an  ar 
is  composed  of  this  material,  ai 
the   abutments   are  sufficient 
strong  to  support  it,  when  left 
itself,  there  is  little  probability 
its  failure.  No  ordinary  load  up 
it  will  excite  a  tremulous  m 
tion,  nor  will  it'  change  by  Ik! 
or  cold.   The  lateral  pressure 
the  piers  or  abutments  is  therefc 
uniform. 

But  iron  is  an  elastic  substam! 
and  is  greatly  affected  by  heat1 
cold,  expanding  with  the  or 
and  contracting  by  the  oth 
When,  therefore,  a  heavy  \M 
acts  upon  an  iron  bridge,  suchj 
a  loaded  waggon,  the  whole 
put  in  motion,  and  the  arch  1 
brates  like  the  string  of  a  violi 
contracting  and  expanding  wlv 
its  parts  are  in  the  act  of  viba 
tion.  Thus  at  one  part  of  lj! 
vibration  it  pulls  the  abutmejl 
together,  and  at  the  other  it  pus!;; 
them  asunder,  with  a  force  co 
pounded  of  the  quantity  of  mat" 


BRIDGE. 


iimotion,  and  the  velocity  with 
Jch  it  moves.  When  it  ex- 
p  ds,  the  whole  weight  of  the 
Jh  is  raised,  and  the  pressure 
Oi the  abutments  is  compounded 

0  :he  velocity  and  matter  of  the 
wght  raised.    No  such  pressure, 

01  rather  impulsive  momentum, 
tajs  place  in  a  stone  bridge: 
tlrefore  the  strength  of  the  abut- 
nuts  of  an  iron  bridge  should 
bt'such  as  not  only  to  sustain 
till  weight  of  the  arch,  but  also 
tli  additional  push  arising  from 
th)  causes  above  stated.  Tiie 
ahments  of  Staines-bridge  were 
or  14  feet  thick;  whereas  they 
oi  lit  to  have  been  at  least  _'5 

There  were  also  other 
ca;es  which  contributed  to  the 

(e  of  tins  bridge,  such  as  the 
in  roper  manner  in  which  the 
fo'idations  were  made.  The 
ab.ments  of  Varm -bridge  were 
nve  still  weaker  than  those  of 
)l  es:  no  wonder,  therefore, 
tli  its  failure  was  more  sudden. 

nother  cast-iron  bridge,  de- 
si;  ed  by  Mr.  Rennie,  has  been 
thlwn  over  the  Witham,  at  Bos- 
to  in  Lincolnshire.  Its  span  is 
SQfeet,  and  its  versed  sine  only 
S^jeet.  Two  others  have  been 
erjted  over  the  river  Avon,  at 
Bwol.in  theyears  IMIoand  1806, 
una-  the  direction  of  the  Messrs. 
Je  >p.  These  two  bridges  are  fac- 
sirlesof  each  other;  the  arch  of 
ea)j  being  IiH)  feec  span,  the 
veijiid  sine  15  feet,  and  the  width 
o£ ach  bridge  about  31  feet. 
11  whole  is  of  cast-iron,  of  the 
»tr  gest  grey  metal,  and  each 
Walis  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons. 

jb  iron  bridge  has  been  erected 
by«  Ir.  Telford  over  an  arm  of 
tiu'.ea  at  Bonar,  in  Sutherland- 
ihi,  North  Britain.  It  presents 
ID  eh  whose  chord  is  150  feet, 
»n (It 8  versed  sine  20  feet.  The 
Untn-bridge,  over  the  river  Con- 
wa  between  Pentre  Foelas  and 


Bettws,  in  Denbighshire,  is  a 
handsome  iron  bridge,  of  one  arch, 
the  curve  of  which  is  the  segment 
of  a  circle.  It  was  constructed 
in  1815. 

The  iron  bridge  thrown  over 
the  Thames  at  Vauxhall,  London, 
consists  of  nine  arches  of  equal 
span,  raised  upon  stone  piers  that 
were  originally  intended  to  sup- 
port stone  arches.  It  was  executed 
under  the  direction  of  Mr.  James 
Walker,  the  engineer.  But  the 
most  splendid  cast-iron  bridge 
that  has  yet  been  erected,  is  that 
thrown  over  the  Thames,  at  the 
bottom  of  Queen  street,  Cheap- 
side,  London,  and  known  gene- 
rally by  the  name  of  Southvvark- 
bridge.  It  was  designed  and  exe- 
cuted by  that  able  and  scientific 
engineer,  Mr.  Rennie,  of  whom 
we  have  had  occasion  to  speak 
more  than  once;  and  consists  of 
three  arches,  the  chord  of  the 
middle  arch  being  210  feet,  its 
versed  sine  24  feet,  and  the  height 
of  the  frame- work  of  the  arch  at 
the  vertex  6  feet.  The  iron-work 
was  cast  by  Messrs.  Walker  and 
Yates,  late  of  Rotherham,  in 
Yorkshire,  and  is  supported  by 
piers  of  granite. 

The  bridge  of  Austerlitz,  over 
the  Seine,  at  Paris,  is  also  a  much 
admired  specimen  of  the  science. 
The  length  of  its  chord  is  I0G 
feet,  its  versed  sine  only  10  feet 
f>  inches,  and  the  height  of  the 
frame- work  of  the  arch  at  the 
vertex,  4  feet  10  inches.  It  is 
the  work  of  M.  La  Maude. 

Two  other  arches  of  much 
larger  dimensions  have  bee  n  pro- 
posed, but  not  executed.  The 
boldest  was  projected  by  Mr. 
Telford,  about  the  year  1800, 
and  was  intended  to  have  sup- 
plied the  place  of  the  old  London- 
bridge.  The  length  of  the  chord 
of  this  immense  arch  was  (>00 
feet,  and  its  versed  sine  65  feet. 

427 


BRIDGE. 


The  other  proposed  large  iron 
bridge  was  by  Wiebeking;  the 
chord  of  which  measures  292 
feet,  its  versed  sine  '20  feet,  and 
the  height  of  the  frame- work  of 
the  arch  at  the  vertex,  3  feet  9 
inches. 

Iron  suspension  bridges  were  in 
use  in  Europe  at  the  time  of 
Scamozzi,  as  may  be  seen  in  his 
Del  Idea  Archi,  1615;  but  the 
knowledge  requisite  to  determine 
the  properties  of  this  kind  of 
bridge  was  not  published  till  the 
time  of  Bernouilli.  Ware,  in  his 
excellent  tracts  on  vaults  and 
bridges,  says,  that*  the  pendent 
bridges  mentioned  by  Scamozzi, 
were  probably  constructed  on 
false  principles,  and  consequently 
being  of  short  duration,  the  in- 
vention fell  into  disrepute. 

Suspension  bridges  are  describ- 
ed as  existing  in  various  parts  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  before 
this  species  of  construction  began 
to  be  practised  in  Europe.  The 
first  chain-bridge  erected  in  Eng- 
land is  supposed  to  be  that  over 
the  Tees,  forming  a  communica- 
tion between  the  counties  of  Dur- 
ham and  York;  but  the  descrip- 
tion of  this,  as  also  of  several 
others,  we  shall  take  leave  to 
transcribe,  from  a  very  able  ar- 
ticle, by  Robert  Stevenson,  Esq. 
F.  R.  S.  E.  and  civil  engineer, 
as  inserted  in  the  "  Edinburgh 
Philosophical  Journal,"  October, 
1821. 

The  Winch-bridge,  says  Mr. 
Stevenson  is  noticed,  and  an 
elevation  of  it  given  in  the  third 
volume  of  Hutchinson's  "  Antiqui- 
ties of  Durham,"  printed  at  Car- 
lisle, in  1791.  As  this  volume  is 
extremely  scarce,  owing  to  the 
greater  part  of  the  impression 
having  been  accidentally  destroy- 
ed by  fire,  the  writer  of  this  arti- 
cle applied  for  a  sight  of  it  from 
the   library  of  his  friend,  Mr. 

423 


Isaac   Cookson,   of  Newcast 
upon-Tyne.     The  following 
count  is  given  by  Hutchinson  ! 
p.  2/9.    44  The  environs  of  ; 
river  Tees  abound  with  the  m 
picturesque  and  romantic  seen 
beautiful  falls  of  water,  rocks,  £ 
grotesque  caverns.     About  t 
miles  above  Middleton,  where 
river  falls  in  repeated  cascaci 
a    bridge,    suspended    on  ii 
chains,  is  stretched  from  rock 
rock,  over  a  chasm  near  GO  f 
deep,  for  the  passage  of  travelh 
but  particularly  of  miners: 
bridge  is  7<x  feet  in  length,  | 
little  more  than  2  feet  broad,  u 
a  handrail  on  one  side,  and  plan! 
in  such  a  manner,  that  the  t 
veller  experiences  all  the  tren 
lous  motion  of  the  chain,  and  s 
himself  suspended  over  a  roar 
gulf,  on  an  agitated  and  restl, 
gangway,  to  which  few  Strang; 
dare  trust  themselves."    We  • 
gret  that  we  have  not  been  a: 
to  learn  the  precise  date  of  I 
erection  of  this  bridge,  but,  fill 
good  authority,  we  have  asc 
tained  that  it  was  erected  ab ; 
the  year  1/41. 

It  appears,  from  a  treatise  i 
bridges  by  Mr.  Thomas  Pol 
architect  of  New  York,  pi 
lished  in  that  city  in  the  yl 
1811,  that  eight  chain-britf; 
have  been  erected  upon  the  caj 
narian  principle,  in  different  p;s 
of  America.  It  here  deserves  f 
particular  notice,  however,  in  si 
claim  for  priority  of  inven'n 
with  our  transatlantic  friei  | 
that  the  chain -bridge  over  i 
Tees  was  known  in  Americajs 
Pope  quotes  Hutchinson's  | 
iii.,  and  gives  a  description, f 
Winch-bridge.  It  further  - 
pears  from  this  work,  tliat a 
patent  was  granted  by  the  Am  • 
can  government,  for  the  ereci 
of  bridges  of  suspension,  in  e 
year   i  808.    Our  American  W 


BRIDGE. 


sta 
of 
spa 


.  th(  also  describes  a  bridge  of  this 
coitruction,  which  seems  to  have 
bet  erected  about  the  year  1809, 
ovt  the  river  Merrimack,  in  the 
of  Massachusets,  consisting 
catenarian  arch  of  244  feet 
The  roadway  of  this  bridge 
i.  ispended  between  two  abut- 
mes  or  towers  of  masonry,  37 
e  n  height,  on  which  piers  of 
car  n try  are  erected,  which  are 
35  eet  in  height.    Over  these 
tenfchains  are  suspended,  each 
mejuring   5 1 6   feet  in  length, 
the  ends  being  sunk  into  deep 
pition  both  sides  of  the  river, 
wh<b  they  are  secured  by  large 
stois.    The    bridge    over  the 
Melmack  has  two  carriage-ways, 
etcjof  15  feet  in  breadth.    It  is 
alsodescribed  as  having  three 
1  cha;s,  which   range  along  the 
side  and  four  in  the  middle,  or 
bet"en   the    roadways.  The 
whc  expense  of  this  American 
wor  is  estimated  to  have  been 
twe'y  thousand  dollars,  and  the 
b  brie  j  calculated  to  support  or 
fa  carl  about  five  hundred  tons. 

1  rhaps  the   most  precarious 
era  ancBdifficolt  problem  ever  pre- 
len  d  to  the  consideration  of  the 
Brijh  engineer,  was  the  sugges- 
,V  tiorvof  some    highly  patriotic 
genpmen  of  Liverpool,  for  con- 
fi  Itru  ing  a  bridge  over  the  estu- 
ary f  the  Mersey,  at  Runcorn 
G;i[  about  twenty  miles  from 
IfeLivfpool.      The  specifications 
lis  for  |is  work  provided  that  the 
,i»  spar'if  the  bridge  should  measure 
•tist  1000  feet,  and  that  its 
beiflfe  above  the  surface  of  the 
watl  should  not  be  less  than  CO 
feet  o  as  to  admit  of  the  free 
navution  of  this  great  commer- 
'  il  ver.    The  idea  of  a  bridge 
•t  Hncorn,  we  believe,  was  first 
comlved  about  the  year  1813, 
whe'the  demand  for  labour  was 
extrjnely  low,  and  a  vast  num- 
ber f  the  working  classes  of 


Lancashire  were  thrown  out  of 
employment.    A  variety  of  de- 
signs for  this  bridge  were  pro- 
cured by  a  select  committee  of 
the  gentlemen  who  took  an  in- 
terest in  this  great  undertaking. 
The  plan  most  approved  of,  how- 
ever, was  the  design  of  a  bridge 
of  suspension  ;   and  Mr.  Telford 
the  engineer,  and  captain  Brown 
of  the  royal   navy,   are  under- 
stood pretty  nearly  to  have  con- 
curred in  opinion  as  to  the  prac- 
ticability of  such  a  work.  Mr. 
Telford  has  reported  fully  on  the 
subject,  and  has  estimated  the 
expense  of  his  design  at  from 
63,000/.   to    85,000/.  according 
to  different  modes  of  execution. 
Though  as  yet  little  advancement 
has  been  made  in  carrying  this 
enterprising  design  into  execu- 
tion, yet  the  novelty  and  magni- 
tude of  an  arch  of  1000  feet  span, 
is  a  subject  of  so  much  interest, 
that  we  have  thought  it  proper 
in  this  place  to    mention  these 
circumstances. 

We  have  already  alluded  to 
the  great  design  of  a  chain  bridge 
for  the  river  Mersey.  The  first 
practical  example,  however,  of 
this  kind,  was  that  over  the  Tees  ; 
and  the  next  which  we  know  of 
in  this  country,  were  those  ex- 
ecuted on  the  river  Tweed,  and 
its  tributary  streams  of  Gala  and 
Etterick.  Mr.  Richard  Lees,  an 
extensive  woollen-cloth  manufac- 
turer at  Galashiels,  whose  works 
are  situate  on  both  sides  of  Gala- 
water,  conceived  the  idea  of  form- 
ing a  foot-bridge,  of  slender  iron 
wires,  for  the  conveniency  of 
communicating  readily  with  the 
different  parts  of  his  works.  This 
gangway,  or  bridge,  was  erected 
in  the  month  of  November,  1816; 
its  extent  is  1  1  I  feet,  and  it  cost 
about  40/.  Though  only  of  a 
very  temporary,  and  even  imper- 
fect construction,  vet  being  the 

429 


BRIDGE. 


first  wire-bridge  erected  in  Great 
Britain,  it  deserves  our  particular 
notice,  as  affording  a  useful  prac- 
tical example  of  the  tenacity  of 
iron  so  applied,  and  of  its  utility 
in  many  situations,  and  particu- 
larly in  an  inland  country,  such  as 
the  vale  of  the  Tweed,  where  the 
carriage  of  bulky  materials,  of 
every  description,  is  extremely 
expensive. 

The  wire-bridge  followed  the 
chain-bridge  of  Dryburgh  ;  but 
we  shall  first  describe  the  wire- 
bridge  of  Kingsmeadows,  on  the 
estate  of  sir  John  Hay,  bart. 
This  foot-bridge  is  thrown  across 
the  Tweed,  a  little  below  Peebles. 
It  is  110  feet  in  length,  and  4  feet 
in  breadth,  and  is  ornamented 
with  a  handsome  lodge,  or  cot- 
tage. This  work  was  contracted 
for,  and  executed  by  Messrs. 
Redpath  and  Brown,  of  Edin- 
burgh, in  the  summer  of  1817? 
and  cost  about  1 60/. 

The  only  other  wire-bridge, 
says  Mr.  Steve nson?  which  we 
shall  notice,  is  that  erected  by 
the  hon.  captain  Napier  over 
the  Etterick,  at  Thrilstone  castle. 
A  foot-bridge  of  rope-work  had 
originally  been  thrown  across 
here  ;  but  a  wire-bridge  is  now 
erected,  and  measures  about  135 
feet  span. 

The  wire-bridges  of  Gala- 
shiels, Kingsmeadows,  and  Thirl- 
stane,  above  described,  are  sus- 
pended by  diagonal  braces.  The 
same  plan  was  also  followed  in 
the  first  erected  bridge  at  Dry- 
burgh abbey,  where  the  suspend- 
ing rods  were  also  made  to  radi- 
ate from  their  points  of  suspension 
on  either  side,  towards  the  centre 
of  the  roadway;  for  as  yet  the 
catenarian  principle  had  not  been 
introduced  upon  the  Tweed.  The 
bridge  at  Dryburgh  is  2 CO  feet  in 
extent  between  the  points  of 
suspension,  and  is  four  feet  in 
430 


breadth.     It  was  executed 
Messrs.  John  and  William  Sm 
builders  and  architects  near  IV 
rose,  at  the  expense  of  the  earf 
Buchan,  as  proprietor  of  the  fei 
and  has  altogether  cost  his  lo 
ship  about  720/.    This  bridg< 
constructed  for  foot  passengj 
and  led  horses.    It  was  origins 
begun  on  the  13th  of  April,  lg[ 
and  was  opened  to  the  public  i 
the  1st  day  of  August  followlj 
having  required  little  more  t|| 
three  months  for  its  erection. 

It  is  observed  by  Mr.  J<ji 
Smith,   one    of   the  gentler'j 
above  alluded  to,  that  when  i 
original  bridge  of  Dryburgh  ■  ;$ 
finished,  it  had  a  gentle  vibtat  / 
motion,  which  was  sensibly  t 
in  passing  along  it ;   the  n ft 
material  defect  in  its  construe 
arose  from  the  loose  state  of 
radiating  or  diagonal  chains, \vl 
in  proportion  to  their  leng 
formed  segments  of  catena 
curves  of  different  radii, 
motions    of  these    chains  ve 
found  so  subject  to  accelerati, 
that  three  or  four  persons,  |D 
were   very  improperly  arau^ 
themselves,  by  trying  the  ex;  t 
of  this  motion,  produced  sucln 
agitation  in  all  its  parts,  that  e 
of  the  longest  of  the  radia  g 
chains  broke  near  the  point  o.s 
suspension.  On  another  occas;), 
in  a  very  high  wind,  one  of 
horizontal  chains,  stretched  ui 
the  beams  of  the  roadway,  { 
way.    But  on  the  loth  of  J?, 
ary,  18.1  S,  after  this  bridge 
been  finished  about  six  moot! 
most  violent  gale  of  wind  I'k 
place,  when  the  vibrating  room 


the  longest  radiating  chains  M 
again  broken,  the  platform  bl  n 
down,  and  the  bridge  corn-pit 'y 


destroyed-.  Messrs,  Smith  I 
pened  unluckily  to  be  from  I' 
at-  the  time  of  the  accident, 


BRIDGE. 


c  examining  a  number  of  per- 
sis  who  saw  it,  they  all  con- 
erred  in  stating,  that  the  vertical 
rtion  of  the  roadway  of  the 
ridge  before  its  fall,  was  as 
irly  as  may  be  equal  to  its 
Meral  motion,  and  was  altogether 
excluded  to  be  such  as  would 
lire  pitched  or  thrown  a  person 
Jlking  along  it  into  the  river. 
The  sudden  destruction  of 
tte  bridge  created  a  great  sensa- 
W  of  regret  throughout  all  parts 
oihe  country,  and  was  consider- 
ed occurrence  of  so  much  im- 
p  tance  in  the  erection  of  chain- 
hJges,  that  several  of  the  gen- 
tjnen  of  Liverpool,  interested 
iihe  proposed  bridge  at  Run- 
en,  made  a  journey  to  Scotland, 
H  the  express  purpose  of  inquir- 
ir  into  the  circumstances  of  the 
n -fortune.  Messrs.  Smith,  the 
extractors,  had  engaged  with 
t  earl  of  Buchan,  to  erect  this 
rain-bridge  for  somewhat  less 
t  n  500/.  and  were  bound  to 
i:  lold  it  against  all  accidents 

i  y  during  the  period  of  its  erec- 
ts, so  that  the  loss  fell  wholly 
i on  lord  Buchan. 

The  utility  of  Dryburgh- 
fcjdge,  when  compared  with  a 
t  ublesome  ferry,  even  on  the 
6  it  experience  o  six  months, 
hi  given  it  such  a  decided  pre- 
face to  the  boat,  that  his  lord- 
llp,  without  hesitation,  directed 
tit  it  should  be  immediately  re- 
ired  :  this  was  accordingly  done 
a  ;r  a  better  design,  for  the  ad- 
d.onal  sum  of  about  220L,  and 

ii  ess  than  three  months  it  was 
a  in  opened  to  the  public.  This 
bilge  is  now  constructed  upon 
titcatenarian  principle,  the  road- 
m  being  suspended  by  perpen- 
cl  jlar  rods  of  iron,  from  main 
o  catenarian  chains.  The  chief 
jfchanical  alterations  upon  the 
h.ner  plan  consist  in  welding 
bih  eyes  or  ends  of  the  links, 


instead  of  having  one  of  them 
simply  turned  round,  and  fixed 
with  a  collar  ;  the  roadway  has 
also  been  strengthened  by  a 
strongly  trussed  wooden  rail, 
which  also  answers  the  purpose 
of  a  parapet,  on  each  side  of  the 
bridge,  the  good  effects  of  which 
were  particularly  exemplified, 
while  the  bridge  was  building. 
A  high  wind  having  occurred  be- 
fore the  side-rails  were  erected, 
one  end  of  the  platform  was 
lifted  above  the  level  of  the  road- 
way, and  the  undulating  motion 
produced  on  this  occasion  is  de- 
scribed as  resembling  a  wave  of 
the  sea  ;  an  effect  which  pervaded 
the  whole  extent  of  the  bridge, 
and  went  off  with  a  jerking  mo- 
tion at  the  farther  end.  But  after 
the  side-rails  were  attached,  this 
vertical  motion  was  checked,  and 
is  now  found  to  be  greatly  redu- 
ced. There  was  also  added  to  the 
newly  constructed  bridge  at  Dry- 
burgh,  guys  or  mooring- chains, 
consisting  of  rods  of  iron  fixed 
to  stakes  in  the  opposite  banks  of 
the  river.  These  guys  are  attach- 
ed to  the  beams  of  the  roadway, 
and  are  said  to  have  some  effect 
in  lessening  the  motion  of  the 
bridge  in  high  winds,  but  it  did 
not  appear  to  Mr.  Stevenson,  when 
he  examined  the  bridge  in  1820, 
that  these  guys  could  act  in  any 
very  sensible  degree  in  this  re- 
spect. 

We  have  already  stated  gene- 
rally, that  the  new  bridge  at 
Dry  burgh  is  erected  upon  the 
catenarian  principle.  It  may 
further  be  described  as  consisting 
of  four  main  chains,  which  are 
suspended  in  pairs  between  the 
points  of  suspension,  in  a  hori- 
zontal position  relatively  to  each 
other;  the  lowest  part  of  the 
curve  of  ea  h  pa 
coming  under  the 


>pon 


dii 


ide 


r  of  chains 
top  of  their 


rails 
4.'?1 


BRIDGE. 


links  of  the  catenarian  chains  are 
formed  of  rods  of  bar-iron, measur- 
ing If  inches  in  diameter,  con- 
structed in  lengths  of  about  10 
feet  each.  The  eyes  at  each  end 
of  these  long  rods  are  connected 
by  short  links  of  an  oval  form, 
measuring  about  9  inches  in 
length.  I  he  platform  or  roadway 
is  suspended  from  the  catenarian 
chains,  by  perpendicular  rods  of 
iron,  of  the  strength  of  half  an  inch 
in  diameter,  which  are  attached  at 
their  upper  ends  to  the  short 
links  above  described,  by  a  kind 
of  cross  head,  while  the  under 
ends  of  these  perpendicular  rods, 
forming  a  screw-bolt, pass  through 
the  side-beams  of  the  platform, 
and  are  attached  to  them  with 
screw-nuts,  resting  upon  corres- 
ponding washers,  or  plates  of 
iron. 

The  points  of  suspension  of  this 
bridge  rest  upon  upright  posts, 
and  are  elevated  28  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  roadway,  on  each 
side  of  the  river.  Each  pair  of 
chains  are  12  feet  apart  at  the 
approaches  of  the  bridge,  but 
they  are  made  to  converge  to- 
wards its  centre,  where  they  are 
attached  to  the  side-rails,  and 
measure  only  4^  feet  apart,  being 
the  breadth  of  the  roadway  be- 
tween the  side-rails.  By  this  con- 
verging form,  the  chains  answer 
in  some  measure  the  purpose  of 
guys  to  the  roadway.  It  is,  how- 
ever, questionable,  how  far  it  is 
proper  to  give  an  oblique  direc- 
tion to  the  main  chains  ;  indeed 
we  are  rather  inclined  to  think, 
that  the  main  chains  of  bridges  of 
suspension  should  be  kept  parallel 
to  the  direction  of  the  strain. 

The  platform  or  roadway  of 
Dry  burgh-bridge  is  elevated  about 
1 8  feet  above  the  surface  of  the 
river,  when  in  its  state  of  sum- 
mer water.  It  consists  of  two 
beams  of  fir-timber,  which  run 

432 


along  the  extent  of  the  bridge 

and  are  connected  to  each  other 
with  rails,  or  pieces  of  timbe; 
mortised  into  them.  The  side- 
rails,  answering  the  purposes  o 
hand-rails,  are  formed  with  dia- 
gonal braces  and  cross  ties.  Tht 
roadway  is  finished  with  a  dead 
ing  of  boards  laid  across  tin 
direction  of  the  roadway,  leaving 
openings  of  about  five-fourths  o 
an  inch  between  each  of  th< 
boards,  to  let  off  the  moisture  ir 
wet  weather.  Under  the  plat- 
form, two  chains  made  of  circula 
rods,  1  inch  in  diameter,  an 
stretched  beneath  the  beams,  am 
connected  with  the  abutments  o 
masonry  on  each  side,  as  an  ad 
ditional  security. 

The  back  braces  or  landwart 
chains  employed  for  keeping  thi 
upright  posts  erect,  and  for  coun 
teracting  the  weight  of  the  bridge 
are  made  of  rod-iron,  1  inch  ii 
diameter,  which  are  sunk  a  con 
siderable  way  into  the  ground 
and  pass  through  large  flat  stones 
which  are  loaded  with  a  mass  o 
masonry,  built  in  an  arched  form 
and  acting  as  ballast. 

An  occurrence  took  place,  du 
ring  the  erection  of  Dryburgh; 
bridge,  which  deserves  to  be  par 
ticularly  noticed.  It  was  observed! 
that  the  catenarian  curve  \va 
not  the  same  when  the  main  chain 
were  simply  suspended  with  theij 
own  weight,  as  when  they  cam! 
to  be  loaded  with  the  roadway 
At  the  extremity  of  the  chains  o 
each  side,  and  the  centre  of  th; 
bridge,  the  points  of  attachmer 
remained  stationary  after  th 
catenarian  chains  were  loaded,  In 
between  the  centre  and  eithe 
abutment,  the  roadway  made  tffl 
distinct  curves,  the  versed  sine  fl 
which  measured  about  7  inche 
This  defect  was  easily  rectifiet 
by  shortening  the  suspendin 
chains  ;  but  it  serves  to  show  tl 


BRIDGE. 


Jbih'ty  of  the  catenarian  curve 
l  alter,  when  loaded  in  the  di- 
lution of  the  horizontal  plane  of 
|r  connecting  roadway. 
For  the  erection  of  a  bridge  at 
]  -  burgh,  on  a  ferry  of  compara- 
t  ely  small  importance, the  public 
e|  under  no  small  obligations  to 
n  earl  of  Buchan :  and  the 
ekerprise  which  marks  the  de- 
sin  and  execution  of  it,  confers 
Hour  on  the  architects. 

The  work  to  which  we  shall 
met  direct  the  attention  of 
t  reader,  is  the  Union -bridge 
a  oss  the  river  Tweed  at  Nor- 
hn  Ford,  about  five  miles  from 
1  rwick.  The  work  here  was 
b run  in  the  month  of  August, 
1  9,  and  the  bridge  was  opened 
o  the  '.'ah  of  July,  1820,  having 
n-uired  only  a  period  of  about 
tvlve  months  for  its  erection; 
w  le  a  stone-bridge  must  have 
b^n  the  work  of  about  three 
yrs.  This  work  was  designed 
a|  executed  by  captain  Samuel 
Bfrwn  of  the  royal  navy,  who 
h  so  successfully  introduced 
tl  use  of  the  chain-cable  into 
tl  navy  and  mercantile  marine. 

lie  roadway  of  this  bold  de- 
Bib  is  made  of  timber,  on  which 
iri  cart-tracks  ere  laid  for  car- 
ri  e  wheels.  It  is  18  feet  in 
w|h,  and  is  no  less  than  361 
fe'  in  length.  The  main  beams 
or  listing  measure  15  inches  in 
dtlli,  and  7  inches  in  thickness. 
T  timber  cleading  or  planks 
ar  12  inches  in  breadth,  and  .3 
infes  in  thickness.  This  great 
pl.rorm  is  suspended  at"  the 
he  ht  of  27  feet  above  the  sur- 
faif  of  the  summer  water  of  the 
nJ-  It  is  also  made  to  rise 
ab.it  2  feet  in  the  centre,  and  is 
fin'  ied  on  each  side  with  a  cor- 
n<<  of  15  inches  in  depth,  which 
a(lf  to  its  ornament,  and  gives 
additional  appearance  of 
btr.gth. 
31 


The  roadway  is  suspended  from 
the  catenarian  or  main  chains  by 
circular  rods  of  iron,  which  mea- 
sure 1  inch  in  diameter.  These 
perpendicular  rods  are  wedged 
into  caps  or  pieces  of  cast-iron, 
called  saddles,  which  are  placed 
at  the  distance  of  5  feet  apart,  and 
made  to  rest  upon  the  shackles 
or  joints  of  the  catenarian  chains. 
The  attachment  of  the  lower  ends 
of  these  rods  to  the  beams  of  the 
platform  which  they  pass  through, 
is  by  their  embracing  a  bar  of 
iron  which  runs  along  the  whole 
extent  of  the  bridge  under  the 
beams  of  the  roadway,  on  each 
side.  These  bars  measure  3  in- 
ches in  depth,  and  they  are  con- 
nected with  the  suspending  rods 
by  a  spear  or  bolt,  which,  in  a 
very  simple  manner,  completes 
the  connexion  of  the  roadway 
with  the  perpendicular  suspend- 
ing rods,  and  catenarian  chains. 

The  catenarian  chains  of  this 
bridge    are   twelve   in  number, 
ranged  in  pairs ;  the   one  pair 
being  placed  over  the  other,  be- 
tween the  points  of  suspension  on 
each  side  of  the  bridge.  These 
chains,  and  indeed  the  whole  of 
the  iron- work,  is  made  of  the 
very  best  Welsh  iron.  The  chains 
are  worked  into  a  circular  form, 
and  measure  about  2  inches  in 
diameter.  The  links,  as  they  may 
be  termed,  consist  of  rods  of  15 
feet  in  length,  and  have  bolt- 
holes,  which  are  strongly  welded, 
and  neatly  finished,  at  each  end. 
These  links  or  rods  are  connected 
together  by  strong  shackles,  and 
a  bolt  is  passed   through  them, 
which  is  of  an  oval  form,  measur- 
ing 2\-  by  2\  inches.    At  each 
joint  of  the   three   ties   of  the 
catenarian    chains  respectively, 
one  of  the  saddlepieces  of  cast- 
iron,  formerly  alluded  to,  are  in- 
troduced.   The  first  saddlepiece, 
with  its  suspended  rod,  for  ex- 

433 


BRIDGE. 


ample, on  eitherside  of  thebridge, 
may  be  conceived  as  resting  on 
the  upper  pair  of  chains,  the  next 
saddlepiece  in  the  longitudinal 
direction  of  the  roadway,  rests 
upon  the  middle  pair  of  chains, 
and  the  third  upon  the  lower  pair, 
and  so  on  alternately,  throughout 
the  whole  extent  of  the  bridge. 
By  this  means  all  the  chains  bear 
an  equal  strain,  and  the  joints  are 
arranged  in  so  precise  and  orderly 
a  manner,  that  a  saddlepiece  and 
perpendicular  suspending  rod  oc- 
curs at  every  5  feet,  so  that  the 
distance  between  each  pair  of 
suspending- rods  forms  a  space  of 
5  feet.  By  (his  beautiful  and 
simple  arrangement,  the  suspend- 
ing-rods  are  made  to  rest  upon 
the  joints  of  the  catenarian  chains, 
so  that  the  links  or  rods  of  which 
they  are  composed,  are  kept  free 
of  distortion,  when  loaded  with 
the  weight  of  the  suspended  road- 
way. 

The  spaces  of  5  feet  between 
the  suspending  rods  above  alluded 
to,  are  formed  into  meshes  of  6 
inches  square,  to  the  height  of  5 
feet  on  each  side  of  the  bridge, 
and  answer  the  purposes  of  a  para- 
pet wall  for  the  safety  of  passen- 
gers. 

Though  the  timber  roadway  is 
only  about  361  feet  in  length,  yet 
the  chord  line  of  the  main  chains 
measures  no  less  than  432  feet 
between  the  points  of  suspension, 
with  which  they  make  an  angle 
of  about  twelve,  and  forming  the 
catenarian  curve -drop,  at  the  rate 
of  one  perpendicular  to  about  7 
feet  in  the  length  of  chain,  the 
versed  sine  of  the  middle  pair  of 
chains  being  about  26  feet.  The 
twelve  main  chains,  with  their 
apparatus,  weigh  about  five  tons 
each,  and  the  weight  of  the  whole 
bridge,  between  the  points  of 
suspension,  has  been  estimated  at 
one  hundred  tons. 

434 


On  the  Scotch  side  of  the  river 
the  catenarian  chains  pass  over 
pillar  of  aisler  masonry,  vvhicl 
measures  60  feet  in  height,  i 
about  36  feet  in  its  medium  width 
and  I  74  feet  in  thickness.  Th 
sides  of  the  lower  10  feet  of  th 
walls  of  this  pillar  are  square,  bu 
at  this  height  the  walls  begin  t 
slope  at  the  rate  of  one  perpendi 
cular  to  twelve  horizontal.  Th 
archway  in  the  masonry  of  tin 
pillar,  which   forms  the  imme 
diate  approach  to  the  roadv/aj 
measures  12  feet  in  width,  an 
17  feet  in   height.    Each  pa 
of  main  chains  being  suspend'e; 
horizontally,  pass  through  cor 
responding  apertures  in  the  ma 
sonry,  at  the  distance  of  about 
feet  from  one  another,  and  g 
over  rollers  connected  with  tl 
building.    The  links  of  the  ma: 
chains  at  these  points  are  mat 
as  short  as  the  strength  or  thicl 
ness  of  the  iron  will  permit 
their  being  welded,  in  order  th 
they  may  pass  over  the  roller 
without    distorting    or  undu 
straining  the  iron.    After  goh 
through  the  masonry  of  the  pilla 
the   chains  are   continued  in 
sloping  direction  to  the  groun 
Here  they  are  sunk  to  the  dep 
of  24    feet,    where   they  pa 
through  great  ballast  plates 
cast-iron,  into  which  they  a 
stopped  by  a  strong  iron  spear 
bolt,  of  an  oval  form,  measuring 
inches  by  '3±  inches  in  thickne 
The   cast  -  iron   ballast  plat 
measure  6  feet  in  length,  5  ft 
in  breadth,  and  5  inches  in  thic 
ness  in  the  central  parts;  b| 
towards  the  edge,  they  dimin: 
in  thickness  to  2\  inches.  1 
ends  of  the  chains  thus  fixed,  ; 
loaded   with  mound-stones  a 
earthy  matters,  to  the  level  of  t 
roadway  of  the  bridge. 

On  the  English   side  of  t 
Tweed,  the   pillar  or  tower 


BRIDGE. 


masonry  forming  the  abutment 

or  point  of  suspension,  is  built 
upon  a  bench  or  foundation,  cx- 
icavated  in  the  face  of  a  precipi- 
tous sandstone  rock,  and  is  only 
about  20  feet  in  height,  but  its 
other  dimensions  correspond  with 
the  upper  part  of  the  masonry  on 
the  Scotch  side.    The  chains  on 
the  English  side  are  made  to  rest 
upon  plates  of  cast-iron,  included 
in  the  masonry,  instead  of  rollers, 
as  on  the  opposite  side.  Here  the 
ballast-plates  are  of  the  same 
dimensions  as  those  already  de- 
scribed, but  instead  of  being  sunk 
into  the  ground,  as  on  the  Scotch 
iside,  their  position  is  rather  above 
the  foundation  of  the  pillar,  where 
they  are  set  nearly  perpendicular, 
out  are  placed  so  as  to  correspond 
with  the  direction  of  the  strain  or 
weight  of  the  bridge.     For  the 
greater  security  of  the  position  of 
hese  ballast-plates  on  the  English 
nide,  they  are  connected  with  a 
lorizontal  arch  of  masonry,  which 
s  dovetailed  into  the  rock.  This 
bart  of  the  work,  however,  was 
lot  in  a  finished  state  when  Mr. 
Stevenson  saw  it,  at  the  ceremony 
>f  opening  the  bridge  on  the  26th 
>f  July,  1820.    Upon  this  side, 
he  approach  to  the  roadway  forms 
curve  in  front  of  the  pillar,  in- 
tead  of  passing  through  an  arch- 
•  ty,  as  on  the  Scotch  side, 
i  I  he  general  effect  of  the  Union- 
■  ridge,  which  we  have  now  en- 
eavoured  to  describe,  is  interest- 
ig  and  curious;  and  such  is  the 
xtent,  and  its  light  and  elegant 
ippearance,  that  it  has  not  inaptly 
pen   compared   to  an  inverted 
i  nbow.     Those  who  visit  this 
undertaking,  as  affording  much 
'"vtlty  to  the  scenery  of  this  part 
I  the  banks  of  the  Tweed,  will 
ot  be  disappointed  in  their  cx- 
t'ftation* ;   while  in  a  national 
oinl  of  view,  as  a  great  improve- 
lent,  it  deserves  the  most  parti- 


cular consideration  of  the  country 
at  large.  It  is  also  of  much  in- 
terest to  the  professional  engi- 
neer, especially  as  being  the  first 
bridge  of  suspension  erected  in 
Great  Britain,  calculated  for  the 
passage  of  loaded  carriages.  Nor 
ought  the  enterprising  efforts  of 
Mr.  Molle,  and  the  gentlemen  of 
the  adjoining  shires  of  Berwick 
and  Northumberland,  to  be  over- 
looked in  the  prosecuting  of  this 
design,  as  affording  a  great  prac- 
tical lesson  for  the  application  of 
bridges  of  this  construction  to 
various  parts  of  the  United  King- 
dom, where  stone  or  even  cast- 
iron  would  be  found  impractica- 
ble, both  on  account  of  the  ex- 
tent of  the  situation,  and  the  un- 
avoidable expense  of  the  works. 

The  fastidious,  upon  examining 
this  work,  may  perhaps  find  some 
parts  of  the  general  design  capa- 
ble of  improvement,  and  when  a 
second  work  of  a  similar  or  a 
greater  extent  comes  to  be  exe- 
cuted, there  is  little  doubt  that 
experience  will,  in  the  usual  course 
of  things,  lead  to  alterations  for 
the  better.  We,  however,  think 
that  the  design  and  execution  of 
the  Union-bridge  does  the  highest 
credit  to  captain  Brown,  in  the 
construction  of  bridges  on  the 
catenarian  principle. 

Although  Mr.  Stevenson  has 
stated  above  that  theUnion-bridge 
was  the  first  bridge  of  suspension 
erected  in  Great  Britain,  yet  the 
first  proposal  for  a  bridge  of  this 
kind  was  that  by  Mr.  Telford,  in 
IS  10,  for  passing  the  straits  of 
Menai,  which  separate  the  island 
of  Anglesea  from  Caernarvonshire 

These  straits  have  long  formed 
a  troublesome  obstruction  upon 
the  great  road  from  London  to 
Dublin,  by  Holyhead  ;  and  it  has 
hitherto  been  customary  for  tra- 
vellers to  cross  in  a  ferry  boat  at 
Bangor.    The  inconvenience  and 

435 


BRIDGE. 


risk  attending  this  mode,  has  led 

to  speculations  of  improvement 
for  half  a  century  past ;  but  none 
of  the  plans  that  were  proposed 
to  government  previously  to  the 
month  of  May,  1810,  were  con- 
sidered of  sufficient  practical 
utility  to  warrant  their  being  car- 
ried into  execution. 

From  a  report  of  a  committee 
of  the  house  of  commons  in  June, 
1811,  it  appears,  that  in  May, 
1810,  Mr.  Telford  was  instructed 
by  the  lords  of  the  treasury,  to 
survey  and  report  upon  the  best 
method  of  improving  the  lines  of 
communication  between  Holy- 
head and  Shrewsbury,  and  also 
between  Holyhead  and  Chester  ; 
and  to  consider  and  give  plans 
for  passing  the  Menai.  Jn  the 
aforesaid  report  (of  1811)  we 
have  his  plans  and  estimate.  His 
explanations  we  shall  give  in  his 
own  words. 

"  The  duty  assigned  me  being 
to  consider  and  report  respecting 
a  bridge  across  the  Menai,  I  shall 
confine  myself  to  this  object. 
Admitting  the  importance  of  the 
communication  to  justify  acting 
on  a  large  scale,  I  not  only  con- 
sider the  constructing  a  bridge 
practicable,  but  that  two  situa- 
tions are  remarkably  favourable. 
It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  observe, 
that  one  of  these  situations  is  at 
the  Swilley  rocks,  and  the  other 
atYnys-y-Moch.  These  two  being 
so  evidently  the  best,  the  only 
question  that  can  arise  is,  to 
which  of  them  preference  ought 
to  be  given. 

"  From  the  appendix  to  the 
second  report  to  the  Holyhead 
roads  and  harbour,  it  appears, 
that  a  considerable  number  of 
small  coasting-vessels,  viz.  from 
sixteen  to  one  hundred  tons, 
navigate  the  Menai,  and  that 
there  have  been  a  few  from  one 
hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty 

436 


tons.  By  statements  from  the 
principal  shipbuilders  in  the  river, 
made  in  the  year  1800,  to  the 
committee  for  improving  the  port 
of  London,  it  also  appears.,  that 
vessels  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
tons,  when  they  have  all  on  end, 
are  only  88  feet  in  height  above 
the  water-line;  and  further,  that 
even  ships  of  three  hundred 
tons,  with  their  topgallant-masts 
struck,  are  nearly  the  same 
height ;  these,  in  the  Menai,  are 
extreme  cases,  and,  if  provided 
for,  ought,  as  to  navigation,  to 
satisfy  every  reasonable  person ; 
it  may,  indeed,  rather  be  a  ques- 
tion, whether  the  height  should 
not  be  limited  to  vessels  under  one 
hundred  tons,  by  which  the 
expense  of  a  bridge  would  be 
considerably  diminished. 

"  In  the  plans  I  have  formed, 
provision  is  made  for  admitting 
vessels  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
tons  to  pass  with  all  on  end ;  that  is, 
in  one  design  preserving  90  feet, 
and  in  the  other  100  feet  between 
the  line  of  high  water  and  the 
lower  side  of  the  soffit  of  the 
arch.  The  first  design  is  adapted 
for  passing  across  the  three  rocks, 
named  the  Swilley,  Bendlass,  and 
Ynys-y-well-dog;  for  which,  their 
shape  and  position  are  singularly 
suitable.  To  embrace  the  situa- 
tion most  perfectly,  I  have  di-  j 
vided  the  space  into  three  open- 
ings of  2G0  feet,  and  two  of  100  ; 
feet  each  ;  making  piers  each  30  J 
feet  in  thickness.  Over  the  three 
large  openings,  the  arches  are 
made  of  cast  -  iron  ;  over  the 
smaller  spaces,  in  order  to  add 
weight  and  stability  to  the  piers, 
semicircular  arches  of  stone  are 
introduced;  but  over  these,  as 
well  as  the  larger  openings,  the 
spandrels,  roadway,  and  railing, 
are  constructed  ofcast-iion.  In 
this  way  the  navigation  is  not 
impeded,  because  the  piers  stand- 


BRIDGE. 


ng  near  the  outer  edges,  are 
guards  for  preventing  the  vessels 
triking  upon  the  rocks;  while 
he  whole  structure  presents  very 
ittie   obstruction   to    the  wind. 
Vom  the  extremity  of  the  abut- 
ments, after  building  rubble  walls 
bove  the  level  of  the  tideway,  I 
ropose    carrying  embankments 
ntil  the  roadway   reaches  the 
atural   ground.     The  annexed 
rawing  will  sufficiently  explain 
ie  nature  of  the  design.    I  pro- 
ose  the  bridge  to  be  32  feet  in 
readth ;  and,  from  minute  cal- 
Lilations,    made    from  detailed 
rowings,  1  find  the  expense  of 
Kecuting  the  whole,  in  a  perfect 
lanner,  amounts  to  158,65-1/. 
41  The  other  design  is  for  the 
irrower  strait  called  Ynys-y. 
foch.    Here  the  situation  is  par- 
cularly  favourable  for  construct- 
g  a  bridge  of  one  arch  ;  and 
aking  that  500  feet  span,  leaves 
Ie  navigation  as  free  as  at  pre- 
nt.    In  this  I  have  made  the 
sight  100  feet  in  the  clear  at 
igh  water  spring  tides ;  and  I 
ropose  this  bridge  to  be  40  feet 
i    breadth.      Estimating  from 
rawings,  as  already  described,  I 
id  the  expense  to  be  127,331/., 
'  31,323/.  less  than  the  former, 
rom  leaving  the  whole  channel 
umpeded,   it  is   certainly  the 
ost  perfect  scheme  of  passing 
Menai;  and  it  would,  in  my 
>inion,  be   attended  with  the 
ast  inconvenience  and  risk  in 
e  execution. 

'  In  order  to  render  this  evi- 
nt,  I  have  made  a  drawing, 
ee  Plate  C,)  to  show  in  what 
anner  the  centering  or  frame, 
W  an  arch  of  this  magnitude, 
Jay  be  constructed.  Hitherto, 
'e  centering  has  been  made  by 
dicing  supports  and  working  from 
low;  but  in  the  case  of  the 
enai,  from  the  nature  of  the 
>ttom  of  the  channel,  the  depth 


at  low  water,  and  the  great  rise 
and  rapidity  of  the  tides,  this 
would  be  very  difficult,  if  not 
impracticable.  1  therefore  pro- 
pose changing  the  mode,  and 
working  entirely  from  above;  that 
is  to  say,  instead  of  supporting,  I 
mean  to  suspend  the  centering. 
By  inspecting  the  drawing,  the 
general  principle  of  this  will  be 
readily  conceived. 

*.'  I  propose,  in  the  first  place, 
to  build  the  masonry  of  the  abut* 
ments  as  far  as  the  lines  A 13,  CD, 
and  in  the  particular  manner 
shown  in  the  section.  Having 
carried  up  the  masonry  to  the 
level  of  the  roadway,  1  propose 
upon  the  top  of  the  abutments  to 
construct  as  many  frames  as  there 
are  to  be  ribs  in  the  centre;  and 
of  at  least  an  equal  breadth  with 
the  top  of  each  rib.  These  frames 
to  be  about  50  feet  high  above  the 
top  of  the  masonry;  and  to  be 
rendered  perfectly  firm  and  se- 
cure. That  this  can  be  done  is 
so  evident,  that  I  avoid  entering 
into  details  respecting  the  mode. 
These  frames  are  for  the  purpose 
of  receiving  strong  blocks,  or 
rollers  and  chains,  and  to  be 
acted  upon  by  windlasses  or  other 
powers. 

"  I  next  proceed  to  construct 
the  centre  itself:  it  is  proposed 
to  be  made  of  deal  bulk,  and  to 
consist  of  four  separate  ribs  ;  each 
rib  being  a  continuation  of  timber 
frames,  5  feet  in  width  at  the  top 
and  bottom,  varying  in  depth 
from  25  feet  near  the  abutments 
to  7  feet  6  inches  at  the  middle 
or  crown.  Next  to  the  face  of 
the  abutments,  one  set  of  frames, 
about  50  feet  in  length,  can,  by 
means  of  temporary  scaffolding, 
and  iron  chain  bars  from  the  be- 
fore-mentioned frames,  be  readily 
constructed,  and  fixed  upon  the 
offsets  of  the  abutments,  and  to 
horizontal  iron  ties  laid  in  the 

437 


BRIDGE. 


masonry  for  this  purpose.  A  set 
of  these  frames,  (four  in  number,) 
having  been  fixed  against  the 
face  of  each  abutment,  they  are 
to  be  secured  together  by  cross 
and  diagonal  braces ;  and  there 
being  only  spaces  of  6"  feet  8  in- 
ches left  between  the  ribs,  (of 
which  these  frames  are  the  com- 
mencement,) they  are  to  be  co- 
vered with  planking,  and  the 
whole  converted  into  a  platform 
50  feet  by  40.  By  the  nature  of 
the  framing,  and  being  secured 
by  horizontal  and  suspending 
bars,  I  presume  every  person  ac- 
customed to  practical  operations 
will  admit,  that  these  platforms 
may  be  rendered  perfectly  firm 
and  secure. 

"  The  second  portion  of  the 
centre  frames,  having  been  pre- 
viously prepared  and  fitted  in  the 
carpenter's  yard,  are  brought,  in 
separate  pieces,  through  passages 
purposely  left  in  the  masonry,  to 
the  before- mentioned  platforms. 
They  are  here  put  together,  and 
each  frame  raised  by  the  suspend- 
ing bars  and  other  means,  so  that 
the  end  which  is  to  be  joined  to 
the  frame  already  fixed,  shall  rest 
upon  a  small  moveable  carriage. 
It  is  then  to  be  pushed  forward, 
perhaps  upon  an  iron  rail -road, 
until  the  strong  iron  forks,  which 
are  fixed  on  its  edge,  shall  fall 
upon  a  round  iron  bar,  which 
forms  the  outer  edge  of  the  first, 
or  abutment  frames.  When  this 
has  been  done,  strong  iron  bolts 
are  put  through  eyes  in  the  forks, 
and  the  aforesaid  second  portion 
of  the  frame- work  is  suffered  to 
descend  to  its  intended  position, 
by  means  of  the  suspending  chain 
bars,  until  it  closes  with  the  end 
of  the  previously  fixed  frame,  like 
a  rule  joint.  Admitting  the  first 
frames  were  firmly  fixed,  and  that 
the  hinge  part  of  this  joint  is 
sufficiently  strong,  and  the  joint 

433 


itself  20  feet  deep,  I  conceive, 
that  even  without  the  aid  of  the 
suspending  bars,  that  this  second 
portion  of  the  centering  would 
be  supported ;  but  we  will  for  a 
moment  suppose  that  it  is  to  be 
wholly  suspended.  It  is  known, 
by  experiment,  that  a  bar  of  good 
malleable  iron,  1  inch  square,  will 
suspend  eighty  thousand  pounds, 
and  that  the  powers  of  suspension 
are  as  the  sections;  consequently, 
a  bar  ]{  inch  square,  will  suspend 
one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand 
pounds;  but  the  whole  weight  of 
this  portion  of  the  rib,  including 
the  weight  of  the  suspending  bar, 
is  only  about  thirty  thousand 
pounds,  or  one-sixth  of  the  weight 
that  might  safely  be  suspended; 
and  as  I  propose  two  suspending 
chain  bars  to  each  portion  of  rib, 
if  they  had  the  whole  to  support, 
they  would  only  be  exerting  about 
one-twelfth  of  their  power;  and 
considering  the  proportion  of  the 
weight  which  rests  upon  the  abut- 
ments, they  are  equal  also  to 
support  all  the  iron -work  of  the 
bridge,  and  be  still  far  within 
their  power. 

*'  Having  thus  provided,  for  the 
second  portion  of  the  centering, 
a  degree  of  security  far  beyond 
what  can  be  required,  similar 
operations  are  carried  on  from 
each  abutment  until  the  parts  arc 
joined  in  the  middle,  and  form  a 
complete  centering ;  and  being 
then  braced  together,  and  covered 
with  planking  where  necessary 
the  whole  becomes  one  genera 
platform  or  wooden  bridge,  t(f 
receive  the  iron -work. 

"  It  is,  1  presume,  needless  t( 
observe,  that  upon  such  a  center 
ing  or  platform,  the  iron -work 
which,  it  is  understood,  has  beei 
previously  fitted,  can  be  put.  to 
gether  with  the  utmost  correct 
ness  and  facility;  the  communi 
cation  from  the  shores  to  th 


BRI 


B  R  I 


centering  will  be  through  the  be- 
fore-mentioned passages  left  in 
:  the  masonry." 
"  The  form  of  the  iron-work  of 
the  main  ribs  will  be  seen,  by  the 
Drawings,  to  compose  a  system 
of  triangles,  preserving  the  prin- 
cipal points  of  bearing  in  the 
direction  of  the  radius.  It  is 
proposed  in  the  breadth  of  the 
bridge,  (i.  e.  forty  feet,)  to  have 
'nine  ribs,  each  cast  in  twenty- 
three  pieces,  and  these  connected 
by  a  cross-grated  plate,  nearly 
in  the  same  manner  as  in  the 
'great  aqueduct  of  Pontcysylte 
over  the  valley  of  the  Dee,  near 
Llangollen  ;  the  fixation  of  the 
several  ribs  in  a  vertical  plane 
appearing  (after  the  abutments) 
to  be  the  most  important  object 
in  iron  bridges.  I  propose  to  ac- 
complish this  by  covering  the 
several  parts,  as  they  are  pro- 
gressively fixed,  with  grated  or 
reticulated  and  flanched  plates 
across  the  top  of  the  ribs.  This 
wow  d  keep  the  tops  of  the  ribs 
im  moveable,  and  convert  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  bridge  into  one 
frame;  besides  thus  securing  the 
top,  I  propose  also  having  cross 
braces  near  the  bottom  of  the 
ribs. 

u  The  main  ribs  being  thus  fixed, 
Covered,  and  connected  together, 
4 .he  great  feature  of  the  bridge  is 
'completed;  and  as,  from  the 
Accurate  experiments  made  and 
Communicated  to  me  by  my 
friend,  the  late  William  Rey- 
nolds, of  Coalbrook  Dale,  it 
'  equires  448,000  lbs.  to  crush 
cube  of  i  inch  of  cast  iron  of 
Mie  quality  called  gun-metal,  it 
*  s  clear,  that  while  the  ribs  are 
'  ept  in  their  true  position,  the 
1  trength  provided  is  more  than 
1  imple. 

,i4  When  advanced  thus  far,  I 
1  >ropose,  (though  not  to  remove,) 


yet  to  ease  the  timber  centering, 
by  having  the  feet  of  the  center- 
ing ribs,  (which  are  supported  by 
offsets  in  the  masonry  of  the 
front  abutment,)  placed  upon 
proper  wedges ;  the  rest  of  the 
centering  to  be  eased  at  the  same 
time  by  means  of  the  chain-bars. 
Thus,  the  hitherto  dangerous 
operation  of  striking  the  center- 
ing, will  be  rendered  gradual, 
and  perfectly  safe :  insomuch, 
that  this  new  mode  of  suspe?iding 
the  centering  instead  of  support- 
ing it  from  below,  may,  perhaps, 
hereafter  be  adopted  as  an  im- 
provement in  constructing  iron 
bridges,  even  in  places  not  cir- 
cumstanced as  are  the  Menai 
Straits.  •  Although  the  span  of 
the  arch  is  unusually  great,  yet 
by  using  iron  as  a  material,  the 
weight  upon  the  centre,  when 
compared  with  large  stone  arches, 
is  very  small  ;  taking  the  mere 
arch  stones  of  the  centre  arch 
of  Blackfriars'  Bridge  at  156  X 
43  X  5  equal  to  33,540  cubic 
feet  of  stone,  it  amounts  to  2,236 
tons ;  whereas  the  whole  of  the 
iron  work  in  the  main  ribs,  cross 
plates  and  ties,  and  grated  covering 
plates,  that  is  to  say,  all  that  is 
lying  on  the  centering  at  the 
time  it  is  to  be  eased,  weighs 
only  1,791  tons;  it  is  true,  that 
from  the  flatness  of  the  iron  arch, 
if  left  unguarded,  a  great  propor- 
tion of  this  weight  would  rest 
upon  the  centering ;  but  this  is 
counterbalanced  by  the  operation 
of  the  iron  ties  in  the  abutments, 
and  wholly  commanded  by  the 
suspending  chain-bars. 
"  When  the  main  iron  ribs  have 
been  completed,  the  next  step  is  to 
proceed  with  the  iron  supporters 
of  the  roadway;  and  these,  in- 
stead of  being  constructed  in  the 
form  of  circles,  or  that  of  per- 
pendicular pillars,    as  hitherto, 


BRI 

"  arc  here  a  series  of  triangles, 
"  thus  including  the  true  line  of 
"  bearing.  These  triangles  are, 
"  of  course,  preserved  in  a  vertical 
"  plane  by  cross-ties  and  braces  : 
"  iron  bearers  are  supported  by 
"  these  triangles,  and  upon  the 
"  bearers  are  laid  the  covering 
H  plates  under  the  road -way,  which, 
"  instead  of  being  solid,  are  (in 
"  order  to  lessen  the  weight)  pro- 
"  posed  to  be  reticulated." 

Mr.  Telford's  idea  of  suspending 
the  centering  led  to  the  proposal 
of  a  suspension  bridge,  which  was 
approved  of  by  a  select  committee 
of  the  House  of  Commons  (see  the 
Third  Report  from  the  Select  Com- 
mittee on  the  Road  from  London 
to  Holyhead,  &c.  29  Ap.  1819.) 
On  a  report  being  made  to  parlia- 
ment, the  necessary  funds  were 
granted,  and  the  work  was  soon 
after  commenced  at  Ynys  y  Moch, 
on  the  Anglesea  shore.  The  bridge 
consists  of  one  opening  of  five  hun- 
dred and  sixty  feet  between  the 
points  of  suspension,  and  one  hun- 
dred feet  in  height  between  the 
high-water  line  and  the  lower  side 
of  the  road -way ;  and  the  road- 
way being  horizontal,  this  height 
is  uninterrupted  for  the  whole  five 
hundred  feet  between  the  piers, 
except  where  the  natural  rock 
(which  forms  the  western  abut- 
ment) now  interposes.  But  in 
addition  to  these  rive  hundred  feet, 
there  are  four  arches  on  the  west- 
ern side,  and  three  on  the  eastern 
of  the  main  opening,  each  fifty 
feet  span,  composed  of  stone,  mak- 
ing in  all  eight  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
of  opening.  The  road-way  will 
consist  of  two  carriage-ways,  each 
twelve  feet  in  breadth,  with  a  foot 
path  of  four  feet  between  them,  so 
that  the  platform  is  about  thirty  feet 
in  breadth  :  the  whole  suspended 
from  four  lines  of  strong  cables  of 
malleable  iron,   by  perpendicular 

'440 


BRI 

iron  rods  placed  five  feet  apart, 
these  rods  supporting  the  road-way 
framing.  The  suspending  power 
was  calculated  at  two  thousand 
and  sixteen  tons,  and  the  weight 
to  be  suspended,  exclusive  of  the 
cables,  at  three  hundred  and  forty- 
two  tons,  leaving  a  disposable  powei 
of  one  thousand  six  hundred  and 
seventy-four  tons.  The  four  sides 
of  the  road-ways  are  made  oi 
framed  iron  work,  firmly  bounc 
together,  for  seven  feet  in  height 
with  a  similar  work  for  five  fee 
below  the  cables:  the  weight  o 
the  whole  bridge,  between  tht 
points  of  suspension,  was  efXimatec 
at  four  hundred  and  eighty-nim 
tons.'  It  was  calculated  that  th<: 
contraction  and  expansion  of  thi 
iron  cables' might  occasion  a  risi 
or  fall  to  the  extent  of  four  or  fivj 
inches;  but  the  variations  of  thj 
temperature  of  the  atmosphere 
would  not  derange  the  bridge 
The  abutments  consist  of  ston> 
work,  and  each  of  the  two  piers  i 
sixty  feet  by  forty-two  and  a  hall 
wide,  at  high-water  mark,  having 
foundation  of  rock.  Those  pier 
(connected  with  the  whole  of  th 
remainder  of  the  masonry)  form 
mass  constructed  with  blocks  c 
hard  limestone,  of  much  greate 
weight  than  is  necessary  for  sup; 
porting  a  bridge  of  this  kind.  Tw 
main  pillars,  or  piers,  also  of  th 
most  substantial  masonry,  wer 
constructed  for  the  purpose  c 
raising  the  cables  from  which  tu 
bridge  is  suspended.  As  the  cable 
are  carried  over  the  top  of  thes 
pyramids,  so  as  to  form  nearl 
similar  angles  on  each  side,  th 
pressure  is  almost  perpendicular. 

Mr.  Telford  proposed  to  hav 
four  lines  of  suspension  in  th 
breadth  of  the  bridge,  and  in  ear 
line  four  cables,  making  in  tn 
whole  sixteen ;  these  cables  pa^ 
oyer  rollers  fixed  on  the  summit  t 


B  R  I 

t  >  pyramids,  and  are  fastened  at 

i  extremities  to  an  iron  frame, 
1  ig  horizontally  over  the  top  of 
t  •  srtiall  arches,  and  under  a 
nss  of  masonry.  From  these 
c)les  the  road-way  is  suspended 
b  vertical  iron  rods,  connected  at 
t  ir  lower  extremities  with  wrought 
in  bars,  both  transversely  and 
ligitudinalty ;  thus  forming  a 
fine  on  which  to  lay  timber  for 
t!  road-way.  The  distance  of 
ft  feet  is  kept  between  the  rods, 

ii  order  that  the  suspending 
pver  may  be  equally  distributed 
idoughout  the  whole  length  of  the 
bpge.  The  suspending  rods  pass 
bween  the  cables,   and  depend 

lc"     u)n  each  two  of  them,  so  that  the 
'*     g  eral   strength   of    the  bridge 
o  id  not  materially  be  affected  by 
t.'ing  one  away. 

fhe  cables  and  the  flooring,  as 
v  1  as  the  suspending  rods,  are 
«    c  structed  and  united  in  such  a 
n  nner,  that  each  of  the  parts  may 
1     b  taken  out  and  replaced  sepa- 
0!i     rely;  so  that  there  can  be  no 
qficulty  in  repairing  any  part  of 
I      t  bridge  whenever  required. 
lU      Mr.  Telford,    in   his  evidence 
Ml     b'ore  the  Select  Committee,  says, 
"  lie  distance  between  the  points 
in    o  suspension  being  five  hundred 
airi    at  sixty  feet,  and  the  versed  sine 
tl  ty-seven  feet,  or  about  one- 
filenth  of  the  chord  line  ;  by 
emulation,  I  find  that  the  weight 
tc be  suspended  is  three  hundred 
a  forty-two  tons  ;  and  by  nume- 
\i     n$  experiments  made  to  ascer- 
U  the  strength  of  malleable  iron, 
it  appears,  that  with  a  chord  line 
olive  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  and 
aiersed  sine  of  thirty-seven,  a 
Wp  bar  of  iron,  one  inch  square, 
W  (besides  its  own  weight)  carry 
te  tons  and  a  half,  and  about  one 
h;'  that  weight,  before  it  begins 
tc  stretch   (permanently.)  The 
^iai   bridge  contains  a  section 


B  R  I 

of  one  hundred  and  ninety-two 
square  inches,  which,  at  five  and 
a  quarter  tons  to  each  square 
inch,  will  support  one  thousand 
and  eight  tons,  being  a  surplus 
of  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  tons 
above  the  real  weight  of  the 
bridge ;  and  there  would  be  re- 
quired a  further  weight  of  one 
thousand  and  eight  tons  to  break 
down  the  bridge,  which  may  be 
deemed  more  than  sufficient  against 
any  probable  trial  to  which  the 
bridge  can  be  exposed.  The 
cables  passing  over  the  stone  piers 
constructed  of  the  most  solid  ma- 
sonry, will  then  pass  down  to  the 
cast-iron  frame  before  described, 
thereby  embracing  the  whole  mass 
of  masonry  and  spandrils,  making 
in  all  about  twelve  thousand  tons 
at  each  end  of  the  bridge,  exclu- 
sive of  the  great  pyramids.  The 
weight  of  the  bridge  between  the 
points  of  suspension,  including 
cables,  being  only  four  hundred 
and  eighty-nine  tons,  there  is  not 
much  reason  to  expect  undulation, 
from  any  weight  which  will  be 
laid  on  any  particular  part ;  but 
to  guard  against  any  effect  of 
that  sort,  four  sides  of  the  road- 
ways, of  framed  iron-work  firmly 
bo  md  together  for  seven  feet  in 
height,  and  similar  work  for  five 
feet  in  depth  below  the  cables, 
which,  when  they  meet  together  in 
the  centre  of  the  bridge,  will  con- 
stitute a  frame- work  twelve  feet 
deep,  with  a  bridge  of  thirty  feet 
in  breadth,  and  five  hundred  and 
thirty-two  in  length,  there  is  not 
much  to  be  apprehended  from  side 
vibration  ;  but  in  order  to  provide 
against  this  possibility,  two  hori- 
zontal cables  crossing  the  bridge 
diagonally,  each  of  which  laying 
hold  of  the  middle  of  its  length, 
and  passing  round  a  cast-iron 
frame  projecting  from  the  oppo- 
site sides  of  the  great  pyramids 

#4 


B  R  I 


BRI 


and  from  thence  carried  to  the 
masonry  of  the  abutments  ;  thus 
creating  a  diagonal  stay  upon 
seventy  feet  in  breadth." 

The  weight  of  the  bridge  is  four 
hundred  and  eighty-nine  tons ; 
upon  which,  if  three  hundred  tons 
are  placed,  they  make  seven  hun- 
dred and  eighty-nine  tons :  the 
pull  of  this  weight  at  the  abut- 
ments, upon  a  curvature  of  l-15th, 
is  found  by  experiment,  over  a 
pulley  with  a  perpendicular  weight, 
to  be  equal  to  about  two  and 
half  times  the  weight  of  the  other 
side,  or  one  thousand  nine  hundred 
and  seventy-two  tons;  to  coun- 
teract this,  the  cables  are  con- 
tinued at  nearly  the  same  angles 
as  those  of  the  bridge,  to  the  cast 
iron  frame,  which  embraces  about 
twelve  thousand  tons  of  masonry. 

The  cables  are  formed  of  a  num- 
ber of  straight  half-inch  bars,  con- 
nected at  different  lengths.  On 
the  square  sides  of  these  bars  are 
laid  segments  of  circles,  of  a  pro- 
per size  for  making  the  cables  of 
a  cylindrical  form  ;  the  bars,  as 
well  as  segments,  joined  longitu- 
dinally to  the  whole  of  the  required 
length,  and  secured  by  buddings 
every  five  feet,  and  then  enveloped 
in  flannel,  well  saturated  with  a 
composition  of  rosin  and  bees' 
wax,  to  preserve  them  from  the 
weather,  and  the  whole  encircled 
with  wire.  The  weight  of  each 
separate  cable,  from  the  points  of 
suspension,  is  nine  tons  and  three 
quarters,  or  one  hundred  and  se- 
venteen pounds  per  yard.  The 
weight  of  a  drove  of  oxen  is  cal- 
culated at  about  three  hundred  tons, 
supposing  them  to  amount  to  two 
hundred  head,  all  closely  huddled 
together,  and  the  estimated  weight 
necessary  to  tear  the  cables  asun- 
der is  upwards  of  two  thousand 
tons,  which  is  about  four  times 
the  weight  of  the  entire  bridge. 

442 


The  passing  of  a  mail  coach  ove 
the  bridge  was  not  expected  I 
produce  any  undulation,  or  sensj 
ble  perpendicular  vibration;  nc 
was  any  lateral  vibration  apprt 
hended  from  the  most  violent  gal 
of  wind,  by  reason  of  the  propoi 
tion  that  the  breadth  of  the  bridg 
bears  as  a  frame  to  its  extreni 
length. 

The  committee  of  the  House  J 
Commons    appointed   to  inquii 
into  the  state  of  the  Chester  an 
Holyhead  road,  found  that  gre; 
delays  occurred  in  the  arrival  i 
the  mails  from  Chester  at  Hoi 
head,  which  were  owing  partly 
the  bad  state  of  the  roads,  but 
a  still  gieater  measure  to  the  fen 
at   Conway,  which  was  attends 
with  serious  inconvenience,  miu 
delay,    occasional    danger,  ar 
even  actual  loss  of  lives.  Tv 
plans  were  proposed  by  Mr.  Re 
nie,  who  was  of  opinon,  that  1 
situation  was  so  well  adapted  f 
the  purposes  of  a  bridge  as  th 
opposite  the  castle  ;  but  which  i 
considered  would  be  an  expensi 
undertaking  ;  the  channel  beii 
wide,  and  great  part  of  it  of 
loose  moving  sand.    A  grant 
£40,000  was  obtained  from  parli 
ment  towards  defraying  the  expen 
of  erecting  a  suspension  bridge. 

According  to  one  of  Mr.  Rennii 
designs,  he  proposed  to  build 
bridge  opposite  to  the  east  end 
the  castle,  having  its  approa 
through  the  middle  of  the  cast 
which  could  easily  be  effect 
without  injuring  its  beauty;  a 
at  the  west  end  of  the  castle 
bank  of  earth,  to  make  the  a 
proach,  either  to  the  market-pta 
or  lower  down,  easy  and  con- 
nient,  for  the  town  itself,  as  well 
the  public.  At  the  east  end  of  I 
castle  he  proposed  to  raise  t 
towers,  corresponding  with  those: 
the  castle,  to  serve  as  an  ab 


B  It  I 


BRI 


rI)t;  and  four  towers  on  the 
i  ind,  connected  together  by  rub- 
wails ;  between  these  he  pro- 
ved a  cast-iron  arch  of  three 
lndred  and  fifty  feet  span,  and 
o:  hundred  feet  from  the  water 
a  an  ordinary  spring-tide,  to  its 
c  wn,  which  was  more  than  suffi- 
efit  for  the  navigation  of  any 
v  sel  trading  in  that  river.  From 
tl<  abutment  on  the  island,  a 
c  seway  of  rubble-stone,  fifty  feet 
bad  at  the  top,  and  sloping  about 
the  to  one  on  each  side:  this 
c;seway  was  to  be  sunk  in  the 
Scti  four  feet,  and  its  top  higher 
thi  low-water  mark,  the  stones 
w  I  rammed  together,  and  guarded 
b -sills  with  sheeting  piles  driven 
U'nty  feet  into  the  sand,  and  con- 
nced  by  cross  sills.  This  cause- 
w  was  to  extend  as  far  as  the 
do  water,  about  two  hundred  and 
tmy  yards,  and  on  it  piers  and 
tv  ve  arches,  and  between  the  piers 
in  rted  arches.to  equalize  the  weight 
of  he  structure;  from  the  end  of 
th  causeway  an  embankment  of 
e;  h  to  extend  to  the  shore;  the 
brtdth  of  the  road  was  to  be 
tmy- two  feet  within  the  parapet. 
B  this  plan,  the  strength  of  the 
tit  would,  in  some  respect,  be 
coined  to  the  Conway  shore,  but 
all  ved  to  pass  through  the  arch- 
ing on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
isl  d,  considerably  below  high  wa- 
ter consequently  not  likely  to 
ch  k  the  tide,  or  be  injurious  to 
thrown  of  Conway.  Another  de- 
sigof  Mr.  Rennie's  was,  to  dispense 
wil  any  stone  arches,  and  continue 
the  mbankrnent  to  the  island. 

lis  last  plan,  in  many  respects, 
coi  sponds  with  the  one  proposed, 
anicarried  into  execution,  by  Mr. 
Tel  rd,  which  consists  of  one  open- 
ing r  suspension  bridge,  from  the 
casj  to  the  island,  comprising  a 
■p£  of  three  hundred  and  fifty 
fe*   The  communication  between 


the  island  and  eastern  shore  is  by 
an  embankment  of  earth,  cased 
with  a  thick  coating  of  stones, 
which  counteracts  the  operation  of 
the  tide  upon  the  eastern  embank- 
ment. The  road-way  of  the  bridge 
is  suspended  from  cables,  similar 
to  the  Menai,  carried  over  towers 
at  the  points  of  suspension.  Here, 
however,  there  is  only  one  road- 
way, with  foot-paths  on  each  side; 
in  other  respects,  the  construction 
of  this  bridge,  in  minute  particulars, 
so  closely  corresponds  with  the 
one  over  the  Menai,  that,  a  length- 
ened detail  would  be  tedious  and 
uninteresting.  The  pillars  sup- 
porting the  cables  are  about  twenty- 
four  feet  high  from  the  road-way, 
and  the  distance  from  high- water 
mark  to  the  road-way  is  about 
eighteen  feet.  The  depth  of  water 
under  the  bridge  at  high-water  is 
generally  from  twenty-three  to 
twenty-six  feet,  and  at  low  water 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet. 

A  bridge  was  proposed  to  be 
erected  over  the  estuary  of  the 
Mersey  at  Runcorn  Gap,  about 
twenty  miles  from  Liverpool,  at 
the  suggestion  of  some  highly 
patriotic  gentleman  of  Liverpool. 
The  specification  for  this  work  pro- 
vided, that  the  span  of  the  bridge 
should  measure,  at  least,  one  thou- 
sand feet,  and  that  its  height  above 
the  surface  of  the  water  should  not 
be  less  than  sixty  feet,  so  as  to 
admit  of  the  free  navigation  of  this 
great  commercial  river.  A  variety 
of  designs  for  this  bridge  were  pro- 
cured by  a  select  committee  of  the 
gentlemen  who  took  an  interest  in 
this  great  undertaking.  The  plan 
most  approved  of,  however,  was 
the  design  of  a  bridge  of  suspen- 
sion ;  and  Mr.  Telford,  the  en- 
gineer, and  Captain  Brown,  of  the 
royal  navy,  are  understood  pretty 
nearly  to  have  concurred  in  opinion 
as  to  the  practicability  of  such  a 

443 


B  R  1 


BRI 


work.  Mr.  Telford  reported  fully 
on  the  subject,  and  estimated  the 
expense  of  his  design  at  from 
£63,000  to  £85,000,  according  to 
the  different  modes  of  execution. 

An  act  of  parliament  was  ob- 
tained in  18'24,  incorporating  cer- 
tain individuals  who  had  agreed  to 
subscribe  £80,000  for  defraying  the 
expense  of  building  a  suspension 
bridge  over  the  Thames,  at  Ham- 
mersmith, which  was  opened  for 
the  use  of  the  public  on  the  twenty- 
third  of  August,  1827.  This  bridge 
consists  of  two  suspension  piers  or 
towers,  built  in  the  river,  having  an 
opening  of  four  hundred  feet  be- 
tween them.  On  the  opposite 
shores  are  two  strong  abutments, 
over  which,  a  nearly  level  roadway 
passes  through  archways  in  the 
suspension  towers.  It  is  suspended 
by  four  lines  of  strong  chains, 
hanging  in  curves  from  the  abut- 
ments over  the  towers,  and  down 
between  them  ;  the  roadway  being 
suspended  from  them  by  vertical 
rods. 

The  total  length  of  the  bridge, 
consisting  of 

ft.  ID. 

The  central  opening  ....    400  3 

The  two  suspension  towers 

(22  feet  each)      ....      44  0 

The  distance  between  the 
towers  and  abutment 
on  the  Middlesex  side    142  11 

The  distance  between  the 
towers  and  abutment 
on  the  Surrey  .side   . .     145  6 

The  two  abutments  (45 

feet  each)    90  0 


is  ....    822  8 

The  width  of  the  water-wav  is 

Middle  opening   400  3 

Surrey  side   145  6 

Middlesex  side   142  11 


Total  width     C88  8 

444 


The  suspension  towers  are 


In  height  above  the  level 

of  the  roadway,   48  0 

Width    22  0 

Breadth   42  0 

The  road  for  carriages  is 

in  width    20  0 

Through  the  towers  of  the 

archways  it  is  in  width  14  0 
The    two    footpaths  are 

eacli   4  0 

The  height  of   the  road 

above  high  water  is  . .      10  0 
The  span  supported  by  the 
central    parts  of  the 

chains  is    400  3 

The    depression    of  the 


middle  of  the  curve 
below  the  level  of  the 
points  of  suspension  .      29  6 

The  four  lines  of  chains  are  eat 
composed  of  two  sets  of  bars,  o 
set  immediately  over  the  otht 
and  about  one  foot  higher.  T 
principal  chains,  forming  the  sid 
of  the  roadway,  are  composed 
six  bars  or  links,  eight  feet  nil 
inches  three-quarters  from  cent 
to  centre  of  the  bolt  holes,  ti 
inches  deep,  and  one  inch  tliic 
are  olaced  side  by  side,  with  intt 
mediate  connecting  plates  of  o 
inch  thick,  and  eight  and  a  h;l 
deep,  making  together  seven  plal 
to  connect  the  six  bars  or  links. 

In  America,  the  application 
suspension  bridges  has  of  late  ye; 
been  very  frequent,  but  they  a 
not  of  such  great  dimensions  I 
tween  the  points  of  suspension 
in  great  Britain.  That  over  t 
Merrimack,  at  Newbury  Port,  whr 
was  built  by  Mr.  Templeman, 
an  expense  of  twenty-five  the 
sand  dollars,  is  a  curve,  wh< 
chord  measures  two  hundred  a 
forty- four  feet.  There  are  t 
other  chain  bridges,  of  one  in 
and  a  quarter  iron  bars,  both  mt 
suring  one  hundred  and  thirty-f 
feet  between  their  points  of  s 
pension.    The  one,  called  Cir 


B  R  I 


B  R  I 


b^and  bridge,  is  at  Maryland, 
ai  the  other  at  Federal  city: 
bo  are  described  by  Pope  in  his 
"  ridge  Architecture,"  published 
at'sew  York  in  1811.  The  chain 
n  ze  over  the  river  Brandywine, 
atvVilmington,  is  constructed  of 
n  bars,  measuring  one  inch  and 
the-eighths,  and  its  chord  one 
hidred  and  forty-five  feet.  That 
at'irownsville,  in  Fayette  county, 
ov  the  Monongahela,  is  of  inch- 
ai -quarter  bars,  measuring  one 
hidred  and  twenty  feet  between 
th  points  of  suspension  :  and 
ar.her  in  its  vicinity,  of  the  same 
tliKness  of  metal,  forms  an  in- 
veed  suspended  arch,  with  a 
1  d  of  one  hundred  and  twelve 
fei  between  the  rebutments.  That 
he  Schuylkill  at  Philadelphia, 
r>  of  chains  formed  of  iron 
ba,one  inch  and  a  half  square, 
be,g  a  catenary  of  one  hundred 
ar.  forty  feet  between  the  points 
of  uspension. 

he  readiest,  and  probably  the 
mft  ancient,  material  for  the  con- 
st ction  of  bridges,  is  timber. 
Pladio  has  given  several  designs 
of  1  is  own  invention  for  wooden 
br  ges,  some  of  which  we  have 
gi  n  in  our  plates  to  the  present 
ar  le.  One,  which  he  built  over 
th  Cismone,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Ah,  between  Trent  and  Bassano 
ID  ply,  is  simple  and  ingenious, 
th,»vhole  being  suspended  by  the 
frying  which  forms  the  sides. 
It<orm  is  the  segment  of  a  circle 
of!. wo  hundred  and  twenty-six 
ream  diameter,  its  chord  one  hun- 
dn  and  thirteen  feet  seven  inches, 
its'ersed  sine  fifteen  feet  three 
inc.Ds,  and  the  height  of  the  tim- 
be; framing  of  its  arch,  at  the 
vt  x,  ten  feet  four  inches. 

[ermany  is,  however,  the  school 
foi  .'ooden  bridges.  Of  these,  the 
mr  celebrated  was  that  over  the 
ill  ie  at  Schauffhausen,  which  was 


destroyed  by  the  French  in  April, 
1799.  It  was  designed  and  exe- 
cuted by  Ulric  Grubenman,  a  com- 
mon carpenter  of  Tueffen,  who  pro- 
duced a  model  for  it  to  the  com- 
mittee entrusted  with  the  conduct 
of  the  works,  and  completed  it  in 
1758.  Its  total  length  was  three 
hundred  and  sixty-four  feet,  and 
its  breadth  eighteen  feet,  and  it 
was  supported  only  by  the  abut- 
ments on  the  banks  of  the  river. 
A  figure  of  it  is  given  in  our  plates 
to  the  present  article.  John,  the 
brother  of  Ulric,  about  the  same 
time,  constructed  a  timber  bridge 
of  the  same  sort  at  Kuiehenaw,  two 
hundred  and  forty  feet  in  length  ; 
and  they  conjointly  erected  one 
some  years  afterwards  near  Baden, 
over  the  river  Limmat,  two  hundred 
feet  in  length.  They  also  erected 
another  bold  and  well-constructed 
bridge  at  Writtenghen,  upon  the 
same  principles.  Its  curve  was  the 
segment  of  a  circle  of  three  hun- 
dred and  forty-eight  feet  in  dia- 
meter, whose  chord  measured  one 
hundred  and  ninety-eight  feet,  its 
versed  sine  thirty-one  feet,  and  the 
height  of  the  timber  frame-work 
of  the  arch,  at  the  vertex,  seven  feet 
five  inches. 

Several  timber  bridges  were  erect- 
ed during  the  years  1807,  1808, 
and  1809,  in  Germany,  by  the 
ingenious  and  skilful  Wiebeking. 
The  widest  span  is  that  over  the 
Regnitz,  at  Bamberg,  which  is  two 
hundred  and  eight  feet.  His  other 
principal  bridges  are  that  over  the 
"Wertach  at  Elsingen,  that  over  the 
Vils  at  Vilshoven,  over  the  Danube 
at  Neuberg,  two  over  the  Isar  at 
Freysinghen  in  Bavaria,  over  the 
Inn  at  Oettingen,  over  the  Alz  at 
Altenmarkt,  over  the  Inn  at  Rosen, 
over  the  Lech,  near  Augsburg,  over 
the  Inn  at  MuhldorfT,  and  over  the 
Rott. 

There  have  been  many  capital 

44o 


B  RI 


B  R  I 


timber  bridges  constructed  in  Ame- 
rica. The  Trenton  bridge  over  the 
Delaware,  built  by  Burr  in  1804, 
is  the  segment  of  a  circle  of  three 
hundred  and  forty-five  feet  in  dia- 
meter, its  chord  measuring  two 
hundred  feet,  its  versed  sine  thirty- 
two  feet,  and  the  height  of  the 
timber  framing  of  the  arch  at  its 
vertex  only  two  feet  eight  inches. 
That  called  the  Colossus,  over  the 
Schuylkill  in  Philadelphia,  is  of 
the  extraordinary  span  of  three 
hundred  and  forty  feet,  and  is  the 
segment  of  a  circle  of  one  thousand 
four  hundred  and  sixty-five  feet  in 
diameter,  its  versed  sine  measuring 
only  twenty  feet,  and  the  height 
of  the  wooden  framing  of  the  arch 
at  the  vertex  only  seven  feet.  It 
was  finished  in  1813,  by  Wernwag. 
Several  fine  timber  bridges  have 
been  erected  by  the  ingenious  Ame- 
rican mechanic,  Palmer,  one  over 
the  Merrimack  at  Deer's  Island,  near 
Newbury  Port,  another  over  the 
Schuylkill  at  Philadelphia,  and 
another  over  the  Piscataqua,  near 
Portsmouth,  whose  arch  is  put 
together  with  wooden  keys,  similar 
to  those  proposed  by  Price  in  his 
Treatise  on  Carpentry. 

Practice.  It  is  an  observation  of 
universal  truth,  that  the  openings 
of  a  bridge  should  be  as  few  in 
number,  and  as  wide  in  dimensions, 
as  the  height  and  situation  will 
allow.  It  is  the  truth  of  this 
observation  which  has  given  rise 
to  the  projection  of  iron  arched  and 
suspension  bridges.  The  best  posi- 
tion for  a  bridge  is  at  right  angles 
to  the  stream,  because  the  piers 
then  present  the  smallest  obstacle 
to  the  stream,  and  free  passage  is 
given  to  the  water.  Some  people 
have  recommended  that  bridges 
should  be  built  oblique  to  the 
stream,  and  there  have  been  in- 
stances of  bridges  built  in  such  a 
position,  but  this  position  has  gene- 


rally been  regulated  by  the  part 
cular  circumstances  of  the  plac 
The  oldest  way  of  preparing  for  tl 
foundations  of  the  piers  of  bridgi 
appears  to  have  been  by  tumin 
the  river  into  a  new  channel  durin 
the  time  of  building.  The  ne: 
method  adopted,  appears  to  ha^ 
been  by  coffer-dams,  and  by  caisson 
which  latter  method  was  succes 
fully  pract  ised  by  Labelye  at  Wes 
minster  bridge,  and  by  Milne  i 
Blackfriars.  See  Caisson.  T! 
coffer-dam  was  used  by  Semple 
laying  the  foundation  of  the  pie 
of  the  Essex  bridge,  Dublin,  i 
the  narrative  of  the  proceedings 
the  erection  of  this  bridge  are  \ 
excellent  illustration  of  the  practii 
of  bridge-building,  we  extract  tl 
following  account  from  the  Enc 
clopedia  Metropolitana,  abridge 
from  Mr.  Semple's  own  descri 
tion 

"  Semple,  who  built  this  han. 
some  and  substantial  bridge  ov 
the  LifTey,  published  a  valuat 
and  ingenious  journal  of  his  pi 
ceedings,  difficulties,  and  confe 
sions  of  his  want  of  knowledp 
But  he  succeeded  in  building  o 
of  the  handsomest  structures  of  t! 
kind  in  Europe.  It  is  in  design 
mere  copy  of  Labelye's  Westminst 
bridge.  His  success,  after  mai 
appaling  difficulties,  was  so  grei 
that  a  knowledge  of  them  will  re 
der  similar  operations  a  compar 
tively  easy  task.  Semple  w< 
however,  a  man  of  genius;  n 
although  he  copied  his  elevati 
from  Labelye,  the  construction 
Essex  bridge  by  coffer-dams,  a1 
a  continued  foundation,  while  th 
of  Westminster,  then  just  finishc 
was  by  caissons,  proves  him  to  ha 
possessed  great  practical  skill,  a 
a  mind  fertile  in  resources,  and 
steady  patience,  most  requisite 
the  architectural  engineer.  I 
took  Alberti  for  his  master,  a 


B  R  I 


BRI 


fcDvved  his  observation,  that  the 
bu  architects  used  to  make  a 
cctinued  foundation  of  the  whole 
le;th  of  the  bridge,  and  not  only 
iiiTer  each  pier;  and  this  they 
di  not  by  shutting  out  the  whole 
irr  at  once  by  one  single  enclo- 
sul,  but  by  first  making  one  part, 
tin  another,  and  so  joining  the 
w!  !e  together  by  degrees ;  for  it 
wild  be  impossible  to  withstand 
i  repulse  the  whole  force  of  the 
w<3r  at  once. 

On  his  return  to  Dublin  (from 
ofi   L(don)  he  immediately  proceeded 

I  to  .urn  up,  and  reconsider  all  the 
c  kr.vledge  which  he  had  acquired 
ai  co;erning  coffer-dams ;  the  result 
:  of  hich  was,  that  he  found  hi  ru- 
se .exactly  at  the  point  whence  he 

i    ha  started.    His  inventive  talents 
a   projected   a   coffer-dam  of 
bu    power   and   originality  as 
puled  the  precedent  mongers, 
n  alarmed  himself.  Fortunately, 
at  [this   juncture    he  obtained, 
i^h  a  friend  in  Paris,  Belidors' 
|,;   fo',th  volume  of  Hydraulic  Archi- 
j    teyre,  then  just  published,  toge- 

II  th.  with  the  other  three  volumes 
ofiiat  useful  work,  and  a  pro- 
ipltive  view  of  the  men  at  work 
in  coffer-dam  of  the  great  bridge 
tlx  building  at  Orleans.  The 
laruage  he  was  a  stranger  to,  but 
hisnotto  being,  *  the  greater  the 

.  dif  ujty,  the  greater  the  con- 
qu'-,"  he  turned  over  the  plates, 

^  fcnj  received  confidence  in  his 
pla.;  from  his  quick  perception  of 

■  Be,or's  construction  of  coffer- 
•    He  then  immediately  com- 

1  me.  ed  his  undertaking  with  vigour, 
incompleted  it  with  success.  The 
8CKI  'fie  men  of  England  were  at 
Ibijime  divided  about  the  ques- 
tioiof  caissons  and  coffer-dams. 

ye,  who  was  building  the  new 
We  at  Westminster,  headed  the 
caii,>n  faction,  and  aserted,  that  it 
^impossible  to  make  a  dam 


sufficiently  stanch  for  the  work. 
Semple,  however,  persevered  in  his 
enclosure  of  battredeau,  having 
acquired  great  confidence  in  his 
scheme,  and  firmly  believing  that 
of  all  methods  that  had  been  in- 
vented, none  were  so  secure,  or  so 
pleasant  to  execute,  as  that  of  build- 
ing and  laying  foundations  of  bridges 
on  terra  firma.  He, therefore,  began 
in  January,  1753,  to  stop  up  and 
demolish  the  old  bridge,  and  to 
remove  the  equestrian  statue  of 
George  the  First,  which  had  been 
erected  in  1722;  previously  mak- 
ing an  estimate  of  the  expense, 
which  he  had  calculated  at  twenty 
thousand  pounds,  and  promised 
that  he  would  not  exceed  twenty 
thousand  five  hundred  pounds. 
In  February  of  the  same  year  he 
drove  the  first  pile  of  his  much 
discussed  coffer-dam,  and  having 
passed  the  rubicon  of  caissons  and 
battredeaux,  he  continued  his  ope- 
rations, and  finished  his  dam.  He 
was  proceeding  very  successfully, 
till,  on  the  28th  of  April,  a  violent 
land-flood  came  down  from  the 
mountain  streams  that  run  into 
the  Liffey,  which  drove  the  men  from 
their  work;  and  while  he  was  on 
the  top  of  the  dam,  he  felt  the 
whole  rise,  and  it  was  immediately 
torn  up,  and  scattered  all  over  the 
river.  Not  to  be  disconcerted,  he 
recommenced,  and  completed  in  a 
secure  manner,  his  coffer-dam  across 
half  the  river,  by  the  fourth  of 
June,  and  built  the  foundations  of 
the  bridge,  and  the  piers  within  it, 
in  the  following  manner.  He  first 
constructed  frames  of  oak  timber 
of  ten  inch  scantling,  the  exact 
shape  of  the  pier,  with  rough  two- 
inch  oak  planks  dove-tailed  across 
it,  in  every  three  or  four  feet,  and 
pinned  to  the  frame ;  and  on  these 
planks  he  stretched  other  planks 
lengthways,  but  not  so  thick.  These 
frames,  so  made,  he  had  dragged 

447 


B  R  I 


B  R  I 


to  their  proper  situations,  and  let 
them  rest  upon  the  natural  bed  of 
the  river.  He  next  proceeded  to 
the  north  abutment,  which  was  an 
operation  which  he  justly  feared 
would  be  attended  with  very  great 
danger,  because  he  had  a  great 
depth  to  sink,  and  very  little  room 
to  sink  upon,  without  depriving 
the  public  of  the  carriage-way  upon 
the  north  quay.  He  succeeded  in 
combating  the  difficulties,  and 
keeping  up  the  breast  of  the  bank 
or  quay.  He  then  strained  a  line, 
crossing  the  site  of  the  proposed 
bridge  at  right  angles,  and  ten  feet 
from  the  back  of  the  abutment, 
sinking  about  three  feet,  and  driv- 
ing in  a  row  of  piles  close  to  the 
bank,  which  he  pared  so  as  just  to 
admit  the  sheeting  between  the 
bank  and  the  piles ;  and  when  they 
had  sunk  eight  feet  in  this  manner, 
he  made  his  first  effort,  and  so 
proceeded  downwards.  He  then 
went  on  with  his  masonry  for  the 
continued  foundation  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  bridge  ;  and 
after  many  experiments  found  his 
coffer-dam  to  answer  all  his  expec- 
tations. He  thus  proceeded  care- 
fully and  judiciously,  till  he  opened 
the  bridge  to  the  public  in  general, 
on  the  tenth  of  April,  1755,  two 
years  and  eighty  days  after  they 
were  deprived  of  the  use  of  the  old 
bridge." 

The  usual  way  in  which  the 
foundations  of  Waterloo  bridge, 
Southwark  bridge,  and  Vauxhall 
bridge,  have  been  laid,  was  by 
driving  piles  of  Memel  logs,  four- 
teen or  fifteen  inches  square,  for 
the  construction  of  the  coffer-dams, 
which  was  cleared  of  water  by 
means  of  pumps.  See  Coffer- 
darn,  and  Caisson. 

Different  writers  have  had  very 
different  opinions  on  the  curve 
most  convenient  for  the  arches  of 
a  bridge.     Dr.  Hutton's  arch  of 

448  / 


equilibration,  which  admits  of 
horizontal  line  at  the  top,  accord 
ing  to  his  example  in  proposition  i 
is  of  a  graceful  and  convenier 
form,  as  it  may  be  made  higher  c 
lower  at  pleasure,  with  the  sam 
opening.    However,  the  result  < 
pure  theory  was  generally  not  su< 
cessful  in  practice,   owing  to 
variety  of  accidental  circumstance 
which  cannot  be  taken  into  accoun 
The  best  practical  arch  appears 
be  the  elliptical,  as  it  can  be  mat 
of  any  height  to  the  same  span,  - 
of  any  span  to  the  same  heigh 
This  form  of  arch  has  a  bold 
look,  is  stronger,  and  requires  le 
materials,  than  any  other.  Next 
this,  perhaps,  is  the  cycloidal,  at 
next  the  circular.    Of  the  cycloid 
there  is  a  handsome  example 
the  bridge  of  Trinity  college,  Cai 
bridge. 

The  following  observations  ? 
from  the  Tract  of  Seaward, 
the  rebuilding  of  London  Bridj 
— There  are  three  several  curv 
which  appear  to  combine  in 
essential  manner,  the  advantages 
beauty,  and  convenience  of  for 
and   which,    from   their  decid 
superiority  in  this  respect  over 
other  curves,  appear  to  be  aim 
exclusively    adopted    for  arcl 
by  the    practical  bridge-build 
These  are  the  circular,  the  eii 
tical,  and  the  cycloidal  curvf 
which,  with  their  infinite  segmer 
present  to  our  choice  an  endl 
variety  of  arches.    The  ellipse 
most  particularly  advantageous 
forming  the  intrados  of  an  ar. 
At  the  springing  of  an  elliptl 
arch,  the  curvature  is  considerab; 
and,  as  it  rises  perpendicularly 
affords  the  commodious  openi , 
both  as  a  water-way  and  as  a  | 
sage  for  craft.   Proceeding  tows |J 
the  crown  of  the  arch,  the  cul  t 
ture  continually  decreases,  til  1 
approaches  almost  to  a  parallel 


BRI 


BR  I 


wi  the  horizontal  lines  of  the 
brge,  by  this  means  uniting  all 
th  boldness  of  the  semicircle,  with 
a  ght  airy  gracefulness  of  figure, 
wfh  gives  great  relief  to  the  more 
m  sy  parts  of  the  structure.  The 
m<;t  admired  bridges  are  generally 

h  e  in  which  the  springings  of 
inarches  commence  immediately 
at  ie  surface  of  the  water.  For  it 
rally  happens  that  piers  of  any 
coiclerable  altitude,  as  compared 
to  eir  own  bulk,  or  that  of  the  ad- 
joi  rig  masses,  can  be  introduced  to 
Biifort  the  arches  of  a  bridge; 

D<  consequently,  when  they  are 
emoyed,  they  generally  fail  of 
prqucing  a  good  architectural  ef- 
i  r  while,  at  the  same  time,  they 
inv  ic.bly  tend  to  injure  the  ap- 
i  eince  of  the  curve  of  the  intra- 
do<  In  cast-iron  bridges,  in  which 
r  rial  ircular  segments  are  generally 
em;oyed  for  the  arches,  high  piers 
are  enerally  necessary  to  keep  the 
ipi  gings  of  the  iron  voussoirs 
ab<e  the  reach  of  the  water.  But 
I  French  engineers  often  remedy 
ihcjbacl  effect,  by  giving  to  the 

<l  of  the  piers  the  same  degree 

f  jrvature  as  the  intrados  of  the 

H 

e  stability  of  an  arch  will 
ma.ly  depend  upon  the  mass  of 
mapals  employed  in  its  construe- 
11  But  this  characteristic  of  an 
will  he  greatly  modified  in  the 
thro  following  ways  : — first,  by 
incasing  or  decreasing  the  depth 
of  l|  voussoirs,  the  absolute  weight 
of  e  arch  remaining  the  same  : 
sccully,  by  increasing  or  decreas- 
ing ie  density  or  weight  of  the 
mattials,  the  depth  of  the  vous- 
■oir  remaining  the  same  :  and, 
thirty,  by  increasing  or  decreasing 
the  irvature  of  the  arch,  the  depth 
ot  tf  voussoirs,  and  the  density  of 
tlie  .aterials,  remaining  the  same. 
In  e  first  case,  by  increasing  the 
dep  of  the  voussoirs,  a  great  in- 


crease is  obtained  to  the  stability  of 
the  arch,  for  by  that  means  the 
leverage  of  the  voussoirs  becomes 
so  much  greater,  and  is,  therefore, 
much  more  efficient  in  resisting  the 
tendency  to  vibrate.  In  the  second 
case,  by  increasing  the  density  or 
weight  of  the  materials,  the  same 
advantage  is  obtained,  because  it 
is  well  known,  that  the  motion 
given  to  a  body  by  any  force  what- 
ever, is  always  inversely  as  the 
quantity  of  matter  contained  in 
that  body.  Therefore,  if  the  two 
foregoing  circumstances  be  com- 
bined, that  is,  if  the  absolute  weight 
of  the  arch  increase  at  the  same 
rate  as  the  depth  of  the  voussoirs, 
as  is  nearly  the  case  in  arches  of 
stone,  it  follows,  that  the  stability 
of  the  arch  will  increase  in  the 
duplicate  ratio  of  the  depth  of  the 
voussoir.  In  the  third  case,  the 
stability  of  an  arch  is  increased  by 
diminishing  the  curvature:  for  this 
plain  reason,  that  the  increased 
lateral  pressure  which  results  from 
the  diminished  curvature,  produces 
the  same  effect,  as  to  the  stability 
of  an  arch,  as  an  increased  density 
(or  a  greater  quantity)  of  mate- 
rials :  it  is  precisely  the  same  thing 
as  increasing  the  tension  of  a  cord, 
which  always  requires  a  propor- 
tionally greater  force  to  cause  it  to 
vibrate.  And  this  clearly  proves, 
that,  provided  the  abutments  are 
adequate,  the  arches  have,  cceteris 
paribus,  always  more  stability  than 
arches  of  greater  curvature.  There- 
fore, as  it  is  known,  that  in  arches 
of  stone,  both  the  absolute  weight 
and  lateral  pressure  increase  at 
nearly  the  same  rate  as  the  depth 
of  the  voussoirs,  it  follows  that  in 
such  arches,  of  similar  form  and 
span,  the  stability  will  be  nearly  in 
the  triplicate  ratio  of  the  depth  of 
the  voussoirs.  To  illustrate  the 
above  observations,  we  will  refer  to 
a  few  of  our  own  most  considerable 

449 


It 


BR  J 

bridges.  The  cast-iron  arch  over 
the  river  Wear,  at  Sunderland,  is 
about  the  same  span,  and  the  same 
depth  of  voussoir,  as  the  centre  arch 
of  the  Sou thvvark  bridge  in  London. 
The  former,  however,  has  the  greater 
curvature,  and  it  is  also  formed 
with  probably  about  one-third  of 
the  density  or  weight  of  materials 
employed  in  the  latter.  The  con- 
tequence  is,  that  in  the  Southwark 
bridge  the  vibrations  are  by  no 
means  considerable,  while  in  the 
Sunderland  bridge,  they  are  what 
may  be  termed  alarming  oscilla- 
tions. Again,  let  us  examine  the 
arches  of  Westminster,  Blackfriars, 
and  Waterloo  bridges.  In  these, 
although  the  curvature  is  much 
greater  than  in  the  centre  arch  of 
the  Southwark  bridge,  yet,  as  they 
are  not  more  than  half  the  span, 
have  nearly  the  same  depth  of 
voussoir,  and  at  the  same  time 
have  a  much  greater  density  or 
weight  of  material,  we  shall  find 
in  them  scarcely  any  perceptible 
vibration  whatever.  To  some  per- 
sons it  may  appear  objectionable  to 
compare  iron  arches  with  arches 
of  stone,  because  the  voussoirs  of 
the  first  are  generally  formed  in 
much  larger  parts  than  those  of 
the  latter.  But  if  the  subject  be 
properly  considered,  there  will  be 
found  no  impropriety  in  comparing 
the  two  kinds  of  arches ;  for,  as 
regards  that  kind  of  stability  of 
which  we  are  now  treating,  it  mat- 
ters not  of  what  material,  or  of 
what  size,  the  voussoirs  are  com- 
posed—  the  analogy  will  invariably 
hold  good.  It  has  long  ago  been 
shown  by  Gauthay,  (in  his  Traite 
de  Ponts  et  Chaussees,)  that  in  the 
rupture  of  an  arch,  whatever  may  be 
the  dimensions  ot  the  voussoirs  in 
the  direction  of  the  curve  of  the 
intrados,  it  will  always  separate  in 
a  small  number  (generally  four)  of 
large   fragments  :   therefore,  the 


BRI 

,     -  j 

narrowness  of  the  voussoirs  in  a 
arch  of  stone  is  of  no  consequent 
whatever,  as  regards  its  stability. 

The  depth  of  the  voussoirs  shou 
always  be  determined  by  a  due 
relation  to  the  span  of  the  arc 
But  it  does  not  appear  equal 
clear,  that  it  is  necessary  to  have 
reference  to  the  lateral  pressu 
also.  "  On  the  contrary,  I  thii 
it  may  safely  be  laid  down  as 
principle, — that  in  determining  t 
depth  of  the  voussoirs  of  an  arc 
it  is  not  necessary  that  the  latei 
pressure  or  radius  of  curvatu 
should  be  noticed  in  the  first  i 
stance  at  all :  for  this  plain  reasc 
that  if  arches,  of  the  size  usua 
constructed,  be  formed  accordi 
to  the  simple  rule  just  men tiom 
the  depth  of  the  voussoirs  v 
always  be  of  sufficient  magniti 
to  resist  the  lateral  pressure.  Ex 
rience  has  pointed  out  many 
stances  of  the  failure  of  an  ar, 
from  the  equilibrium  being 
stroyed:  but,  I  believe,  there  is> 
instance  on  record  of  an  arch  fl- 
ing by  the  absolute  crushing  of  I 
materials." 

Mr.  Ware,  in  his  "  Treatise  i 
the  Properties  of  Arches/'  recc 
mends  the  catenary  as  the  It 
form.  Dr.  David  Gregory,  ii a 
paper  on  the  catenary  in  the  PI  - 
sophical  Transactions,  1697,  ass  s 
that  none  but  the  catenary  is  e 
figure  of  a  true  legitimate  arch ;  d 
when  an  arch  of  any  other  fife 
is  supported,  it  is  because 
thickness  some  catenary  is  inc.  I- 
ed.  The  catenary  is  the  cm 
formed  by  a  chain  composed 
links  connected  together,  havii  a 
free  motion  in  any  directioiat 
such  connection,  but  insepane. 
Mr.  Ware  has  given  a  geomet  al 
method  of  constructing  the  can- 
ary. See  Fig.  x.  plate  Aquei^t 
or  Nismes.  "  To  describ  a 
catenary.    From  any  points  a> 


BRI 


B  It  J 


oa  curve  AB,  erect  any  equal 
vtical  lines  a  e,  a  e,  and  draw 
t  indefinite  horizontal  lines  e  c, 
e ,  which  intersect  a  b  6,  by  the 
lilts  a  b,  ab,  at  right  angles  to 
tl  tangents  at  those  points.  Make 
c  equal  to  the  line  e  6,  and  con- 
si  ict  the  similar  triangles  c  b  d. 
Tough  d  d,  draw  the  line  requir- 
es Catenaries  may  be  of  as  many 
fen s  as  the  gravities  and  shapes 
okhe  links  in  a  chain  may  be 
vred.  The  catenary  formed  by 
siilar  and  equal  links  will  be 
fo  led  from  the  circle,  as  in  this 
prbosition." 

[r.  Ware  makes  the  following 
Delusions  at  the  end  of  the  se- 
section  of  his  book.    "  When 
thi  ;xtrados  and  intrados  of  a  com- 
po  ion  of  lubricous  forces  in  equi- 
lib>  in  the  same  plane,  are  pa- 
a  rail,  they  must  be  right  lines  ;  as 
tht  Jirection  of  each  of  the  forces 
:    mi1,  form  the  same  angle  with  a 
i   ho  ontal  line:  no  arch  of  equili- 
|        oa,  therefore,   can  have  its 
11  intdos  and    extrados  parallel. 
Fr|i  this  section  it  will  be  seen, 
the  the  extradoses  of  equihbra- 
»|,  tio,:  of  circular,   elliptical,  and 
idal  arches,  are  the  most  con- 
vennt  forms  for  the  entradoses 
r  of  ,idges:  and  thus  nature,  in 
this istance,  has  not  been  so  much 
at  \  iance  with  herself,  as  by  her 
mMo  prescribe  a  form  to  the 
trios  of  a  perfect  arch,  which  is 
|><V  inapplicable  to  the  uses  of 
i-  nd." 

A  Ware  has  given  sections  from 
•  "w  Church,  Ely,  King's  College 

Clia  I,  Cambridge,    and  several 
'tli  rals,  in  all   of  which  the 
ess  of  the  columns  and  abut- 

i!it are  agreeable  to  what  the 

catei  ry  would  lead  to. 
Apctical  instance  of  the  equili- 
iJ1  >f  thecatenary  is  mentioned  in 
'  1  y  :lopedia  Metropolitana.  A 

scjen  ic  gentleman  of  Birmingham 


having  occasion  for  a  close  factory 
for  the  manufacture  of  the  article 
called  Roman  vitriol,  set  out  a 
piece  of  ground  to  be  covered  by 
a  brick  arch  of  considerable  length, 
the  chord  of  which  was  eighteen  or 
twenty  feet,  and  its  versed  sine 
about  twelve.  He  suspended  a 
chain  against  a  wall,  the  points  of 
suspension  being  equal  to  the  chord 
of  his  intended  arch,  and  its  depth 
equal  to  its  versed  sine.  From  a 
line  traced  from  the  chain,  his  car- 
penters made  a  centre,  over  which 
the  bricklayers  turned  a  single 
arch  of  nine  inches  only  in  thick- 
ness, without  spandrels  or  other 
external  support,  its  extrados  being 
a  curve  parallel  to  its  intrados,  at  a 
distance  of  only  nine  inches.  It  is 
a  perfectly  round  and  beautiful 
piece  of  construction.  During  an* 
absence  from  home,  he  desired 
another  to  be  built  like  it ;  the 
self-sufficient  workmen  varied  the 
curve,  to  give  it  more  room  in  its 
haunches,  or  a  more  graceful  curve, 
and  on  striking  the  centre  it  fell. 

The  spandrels  of  the  arch,  or  the 
spaces  beween  the  haunches  and 
road-way,  are  very  commonly  filled 
up  with  rubbish,  or  with  masonry, 
which  adds  an  unnecessary  weight 
to  the  arch.  Some,  as  in  the  Pont 
y  Prydd,  fill  up  the  spandrels  with 
apertures  carried  quite  through, 
and  kept  open.  Others  turn  coun- 
ter arches,  or  tunnels,  on  and  be- 
tween the  main  arches,  and  con- 
ceal them  by  external  masonry. 

In  the  common  bridge,  where 
the  weight  tends  to  compress  the 
arch ;  if  the  arch  were  only  of  a 
small  depth,  a  slight  force  would 
derange  it,  and  once  deranged  in 
a  certain  degree,  it  would  fall. 
Hence,  the  arch  must  necessarily 
have  a  considerable  depth  to  render 
it  stable,  and  sufficiently  firm  for 
resisting  the  stress  of  a  loaded 
waggon  ;  but  this  increase  of  the 

451 


BRI 


BRI 


depth  of  the  arch,  also  increases  the 
load  to  be  supported,  and,  conse- 
quently, a  much  greater  quantity 
of  material  must  be  employed  than 
is  necessary  to  resist  the  pressure  in 
the  direction  of  the  arch.  In  a 
suspension  bridge  it  is  different,  for 
to  whatever  degree  the  equilibrium 
of  the  chain  be  disturbed,  it  re- 
sumes its  natural  state  as  soon  as 
the  disturbing  force  ceases  to  ope- 
rate. That  is,  it  is  endowed  with 
the  power  of  resisting  any  change 
of  form  by  its  arrangement,  and 
no  excess  of  material  is  necessary 
to  preserve  that  arrangement.  This 
is  the  chief  advantage  of  a  suspen- 
sion bridge,  and  it  is  one  of  im- 
mense importance  in  construction 
of  bridges  of  large  span. 

It  has  been  remarked,  that  the 
suspension  bridge  is  easily  put 
together  in  model  ;  it  is  joined  with 
comparative  simplicity  of  means  on 
the  large  scale;  and  hence  only  a 
small  expense  is  necessary  for  scaf- 
folding in  its  first  erection,  and 
scarcely  any  is  required  for  repairs. 
But  for  a  common  bridge,  on  the 
principle  of  compression,  a  very 
strong  and  accurate  centre  is  ne- 
cessary, to  construct  an  arch  upon  ; 
and  the  expense  of  centering  and 
scaffolding  is  often  greater  than 
the  whole  expense  of  a  suspension 
bridge  for  the  same  situation. 

With  a  suspension  bridge  we 
can  give  an  equally  free  space  for 
the  passage  of  vessels  in  every  part 
of  the  width  between  the  piers ;  for 
the  road-way  may  be  level,  and  all 
the  space  left  clear  between  it  and 
the  water  line  ;  and  hence  it  is  bet- 
ter for  a  navigable  river,  than  a 
common  bridge  where  vessels  are 
confined  to  the  middle  of  the 
arch. 

At  Vienna,  there  has  been  erected 
a  steel  suspension  bridge  over  the 
Danube.  All  the  steel  used  in  this 
bridge  was  manufactured  immedi- 

452 


ately  from  decarbonated  cast-iro 
in  Styria.  The  span  is  234  feet,  ar 
the  versed  sine  15  feet.  It  is  tl 
work  of  M.  Ignace  von  Mitis,  wl 
calculates  the  total  weight  of  ste 
at  less  than  half  the  weight  of  in 
that  would  be  necessary;  or,  tli 
a  steel  bridge  of  half  the  weight 
an  iron  one,  would  be  the  strong 
of  the  two. 

The  general  principles  of  equi 
brium  and  stress  are  the  same 
suspension  as  in  other  bridges ; 
ordinary  cases  the   load  is  ve 
nearly  uniformly  distributed  ov 
the  length  of  the  bridge ;  and  co 
sequently,  the  curve  assumed 
the  suspending  chains  will  be  neai 
the  same  as  the  parahola.  T 
stress  in  the  different  parts  of  t 
chains   may  be  more  accurate 
computed  by  a  formula  in  Trc 
gold's  Carpentry,  art.  61 ;  but 
all  practical  purposes  it  will 
sufficiently  accurate  to  consider  t 
curve  a  parabola,    and  compi 
them  accordingly.      The  cha 
assume  the  form  of  the  comm 
catenary,  only  in  the  case  \vh 
the  road-way  rests  upon,  and  is 
the  same  length  as,  the  chai 
which  is  a  case  of  rare  occurren 
Winch  Bridge,  across  the  Tees, 
however,  one  example.    It  appe 
to  have  been  the  common  mist; 
of  both  scientific  and  practical  m 
to  imagine,  that  the  curve  assun 
by  the  chains  of  a  suspension  brie 
is,  in  all  cases,  the  common  cat  - 
ary ;  and  it  has  caused  the  ji 
class  to  embarrass  themselves  I 
complicated  and  useless  investor 
tions ;  while  the  other  have  3 
occasion  to  express  their  surp  e 
at  "  the  liability  of  the  catena " 
curve  to  alter,  when  loaded  in  e 
direction  of  the  horizontal  plan  ^ 
the  connecting  road-way." 

Other  bridges  have  been  eredl 
in  which  both  the  extending  W 
compressing  strains  occur;  as  w 


B  R  I 


BRI 


c  in  the  common  drawbridge. 
Te  wire  bridges  of  Galashiels  and 
Iig's  Meadows,  in  Scotland,  are 
eimples.  In  these  the  wires  radi- 
a;  from  the  points  of  suspension  to 
eiidistant  points  in  the  road-way. 
lise  radiating  wires  have  to  resist 
t  sion,  while  the  sides  of  the  road- 
i  are  compressed  in  the  direction 
o  abutments.  This  mode  of  con- 
s  iction  has  some  good  properties; 
ft  each  half  of  a  bridge  may  be  erect- 
e  independently  of  the  other,  and 
a  ortion  to  act  as  a  drawbridge  in 
tl  centre,  might  connect  them  as 
aoad-way,  or  open,  as  occasion 
riu i red,  to  give  passage  to  masted 
V  sels.  On  this  principle,  we  shall 
fii  no  difficulty  in  extending  a 
(Bin  pier  from  one  to  two  hundred 
fc  over  the  sea,  without  being 
o'  ^ed  to  form  a  support  at  the 
eternity. 

put,  for  a  continuous  bridge,  it 
m  more  simple  and  easy  method 
tcemploy  chains  collected  into 
iv,ses  of  the  form  of  the  curve  of 
ewilibrium;  the  same  strength  is 
g.ned  with  the  same  quantity  of 
n,terial;  and  the  bridge  forms  a 
rr  e  chaste  and  beautiful  object. 

Tom  the  valuable  and  highly 
in  resting  reports  which  were  made 
b;  he  Committee  of  the  House  of 
C  imons  appointed  for  inquiring 
m  the  practicability  of  erecting  a 
bi  ge  over  the  straights  of  Menai, 
th  most  important  additions  were 
m,e  to  our  knowledge  regarding 
th  strength  of  materials  in  this 
durtment  of  bridge  -  building. 
Wh  machines  at  the  works  of 
C;  tain  Brown,  and  Messrs.  Brun- 
to  in  London,  a  force  of  upwards 
of  i  hundred  tons  was  exerted 
wi.  the  greatest  ease  and  facility, 
an  with  an  exactness  and  precision 
wl"h  was  altogether  astonishing 
m  (periments  of  such  magnitude. 
In  ne  of  these  interesting  trials  at 
M  >rs.  Brunton's   work   on  the 


Commercial  Road,  a  strainwas  pro- 
gressively applied  to  circular  bolts 
of  iron,  till  the  machinery  indi- 
cated a  maximum  of  ninety-two 
tons.  In  this  experiment,  when 
the  strain  had  amounted  to  sixty 
tons,  it  was  observable  that  small 
particles  of  the  oxide  of  iron  began 
to  separate  on  the  surface,  and 
when  the  hydraulic  machine  was 
wrought  up  to  a  pressure  of  se- 
venty-five tons,  the  part  which 
ultimately  separated  and  gave  way, 
became  sensibly  smaller,  its  tem- 
perature was  also  somewhat  in- 
creased ;  and  when  the  register  of 
the  machine  indicated  ninety-two 
tons,  it  suddenly  parted,  or  broke 
asunder.  This  trial  was  made  with 
a  rod  of  Welsh  iron,  which,  on 
examination,  appeared  not  to  be  of 
the  first  quality. 

In  chain  bridges  of  great  extent, 
no  danger  is  to  be  apprehended 
from  the  ordinary  weight  of  the 
passing  load.  But  in  projects  of 
this  kind,  it  becomes  necessary  to 
consult  the  safety  of  the  fabric  in 
extensive  cases,  by  taking  into  cal- 
culation the  crowded  state  of  the 
road-way,  when  a  multitude  of 
people,  or  a  drove  of  cattle,  passes 
it.  We  find  that  a  given  area 
closely  covered  with  men,  will  have 
a  greater  weight  than  the  same 
space  closely  occupied  by  cattle  in 
the  proportion  of  about  nine  to 
seven :  and  every  one  knows  that 
a  drove  of  cattle  is  more  likely  to 
be  gradually  admitted  upon  the 
road-way  of  such  a  bridge  than  a 
mob  of  people  whom  objects  of 
interest  attract  to  a  particular  spot. 
Cf  this  a  remarkable  instance  oc- 
curred at  the  opening  of  Captain 
Brown's  bridge  over  the  Tweed  in 
July,  1820,  when  it  was  intended 
to  keep  the  road-way  clear  for  the 
ceremony  of  the  day;  a  crowd  of 
people  broke  through  every  obstruc- 
tion, and  forced  their  way  upon  the 

453 


BRI 


BRI 


bridge,  and  it  was  estimated  that 


pie,  which  the  timber  bridge 


at  one  time  there  were  about  seven    Montrose,  about  five  hundred  fe 
hundred  people  upon  the  road-way.    in  extent,  has  been  considered 
Now,  taking  each  person  of  this    withstand,  is  the  weight  of  a  re& 


The  main  chains  of  the  Union  observations  apply  to  a  crowd 

bridge  are  formed  of  circular  rods  persons  walking  promiscuously, 

of  iron,  measuring  about  two  inches  to  a  drove  of  cattle,  which  countt 

in  diameter;   and  a  bar  of  that  act  the  undulating  and  rocki; 

strength,  which  was  not  considered  motion,  observed  on  some  oec 

of  the  first  quality,   sustained  a  sions  at  the  bridge  of  Montro; 

force   equal   to  ninety-two  tons,  when    infantry  has  been  passi 

As  the  number  of  catenarian  chains  along  it.    Hence,  also,  the  efi'ec 

in  the  Union  bridge  are  twelve,  if  of  gusts  of  wind,  often  and  violeni 

we  estimate  the  strength  of  each  repeated,  which  destroy  the  equi 

rod  with  its  shackle  at  ninety-two  brium  of  the  parts  of  a  bridge 

tons,  we  shall  have  the  aggregate  suspension ;  and  the  importance 

strength  of  the  whole  to  be  92  x  12  having  the  whole  road-way  a 

=  1104  tons.    We  have  already  side-rails  framed  in  the  strong) 

supposed  the  weight  of  the  bridge,  possible  manner, 
between  the  points  of  suspension,       Among  the  finest  of  the  mode 

to  be  one  hundred  tons,  and  if  to  stone  bridges  may  be  reckoned  t 

this  we  add  forty-seven  tons  as  the  New  London    Bridge  across  t 

greatest  load  which  is  likely  to  be  Thames,  of  five  elliptical  arch 

ever  brought  upon  it  at  once,  these  The  design  was  given  by  the  1; 

together  give  100+47=  147,  or  say,  Mr.  John  Rennie,  and  it  was  bi 

one  hundred  and  fifty  tons.    As-  under  the  direction  of  his  so 

suming  the  angle  of  suspension  at  John  and  George  Rennie.  1 

twelve  degrees,  we  find  that  the  materials   are   principally  Scol 

real  weight  is  increased  to  about  granite.     Our  plate  will  give 

three  hundred  and  seventy  tons  of  better  idea  of  it  than  any  descr 

tension  on  the  catenarian  chains,  tion  that  we  could   give.  1 

But  as  we  find  the  strength  of  these  dimensions  are  as  follows, 
chains  to  be  one  thousand  one  hun-  ft 
dred  and  four  tons,  there  remains  a 


number  at  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds,  it  would  give  about  forty- 
seven  tons,  besides  its  own  weight, 
which  it  sustained,  without  any  ap- 
parent derangement. 


ment  of  foot,  passing  in  regui 
time.  A  troop  of  cavalry,  on  t 
contrary,  does  not  produce  corr 
sponding  effects,  owing  to  the  in 
gular  step  of  the  horses.  The  sar 


surplus  strength  of  about  seven 
hundred  and  thirty-four,  or,  in  round 
numbers,  seven  hundred  tons,  to 
resist  any  emergency  beyond  a 
weight  of  fifty  tons. 


Span  of  the  centre  arch  .....  1 

Rise  (above  the  level  of  tlie  high- 


Piers  adjoining  the  central  arch,  each 
Span  of  the  arches  next  the  centre  one  1 

Rise    || 

Piers,  each  


water  mark  of  the  Trinity  house) 


But  the  effect  we  have  to  pro- 
vide against  in  bridges  of  suspen- 
sion is  not  merely  what  is  techni- 
cally termed  dead-weight.  A  more 
powerful  agent  exists,  in  the  sudden 
impulses,  or  jerking  motion,  of  the 
load.  The  greatest  trial,  for  exam- 


454 


Span  of  the  arch  next  to  the  abutments  1 


Rise   

Abutments  ,  

Total  length  of  the  water-wa)'  ....  6i 
Length  between  the  abutment  ....  7j 
Total  length,  including  the  abutments  9 

Width  of  the  carriage-way   •   j 

Width  of  the  bridge   ' 


*  See  Supplement. 


B  R  T 


15  R  O 


Bri  doe-board.  See  Notch 
oard. 

Bridge-over.  When  any 
Jimber  of  parallel  timbers  have 
;  other  piece  of  timber  fixed  over 
Jettl,  in  a  transverse  direction, 
ltd  the  transverse  piece  is  said 
I  bridge- over  the  pieces  which 
jte  parallel.  The  common  rafters 
i  framed  roofing,  for  example, 
1  dge  over  the  purlins ;  and,  in 
rfked  flooring,  the  upper  joists  to 
\  ich  the  flooring  boards  are 
fed,  bridge  over  the  binding 
jjsts,  and,  therefore,  are  called 
Edging-joists. 

Bridge  stone.  A  stone  laid 
i  a  horizontal  direction  over  an 
a  a,  extending  from  the  pave- 
r  nt  to  the  entrance  door  of  a 
rase,  and  not  supported  by  an 

;  A 

Bridge-gutters.  Gutters 
r  de  with  boards,  supported  be- 
rith  with  bearers,  and  covered 

!      aove  with  lead. 

Bridging-floors.    Floors  in 
rich  bridging-joists  are  used. 
,l  e  Naked  Flooring. 
!      'Bridging- joists.    Pieces  of 

J  fiber,  or  joists,  in  naked  floor- 
i extending  in  a  direction  pa- 

1      rlel  with  the  girder,  and  sup- 

iptl  r  -fed  by  beams  called  binding- 
}<its,  which  lie  in  a  transverse 
cLction.  It  is  to  the  bridging- 
ji  ts  that  the  floor-boards  are 

H     nied.    See  Salced  Flooring. 

Bridges,  or  bridging  pieces. 
S :  Straining-pieces  and  Strutting- 

  fkes. 

UlNGlNG-UP.OR  CARRYING  UP. 

/  erm  used  by  workmen,  and  is 
a  logous  to  building-up  ;  for 
t  mple,  bringing-up  the  wall  3 
fiL  means  building-up  the  wall 

::et, 

iRIZlO,  or  Briccio,  Frav- 
c  co.  A  painter  of  architecture, 
a  landscape,  was  born  at  Bo- 
lt la,  in  1574,  and  educated  first 
ir  lie  school  of  Passerrotti,  and  af- 


terwards  under  Ludovico  Carac- 
chi.  Having  applied  with  great  di- 
ligence to  the  study  of  the  princi- 
ples of  perspective  and  architec- 
ture, he  acquired  a  style  in  his 
compositions  of  such  distinguished 
excellence,  that  his  pictures  were 
much  admired,  not  only  for  the 
truth  of  the  perspective,  and  the 
beauty  of  the  colouring,  but  also 
for  the  grandeur  of  his  ideas,  the 
majestic  style  of  the  architecture, 
the  elegance  of  the  ornaments, 
and  the  noble  taste  of  landscape 
which  he  introduced  to  set  off  his 
buildings.  He  was  also  an  en- 
graver, and  is  said  to  have  as- 
sisted Agostino  Caracchi  in  the 
plates  which  he  engraved:  we 
have  also  some  etchings  by  this 
master.    He  died  in  1623. 

Broad-stone.  The  same  as 
freestone. 

Bronteum.  In  Grecian  Anti- 
quity. That  part  of  the  theatre, 
underneath  the  floor,  wherein 
brazen  vessels,  full  of  stones  and 
other  materials,  were  kept,  to 
imitate  the  noise  of  thunder. 

Bronzk.  A  compound  metal, 
used  for  statues,  busts,  and  me- 
dals. According  to  Pliny,  the 
metal  used  by  the  Romans  for 
their  statues,  and  for  the  plates 
on  which  they  engraved  inscrip- 
tions, was  composed  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner: — they  first  melted 
a  quantity  of  copper,  into  which 
they  put  one-third  of  its  weight 
of  old  copper,  which  had  been 
long  in  use  ;  to  every  one  hun- 
dred pounds  weight  of  this  mix- 
ture, they  added  twelve  and  a  half 
pounds  of  an  alloy,  composed  of 
equal  parts  of  lead  and  tin.  Ano- 
ther bronze  may  be  made  by  com- 
pounding together  seven  pounds 
of  pure  copper,  three  pounds  of 
zinc,  and  two  pounds  of  tin.  In 
making  this  last,  the  copper  must 
be  fused  before  the  other  ingre- 
dients are  added. 

455 


BRU 


BRU 


Bronze.  This  term  is  also 
applied  to  any  piece  of  sculpture 
made  of  bronze  metal.  See  Cast- 
ing. 

Brooch.  A  painting  all  in  one 
colour. 

Brown.  A  dusky  kind  of  co- 
lour, inclining  somewhat  to  red- 
ness. Of  these  there  are  various 
shades  and  gradations  : — as  sad 
brown,  London  brown,  clove 
brown,  purple  brown,  and  walnut- 
tree  brown.  The  brown  colours 
are  bistre,  brown  ochre,  Cologne 
earth,  ombre,  and  brown  pink. 
Spanish  brown  is  a  dull  red  colour, 
used  by  house-  painters,  chiefly 
for  priming. 

Brunelleschi,  Philip.  An 
eminent    Italian   architect,  was 
born  at  Florence,  in  1377  ;  and 
in  early  life,  having  a  taste  for 
mathematics  and  mechanics,  and 
a  desire  to  learn  sculpture,  he 
became  acquainted  with  Donatelli, 
a  rising  artist  in  that  profession. 
Brunelleschi  accompanied  Dona- 
telli to  Home,  in  order  to  survey 
the  monuments  of  architecture 
and  sculpture   in    that  capital. 
Brunelleschi  employed  the  whole 
of  his   time,  during  his  stay  in 
Rome,  with    indefatigable  assi- 
duity, in  making  drawings,  and 
taking  measures  of  all  the  famous 
relics  of  antiquity ;  and  having 
conceived  a  design  of  establish- 
ing his  fame,  by  erecting,  on  a 
new  plan,  a  dome  for  the  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Maria  del  Fiore,  at 
Florence,  he  remained  in  Rome 
after  the  departure  of  his  friend, 
in  order  to  qualify  himself  for  this 
undertaking.    Having  been  in  his 
youth  apprenticed  to  a  goldsmith, 
he  now  found  the  knowledge  he 
had  acquired  of  that  business,  use- 
ful in  procuring  him  a  mainte- 
nance. In  1407,  sickness  obliged 
hin;  to  return  to  Florence;  and 
at  this  time  the  Florentines  had 
convoked  an  assembly  of  archi- 

456 


tects  and  engineers,  to  deliberat 
on  the  completion  of  the  catlu 
dral.    Brunelleschi  gave  his  op 
nion  that  a  double  dome  might  b 
raised  to  a  sufficient  height,  with 
out  that  immense  mass  of  timbei 
work  which  others  had  thougl 
to  be  necessary.    This  idea  wi 
considered  so  preposterous,  tin 
he  was  actually  turned  out  of  th 
assembly,  for  having  presumed  i 
insult  the  good  sense  and  judj 
ment  of  so   many  experience 
artists,  who  had  never  heard  ( 
such  a  thing,  and  held  it  to  t 
impracticable.     Brunelleschi  di 
monstrated  the  practicability  i 
his  scheme,  by  drawings  and  mi 
dels ;   but    the    clamour  raist 
against  him  ran  so  high,  that  I 
was  looked  upon  as  little  hettt 
than  a  madman.    He,  therefor 
returned  to  Rome.  The  deputie 
however,    who    were  intiustt 
with    the   management   of  i\ 
building,    having    received  ni 
thing   eligible   from   the  oth 
architects,  sent  for  Brunellesch 
and,  having  examined  into  h 
drawings  and  models,  employ* 
him  in  the  execution  of  the  wor 
He  proceeded  in  it  with  ardou 
and  lived  to  complete  the  don 
as  far  as  the  lanthorn  ;  carryii 
it  to  such  a  height,  and  executn 
it  with  such  beauty,  as  astonisln 
the  whole  country.  Such,  indee 
was  the  beauty  with  which  it  w 
executed,   that  Michael  Ange 
afterwards  said  it  would  be  ve 
difficult  to  imitate,  and  pcrha 
impossible  to  surpass  it.  B» 
nelleschi  was  also  employed 
Cosmo  the  Great,  in  building  t 
abbey  of  canons  regular  at  Km 
and  in  forming  for  him  the  rr 
del  of  a  palace,  which  his  pi 
dence  and  moderation  would  r 
allow  him  to  execute.  As  Cost 
preferred  the  more  humble  pi 
of  Michelozzi,  Brunelleschi  «! 
so  indignant,  that  he  destroys 


BUI 


BUI 


s  model,  though  its  superiority 
is  acknowledged  by  Cosmo.  He 
■;erwards  undertook  the  con- 
duction of  the  Pitti  palace,  and 
i  ried  it  up  to  the  second  story ; 
it  the  completion  of  it,  after  his 
ath,  was  the  work  of  Amma- 
ti.  The  church  of  St.  Lorenzo, 

Florence,  was  almost  entirely 
'e  work  of  Brunelleschi.  He 
is  no  less  skilled  in  military 
an  in  civil  architecture.  In  this 
partment,  he  gave  to  the  duke 

Milan,  the  plan  of  a  fortress 
r  his  capital;  and  he  also  con- 
ved  the  two  citadels  of  Pisa, 
d  other  fortifications  in  that 
irt  of  Italy.  As  a  civil  engineer, 
•  was  employed  in  1445,  by  the 
arquis  of  Mantua,  in  construct- 
g  dykes  for  restraining  the  Po 

its  bed.  Soon  after  the  com- 
etion  of  the  work,  he  died,  at 
e  age  of  sixty-nine,  much  re- 
etted  by  his  brother  artists, 
id  more  so  by  the  poor,  to  whom 
!  was  a  father.  His  merit  was 
ore  generally  acknowledged 
ter  his  death,  than  during  his 
fe  ;  for  he  had  the  mortification 
f  seeing  several  of  his  under- 
'. kings  left  unfinished  for  want 

due  encouragement.  Brunei- 
schi  was  also  a  cultivator  of 
alian  poetry ;  and  some  of  his 
'irlesqueverses  have  been  printed 
png  with  those  of  Burchiello. 
Budget.     A  kind  of  pocket 
ed  by  bricklayers  for  holding 
tils,  when  they  lath  for  tiling. 
Buffet.    See  Beaufet. 
Builder.    A  person  who  con- 
(icts  to  build  or  erect  edifices. 
Building.    Under  this  article 

shall  give  the  usual  form  of 
awing  up  the  specification  of  a 
nlding,  and  in  the  next  arti- 
3,  Buildings  gwe  some  general 
pservations  on  the  construction 
edifices  in  general. 
Specification  and  description  of 
e  works  to  be  contracted  for,  in 
3M 


building  and  completely  finishing 
a  new  court-house,  with  offices, 
house  of  correction,  &c.  at 

according  to  various  plans, 
elevations,  and  sections,  &c.  made 
by  architect, 
and  referred  to  in  a  contract, 
bearing  date  the  day 
of  and  made 

between 
and 

Bricklayer's  work,  Sfc.  Dig  out 
the  ground  to  the  depths  and 
widths  necessary  for  all  the  walls, 
iron  pipes,  drains,  cesspools, &c. ; 
also  for  the  cellars  under  the 
keeper's  house,  bath,  and  receiv- 
ing rooms,  and  prisoners'  passage 
leading  to  the  court.  Fill  in  and 
ram  the  ground  to  the  founda- 
tions. Dig  out  the  loose  earth 
in  the  prisoners'  airing  courts, 
yards,  and  all  other  parts  which 
are  described  to  be  paved  with 
brick  or  stone.  Fill  in  and  ram 
the  same  to  the  necessary  height 
with  dry  rubbish  to  the  current, 
described  for  the  said  paving; 
also  under  the  drains  and  cess- 
pools, described  in  the  drawings. 
Stub  up  the  edge,  and  level  the 
bank  and  ground  next  turnpike- 
road.  Dig  out  a  cesspool,  of  at 
least  15  feet  diameter,  at  the 
outer  end  of  the  18-inch  drain, 
outside  of  the  boundary  wall,  and 
5  feet  below  the  bottom  of  said 
drain.  Clear  and  cart  away  all 
superfluous  earth  arising  from 
these  excavations.  The  remainder 
of  the  ground  to  be  levelled  after 
the  whole  of  the  works  are  com- 
pleted, as  will  be  directed  by  the 
architect,  or  his  clerk  of  the  works. 

The  whole  of  the  walls,  with 
the  several  piers,  arches,  string 
courses,  &c,  are  to  be  carried  up 
in  the  manner  shewn,  and  of  the 
heights  and  thicknesses  figured 
or  described  on  the  drawings. 
Flues  are  to  be  built  14  inches 
by  9  inches,  where  shown  on  the 

457 


BUILDING. 


drawings,  and  to  be  well  par- 
getted;  those  for  the  two  kitchens 
are  to  be  14  inches  square.  Se- 
cond size  chimney-pots,  properly 
bedded,  are  to  be  placed  over  all 
the  flues:  eight  are  to  be  pro- 
vided and  fixed,  of  composition 
three  quarter  inch  thick,  with 
moulded  tops  1  foot  square  in 
clear,  diminished  to  10  inches 
square,  and  30  inches  in  height : 
these  may  be  had  at  the  cement 
manufactories  in  London. 

Small  openings  for  air  and 
ventilation  are  to  be  left  through 
the  basement  walls  of  the  different 
buildings,  as  shown  in  the  draw- 
ings, or  where  required  or  di- 
rected by  the  architect,  or  his 
clerk  of  the  works. 

Build  brick  piers  and  sleepers 
for  the  stone  paving  under  the 
portico,  spectators'  seats  in  the 
court,  and  over  the  spandrels  of 
the  arches  to  the  vaults,  and 
under  ail  the  joints  of  the  internal 
stone  paving,  throughout  the  re- 
mainder of  the  buildings,  and 
where  otherwise  described  on  the 
drawings. 

Build  brick  piers  for  the  stone 
steps  to  the  portico,  and  to  the 
several  doorways  shown  on  the 
drawings,  and  where  thought 
necessary.  Half-brick  trimmers 
are  to  be  built  to  all  the  chimneys 
where  there  are  wood  floors,  and 
brick  fenders  to  slabs  where  shown 
on  the  drawings. 

Small  cesspools  are  to  be  made 
to  the  different  privies  marked  in 
the  drawings,  those  to  the  pri- 
soners' airing  courts  to  be  con- 
structed according  to  drawing, 
with  traps  and  stone-work ;  the 
Stone  for  which  is  to  be  provided 
by  the  mason,  but  to  be  fixed  by 
the  bricklayer ;  the  sides  of  the 
openings,  under  the  cocks  and 
traps,  to  be  worked  and  lined  with 
cement,  and  to  be  rounded  off  at 
the  openings  of  the  drains. 


Cesspools  are  to  be  made  under 
all  the  iron  gratings  in  the  court- 
yards  and  airing  courts,  and  under 
every  stack  of  rain-water  pipes 
(excepting  those  which  fall  into  the 
privies,)  to  be  lined  with  cement, 
and  trapped  with  York  stone,  the 
stone  to  be  provided  by  the  brick- 
layer ;  those  to  the  rain-water 
pipes,  14  inches  square,  and  2 
feet  deep ;  those  to  the  gratings, 
over  9-inch  drains,  14  inches 
square  ;  and  those  to  the  14-inch 
drains,  18  inches  square ;  the 
whole  of  them  to  be  1  foot  deeper 
than  the  bottom  of  the  drains.  A 
cesspool  to  be  dug  and  steined. 
as  before  described,  to  the  junc- 
tion of  the  14-inch  drains  beyond 
the  mill-house,  3  feet  6  inches  by 
2  feet  6  inches  in  the  clear,  and 
2  feet  deeper  than  the  bottom  o! 
the  drains. 

Three  wells  for  the  pumps  in 
the  airing  courts,  where  shown 
on  the  drawings,  to  be  dug  and 
steined  in  half-brick,  4  feet  dia- 
meter in  the  clear,  and  20  feet  deep, 
as  may  be  required,  and  arched 
over  with  one  brick  in  mortar, 
Build  9-inch,  and  14-inch  barrel 
drains,  with  half-brick  rims  in 
mortar,  where  described  or  shown 
in  the  drawings  ;  also  140  feet  of 
18-inch  barrel  drain,  beyond 
boundary-wall,  and  from  cesspool 
last  described,  as  shown  or  de- 
scribed on  drawing.  The  whole 
of  the  drains  throughout  the 
buildings  to  be  laid  to  a  current 
of  not  less  than  3  inches  in  every 
10  feet  in  any  part. 

Pave  the  hay  and  straw  room 
adjoining  the  magistrates*  privy, 
the  dungpit  in  the  stable  court, 
the  coal-hole  adjoining  counsels' 
privy,  the  prisoners'  passage  lead- 
ing to  court,  the  coal  and  dust 
vaults  under  the  bath  and  receiv- 
ing rooms,  and  the  rooms  and 
passages  in  the  basement  under 
the  keeper's  house,  with  hard- 


BUILDING. 


irnt  stocks  on  edge  laid  in  sand ; 
U  ground  to  be  well  rammed  to 
r^eive  the  same,  and  the  whole 
Id  to  the  necessary  current, 
Jich  may  be  described  by  the 
a  hitect,  or  his  clerk  of  the 
vrks. 

Build  an  oven  for  purifying  the 
pjsoners'  clothes  in  the  receiving 
1  »m,  where  shown  on  the  draw- 
iis,  as  will  be  directed  by  the 
a.hitect,  or  his  clerk  of  the 
vrks,  with  all  the  necessary  iron 
wrk,  which  is  also  to  be  pro- 
ved by  the  bricklayer.  Wrought 
ii  1  chimney  bars  to  all  the  chim- 
n.'  openings,  2  inches  wide,  and 
a  uarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and  to 
li  fi  inches  on  each  jaumb,  to  be 
p  vided  and  fixed  by  the  con- 

,     tnpfcer  for  the  bricklayer's  work, 
ut  all  splays,  birds-mouths, 
slwbacks,  &c.  which    may  be 

»-.  n  uired  ;  bed  and  point  all  plates, 
dlr,  and  window  frames,  &c. 
n|ch  may  be  required.  Pro- 
ve and  lay  splayed  bricks,  and 

i      1  inch  circular   coping  bricks, 

a  v(ere  shown  or  described  on  the 
d wings,  or  found  necessary  in 
t  execution  of  the  works  ;  build 
a  footings  for  iron  kirbs,  and  fill 
it  the  same  with  brick-work  well 
fl  hed  with  mortar. 

'he  whole  of  the  front  build- 
ir »  next  turnpike  road,  in- 
citing the  recess  of  prisoners' 
ei  ance,  corresponding  blank  en- 
tr  ice,  and  return,  3  feet  6  inches 
w  e,  to  boundary  wall,  excepting 
tl  parts  described  of  stone,  to 
b  'aced  with  the  best  white  Suf- 
ft  bricks,  laid  with  a  neat  flat 
jo  t ;  those  to  the  returned  splays 
oi,the  prisoners'  entrance,  and 
bl»k  ditto,  to  be  made  to  a 
m  i!d  on  purpose.  The  walls  are 
tc  e  carried  up  together  all  round 
th  different  buildings,  unless  or- 
d« ;  are  given  to  the  contrary,  by 
tli  architect,  or  his  clerk  of  the 
w  ks,  the  whole   being  made 


truly  level,  straight,  and  perpen- 
dicular, no  four  courses  of  which 
are  to  rise  more  than  1 1|  inches. 
The  inside  of  the  walls,  which 
are  not  described  to  be  plastered, 
are  to  be  left  with  an  even  surface, 
and  the  joints  properly  pointed 
with  mortar  for  lime-whiting, 
and  the  whole  of  the  brick  copings 
to  be  worked  and  pointed  with 
Roman  cement. 

All  the  brick-work  to  be  done 
wkh  the  best  hard-burnt  and 
sound  kiln-burnt  stocks,  to  be 
approved  of  by  the  architect,  or 
his  clerk  of  the  works.  Brick 
earth  may  be  procured  by  the 
contractor,  on  very  reasonable 
terms,  within  a  quarter  of  a  mile 
of  the  work.  Picked  bricks  to 
be  selected  and  used  for  the  front 
of  the  keeper's  house,  and  the 
string  courses  ;  also  the  inside  of 
court,  and  any  other  part  which 
may  be  directed  by  the  architect. 

The  best  and  most  even  bricks 
to  be  selected  for  the  outside 
of  the  buildings  generally,  and 
where  otherwise  exposed  to  sight. 
The  brick-work  must  be  tied  in 
every  course,  and  worked  in 
sound  and  regular  bond.  The 
filling  in,  or  internal  parts  of  the 
walls,  to  be  filled  up  solid  with 
whole  bricks.  The  whole  to  be 
well  bedded,  and  flushed  up  at 
every  course.  The  whole  of  the 
footings,  every  second  course 
above  them,  and  under  the  set-off 
of  the  ground-floor,  and  every 
fourth  course  above  it,  to  be  well 
grouted  with  hot  liquid  lime  and 
sand. 

The  bricklayer  is  to  flush  in, 
and  back  close  with  sound  bricks 
and  good  mortar,  behind  all  ash- 
lering  cornices,  and  other  stone- 
work ;  and  to  make  good,  and 
key  in  up  to  all  materials  con- 
nected with  his  work,  and  tc 
point  up  home  to  all  coping,  sills, 
and  other  projections. 


BUILDING. 


Frame  and  fix  a  lean-to  roof 
over  the  privy  and  lobby  adjoin- 
ing the  magistrates'  room,  with 
rafters  5  inches  by  2  inches,  rising 
plate  4  inches  by  3  inches,  and 
pitching  piece  4  inches  by  2|  in- 
ches. Cover  the  same  with  inch 
battens,  featheredge  eaves  boards 
and  tilting  fillets,  as  before  de- 
scribed for  the  other  roofs.  Frame 
and  fix  ceiling  joists  to  privy  and 
lobby  3  inches  by  2  inches,  with 
plates  4  inches  by  2\  inches.  « 

Frame  and  fix  a  loan -to  roof 
over    the   stable,  chaise-house, 
dead-house,  &c.  according  to  the 
drawings,  and  with  timbers  of  the 
following  scantlings  : — ■ 
Rafters      -    -    -    _    -  5x2 
Purlins      -     -    -    -    -  6x4 
Struts  and   templates  to 

ditto,  where  necessary  -  4x2^- 
Rising  plate  -  -  -  -  4x3 
Pitching  piece  -  -  -  -  4x2% 
Frame  and  fix  a  span  roof  over 
the  outside  lobby,  corresponding 
with  that  of  the  prisoners'  en- 
trance, with  rafters  4  inches  by  2 
inches ;  rounded  ridge  6  inches 
by  2  inches,  with  templates  at 
each  end  of  the  same;  wall  plates 
4  inches  by  2£  inches.  Cover  the 
same  and  the  last  named  roofs 
with  inch  deal  battens,  feather- 
edge  eaves  boards,  and  tiiting 
fillets,  as  before  described  for  the 
other  roofs. 

Frame  and  fix  ceiling  joists 
over  the  stable  3  inches  by  2  in- 
ches, with  a  binder  5  inches  by 
4  inches,  and  templates  for  ditto, 
and  wall  plates  4  inches  by  2\ 
inches.  Provide  for  one  and  a 
half  tier  of  bond  round  the  walls, 
to  be  laid  as  may  be  directed  for 
the  fittings  of  the  stable. 

Frame  and  fix   roof  over  the 
chapel  according  to  the  drawings, 
and  with  timbers  of  the  follow- 
ing scantlings : — 
Ridge  piece  rounded  for 
lead  8X2 

460 


Hips,  ditto     -    -    ~    •  1 !  y J 
Common  rafters,  with  feet 
notched  and  tailed  on 
wall   plate  as  before, 
and  nailed  with  6-inch 
two  shilling  nails    -    -  5/: 
Purlins      -  9/{ 
Pole  plate  with  blockings  4x1 
Wall  plates  to  be  in  long 
lengths,  not  less  than 
25  feet,  properly  scarf- 
ed at  the  meetings,  se- 
curely halved  and  pin-  | 
ned  at  the  angles,  the 
ends  to  tail  on  within 
A\  inches  of  the  exter-  1 
nal  face  of  the  wall     -  9xf 
Principal  rafters,  average  a,Xc 

Collars  8xf 

Queen  posts         -    -    -  8x£ 

Braces  S  Xf 

Tye  beams  in  one  piece 

to  camber  2  inches  -12X9 
Struts  to  purlins  -  -  -  5x^ 
Angle  tyes  and  dragon 
pieces,  dovetailed  to 
plate  -  -  -  -  -  5X' 
Binders  to  ceiling  -  -  7X< 
Ceiling  joists  -  -  -  -  3X3 
Provide  and  fix  wrought  i  ( 
straps  with  bolts,  &c.  to  the  fej 
of  principal  rafters,  and  top  ai 
bottom  of  queens,  as  shown  < 
the  drawings  at  large.  Cov 
the  roof  with  inch  deal  batter 
2\  inches  wide,  laid  to  a  gauj 
for  countess  slating,  with  prop 
featheredge  eaves  boards,  ai 
three  quarter  inch  tilting  fillet 
3  inches  wide,  for  slaters,  wi 
inch  deal  gutters,  and  bear? 
adjoining  the  chimney  shafts. 

Frame  and  fix  the  roofs  over  tl 
prisons  according  to  the  drawin 
and  with  timbers  of  the  follov 
ing  scantlings : — 
Ridge-piece  rounded  for 

lead     -    -    -     -     -  8X 
Hips  and  vallies  ditto    -11 X 
Common  rafters  with  feet 
notched  and  tailed  on 
wall    plate  as  before, 


BUILDING. 


-  6x2^ 


7X4 
GX4 

4X3 


9X6 
9X6 
8X6 
6X4 


Gmmon  rafters,  with  feet 
lotched  on  pole  plate, 
md  nailed  with  6- inch 
wo  shilling  nails 
md\e  rafter  to  hip  end, 
framed  into  ridge  of 

jortico  

1  i i us  -  - 
1  o  plate,  with  block- 
ngs       -    -    -  - 

"\ill  plates  all  round  to 
ie  in  long  lengths,  not 
ess  than  25  feet,  pro- 
>erly  scarfed    at  the 
□eetings,  securely  halv- 
ed and  pinned  at  the 
ingles,  the  ends  to  tail 
»n  the  wall  within  2£ 
riches  of  the  external 
ace  ------ 

pncipal  rafters,  average 

fcigpost  

J  tees  ------ 

13  beams  in  one  piece, 

o  camber  2  inches  -12x6 
E  ders  to  ceilings     -    -  6x4 
Cling  joists    -    -    -    -  4X2 

.^rovide  for  10  feet  cube  of 
fined  fir  in  roof  for  ventilators 
al  chandelier,  where  will  be  di- 
ned. The  carpenter  is  to  assist 
t  smith  in  fixing  the  ventilators. 
1  wide  and  fix  wrought-iron 
sups,  bolts,  &c.  to  bottom  of 
k  js,  and  feet  of  principal  rafters, 
ajpefore  described  for  the  roof  of 
p  tico.  Provide  and  lay  inch 
d|  battens,  2\  inches  wide,  to  a 
g  ge  for  countess  slating,  with 
paper  featheredge  eaves  boards, 
yi,ty  pieces,  and  three  quarter 
ini  tilting  fillets,  3  inches  wide, 
fo>laters. 

repare  and  fix  rounded  rolls, 
%hy  2  inches,  to  ridge  and  hips, 
Wm  proper  irons  for  the  same. 

rovide  and  fix  bracketting  for 
pi  Iter  cornice  in  court  room, 
ruride  and  fix  a  chain  plate  at 
th, impost  moulding  of  the  court 
mn,  G  inches  by  4{-  inches,  pro- 
pcy  scarfed   at  the  meetings, 


and  three  tier  of  bond,  4  inches 
by  2~  inches,  where  will  be 
directed  by  the  architect. 

Frame  and  fix  a  4  -inch  quarter 
partition  at  the  back  of  the  spec- 
tators' seat,  forming  a  passage, 
with  head  and  sill  4  inches  by  3 
inches;  principal  posts  4  inches 
by  3%  inches ;  braces  4  inches  by 
2~  inches ;  and  common  quarter! 
4  inches  by  2  inches  ;  the  quarters 
1  foot  from  centre  to  centre. 

Frame  and  fix  ceiling  joists 
over  ditto,  4  inches  by  2  inches, 
with  three-quarter  inch  ploughed 
and  tongued  boarding,  planed 
one  side. 

Frame  and  fix  joists  from  8  in- 
ches to  6  inches,  by  2\  inches, 
with  plates  4  inches  by  3  inches, 
in  the  court  room  to  the  neces- 
sary heights  shown  on  the  draw- 
ings, except  the  passages  and 
spectators'  seats,  which  are  to  be 
paved  with  stone,  and  are  distin- 
guished by  a  blue  tint  on  the 
drawings. 

Frame  and  fix  lean-to  roofs 
and  ceiling  joists  over  the  lobbies 
to  the  side  entrances  leading  to 
the  officers'  apartments  adjoining 
the  courts,  according  to  the  draw- 
ings, with  timbers  of  the  follow- 
ing scantlings:  — 
Common  rafters,  with  feet 

notched  -    -    -    -  -4x2 

Plate  4X3 

Pitching  piece      -    -    -  4x3 

Purlin  5x4 

Ceiling  joists  -    -    -    -  4x2 
Wall  plate      -    -    -    -  4X2| 

Cover  the  aforesaid  roofs  with 
inch  deal  battens  and  tilting  fillets, 
as  before  described  for  the  other 
roofs. 

Provide  and  lay  two  tiers  of 
bonds  4  inches  by  2£  inches, 
round  each  of  the  said  lobbies. 

Frame  and  fix  the  roofs  to  the 
side-wings  adjoining  the  court 
room,  and  forming  the  officers' 
apartments,    according    to  the 

4G1 


BUILDING. 


drawings,  with  timbers  of  the 

following  scantlings : — 
Ridge  piece    -    -    -    -  9X2 
Common    rafters,  with 
feet  notched  on  pole 
plate,  &c.  as  before    -  5x2 
Trimming  ditto  to  sky- 
lights   5X3 

Purlins    -     -    -    -    -  6x4 

Pole  plate  with  blockings  4x3 
Wall  plates,  as  described 

for  the  court  roof  -    -  6x4 

Principal  rafters,  average  8X6 

King  posts    -    -    -    -  8x6 

Braces     -    -    -    -    -  6x4 

Tye  beams,  in  one  piece  10x6 
Angle  tyes  and  dragon 

pieces  -    -    -    -    -  6x4 

Binders  to  ceiling    -    -  6X4 

Ceiling  joists      -    -    -  4X2 

Trimming  ditto  -    -    -  4x3 


Provide  and  fix  wrought- iron 
straps,  bolts,  &c.  to  bottom  of 
kings  and  feet  of  principal  rafters 
as  before  described.  Cover  the 
roofs  last  described  with  inch 
deal  battens,  2{  inches  wide,  to 
a  gauge  for  countess  slating,  with 
proper  featheredge  eaves  board 
and  tilting  fillets,  3  inches  wide 
for  slaters.  Prepare  and  fix  round- 
ed rolls  2^  inches  by  2  inches,  to 
ridge  and  hips  with  proper  irons 
for  the  same. 

Provide  and  lay  inch  deal  gut- 
ters, with  edges  shot,  and  proper 
bearers  for  the  same. 

Prepare  and  fix  |i-inch  deal 
ovolo  sashes, and  I  i-inch  wrought 
one  side,  and  start'  beaded  linings 
to  the  ceiling ;  and  2-inch  square, 
straight,  bar  skylights,  with  one 
quarter  wrought  linings  to  the 
roofs,  where  shown  on  the  draw- 
ings, with  fillets  and  fastenings  to 
same,  the  sashes  in  the  ceiling  to 
be  hung  on  pivots,  and  to  have  a 
moulded  stop. 

Frame  and  fix  6-inch  quarter 
partitions  to  grand  jury  room, 
with  heads  and  sills  6  inches  by 
34-  inches;  principal  posts  and 

462 


quarters,  6  inches  by  4  inches 
braces  and  door-heads,  6  incht 
by  3  inches  ;  and  common  quai 
ters,  6  inches  by  2\  inches. 

The  remaining  rooms  to  tl 
side  wings  to  have  4-inch  quarte 
partitions,  with  heads  and  si) 
4  inches  by  '6  inches ;  princip; 
posts  and  quarters,  4  inches  b 
3^  inches  ;  braces  and  door-head. 
4  inches  by  2\  inches  ;  and  com 
mon  quarters,  4  inches  by 
inches  ;  the  quarters,  1  foot  froi 
centre  to  centre. 

Frame  the  floors  of  the  sid 
wings  adjoining  the  court  as  be 
fore  described,  with  joists  7  inche 
by  2{  inches,  and  oak  sleepe; 
and  plates  4  inches  by  3  inchei. 
Provide  for  two  tier  of  bone 
laid  complete  throughout  th 
rooms  of  the  wings  last  de 
scribed,  exclusive  of  the  woo 
bricks  required  for  the  \vindo\ 
skirting,  &c. 

Frame  and  fix  the  roof  overth 
hospital,  bath,  and  receiving 
rooms,  &c.  according  to  tli 
drawings,  with  timbers  of  the  fol 
lowing  scantlings : — 
Ridge  piece  -  -  -  -  9X2 
Common  rafters,  with  feet 

notched  on  pole  plate, 

as  before  described    -  5x2 

Purlins  6x4- 

Templates  to  ditto  -  -  4X4 
Struts  to  ditto  -  -  -  4x3 
Pole  plate  with  blockings  4 X  3 
Wall  plate,  as  described 

for  the  court  roof  -  -  6x4 
Principal  rafters,  average  8x6 
King  post  -  8X6 
Braces  -  -  -  -  -  6x4 
Tye  beams  in  one  piece  -  10x6 
Binders  to  ceiling  -  -  6X-4 
Ceiling  joists  -  4x2 
Trimming  ditto         -  -  4X3 

Provide  and  fix  wrought-iroi 
straps,  bolts,  &c.  to  bottom  o 
king  and  feet  of  principal  rafters 
as  before  described;  cover  th 
roofs   last  described  with  inc 


BUILDING. 


eal  battens  2|  inches  wide,  to  a 
luge  for  countess  slating,  with 
oper  featheredge  eaves  boards, 
id  tilting  fillets,  3  inches  wide 
r  slaters.  Prepare  and  fix  a 
unded  ridge  roll  2\  inches  by 
inches,  with  proper  irons  to  the 
me. 

Frame  the  floors  of  the  infirm- . 
;ies  and  rooms  adjoining,  with 
;  sts  7  inches  by  2\-  inches,  and 
miming  ditto    7    inches  by  3 

ches,  and  wall  plates  all  round 

e  walls  6  inches  by  4  inches, 
surely  spiked  at  the  angles. 

ovide  for  one  tier  of  bond,  laid 
i  mpletely  round  the  last  named 

oms,  exclusive  of  wood  bricks 
iquired  for  skirtings,  windows, 
L  Frame  and  fix  4-inch  quarter 
irtitions,  forming  passages  as 
iown  in  drawings,  with  heads 
nil  sills  4  inches  by  3  inches ; 
1  incipal  posts  and  door  posts, 

•  inches  by  3  inches  ;  braces,  4 
:hes  by  2\  inches;  and  com- 
jn  quarters,  4  inches  by  2 
ches ;  the  quarters  1  foot  from 
Intra  to  centre. 

Frame  and  fix:  lean-to  roofs  to 
e  privies  in  the  yards  adjoining 
e  bath  and  receiving  rooms, 
th  rafters  4  inches  by  2  inches, 
fiog  plates  4  inches  by  2\  inches, 
Jd  pitching  pieces  3  inches  by 
'.  inches.    Cover  the  same  with 
ch  deal  battens  2\  inches  wide, 
Id  to  a  guage  for  countess  slat- 
ij,    with    proper  featheredge 
<ves  boards,  and  tilting  fillets, 
.'•nches  wide.    Frame  and  fix  a 
jbf  over  the  store-room,  coal- 
He,  and  privy,   adjoining  the 

•  unsel's  room,  with  rafters  3 
jfhei  by  2  inches,  rising  plate  4 
Hies  by  3  inches,  and  pitching 
I'ce,  \\  inches  by  2  inches;  pur- 
ls, 5  inches  by  inches;  tem- 
|ttes  for  the  same,  2  feet  long, 
'inches  by  2\  inches.  Cover 
■  same  with  battens  for  slates, 
<^es  boards,  and  tilting  fillets, 


as  last  described.     Provide  for 

one  tier  of  bond,  4  inches  by  2± 
inches  round  the  walls,  exclusive 
of  the  necessary  wood  bricks 
required  for  the  windows,  &c. 

Frame  and  fix  a  roof  over  the 
prisoners' entrance  with  rafters  4 
inches  by  2  inches,  rounded  ridge 
6  inches  by  2  inches,  with  tem- 
plates at  each  end,  and  plates  4 
inches  by  2\  inches.  Cover  the 
same  with  inch  deal  battens,  2^- 
inches  wide,  laid  to  a  gauge  for 
countess  slating,  with  proper 
featheredge  eaves  board,  and 
tilting  fillets  3  inches  wide.  Pro- 
vide and  lay  inch  yellow  deal 
gutters,  edges  shot  with  proper 
bearers  to  the  same. 

Frame  and  fix  a  lean-to  roof  and 
ceiling  joists  over  the  keeper's 
lodge,  bed-room,  wash-house,  and 
waiting  cell,  according  to  the 
drawings,  and  with  timbers  of  the 
following  scantlings  : — 
Valley  piece  -  -  -  -  7X2 
Rafters    -    -    -    -    -  4x0 

Purlins  6x4 

Struts  to  ditto    -    -    -  4x3 
Wall  plate    -    -    -    -  5x4 
Pitching  piece   -    -     -  4x2f 
Binders  to  ceiling    -     -  6x4 
Ceiling  joists     ...  3x2 
Templates  to  wall  plates, 
purlins,    and  binders, 
where  necessary  -    -  4x2^ 
Cover  the  same  with  inch  bat- 
tens, eaves  boards,  and  tilting  fil- 
lets, as  before  described. 

Provide  and  fi\  one  tier  of  bond 
throughout  the  last  named  rooms, 
exclusive  of  wood  bricks,  which 
may  be  required  for  the  window, 
&c.  Frame  and  fix  floor  joists  to 
the  bed-room,  5  inches  by  2\ 
inches,  with  plates  4  inches  by  2|- 
inches. 

Frame  and  fix  a  lean-to  roof  over 
the  privy,  with  rafters,  rising  plate, 
and  pitching  piece,  inch  fattens, 
eaves  boards,  and  tilting  fillets,  as 
before  described  for  the  privies. 

463 


BUILDING. 


All  the  mortar  to  be  compound- 
ed of  lime  from 
and  sharp-screened  sand  from 

or  of  equally 
approved  quality,  perfectly  free 
from  salt,  and  in  such  propor- 
tions as  the  architect,  or  his  clerk 
of  the  works,  shall  direct ;  not 
less  than  two  bushels  of  lime  to 
three  bushels  of  sand:  the  lime 
to  be  screened  with  the  sand,  and 
ground  through  a  pugging-mill, 
at  the  contractor's  expense. 

The  lime  brought,  upon  the 
ground  is  to  be  kept  under  an 
enclosed  shed,  so  as  not  to  be 
injured  by  exposure  to  the  air; 
and  no  more  is  to  be  made  at  any 
time  than  is  sufficient  for  the 
day's  consumption. 

The  contractor  for  the  brick- 
layer's work  is  to  find  straw,  or 
other  materials  and  labour,  for 
securing  the  work  from  the  wea- 
ther, should  it  be  considered  by 
the  architect,  or  his  clerk  of  the 
works,  necessary  at  any  time  so 
to  do.  He  is  also  to  find  all  the 
scaffolding  necessary  for  the  per- 
formance of  the  brick-work  above 
described,  and  all  other  works 
required  ;  the  same  to  be  erected 
in  a  substantial  and  efficient  man- 
ner to  every  part  of  the  buildings  ; 
and  shall  from  time  to  time  re- 
move and  secure  the  same  as  the 
architect  may  require.  And  when 
the  whole  of  the  works  are  com- 
pleted, he  is  to  take  down  and 
remove  the  same  from  the  ground 
at  his  own  expense.  He  is  also 
to  fill  up  all  putlog  holes,  taking 
particular  care  in  matching  the 
brinks  and  mortar.  And  it  is  to 
be  observed,  that  no  putlog  holes 
will  be  allowed  where  there  is 
stone  ashlering ;  and  he  is  to  at- 
tend the  mason,  carpenter,  and  all 
other  workmen,  to  properly  back 
in  behind  all  stone-work,  and 
make  good  after  the  several  work- 
men, when  and  where  required. 


The  boundary  wall  to  be  buii 
within  two  months  after  the  sign 
ing  of  the  contract,  in  order  t 
enclose  the  buildings  whilst  th 
several  works  are  in  progress. 

Carpenter  and  Joiner.  Provid 
and  fix  a  secure  hoard,  with  roug 
close  fencing,  at  least  7  feethig! 
to  enclose  the  front  part  of  th 
building  where  shown  by  th 
dotted  lines  tinted  yellow  o 
drawing  No.  2,  with  proper  fold 
ing  gates  8  feet  wide,  and 
wicket  gate  and  enclosed  box  i 
one  of  them,  for  a  gate-keeper 
the  said  gates  to  be  provided  wit 
secure  fastenings.  Provide  an 
fix  also  a  small  shed  building 
about  12  feet  long  and  7  feet  widt 
as  a  counting-house  for  the  cler 
of  the  works,  adjoining  the  sai 
hoard,  or  any  part  within  th 
premises,  as  may  be  directed  b 
the  architect.  The  building  t 
have  a  small  fire-place,  a  cas< 
ment  window7  6  feet  long,  wit 
lodged  shutters,  and  a  desk  3  fee 
wide,  the  whole  length  of  tl 
counting  house,  with  two  draw 
ers,  and  to  be  floored,  and  to  hav 
a  ledged  door,  with  a  good  loci 
&c. 

Provide  and  fix  also  an  enclose 
shed  for  the  lime,  with  door.  & 
as  will  be  directed,  and  in  sue 
part  of  the  premises  as  may  fc 
thought  necessary.  The  who 
of  the  aforesaid  temporary  noi  l 
may  be  made  of  any  descriptid 
of  old  materials,  but  must  be  ke j| 
standing,  and  in  repair,  till  ti 
whole  of  the  buildings  are  ei 
closed  in  every  part  with  wii 
dows,  doors,  &c.  '1  he  count  in; 
house  must  be  kept  standing,  an 
in  repair,  till  the  works  are  ei 
tirely  finished,  when  the  who 
of  the  aforesaid  temporary  worl 
must  be  removed,  and  the  grow 
cleared  and  levelled  at  the  co 
tractor's  expense.  provide  f 
enclosing  such  doors,  window. 


BUILDING. 


&,  for  the  plasterer's  work,  or 
ot  r  cause,  and  casing  stone  and 
ot  r  work  to  the  necessary  heigh  t, 
totevent  injury  to  them  during 
;  th'wrogress  of  the  w  ork,  as  may 
Inquired  from  time  to  time  by 
thlirchitects,  or  his  clerk  of  the 

!  4s. 

i-ovide  and  fix  all  requisite 
uids  for  cutting  the  inverted 
riles.    Provide  and  fix  ail  re- 
11  te    mouids,  turning-pieces, 
'   anii:enterirg   for  the  bricklayer 
am  mason,  which  may  be  neces- 
5  U  for  their  work.    No  part  of 
u  entering  is  to  be  removed, 
10  plates  or  bond  are  to  be 
1  cutout  of  the  openings  until 
tions  are  given  for  that  pur- 
poi  by  the  architect,  or  his  clerk 
injl  of  e  works. 

]  ovide  and  fix  wood  bricks  to 
u!  he    wood   jaumbs,  linings, 
ngs,   and    window  frames; 
ns.  intels  over  the  wood  frames 
u  aiu  doors  the  whole  width  of  the 
nit  wa  ,  and  within  9  inches  of  the 
ii!>il  our.de  face  of  the  external  walls, 
li  tn  evcpt  where  intercepted  by  stone 
hew,  described  in  the  drawings. 

I    filling  in  lintels,  or  where 
red; red  by  the  architect,  the  lin- 
Mf  tel;to  lay  on  the  walls  not  less 
nlil  ibm  inches  at  each  end,  and  to 
aj„  he  inches  thick.    Provide  and 
fix  |>od  blockings  for  hinges  and 
:1  where  required. 
1  >vide  and  fix  wrought-iron 
ir>J  inches  by  \   inch,  con- 
c  Lr  the  plates   in    a  secure 
mai/ier  where  the  flues  intercept 
ie  :me  throughout  the  different 
\  bui li  n <rs. 

rime  and  fix  the  roof  of  the 
i   )  according  to  the  draw- 
gtjiwith  timbers  of  the  follow- 
-  antlings  : — 
Rid;  piece  -     -     -     -  9x2 
or|ion  rafters,  with  feet 
n  ched  and    tailed  on 
Dtp  plate,  as  shown  on 
d  wing,  and  nailed  with 
3N 


6 -inch    two  shilling 

nails  5{x2i 

Pole  plate    -    -    -     -  6X4 
Gutter  plate,  with  bevell- 
ed top      -    ...  4X3 
Purlins,  notched  and  spik- 

ed  to  templates    -    -  6x4 
Templates  for  ditto,  at 

each  end  3  feet  long  -  4x3 
Strut  to  ridge  piece  -    -  4X3 
Wall  plates  all  round,  se- 
curely halved  and  pin- 
ned at  the  angles,  the 
ends  to  tail  on  the  wall 
within  4%  inches  of  the 
external  face    -     -    -  9X6 
Principal  rafters  average  7|X6 

Collar   6x6 

Queens,  average  -    -    -  8X6 
Tye  beam  to   camber  1 

inch  8X6 

Struts  or  braces  -  -  -  6x4 
Ceiling  joists  -  -  -  4x2 
Plates  for  ditto     -    -    -  4x3 

Provide  and  fix  wrought-iron 
straps  to  the  bottom  of  the  queens, 
and  ends  of  principal  rafters,  2 
inches  wide  and  half  an  inch  thick, 
with  a  screw  bolt  and  nut,  two 
drafts  and  iron  wedges  to  each 

m  o 

as  shown  in  a  drawing  at  large. 

Cover  the  roof  with  1  \  inch 
yellow  deal  boarding,  close  joint- 
ed for  lead.  Prepare  and  fix 
rounded  rolls  to  ditto,  and  a 
rounded  roll,  2-7  inches  by  2  in- 
ches, securely  fixed  to  the  ridge 
with  proper  irons. 

Provide  and  lay  inch  yellow 
deal  gutters,  with  edges  shot,  and 
proper  bearers  at  each  end.  Frame 
and  fix  double  binders,  9  inches 
by  4  inches,  with  filling  in  joists, 
&c,  as  shown  in  the  drawings, 
for  the  stiles  and  rails  in  the 
ceiling  of  portico.  Frame  and 
fix  the  roof  of  the  court-house, 
according  to  the  drawings,  with 
timbers  of  the  fo  lowing  scant- 
lings :— 

Ridge  piece  -  -  -  -  9x2 
Valley  piece  to  hip  end   -  8x3 


BUILDING. 


and  nailed  with  6 -inch 


two  shilling  nails  -    -  4x2 
Trimming  do.  to  chim- 
neys  4X3 

Purlins  -----  5x4 
Tyes,  collars,  and  struts 


to  purlins  every  7  feet 
apart,   with  blockings 
where  necessary,  the 
whole  securely  pinned 
andnailed  together, and 
the  struts  wedged  at 
bottom,  as  shown  on 
the  drawings  -     -     -  4x3 
Wall  plates  to  be  in  long 
lengths,  not  less  than 
25  feet,  properly  se- 
cured at  the  meetings, 
and  securely  halved  and 
pinned  at  the  angles, 
the  ends  to  tail  on  the 
walls  within  4|  inches 
of  the  external  face  -  9x6 
Angle  ties  and  dragon 
pieces    dovetailed  to 
plate    -----  6X4 
Cover  the  roofs  last  described 
with  inch  deal  battens,  2\-  inches 
wide,  laid  to  a  guage  for  countess 
slating,  with  proper  featheredge 
eaves  boards,  and  three  quarter 
inch  tilting  fillets,  3  inches  wide 
for  slaters.    Provide  and  lay  inch 
deal  gutters  and  bearers  adjoining 
the  chimney  shafts. 

Frame  and  fix  a  ceiling  over 
the  prisoners'  staircases,  with  a 
binder  6  inches  by  4  inches  be- 
tween the  purlins  and  templates 
for  ditto,  and  ceiling  joists  5 
inches  by  2  inches.  The  rafters  of 
the  roof  to  form  the  remainder  of 
the  ceiling. 

Frame  and  fix  the  floor  of  joists 
to  the  chapel  according  to  the 
drawings,  and  with  timbers  of 
the  following  scantling:  — 


Joists-    -    -     -     -    -  7X2^ 

Trimmmg  ditto  -     -    -  7x3 
Joists  over  the  front  rooms 

and  passages  adjoining  9X2^- 

Struts  between  ditto      -  9X2^ 

4G6 


Trimming  joists  -    -    -  tyyK 
Binders    over  matron's 
room  and  keeper's  back 
room  to  be  planed  three 

sides  12x( 

Sleepers  on  cross  wails  -  4x 
Wall  plates  halved  and 
spiked  at  the  angles, 
and  scarfed  at  the  meet- 
ings, and  to  be  in  long 
lengths,  as  described 
for  the  roof  plate  -    -  6x 
Frame  and  fix  proper  bean 
to  raise  the  floors  under  the  pi 
pit,   reading-desk,    clerk's  se; 
and  keeper  s  and  matron's  pe\ 
to  the  height  and  in  the  manr 
shown  or  described  on  the  dra1 
ings.    Frame  and  fix  a  quarte 
partition,  enclosing  the  chaj 
stairs  with  head  and  sill  4  incfi 
by  3^  inches,    door-posts  a 
principal  quarters  4  inches  h] 
inches,  braces  and  common  qui 
ters  4  inches  by  2  inches,  t 
quarters  to  be  1  foot  from  cen 
to  centre. 

Provide  and  lay  two  tier 
bond  4  inches  by  2|  inches  rou 
the  walls  of  the  chapel,  where  \ 
be  directed,  exclusive  of  the  \vc. 
bricks  which  may  be  required. 

Frame  and  fix  the  floor  of  joi 
to  the  one-pair  story  of  the  ko« 
er's  house,  according  to  the  di,r 
ings,  and  with  timbers  of  the! 
lowing  scantlings  : — 
Joists  ------  7)1 

Trimming  ditto       -    -  7X 
Joists  to  front  rooms  and 
passages    -    -    -    -  Dm| 

Trimming  ditto  9)1 
Struts  between  ditto  -    -  9>j| 
Binders  over  back  rooms 
to  be  planed  three  sides 
and  chase-mortised  for 
joists    -     -    -    -    -  12/ 

Plates  on  cross  walls     -  4> 
Wall  plates   all  round, 
halved  and  spiked  at 
the  angles,  and  to  tail 
on  the  wall  within  4r« 


BUILDING. 


inches  of  the  external 

face  />X4 

Provide  and  lay  two  tier  of 
bond  round  the  sides  of  the  rooms 
in  the  one-pair  story  last  named, 
where  will  be  directed,  exclusive 
of  wood  bricks  required  for  fixing 
skirting,  windows,  &c. 

Frame  and  fix  the  floors  of  the 
front  rooms  and  entrance  in  the 
ground -floors  of  the  keeper's 
house  according  to  the  drawings, 
and  with  timbers  of  the  following 
scantlings : — 

Joists  9X2* 

.Trimming  ditto     -     -     -  9x3 
Plates  on  cross-walls  -     -  4X4 
Wail  plates  as  last  de- 
scribed -----  6  4 
Provide  and  lay  two  tier  of 
)ond  4  inches  by  2^  inches  all 
.  ound  the  rooms  of  the  ground 
tory  in  the  keeper's  house,  ex- 
clusive of  wood  bricks  required 

0  fix  the  skirting,  windows,  &c. 

1  Frame  and  fix  the  roofs  of  the 
prisoners'  privies  in  the  airing 
.ourts  with  rafters  4  inches  by  2 
nches,  rising  plates  4  inches  by 
!  inches,  and  pitching  pieces  3 
nches  by  2  inches.  Cover  the 
ame  with  inch  deal  battens  2\ 
nches  wide,  laid  to  a  gauge  for 
ountess  slating,  with  proper 
atheredge  eaves  boards,  and 
Iting  fillets,  3  inches  wide.  Pro- 
ide  and  fix  wrought  and  rounded 
nb  4  inches  by  3  inches,  on  the 
>p  the  stone  pieces  as  shown  in 
pe  drawing. 

Frame  and  fix  the  roof  over 
ie  wash-house  and  laundry  ac- 
prding  to  the  drawings,  with 
mbers  of  the  following  scant- 
:'gs:— 

ips  rounded  for  lead  -  8x2 
ommon  rafters  as  before 
(1  c-scribed  -  -  -  -  3x2 
.ariins  -  -  -  -  -5x4 
lie  plate  with  blockings  4x3 
ail  plates  as  before  de- 
scribed  5X4 


Angle  tyes   and  dragon 

pieces  4x4 

Principal  rafters  -  -  -  6x6 
Tye  beam  -  -lOxtf 
King  posts  -  -  -  -  6X0* 
Struts       -     -     -     -  .4x3 

Provide  and  fix  wrought-iron 
straps  witli  bolts,  &c.  to  feet  of 
principal  rafters  and  bottom  of 
king,  as  shown  on  drawing. 
Cover  the  roof  with  inch  deal 
battens  2\  inches  wide,  laid  to  a 
gauge  for  countess  slating,  with 
proper  featheredge  eaves  boards, 
and  three  quarter  inch  tilting 
fillets,  3  inches  wide  for  slaters, 
and  inch  deal  gutters  and  bearers 
adjoining  the  chimney  shaft. 

Frame  and  fix  a  quarter  parti- 
tion in  the  laundry  enclosing 
staircase,  with  heads  and  sills  4 
inches  by  3  inches,  door-posts 
and  principal  quarters  4  inches  by 
3|  inches,  braces  4  inches  by  1\ 
inches,  and  common  quarters  4 
inches  by  2  inches. 

Frame  and  fix  a  floor  of  joists 
to  the  laundry,  according  to  draw- 
ings, and  with  timbers  as  fol- 
low : — 

Joists   7X2J- 

Trimming  ditto     -     -     -  7x3 
Binder  chase-mortised  for 

joists  ]2x6 

Wall  plate  halved  and  spik- 
ed at  the  angle  and  to 
tail,  &c.  as  before  de- 
scribed     -    -    -    -  6X4 
Plate    on  partition  wall  4x4 

Provide  and  lay  one  tier  of  bond 
4  inches  by  2|  inches  in  each  of 
the  stories  of  the  last  named 
building,  where  will  be  directed, 
exclusive  of  wood  bricks  required 
for  fixing  the  windows,  kc. 

Frame  and  fix  the  open  front 
and  roof  of  the  wheel -wings  ac- 
cording to  the  drawings,  and 
with  timbers  of  the  following 
scantlings  : — 

Round  ridge    -    -    -    -  8X2 
Common  rafters  with  feet 

4G7 


BUILDING. 


notched  and  tailed  on 
wall  plates  and  front 
plate,  &c.  -  -  -  -  3x2 
Principal  rafters  and  bra- 
ces forming  five  trus- 
ses to  each  of  the  mill- 
wings,  dovetailed,  and 
pinned  together — the 
rafters  to  be  notched 
and  tailed  on  wall  plate 


and  front  plate  -    -    -  5x3 

Purlins  3{x3 

Wall  plate  as  before  de- 
scribed    -    -    -  5x4 


Front  plate  or  bressum- 
mer  wrought  all  round 
and  mortised  for  posts, 
and  firmly   secured  to 
wall  plate    -    -    -    -  8x8 
Posts  under  ditto,  wrought 
all  round  with  tenons 
in     bressummer  and 
stone  plinth     -    -    -  8x6 
Cover  the  roofs  last  described 
with  inch  deal  battens  2^  inches 
wide,  laid  to  a  gauge  for  countess 
slating,  with  proper  featheredge 
eaves  boards,  and  three  quarter 
inch  tilting  fillets,  3  inches  wide 
for  slaters. 

Provide  for  one  tier  of  bond 
4  inches  by  1\  inches,  laid  com- 
plete round  the  walls  of  each  of 
the  mill -wings. 

Frame  and  fix  the  roof  of  the 
mill -house  according  to  the  draw- 
ings, and  with  timbers  of  the  fol- 
lowing scantlings : — 
Rounded  hips      -     -    -  8x2 
Common  rafters   -    -    -  3x2 
Purlins      -    -    -     -  -5x4 
Pole  plate  with  blockings  3x3 
Wall^plates  as  before  de- 
scribed -    -    -    -  -5X4 
Struts    to    purlins  from 

truss  where  necessary  4x3 
Principal  rafters  -  -  -  6x6 
Tye  beam  -  -  -  -10x6 
King  post  -  -  -  -  6X6 
Braces  or  struts    -    -    -  4  X  3 

Cover  the  roof  last  described 
with  inch  deal  battens  2\  inches 


wide,  laid  to  a  guage  for  countess 

slating,  with  proper  featheredge 
eaves  boards,  and  three  quarter 
inch  tilting  fillets,  3  inches  wide 
for  slater. 

Frame  and  fix  floors  of  joists 
to  the  two  stories  of  the  null, 
house,  according  to  the  drawings, 
with  a  well  hole  trimmed  to  each 
fcr  a  ladder,  the  whole  of  the 
timbers,  and  the  front  of  the  plates 
and  bond  to  be  planed;  the 
timbers  of  the  following  scant- 
lings:— 

Joists  framed  to  girders  5x2i 
Girders  chase-mortised 

for  joists    -    -    -    -  14X8 
Templates  to  ditto,  with 

fronts  planed     -    -  -  5x4 
Wall  plates  as  before  de- 
scribed     -    -    -    -  5x4 
Provide  for  one  tier  of  bond  4 
inches  by  2\  inches,  laid  complete 
in  each  of  the  three  stories  of  the 
mill-house  before  described,  ex- 
clusive of  wood   bricks  which 
may  be  required  for  fixing  the 
windows,  doors,  &c. 

All  the  joists  throughout  the 
different  buildings  are  to  be  notch- 
ed down  1  inch  upon  the  plates, 
and  to  be  spiked  thereto.  All 
the  door-cases  are  to  have  tenons, 
and  to  be  let  into  the'stone  steps 
or  paving.  All  the  iron  straps  or 
other  iron-work  necessary  to  fix 
the  framing  of  the  pews  in  the! 
chapel,  or  divisions  in  the  court, 
or  other  work  throughout  the 
different  buildings  required  to  be 
securely  fixed,  must  be  secured 
and  screwed  to  the  floor  of  joists 
and  carcass  timbers,  independent 
of  the  floors. 

Prepare  and  hang  3-inch  six 
panel  folding  doors  to  the  en- 
trance under  the  portico,  moulded  \ 
and  bead  flush,  with  extra  wide 
styles  and  rails,  and  double-mar- 
gined centre  stile,  the  upper  pa-  i 
nels  fixed,  the  doors  hung  with 
two  pair  of  weighty  forked  hinges, 


BUILDING. 


with  proper  screw-bolts  and  nuts, 
the  whole  according  to  the  draw- 
ings at  large.  Provide  for  the 
necessary  wood  bricks  to  fix  the 
upper  part  of  the  doors.  Provide 
and  fix  a  lock,  bolts,  and  other 
fastenings  of  the  value  of  two 
pounds  ten  shillings,  as  will  be 
hereafter  directed  by  the  architect. 

Prepare  and  hang  |i.-inch  deal, 
our  panel,  bead,  flush,  and  square 
Joors,  leading  from  the  entrance 
Passage  to  the  spectators'  seats, 
lung  with  3-inch  wrought  butts, 
W  a  9-inch  drawback  lock  to 
?ach,  with  I  J -inch  wrought  and 
febated  jaumb  lining  and  soffit  to 
he  same.  Prepare  and  fix  inch 
leal  square  skirting,  8|  inches 
ligh  round  the  entrance  passage 
eading  to  spectators'  seats. 

Prepare  and  fix  deal  cased 
"rames,  oak  sunk  sills,  with  2-inch 
leal  astragal  and  hollow  sashes, 
ingle  hung,  with  2-inch  brass 
txle  pulleys,  patent  lines,  iron 
veights,  and  sash  fastenings.  Pro- 
;ide  and  fix  pulleys,  and  patent 
ines  to  open  top  sashes,  with 
looks  to  same.  Prepare  and  fix 
'l  \ -inch  deal  wrought  and  splayed 
window  hoard,  with  proper  bear- 
is  to  the  windows  of  the  court 
oom.  Prepare  and  hang  2- inch 
liree  panel  wainscot,  moulded 
>oth  sides;  folding  doors  leading 

0  the  passages  in  the  court,  with 

1  inch  three  quarter  inch,  half 
chared  two  bolt  mortised  locks, 
ind  plain  furniture;  two  pair  of 
•inch  wrought  butts,  one  9-inch, 
nd  one  IS-inch  barrel,  bolts  to 
ach  ;  with  I  J -inch  wainscot, 
eyed  and  double  rebated,  jaumbs 
ml  soffit  properly  backed;  three 
barter  inch   wainscot,  wrought 

Ind  beaded  grounds,  and  moulded 
rchitrave  one  side,  and  wainscot 
talf  bead  the  other  side.  Prepare 
-inch  >ix  pane!  wainscot  moulded 

loth  sides;  doors  leading  to  ma- 
istrates'  bench,  and  jury  boxes, 


with   jaumbs,    and    soffit,  and 

moulded  architrave,  and  staffbead, 
as  last  described,  but  not  folding; 
with  6-inch  three  bolt  mortise 
locks,  and  3-inch  wrought  butts. 
Prepare  and  lay  l*--inch  yellow 
deal  wrought,  ploughed,  and 
tongued  floor,  and  inch  deal 
wrought  steps,  risers,  and  proper 
bearers,  in  court  room,  where 
shown  on  the  drawings.  Prepare 
and  fix  2- inch  wainscot,  one  panel 
high,  bead,  flush,  and  square  fram- 
ing, in  front  of  magistrates'  bench, 
part  circular  on  plan.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  partitions  in  front 
of  spectators'  seats,  and  forming 
the  divisions  in  the  court,  to  be 
of  I^-inch  wainscot,  one  panel 
high,  bead,  flush,  and  -square 
framing  ;  the  doors  hung  with  2\- 
inch  projecting  butts,  and  a  brass 
pulpit  latch  to  each  ;  the  whole  of 
the  framing  to  be  firmly  secured 
by  iron  knee  straps  to  the  joists 
under  the  floor,  the  said  straps  to 
be  provided  and  fixed  by  the 
carpenter.  Prepare  and  fix 
inch  wainscot,  chamfered  and 
groved  capping  to  partition  in 
front  of  magistrates'  bench,  3 
inches  wide,  and  ditto,  2^  inches 
wide  to  the  remaining  partitions 
in  the  courts.  The  capping  to  be 
firmly  screwed  to  the  framing, 
and  the  whole  of  the  screws  in  the 
capping  and  the  wainscot  framing, 
before  described,  to  be  counter- 
sunk, and  carefully  covered  with 
wainscot.  Prepare  and  fix 
inch  deal  wrought  and  cut  bearers, 
and  1^-inch  wrought  and  rounded 
seats,  from  12  to  14  inches  wide, 
with  groves  stopped  short,  the 
flaps  rebated,  and  hung  with 
hinges.  Inch  wrought  rounded, 
and  splayed  book-board,  10  inch.es 
wide,  with  wrought,  splayed, 
and  cut  brackets,  where  shown 
on  drawings.  Prepare  and  fix 
2-inch  deal  ploughed,  feathcr- 
tongued,  and  blocked,  cut  circa- 


BUILDING. 


Jar,  anil  edges  rounded,  for  top  of 
counsel's  table,  with  wrought  all 
round,  framed  and  splayed  top 
rail,  4£  inches  by  3  inches  ditto, 
bearers  5  inches  by  2  inches  ditto, 
bottom  rail  3  inches  by  2  inches 
ditto,  legs  3  inches  square,  let 
into  the  floor,  and  firmly  secured 
to  the  joists ;  the  whole  of  the 
seats,  book-board,  counsel's  table, 
&c.  to  be  rounded  at  the  ends,  and 
the  whole  of  the  fittings  in  the 
court  to  be  in  every  respect  as 
shown  or  described  upon  the 
drawings.  Prepare  and  fix  a  desk 
for  the  chairman,  with  ]i-inch 
ploughed,  tongued,  and  rounded 
top,  with  a  dovetailed  wainscot 
drawer  and  frame,  the  drawer  16 
inches  by  12  inches,  and  3  inches 
deep,  with  a  good  lock  a-nd  key, 
and  two  drawer  knobs. 

Prepare  and  fix  inch  wainscot, 
keyed  and  feather-tongued  wall 
lining,  with  upright  beads,  as 
shown  in  the  drawings,  to  the 
wall  all  round  the  court,  except- 
ing the  space  occupied  by  the 
passage  leading  to  the  spectators' 
seats,  with  a  wainscot  groved 
bead,  i  »  inch  thick,  and  3  inches 
wide,  as  a  capping  to  the  same. 

Prepare  and  fix  1 J -inch  deal, 
wrought  and  splayed,  capping 
top  of  plaster,  impost  moulding, 
forming  the  top  fillet  of  the  same, 
securely  fixed  to  the  chain  plate. 
Prepare  and  fix  three-quarter 
inch  ploughed  and  tongued  and 
beaded  boarding  to  the  court  side 
of  the  partition,  enclosing  the 
passage  leading  to  the  spectators' 
seats. 

Prepare  and  hang  2-inch  deal 
six  panel  bead,  flush,  and  square 
doors  to  lobbies  of  side  entrances 
leading  to  officers'  apartments, 
adjoining  the  court,  hung  with 
3 -inch  wrought  butts,  a  strong 
drawback  lock,  a  9-inch  and  an 
J  8-inch  bright  barrel  bolts  to 
each. 

470 


Frame  and  fix  proper  door- 
cases, 4  inches  square,  to  the 

same. 

Prepare  and  lay  I  }-inch  yellow 
deal  straight  joint  floors,  with 
borders  to  slabs,  in  the  magis-j 
trate's  grand  jury,  and  counsel's 
rooms;  and  inch  yellow  deal 
straight  joint  floors,  with  border 
to  slabs,  to  the  remaining  rooms! 
and  passages  of  the  wings  adjoin- 
ing the  court,  excepting  the  spaces 
shown  or  described  to  be  paved 
with  stone. 

Prepare  and  lay  inch  steps, 
risers,  and  proper  bearers,  leading 
to  magistrates'  bench. 

Prepare  and  fix  three  quarter 
inch  wrought  and  framed  grounds, 
2  l  inches  wide,  with  torus  skirt- 
ing, 8 j  inches  high,  to  the  afore- 
said wings,  excepting  the  magis. 
trates',  counsel's,  and  grand  jury 
rooms,  and  passages  adjoining, 
which  are  to  have  inch  wrought 
and  framed  grounds,  2\  inches 
wide,  and  inch  wrought,  rebated, 
and  blacked  plinth,  8|  inches  high,  j 
with  base  moulding,  3  inches  girt, 
on  same.  The  sides  of  the  magis- 
trates' room  to  be  lined  with  three- 
quarter  inch  battening,  2{  inches 
wide,  for  lathing;  the  battens,  1 
foot  from  centre  to  centre,  se- 
curely fixed  with  wall  hooks  where 
necessary.  Prepare  and  fix  deal- 
cased  sash  frames,  oak  sunk  sills, 
I J -inches  ovolo  sashes,  double 
hung  with  patent  lines,  brass 
pulleys,  patent  sash  fastenings, 
and  iron  weights  complete,  and 
inch  wrought  linings  and  soffits, 
with  ogee  round  same  to  all  the 
windows  of  the  wings  before  de- 
scribed. The  four  windows  to 
the  counsel's  and  petty  jury,  and 
clerks'  rooms,  in  front  of  the 
building,  are  to  have  I]- inch  four 
panel  moulded,  and  square  shut- 
ters ;  and  inch  deal  four  panel 
square  back  flaps  hung  with 
hinges,  and  with  proper  boxings 
• 


BUILDING. 


sidelining,  and  ogee  architrave, 
th  a  strong  iron  shutter  bar,  and 
10  brass  shutter  knobs  to  each, 
jepare  and  hang  l{-inch  deal 

i  Jolo  moulded  and  square  doors, 
jjng  with  2y-inch  wrought  butts, 
i  A  6-inch  iron  rim  three  bolt  locks, 
|h  brass  knobs  ;  and  inch  re- 
lied and  beaded  linings  and  sof- 
j|,  with  an  ogee  architrave  on 
J|e  side  to  all  the  rooms  of  the 

Ik  v/)gs  before  described,  excepting 
t;  magistrates'  and  grand  jury 
i4ms,  which  are  to  have  2- inch 
t  il  four  panel  doors,  moulded  both 

ti  ses,  hung  with  3 -inch  wrought 
Itts,  6 -inch  three  bolt  mortise 
I  ks,  and  plain  brass  furniture; 
]  double  rebated  linings  and 
slit,  inctk  wrought  framed  and 
bided  grounds,  with  a  moulded 
£. .hitrave  on  one  side.  The  door- 
v  v  in  the  passage  leading  to 
l^gistrates'  bench,  and  adjoining 

c|,     And  jury  room,  is  to  have  a  2- 

,][;  M\  lour  panel  door,  moulded 
l.th  sides,  hung  with  3-inch  butts, 
i  > -  inch  iron  rim,  three  bolt  lock, 
iftd  I  |-inch  rebated,  and  double 
laded  jaumb  linings  and  soffit, 
tpare  and  fix  proper  deal  square 
i  gle  staff  beads  to  the  chimney 
Lasts  of  the  magistrates'  and 
find  jury  rooms.  The  external 
(  )is  to  the  magistrates'  room, 
i  J  passage  leading  to  privies,  to 
lVe  2- inch  deal  four  panel 
i  ulded  and  bead  flush  doors, 
Hpg  with  3-inch  wrought  butts, 
\  h  a  strong  drawback  lock,  a 
Inch  and  an  IS  inch  bright  bar- 

f  rf  bolt  to  each  ;  frame  and  fix 
I  »per  door-cases  4  inches  square 
t  the  same. 

Prepare  and  fix  deal  cased 
f.nies,  oak  sunk  sills,  1^-inch 
i  i!  ovolo  sashes,  single  hung 
v  I)  lines,  iron  pulleys  and  weights 
a  I  sash  fastenings  complete, 
a  I  inch  wrought  and  beaded 
ji'ngs  and  soffits,  and  1|- 
lih    rounded     window  boards 


and  bearers   to   the  infirmaries 

and  rooms  adjoining,  and  two 
wrought  ventilators  to  the  ceil- 
ing in  each  of  the  infirmaries. 
Prepare  and  lay  inch  yellow  deal 
folding  floors  to  the  rooms  last 
described,  and  passages  adjoining, 
with  borders  to  slabs.  Prepare 
and  fix  inch  square  skirting,  8y 
inches  high,  to  the  rooms  and 
passages  last  described. 

Prepare  and  hang  I  {-inch  deal, 
bead,  flush,  and  square  doors, 
hung  with  2{-inch  wrought  iron 
butts,  6-inch  iron  rim  three  bolt 
locks,  with  brass  knobs,  and  inch 
wrought  rebated  and  rounded  lin- 
ings and  soffits  to  the  small 
rooms,  and  2-inch  deal,  bead, 
flush,  and  square  doors,  hung  with 
3-inch  wrought  iron  butts,  and 
strong  drawback  locks,  with  brass 
knobs,  a  strong  1 8-inch  bolt,  and 
1 1 -inch  deal  wrought,  rebated, 
and  rounded  linings  and  soffit  to 
the  infirmaries. 

Prepare  and  fix  deal  cased 
frames,  oak  sunk  sills,  1^-inch 
ovolo  sashes,  single  hung  with 
lines,  iron  pulleys  and  weights, 
and  sash  fastenings  complete,  and 
inch  deal  wrought  and  beaded 
linings  and  soffit,  with  1  ^-inch 
window  board  and  bearers  to  the 
receiving  and  fumigating  room, 
lock  up  room,  bath  room,  surgery, 
and  staircases.  Prepare  and  hang 
2-inch  four  panel,  bead,  flush,  and 
square  external  doors  to  receiv- 
ing and  fumigating  room,  bath 
room,  and  staircases,  with  3  inch 
wrought  butts,  a  strong  drawback 
lock,  a  9-inch,  and  an  18-inch 
bright  barrel  bolts  to  each.  Frame 
and  fix  proper  door-cases,  1-inches 
square,  to  the  same.  Prepare  and 
hang  1-t-inch  four  panel,  bead, 
flush,  square  doors  to  the  four 
openings  of  lock-up  room,  sur- 
gery, and  passage  adjoining,  as 
shown  on  plan,  hung  with  2{-inch 
wrought  butts,    with   locks  and 

471 


BUILDING. 


bolts,  and  fastenings,  as  last  de- 
scribed, with  inch  deal  wrought, 
rebated,  and  rounded  linings  to 
the  same. 

Prepare  and  fix  a  closet  in  the 
surgery,  4  feet  wide,  and  18  inches 
deep,  the  whole  height  of  the  room, 
with  inch  deal  framed  and  beaded 
front  and  side,  and  inch  deal  four 
panel  square  door,  hung  with 
hinges,  and  a  good  brass  cupboard 
lock;  3-inch  deal  wrought  shelves 
and  bearers  to  be  provided  and 
fixed  in  the  same,  with  a  dwarf 
door,  shelf  and  bottom,  and  brass 
button  in  the  upper  part.  Prepare 
and  hang  a  2 -inch  deal  four  panel 
bead  flush  and  square  door,  divid- 
ing the  two  staircases  adjoining, 
hung  with  3-inch  wrought  butts, 
and  a  lock,  as  last  described,  with 
1 1 -inch  deal,  wrought,  rebated, 
and  rounded  jaumb  lining  and 
soffit. 

Prepare  and  hang  l|-inch  deal 
wrought,  ploughed,  tongued,  and 
ledged  doors,  leading  from  yards 
of  receiving  and  bath  rooms,  with 
cross  garnets,  and  10-inch  stock 
lock,  and  proper  door-cases,  4  in- 
ches by  3  inches  to  each.  Prepare 
and  hang  two  three-quarter  inch 
deal,  wrought,  ploughed,  tongued, 
and  ledged  doors  to  coal  vaults,  un- 
der the  last-named  rooms,  and  one 
ditto  to  the  coal-hole  adjoining 
counsel's  privy,  with  cross  garnets, 
padlock,  hasp,  and  staple  to  each. 

Prepare  and  hang  inch,  plough- 
ed, wrought,  tongued,  and  ledged 
doors,  with  a  hole  cut  in  each  ; 
16 -inch  cross  garnets  and  a  thumb- 
latch  and  catch  to  each  of  the 
privies  in  the  yard,  adjoining  the 
receiving  and  bath  rooms. 

Prepare  and  fix  proper  door- 
cases 4-inches  by  2|-inches,  and 
inch  deal  rounded  seat  and  riser, 
with  proper  bearer,  and  hole  cut 
and  rounded  to  the  same. 

Prepare  and  hang  ledged  door 
and  frame  with  fastenings  and 

472 


seat -riser  and  bearers,  as  last  i 
scribed,  to  the  privy  adjoining 
counsel's  room.  Prepare  and 
deal-cased  frame  oak  sunk  si 
l|-inch  ovolo  sashes,  single  hui 
with  pulleys,  lines,  weights,  a 
sash  fastenings  complete,  and  in 
deal  wrought  and  beaded  linir 
and  soffit,  and  I  ^  -  inch  gjj 
wrought  and  rounded  wind 
board  and  bearers  ;  and  prep; 
and  hang  li-incii  deal,  four  pan 
bead,  flush,  and  square  door,  J 
2{-inch  wrought  butts,  with 
inch  iron  rim,  three  bolt  lock  ;  a 
prepare  and  fix  proper  door-ca 
4  inches  by  3  inches,  to  1 
store-room  adjoining  pnsow 
entrance.  Prepare  and  fix  'hi 
quarter  inch  deal  square  skirtii 
A\  inches  high  in  ditto. 

Prepare  and  hang  3-inch  de 
six  panel,  bead,  flush,  and  squ; 
doors,  to  prisoners'  entrance 
front,  as  also  to  entrance  at  bo 
of  prisons,  with  deal  trunnels,  t 
cular  head,  and  extra  wide  sty 
and  rails,  hung  with  strong  fork 
hinges,  the  carriages  of  which  j 
to  be  securely  let  into  the  vva 
the  whole  to  be  provided  a 
fixed,  or  hung,  by  the  carpent 
in  the  manner  shown  or  describ 
upon  the  drawings.  The  hi 
and  other  fastenings  to  this  g: 
(excepting  the  hinges  before  i 
scribed)  will  be  provided  by  l 
smith,  but  the  carpenter  is 
assist  in  fixing  the  same.  Prepi 
and  hang  2-inch  deal  six  pan 
bead,  flush,  and  square  door,  a 
joining  the  last  at  the  front  e 
trance  for  prisoners,  with  an  i 
spection  hole,  to  be  provided 
the  smith,  but  fixed  by  the  ca 
penter ;  4-inch  wrought  butts> 
strong  drawback  lock,  and  otl: 
fastenings,  which  may  be  direct* 
to  the  value  of  three  guineas. 

Prepare  and  fix  a  proper  do<: 
case,  4-inches  square,  to  t 
same. 


BUILDING. 


ar 

in  i 


Vepare  and  fix  deal -cased 
frnes,  oak  sunk  sills,  I  {-inch 
oiio  sashes,  single  hung  with 
liis.  iron  pulleys,  and  weights, 
sash  fastenings  complete,  and 
deal  wrought  and  beaded 
iings  and  soffit,  and  l|-inch 
k  wrought  and  rounded  window 
bed   and   bearers   to  keeper's 

0  e  and  bed -room. 

renare  and  fix  three-quarter 
in  deal  square  skirting,  6  inches 
hi1;  in  ditto,  and  prepare  and  lay 
ni  vellow  deal  wrought  folding 
flu  to  the  bed-room.  Prepare 
an  hang  1  \-\i\ch  deal  four  panel, 
Del,  flush,  and  square  door  to 
keler's  lodge,  with  2~inch 
(might  butts,  a  drawback  lock, 
uo  two  9  inch  bolts.  Prepare 
an  fix  a  proper  door-case,  4 
hues  by  2{  inches  to  the  same. 

repare  and  hang  1  |-inch,  four 
pa^,  square,  internal  doors  of 
wai-house  and  bed-room,  with 
2{i\ch  wrought  butts,  and  a  6- 
iii<  three  bolt,  iron-rim,  lock, 
an  inch  deal  wrought  rebated 
am  double-beaded  jaumbs,  and 
so;;  to  each.    Prepare  and  hang 

1  {inch  deal  ovolo,  sunk  door  to 
wat  home,    bead,     flush,  and 

e  bottom,  with  2j-inch  butts, 
Bn  a  o'-inch,  iron-rim,  two  bolt 
Joe  with  brass  knobs. 

repare  and  fix  a  proper  door- 
cas  1  inches  by  2{  inches  for 
tlit  same.  Prepare  and  hang 
dj  d  door  and  frame  to  the  pri- 
vy, with  fastenings,  seat-riser, 
bearers,  as  before  desciibed 
lor,ie  privies. 

Itepare    and    fix  deal-cased 
frai,;,    oak    sunk    sill,  l{-inch 
ovc,   sashes,   single   hung  with 
pulleys   and  weights, 


lint' 

anii  sash- fastenings  complete, 
vm,ogee  moulding  round  same, 
in  utgistrates'  privy.  Prepare 
tndiang  I  i- inch  deal  four  panel, 
uea,  flush,  and  square  door,  with 
30 


2[-inch  wrought  butts,  a  thumb- 
latch,  and  a  small  brass  bolt. 

Prepare  and  fix  a  proper  door- 
case, 4  inches  by  2\  inches  to 
the  same.  Prepare  and  fix  inch 
deal  wrought  and  rounded  seat- 
riser,  with  proper  bearers,  and  a 
hole  cut  and  rounded  in  the  seat. 
Inch  square  skirting  in  ditto. 

Prepare  and  hang  I  2-inch  ovolo 
folding  sashes  to  stable,  with  2- 
inch  butts,  a  brass  button,  and  two 
small  bolts  with  solid  wrought, 
framed,  rebated,  and  beaded  frame, 
4  inches  by  2\  inches,  oak 
wrought,  framed,  rebated,  and 
weathered  sill,  l{-inch  deal  win- 
dow-board, and  proper  bearers. 
Prepare  and  hang  1  j-inch  wrought, 
ploughed,  tongued,  beaded,  and 
ledged  door,  with  cross  garnets, 
a  sunk  stable  latch,  and  a  10-inch 
stock  lock  with  two  keys. 

Prepare  and  fix  a  wrought  pro- 
per doorcase,  4  inches  by  3  inches 
for  the  same.  Prepare  and  fix  a 
stall -post,  6  inches  by  5  inches, 
wrought  and  framed  into  an  oak 
sleeper,  and  the  ceiling  binder 
before  described. 

Prepare  and  fix  a  wrought  and 
framed  oak  bottom  rail,  A\  inches 
by  4  inches.  Fir  wrought  and 
framed  middle  rail  4  inches  by 
3  inches,  and  top  rail  wrought, 
framed,  and  rounded,  4  inches  by 
3  inches.  Prepare  and  fix  \\- 
inch  deal,  wrought,  ploughed, 
tongued,  and  beaded  boarding, 
let  into  a  groove  made  into  the 
rails  and  posts  for  the  same.  Pre- 
pare and  fix  a  wrought,  framed, 
and  cut-post  at  end  of  partition, 
to  support  manger,  and  grooved 
to  receive  the  boarding  last  de- 
scribed. Prepare  and  fix  wrought, 
splayed,  and  rebated  front,  and 
bottom  of  manger  with  wrought, 
splayed,  and  rounded  nosing. 

Provide  for  all  proper  and  suffi- 
cient wrought  and  framed  struu, 

473 


BUILDING. 


bearers,  and  templates  under  the 
manger. 

Prepare  and  fix  three-quarter 
inch  deal,  wrought,  ploughed, 
tongued,  and  beaded  boarding 
over  manger  at  back  and  against 
side-wall  of  stalls,  and  assist  the 
smith  in  fixing  the  iron  rack. 
Provide  and  fix  two  manger-rings 
to  each  of  the  stalls,  with  lines 
and  weights.  Provide  for  four 
rings  to  posts  and  wall,  and  also 
two  harness  pegs-  to  each  of  the 
posts. 

Prepare  and  fix  1  |-inch  deal, 
wrought  and  chamfered  rail, 
4.}  inches  wide,  and  5  feet  long, 
with  four  wrought  dovetailed  and 
cut- harness  brackets,  10  inches 
projection,  and  inch  wrought  and 
splayed  rail,  3  inches  wide  and  4 
feet  long,  with  nine  framed  and 
turned  pegs.  G  inches  projection, 
to  be  fixed  where  will  be  direct- 
ed. Provide  also  for  a  corn-bin, 
5  feet  by  3  feet,  and  3  feet  6  in- 
ches high,  with  inch  round  sides 
and  top  with  tongued  joints,  and 
two  flaps  hung  with  12-inch  cross 
garnets,  and  a  padlock,  hasp,  and 
staple  to  each  ;  two  divisions  are 
to  be  formed  under  the  flaps,  the 
whole  of  the  outside  is  to  have 
proper  framed  and  skeleton 
grounds  or  bearers,  to  receive  the 
sides,  top,  &c.  before  described, 
and  to  be  fixed  where  will  be 
directed  by  the  architect,  or  his 
clerk  of  the  works.  Prepare  and 
fix  also  2-inch  wrought  shelves 
in  the  stable,  5  feet  long  and  8y 
inches  wide,  with  brackets,  where 
will  be  directed.  Provide  and  fix 
inch  deal  rough  front,  with  ske- 
leton grounds  for  hay  in  the  angle 
of  stable,  as  shown  on  plan.  Pro- 
vide and  fix  wheel-boards,  8f 
inches  wide  at  each  side  of  the 
chaise- house. 

Prepare  and  fix  deal -cased 
frames,  oak   sunk  sills,  l{-inch 

474 


ovolo  sashes,  single  hung  *;j 
lines,  iron  pulleys  and  weigj 
and  sash  fastenings  complete,) 
the  dead-house.  Prepare  il 
frame  a  deal  table  about  8  ft 
by  4  feet,  and  3  feet  high,  vj 
proper,  strong,  and  suffici  t 
wrought  and  framed  legs,  n, 
&c. 

Prepare  and  hang  inch  wrouj . 
ploughed,  tongued,  beaded,  j 
ledged  doors  to  the  doorway:  f 
the  dead-house,  and  hay  andst  r 
room,  with  cross  garnets  an  a 
stock -lock  to  each.  Prepare  i 
fix  wrought  proper  door-c  s 
to  the  same,  4  inches  by  I 
inches. 

Provide  and  lay  1] -inch  yell 
deal  folding  floor  to  the  chap 
passage,  &c.  with  risers  as  sh<n 
in  the  drawings,  and  three-qua  r 
inch  square  skirting,  4\  int *s 
wide  top  of  same  where  there  e 
no  partitions.  Prepare  and  x 
inch  deal  wrought,  rebated,  d 
beaded  linings,  and  inch  il 
wrought,  ploughed,  tongued,  jd 
ledged  trap,  hung  with  Inns, 
and  a  6  inch  neck  bolt,  to  e 
ceiling  of  the  staircases,  leaf  g 
to  the  infirmary  ;  also  to  the  ( - 
ing  of  the  chapel. 

Prepare  and  hang  lj-inch  a! 
wrought,  ploughed,  tongued,  d 
ledged  door  to  each  of  the  I 
soners'  staircases  leading  to  ie 
roof,  with  cross  garnets  an  a 
6-inch  iron-rim  lock,  to  eacho  ie 
said  three  doors,  to  have  wroi  it 
proper  door-cases,  4  inches  hfi 
inches.  Provide  a  wrought  and  a- 
med  ladder  for  the  same,  with  j- 
inch  steps,  and  1 1 -inch  sides,  1 
hooks  in  wall  for  the  same,  wre 
will  be  directed.  Prepare  an  ix 
deal -cased  frames,  oak  sunk  M 
and  2 -inch  deal  ovolo  sashes,  sfl 
hung,  with  lines,  iron  pulleys  ^d 
weights,  and  sash  fastening  to 
the  windows  of  the  chapel,  t<> 


BUILDING. 


jnr  wrought  and  rounded  lin. 


ir,y  and  soffit,  and  1^-inch 
fright  and  rounded  window 
bo;  1  and  bearers.  Provide  also 
pat't  lines,  pulleys 


life twc 
iecl 

,.j  late 


des  , 


and  hooks 
ch  of  the  chapel  windows, 
)en  same.    Prepare  and  fix 
ch  square  framing  and  doors, 
anels  high,  with  27-inch  pro- 
g  butts,   and   brass  pulpit 
is  to   reading    and  clerk's 
pulpit,  and  pews   adjoin - 
kfthe  whole  of  the  framing  to 
be  mlv  secured  by  iron  knee- 
atral  to  the  joists  under  the  floor, 
'    and  an   iron   stud  fixed   to  the 
mng  style  of  each  door,  the 
said-traps  and  studs  to  be  pro- 
it  and  fixed  by  the  carpenter. 
F  pare  and  fix  l^-inch  wrought 
chaired  and  grooved  capping 


accdinjr  to 


frar 


last 


drawing,  over  the 
described,  and 


lf,!  curt1,  screwed  to  the  same.  The 
cart  iter  is  to  assist  the  smith 
in  ti  ng  the  iron  rails  and  spikes 
™  ovei  he  partitions  of  debtors'  and 
^femffi  prisoners'  pew.  Prepare 
and  x  proper  book  and  kneeling 
;  boa>s,  and  three  stools  for  pul- 

pit,  pding  and  clerk's  desks. 
3»     Ppare  and  fix  a  pair  of  move- 
able ips  to  keeper's  pew  in  the 
•  chajl,  with  4 -inch  wrought  and 
id  treads,    8   inches  wide, 
1  i '  inch    wrought  sides,  9 
fa  inch1  wide,  grooved  for  treads  ; 
in  the  iole  to  be  framed  together, 
nd   be  made  to  let  down  into 
lapel,  and  hung  with  butt 
g  ■    Pre  pare   and    fix  four 
rtflargf entilators  in  ceiling  of  cha- 
in pel.  pon  the  same  principle  as 
in  dins  before    described  for  the 

f,  Hi  Kireandfix  1 1 -inch  wrought 
and  i  unded  seats  and  bearers  to 
debt's'  and  female  prisoners' 
pewrfwith  flaps  hung  with  hinges 

,:  wlier  shown  on    the  drawings; 

ji  {  i  h  wrought  and  rounded 
Ltd vith   bearers,  for  the  re- 


mainder of  the  prisoners.  Prepare 
and  fix  2-inch  flush -framed  parti- 
tions   dividing    prisoners'  seats, 
with    a   strong    capping    to  the 
same;  the  whole  secured  to  the 
open  railing  and  floor,  and  to  the 
wall,  by    iron    tyes  with  screws 
which  are  to  be  provided  and  fixed* 
by  the  carpenter.     The  carpenter 
is  also  to  assist  the  smith  in  fixing 
the  iron  rails  and  spikes  over  the 
said  partitions.     Prepare  and  hang 
J|-inch  four  panel  square  doors 
to  the  partition   enclosing  stair- 
case, hung  with  24-inch  wrought 
butts,  and  6-inch  three- bolt  iron- 
rim  locks,  with  brass  knobs,  and 
inch  wrought  rebated  and  double- 
beaded  jaumb  linings  and  soffits 
to  each.    Prepare  and  fix  inch 
yellow    deal    steps   risers,  with 
rounded  nosings  and  proper  car- 
riages, from  the  keeper  s  rooms 
to    the    chapel;    with  Jy-inch 
wrought,    framed,    and  beaded 
stringboard,    three-quarter  inch 
deal  square  skirting  cut  to  steps, 
2f-inch  deal  square-framed  new- 
els, and  inch  deal  square  bar  ba- 
lusters and  deal  moulded  hand- 
rail. 

Prepare  and  lay  inch  yellow 
deal  wrought  straight  joint  floor, 
with  borders  to  slabs,  and  three- 
quarter  inch  deal  square  skirting, 
6  inches  high,  to  the  rooms  and 
passages  of  the  one -pair  story  in 
the  keeper's  house.  Prepare  and 
fix  deal -cased  frames,  oak  sunk 
sills,  ly-inch  ovolo  sashes,  single 
hung,  with  lines,  iron  pulleys*  and 
weights,  and  sash  fastenings; 
inch  deal  wrought  and  rounded 
linings  and  soffits,  and  1  j  -  inch 
deal  wrought  and  rounded  win- 
dow board  and  bearers  to  the 
front  and  back  rooms  and  back 
windows  of  prisoners'  stairs. 

Prepare  and  hang  I  j -inch  four 
panel  square  doors  to  the  front 
and  back  rooms,  with  2\  inch 
wrought  butts,  a  G-inch  iron  rim 
475 


BUILDING. 


three  bolt  lock,  with  brass  knobs 
and  inch  wrought  rebated  and 
double-beaded  jaumb  linings  and 
soffit  to  each. 

Prepare  and  lay  )  |  -  inch  yellow 
deal  wrought  straight  joint  floor, 
with  borders  to  slabs,  to  the  front 
rooms  and  entrance  on  the  ground 
floor  of  the  keeper's  house.  Pre- 
pare and  fix  three-quarter  inch 
deal  square  skirting,  8}  inches 
high,  all  round  the  rooms,  pas- 
sages, entrance,  and  staircase. 
Prepare  and  fix  deal -cased  frames, 
oak  sunk  sills,  If -inch  deal  ovolo 
sashes,  double  hung,  with  lines, 
iron  pulleys  and  weights,  and 
sash  fastenings  complete,  to  the 
windows  of  the  front  and  back 
rooms  and  entrance,  with  inch 
deal  wrought  and  rounded  linings 
and  soffits,  and  If -inch  deal 
wrought  and  rounded  window 
boards  and  bearers. 

Prepare  and  hang  six  l|-inch 
deal  bead  and  flush  and  square 
doors  to  the  front  and  back  rooms, 
with  2f-inch  wrought  butts,  a  6- 
inch  iron  rim  three  bolt  lock, 
with  brass  knobs,  and  inch  deal 
wrought  rebated  and  double- 
beaded  jaumb  linings  and  soffit 
to  each.  Prepare  and  hang  2-inch 
deal  six  panel  bead  flush  and 
square  door  to  entrance,  with 
3-inch  wrought  butts,  an  8- inch 
drawback  lock  with  brass  knobs, 
and  one  9-inch  and  one  18- inch 
bright  barrel  bolts.  Prepare  and 
fix  a  proper  door-case,  5  inches 
by  4  inches,  to  the  same,  and  inch 
wrought  and  beaded  jaumb  lin- 
ings and  soffit. 

Prepare  and  hang  1 1 -inch 
deal  wrought,  ploughed,  tongued, 
beaded,  and  ledged  doors  to  pri- 
soners' staircases  and  day  rooms, 
leading  to  airing  courts,  with 
cross  garnets,  an  8- inch  drawback 
lock,  with  brass  knob,  and  such 
other  fastenings  as  shall  hereafter 
be  described.    Prepare  and  fix 

476 


proper  door-cases,  5  inches  b 4 
inches,  to  the  same.  Prepare 
fix  deal -cased  frames,  oak  s 


sills,  l|-inch  ovolo  sashes,  sii 
hung,  with  lines,  iron  pulleys 
weights,   and  sash  fastening) 
the  window  adjoining  the  st 
case  doors  last  described.  Prej 
and  fix  inch  deal  wrought 
rounded  linings  and  soffit, 
If -inch  deal  wrought  and  rot  . 
ed  window-boards  to  the  same 

Prepare  and  fix  four  deal-c;l 
frames,  oak  sunk  sills,  and  | 
inch  ovolo    sashes,  single  lu| 
with  lines,  iron  pulleys  and  weigj, 
and   sash-fastenings,  inch  lin  ;s 
and   soffit,  and  1  ^  -  inch  win  n 
board  and  bearers  in  the  b 
ment  under  the  keeper's  bo 
Prepare  and  hang  inch  deal,  j 
per  ledged  doors,  with  cross  , 
nets,  and  a  6-inch  iron-rim 
to  each  of  the  rooms  in  the  b 
ment.     Prepare  and  fix  pn 
door-cases,  4  inches  by  2\  incj, 
to  the  same.  * 

Prepare  and  fix  fir  solid  wrout 
rebated  frames  and  sunk  sill 
all  the  day  rooms  and  passage  n 
the  prisoners',  turnkeys',  and  1 
vants'  rooms,  and  window  )f 
prisoners'  staircases,  with  U-  h 
deal  ovolo  sashes,  hung  with!- 
inch  butts  and  fastenings  to  e  1, 
as  per  drawing. 

Prepare  and  fix  fir  solid  wrout 
and  rebated  frames  and  sunk  Is 
for  iron  shutters,  where  descri  I 
for  the  cells  of  the  prison. 

Prepare  and  hang  If -inch  1 
wrought,  ploughed,  tongued,  d 
ledged  doors  between  the  I 
airing  courts  opposite  to  the  m 
wheels,  with  strong  cross  garr8» 
and  an  8-inch  drawback  lock  I 
brass  knob;  fir  wrought  yrm 
door-cases,  4  inches  by  3  inc;«> 
to  the  same. 

Prepare  and  fix  three  wiont 
and  framed  deal  pump-cases,  I 
2-inch  sides,   &c.  complete* 


BUILDIN& 


the  mrt-yards,  where  described 
on  i  drawings,  as  will  be  di- 
rect by  the  architect,  or  his 
clei  i!)f  the  works. 

Prlare  and  fix  wrought,  cham- 
fere<  and  framed  skeleton -bear- 
is.  and  styles  to  two  cis- 
ilin  prisoners'  airing  courts, 
boctd  bearers  8  inches  by  6  in- 
,  s  ind  the  remaining  rails,  &c. 

s  square ;  the  sides  to  be 
J  with  inch   deal,  wrought 
hLides,  ploughed,  tongued, 
and  Haded  boarding  ;  the  bottom 
,n  deal  ditto.    Rebate  the 
s  for,  and  prepare  and  fix 
ought  both  sides,  plough- 
tjigued,  and  ledged  flaps. 
iiiThe|iole  of  the  aforesaid  cis- 
is  o  be  in  every  respect  ac- 
dij;  to  the  drawings,  and  to 
i  tl  in  the  prisoners'  airing 
irlias  shown  on  the  drawings. 
I;  pare  and  fix  deal-cased 
ram<   oak  sunk  sills,  l{-inch 
ti  r>volc>sashes,  single  hung,  with 
nes,jron  pulleys,  and  weights, 
ind  s|:h  fastenings  complete,  and 
i  ought  and  rounded  linings, 
ii  d  -inch  wroughtand  rounded 
'.-boards  and  bearers  to 
dows  of  laundry,  and  l|- 
nch  ,/al  wrought  ironing-board, 
i  "Mi  i  feet  long  and  3  feet  wide, 
tfith  ,oper  bearers  to  same.  Fre- 
ud lay  inch  yellow  deal 
■  ■  'ii  t  folding  floor,  and  three- 
|uart)  inch  square  skirting,  4| 
chejiigh,  to  the  same.  Prepare 
ing   l|-inch   four  panel 
uarjidoor  to  top  of  stairs,  with 
i  butts,  and  a  G-inch  two- 
•n-rim  lock,  and  inch  re- 
lated nd  rounded  linings  to  the 
same.}  Prepare  and  fix  window- 
frame  sashes,  linings,  and  win- 
now-lbrds,  and  skirting  to  wash- 
Jhouieis  described  for  the  laun- 
:  dry.  lepareand fix  three-quarter 
inch  vbught,  ploughed,  tongued, 
and  bded  enclosure  to  closet 
Tand  ijj.rs,  with  proper  grounds 


or  bearers  for  the  same.  Prepare 
and  hang  three-quarter  inch 
wrought,  ploughed,  tongued, 
beaded,  and  ledged  door  to  ditto, 
with  cross  garnets,  a  lock,  and 
thumb  latch,  and  a  proper  door- 
case, 3  inches  by  2  \  inches,  to  the 
same. 

Prepare  and  hang  l|-inch 
wrought, ploughed,tongued,bead 
ed,  and  ledged  external  doors  to 
entrance  of  wash-house,  and  stairs 
leading  to  laundry,  with  cross 
garnets,  and  8-inch  drawback 
lock,  and  two  9-inch  rough  bolts 
to  each.  Prepare  and  fix  proper 
door-cases,  4  inches  by  2*  inches, 
to  the  same.  Prepare  and  fix  deal- 
cased  frames,  oak  sunk  sills,  1{- 
inch  deal  ovolo  sashes,  single 
hung,  with  lines,  iron  pulleys  and 
weights,  sash- fastenings,  with 
inch  deal,  wrought  and  rounded 
linings,  and  1  |-inch  deal  wrought 
and  rounded  window-board  and 
bearers  to  the  window-openings 
in  the  three  stories  of  the  mill- 
house.  Prepare  and  hang  1  |-inch 
deal  wrought,  ploughed,  tongued, 
beaded,  and  ledged  door  to  lower 
story,  hung  with  cross  garnets, 
and  an  8-inch  drawback  lock. 

Prepare  and  fix  proper  wrought 
door-cases,  4  inches  by  2\  inches, 
to  the  same. 

Prepare  and  lay  1  |-inch  yellow 
deal  folding  floors,  wrought  both 
sides  with  wrought,  ledged  flaps, 
and  iron  rings  to  well-holes,  and 
three-quarter  inch  deal  square 
skirting,  4|  inches  high,  to  the 
first  and  second  stories  of  the 
mill-house.  Prepare  wrought  and 
framed  ladders  to  the  ground  and 
one-pair  stories,  with  1  j-.inch 
deal  sides,  9  inches  wide,  and  1^ 
inch  deal  treads,  8  inches  wide. 

Ail  the  ironmongery  and  smith's 
work  described  or  required  for 
the  carpenter's  and  joiner's  work, 
is  to  be  provided  by  the  carpenter. 
All  the  butt  and  other  hinges  are 

477 


BUILDING. 


to  be  of  well  hammered  wrought 
iron.  It  is  to  be  observed  in  re- 
spect to  the  locks  throughout  the 
buildings,  that  a  master-key,  or 
key  to  pass,  must  be  provided  by 
the  carpenter,  where  required  by 
the  magistrates. 

All  the  fir  is  to  be  of  the  best 
Memel,  or  other  timber  equally 
approved  by  the  architect,  to  be 
sawn  die  square,  and  free  from 
sap  or  shakes.  The  oak  is  to  be 
of  English  growth,  of  the  best 
quality,  and  of  trees  that  have 
been  cut  down  at  least  two  years 
from  the  time  of  signing  the  con- 
tract ;  to  be  sawn  die  square, 
and  free  from  sap  or  shakes.  The 
deals  to  be  of  the  best  yellow 
Christiana,  or  other  deals  equally 
approved  by  the  architect,  and 
free  from  sap  or  large  or  loose 
knots. 

Mason.  The  stone  to  be  used 
for  the  masonry  throughout  the 
different  buildings,  is  to  be  from 
excepting  those  parts  which 
are  otherwise  described. 

Provide  and  set  4-inch  York- 
shire landings  under  the  footings 
of  the  brickwork  under  the  co- 
lumns and  pilasters  of  the  portico, 
in  lengths  of  4  feet  each.  Provide 
and  set  Yorkshire  springing-stones 
under  the  columns  and  pilasters, 
with  top  beds  rubbed,  and  skew- 
backs  worked  for  the  inverted 
arches,  as  shown  upon  the  draw- 
ings. 

Provide  and  set  rubbed  York- 
shire steps,  of  the  best  quality,  to 
the  portico ;  also  to  the  two  side 
entrance  doorways,  of  the  sizes 
and  dimensions  figured, and  in  the 
manner  shown  upon  the  draw- 
ings ;  each  stone  to  be  secured 
together  by  stone  plugs,  4  inches 
long  and  2 inches  square.  Rubbed 
\orkshire  paving,  in  regular 
courses,  under  the  portico,  not 
less  than  3  inches  thick,  nor  less 
than  6  superficial  feet  in  size;  the 

47S 


whole  to  be  well  set  in  mi 
upon  the  sleeper  walls,  and 
joints  pointed  with  cement, 
steps  and  paving  last  descr 
are  to  have  a  rubbed  circular  * 
edge,  well  fitted  to  the  colm 
and  notched  where  required. 

The  shafts  of  the  columns  ai 
be  carried  up  with  in  si  q 
stones,  including  the  capital:  is 
shown  in  the  drawings  ;  the  jt  s 
to  be  rubbed,  and  to  have  s  ie 
joggles,  8  inches  long,  and  4 1- 
ches  square,  let  in,  and  beddt  n 
cement,  with  milled  lead,  i 
pounds  to  the  foot  superficial  > 
tween  each  joint,  and  with  1 
inch  of  the  flutes  all  round  :ie 
remaining  space  of  1  inch  Me 
filled  up  with  a  compositioof 
stone-dust,  rosin,  and  bees'-i 
the  shafts  to  be  fluted  after 
are  fixed,  and  the  caps  mou 
and  to  be  in  every  respect  ac(  J- 
ing  to  the  drawings.  Iron  jog  s, 
8  inches  long,  and  2  ii  es 
square,  are  to  be  provided  b  l£ 
mason,  and  let  in  and  run  h 
lead  over  the  capitals  of  th  o- 
lumns  and  pilasters. 

The  pilaster-caps  and  ise 
stones  below,  indicated  b'he 
joints  shown  in  drawings,  r be 
in  single  stones,  worked  in  lay 
respect  as  shown  in  the  draw  :\ 
with  an  iron  joggle  as  lasle- 
scribed  let  in  and  run  with  ad 
at  the  top  of  each. 

The  architrave  over  the  col  MM 
and  pilasters,  including  the  nd 
or  fillet,  are  to  be  of  stoi;  hi 
single  pieces,  between  the  ctre 
of  each  of  the  columns  and  Mi- 
ters, and  to  extend  within  in- 
ches of  the  internal  face  ttlie 
court-room  wall,  to  be 
in  every  respect  according  IjUW 
drawings,  with  rubbed  joint  md 
large  double  plugs  run  witl 
near  the  soffit,  and  dove  led 
iron  cramps  at  the  top,  the  m* 
joints  to  be  sunk  and  rubb  at 


BUILDING. 


t\  mitres  so  as 


to  meet  at  the 


]r?rnal  angle  of  the  portico,  and 
toave  stone  dovetailed  joggles 
ai  plugged,  according  to  draw- 
in- 

The  internal  part  of  the  archi- 
tr  e  is  to  be  rough,  sunk  above 
thfillet  to  receive  the  stucco,  an 
in  chain-bar  to  be  provided  by 
tb  mason,  and  to  be  let  into  and 
ru  with  lead  at  the  top  of  the 
arfiitrave,  extending  to  the  in- 
teial  part  of  the  court- wall,  with 
cs lings  to  the  same,  an  iron 
rir  is  to  be  let  in  at  the  angles 
ot'ie  portico  to  receive  the  calk- 
in provided  in  the  chain-bar. 

[he  frieze  to  be  also  of  stone, 
9  iches  thick,  exclusive  of  the 
pr  ections  for  triglyphs,  worked 
infvery  respect  according  to  the 
divings,  with  concealed  sunk 
jots,  and  lead  plugs  to  each. 
T  external  angle-stones  to  be 
in  olid  blocks,  and  to  bed  the 
fu  width  of  the  triglyphs.  Iron 
pits  are  to  be  provided  by  the 
m  on,  and  let  into  the  architrave 
an  cornice,  not  more  than  3  feet 
at  ft,  where  will  be  directed. 

he  cornice  and  pediment  is  to 
h(:)l  the  sizes  marked  or  figured, 
ai  worked  in  every  respect  ac- 
ccfling  to  the  drawings,  with 
d<  tailed  stone  joggles,  8  inches 
!o  and  A  inches  square,  let  in 
tin,  and  the  joints  grooved  and 
ru  with  lead. 

he  springing  and  saddle-stones 
to  e  in  solid  blocks,  as  indicated 
by  he  joints  marked  upon  the 
dryings;  and  each  stone  of  the 
ra  ig  cornice  and  upper  part  of 
th  cornice  at  the  side  to  be  se- 
cu  d  to  the  stone  below  by  iron 
pi's  (to  be  provided  by  the 
m;'>n)  run  with  lead,  and  to  have 
tw  strong  12-inch  iron  cramps, 
I  bh  wide  and  2\  inches  thick, 
wi  cokings  let  into  top,  and 
w<  run  and  covered  with  lead. 

he  tympanum  of  the  pediment 


to  be  5  inches  thick,  rubbed,  with 
bond-stones,  the  whole  properly 
cramped, 

The  front  under  portico,  and 
the  inside  and  outside  returns  ad- 
joining the  pilasters,  are  to  be  6 
inches  thick,  rubbed,  and  the 
pilaster-shafts  9  inches  thick,  (ex- 
cepting the  solid  stones  at  the  top 
before  described,)  and  of  the  sizes 
indicated,  and  in  every  respect 
according  to  the  drawing,  and  the 
whole  properly  cramped,  the 
pilaster-shafts  to  be  plugged  with 
lead  at  every  joint. 

The  remaining  part  of  the  ar- 
chitrave inside  of  the  portico  to 
be  rubbed,  8  inches  thick,  of  the 
size  indicated,  and  in  every  re- 
spect as  shown  upon  the  drawings, 
the  whole  properly  cramped,  and 
to  be  plugged  with  lead  at  every 
joint. 

Provide  for  sufficient  bond- 
stones  behind  the  tympanum  ot 
the  pediment,  the  frieze  of  the  en- 
tablature, and  the  ashlering  to 
the  inside  of  the  portico,  archi- 
trave, &c.  before  described,  to 
be  composed  of  (i-inch  York  land- 
ing, secured  to  the  same  by  iron 
cramps  12  inches  long,  in  cement. 
The  courses  of  ashler  which  come 
over  openings,  and  in  all  other 
cases  where  necessary,  to  have 
concealed  arch-joints. 

The  cornice  of  the  portico  to 
continue  round  the  wings  and 
returns  adjoining  to  bed,  the  full 
width  of  the  wail,  and  to  be  work- 
ed and  set  in  the  manner  shown 
on  the  drawings,  with  all  proper 
and  sufficient  cramps  and  lead 
plugs  well  run  and  covered  with 
lead,  stone  blocking  course  over 
same,  with  joints  plugged  and 
strong  12-inch  cramps,  well  run 
and  covered  with  lead,  and  in 
every  respect  as  shown  upon 
drawings. 

The  impost  moulding  adjoining 
the  portico  to  be  in  two  heights, 

479 


BUILDING. 


to  bed  9  inches  in  the  wall,  and 
be  plugged  with  lead  and  cramp- 
ed at  every  joint,  the  whole  to  be 
worked  and  set  according  to  the 
drawings. 

The  architrave  round  the  front- 
entrance  door  under  the  portico, 
and  the  side-entrances  adjoining, 
to  be  of  the  sizes  and  in  the  man- 
ner shown  upon  the  drawings, 
with  all  proper  and  sufficient 
bond-stones,  cramps,  and  plugs, 
run  with  lead.  Larger  stones  to 
be  provided  and  set  for  the  forked 
hinges  to  the  entrance- door  under 
the  portico,  which  are  to  be  care- 
fully let  in  and  run  with  lead  by 
the  mason,  who  is  to  assist  the 
carpenter  in  hanging  the  doors. 

The  cornices  and  blocking 
courses  over  architraves,  friezes, 
and  cornices,  and  sills  to  windows 
of  the  magistrates'  and  grand-jury 
wings,  with  the  returns,  to  be 
worked  and  set  in  every  respect 
according  to  the  drawings,  with 
sunk  duffils  to  the  windows,  and 
the  whole  to  be  securely  plugged 
with  lead,  and  to  have  iron  cramps 
well  run  and  covered  with  lead 
where  necessary. 

The  cornices  anjl  blocking- 
courses  over,  and  the  rusticks  to 
the  doorways  under  the  same  in 
the  prisoners'  entrances,  and  blank 
one  corresponding,  to  be  worked 
and  set  in  every  respect  according 
to  the  drawings;  the  rusticks  and 
spaces  between  to  be  tool-stroked, 
and  the  whole  to  be  securely 
plugged  with  lead,  and  to  have 
iron  cramps  well  run  and  covered 
with  lead  where  thought  neces- 
sary. 

The  plinth  to  the  whole  of  the 
front-buildings,  including  the  se- 
veral returns,  and  prisoners'  en- 
trance-porch, and  corresponding 
blank  ditto,  to  be  6  inches  thick, 
tool -stroked,  weathered  at  top, 
and  worked  according  to  draw- 
ings, with  proper  bond-stones  not 


less  than  15  inches  thick  at  ever 
fourth  stone,  the  whole  to  I 
plugged  at  every  joint,  and  cramp 
ed  where  thought  necessary. 

Proper  Yorkshire  stones  are  t 
be  provided,  worked,  and  set  fo 
the  hinges  and  bolts  of  the  pri 
soners'  entrance-gates,  and  iro 
gates  to  the  same,  and  the  stable 
court,  also  for  the  wood  gates  t 
the  entrance  at  the  back  of  th 
prisons,  including  the  key-stone 
for  the  top  of  bolts  and  circula 
wheel-stones,  the  whole  well  ru 
with  lead,  and  cramped  wher 
necessary.  The  mason  is  to  as 
sist  the  carpenter  and  smith  i 
fixing  the  said  gates,  and  to  fin 
all  the  requisite  labour  thereto. 

Rough  York  stone  blocks  ar 
to  be  provided,  worked,  and  s( 
for  the  iron  hooks  to  hinges  i 
the  said  gates,  with  iron  ring: 
to  be  provided  by  the  mason,  an 
securely  fixed  to  the  same. 

Plain  Yorkshire  chimney-piece 
rubbed,  cramped,  and  set  wu 
rubbed  slabs  and  rough  bad 
hearths  to  all  the  chimneys  of  th 
front  and  infirmary  building 
keeper's  house  and  laundry,  a< 
cording  to  drawings  ;  that  to  tl 
grand-jury  room  to  be  of  abettt 
description,  according  to  draw 
ing,  and  that  to  the  magistrate 
room  to  be  of  polished  dove  ma 
ble,  with  polished  dove  marb 
slab,  worked,  cramped,  and  s< 
according  to  drawing,  and  with 
rubbed  York  back  hearth. 

The  whole  of  the  coping  to  tl 
front-buildings,  including  thoi 
over  the  back -wall  of  court,  ar 
over  the  arches  of  prisoners'  opt| 
entrance-gates,  and  where  shou 
on  the  drawings,  to  be  rubbe 
weathered,  and  throated  accort 
ing  to  drawings,  or  as  shall  1 
directed. 

Provide  and  set  3-inch  s( 
faced  Yorkshire  landings  over  t! 
cells,  day  rooms,  and  passages 


BUILDING. 


th<  prisons  in  the  upper  story, 
in  >ng  lengths  the  whole  width  ; 
tin  joints  properly  splayed  as 
Jhfn  in  the  drawings,  and  set 
in  braent,  to  lay  A  \  inches  upon 
tiio  alls,  and  to  be  cut  out  where 
int  cep-ted  by  the  flues  of  their 
size,  the  spaces  between  the 
brings  in  the  walls  to  be  filled 
lp  villi  brickwork  in  cement; 
;:it  andings  to  be  cramped  and 
iiefvhere  necessary. 

jovide  and  set  rubbed  York- 
|hi  heads,  and  weathered  and 
jhiited  siils  to  the  windows  of 
f]  day  rooms,  passages,  and 
farilhers'  staircases  throughout 
thepper  story,  rebated  and  work- 
ed f  the  sizes  and  dimensions 
ton  upon  the  drawings.  Rough 
jmu  Yorkshire  stone  jaumbs 
ftn c  leads  to  be  provided  and  set 
for  11  the  iron  doors  to  the  cells 
r  I  ay  rooms,  rebated  and  work- 
ed 7  the  sizes  and  dimensions 
upon  the  drawings;  also 
0  is  heads  to  all  the  open  iron 
gat  in  the  passages,  &c,  as 
Miojb  upon  the  drawings. 

1  ^ide  and  set  6-inch  proper 
o    stone  sinks,  with  washers 


-  d,  at  the  end  of  the  prison- 
issages,  as  shown  upon  the 
drafngs. 

Epvide  and  set  5-inch  self- 
face  York  landings  to  the  floors 
of  te  cells,  day  rooms,  and  pas- 
fcgj  adjoining,  on  the  upper 
■or  of  the  prisons,  the  joints 
pi  (»|  fly  joggled  and  set  in  cement, 
to  |  a\  inches  upon  the  walls, 
■I  1  cut  out  where  intercepted 
hv  e  flues  of  their  clear  size, 
Pe  ace  between  the  landings  to 
wt  led  up  with  brickwork  in 
ecmi.t,  the  landings  to  be  cramp- 
ed a ll  tied  where  thought  neces- 
iiry|ind  to  be  in  every  respect 
as  si  wn  and  described  upon  the 


dravi 


divide  and  set  rubbed  York- 
durqheftds,  and  weathered  and 
3P 


throated  sills  to  the  windows  of 
the  cells,  day  rooms,  passages,  and 
prisoners'  staircases,  on  the  one 
pair  story,  as  before  described  for 
the  upper  story.  Provide  and  set 
rough  tooled  Yorkshire  stone 
jaumbs  and  heads  to  all  the  iron 
doors  on  this  story,  as  before  de- 
scribed for  the  upper  story  ;  also 
stone  heads  to  the  open  iron  gates, 
as  before  described  ;  also  stone 
sinks  at  the  end  of  the  passages 
on  this  story,  as  before  described 
for  the  upper  story. 

Provide  and  set  5 -inch  self- 
faced  York  landings  to  the  floors 
of  the  cells,  day  rooms,  and  pas- 
sages, on  the  one  pair  story  of 
the  prisons,  as  before  described 
for  the  floors  above.  Provide  and 
set  rubbed  Yorkshire  heads,  wea- 
thered and  throated  sills  to  the 
windows  of  the  cells,  day  rooms, 
passages  on  the  ground  story,  and 
to  the  different  stories  of  the 
keeper's  house,  and  where  other- 
wise shown  upon  the  drawings, 
and  as  before  described  for  the 
upper  story. 

Provide  and  set  rough  tooled 
Yorkshire  stone  jaumbs  and  heads 
to  all  the  iron*  doors,  and  heads 
to  the  open  iron  gates,  including 
the  one  at  the  prisoners'  passage 
leading  to  the  court,  and  to  the 
cell  at  the  prisoners'  entrance 
gate,  on  this  story,  as  before  de- 
scribed for  the  upper  stories  ;  also 
stone  sinks  at  the  ends  of  the  pas- 
sage, on  this  story,  as  before  de- 
scribed for  the  upper  stories.  Pro- 
vide and  set  also  proper  5- inch 
York  stone  sinks,  with  washers 
dished,  in  the  two  kitchens  of 
the  keeper's  house,  prisoners' 
wash-house,  and  wash-house  ad- 
joining prisoners'  entrance  gate, 
also  to  each  of  the  three  pumps. 
\  oi  k  stone  bearers  under  all  the 
sinks  before  described. 

Provide  and  lay  self-faced  York 
paving,  with  splayed  joints  set  in 

481 


B  U  I  L  D  I  N  G. 


cement  and  not  less  than  2*  in- 
ches in  thickness,  to  all  the  cells, 
passages,  and  staircases  of  pri- 
sons on  the  ground  floor,  and  all 
other  internal  parts  throughout 
the  different  buildings,  distin- 
guished by  a  blue  tint  upon  the 
plans.  The  external  paving  to 
the  different  courts,  yards,  &c, 
also  distinguished  by  a  blue  tint 
upon  the  plans,  are  to  be  paved 
with  Yorkshire  paving,  at  least 
2\  inches  thick,  laid  to  a  proper 
current,  and  fitted  to  the  iron 
gratings,  &c.,  as  will  be  directed. 

Provide  and  set  proper  York 
steps,  and  5 -inch  self- faced  and 
joggled  landings,  securely  let  in  at 
least  9  inches,  and  pinned  to  the 
walls  of  the  prisoners'  staircases 
and  all  the  staircases  of  the  different 
buildings,  excepting  the  wood 
stairs  before  described  in  the  car- 
penter's work,  and  leading  from 
the  one  pair  story  of  the  keeper's 
pulpit,  &c.  in  the  chapel.  Provide 
also  proper  York  steps  to  all  the 
doorways  throughout  the  differ- 
ent buildings,  to  the  prisoners' 
stairs  leading  to  courts,  and  also 
those  leading  to  vaults  and  coal 
cellars,  and  where  otherwise  shown 
upon  the  drawings. 

Twenty-four  circular  holes  are 
to  be  worked  and  rebated,  12  in- 
ches in  diameter,  in  the  5 -inch 
York  floors  of  the  different  stories 
in  the  prisons,  with  an  iron  grat- 
ing in  each,  (to  be  provided  by  the 
mason,)  and  let  in  flush,  and  well 
run  with  lead. 

Provide  and  set  stone  jaumbs 
i  nd  dressings,  with  -projecting 
soffit  and  cantilivers,  to  the  door- 
way of  the  keeper's  house,  accord- 
ing to  drawing,  the  whole  to  be 
properly  plugged,  and  cramps 
run  with  lead  where  necessary. 
Rubbed  Y  orkshire  steps  and  pe- 
destals in  front  of  same. 

Provide  York  riser  and  bottom, 
<nd  York  stone  for  trap  to  the 

4S2 


privies  in  the  prisoners'  ail 
courts,  as  shown  on  the  drawir 

Provide  and  set  proper  \ 
throated  sills  to  all  the  wind 
throughout  the  different  bu 
ings,  except  where  otherwise  j 
scribed. 

A  York  stone  block  is  to  c- 
joggled  and  set  securely  into 
walls  of  such  of  the  cells  in 
different  stories,  as  may  bedir;. 
ed  by  the  magistrates,  and  no  o 
exceed  thirty  in  number,  18,injS 
by  12,  and  of  the  whole  thick  * 
of  the  walls,  with  an  iron  rii  6 
inches  diameter,  to  be  prov  d 
by  the  mason,  and  let  in  and  ■ 
with  lead,  as  will  be  direeteJj 
the  architect,  or  his  clerk  of  ■ 
works. 

Provide  and  set  proper  A  k 
throated  copings  on  the  who  3 
the  piers  to  the  boundary  ws, 
and  where  otherwise  shown,  id 
according  to  the  sizes  figured  id 
in  the  manner  shown  upon  ie 
drawings. 

Provide  and  set  six  York  si  es 
in  the  walls  of  the  wheel  rck 
3  feet  6  inches  long.  14  ii  es 
wide,  and  9  inches  deep,  as  sip 
in  the  drawings. 

Provide  and  set  tooled  bs 
for  iron  gratings  to  the  are  in 
front  of  keeper's  house,  as  si  rn 
in  drawings. 

All  cramps,  iron  plugs,  id, 
and  coals  for  cramping,  &c 
quired  for  the  masonry,  are  be 
provided  by  the  mason.    It  i  Isfl 
to  be  observed,  in  laying  the  W 
floors  before  described,  to 
cells,  passages,  &c,  that  no  lot 
will  be  allowed  at  or  wit ' 
inches  of  the  hanging  styi  ol 
the  iron  doors. 

The  contractor  for  the  m#l 
work  must  provide  for  the  cu- 
rity  of  his  work  from  all  dai  'go, 
and  repair  all  injury  that  i  >a} 
sustain  during  the  executi 
the  work,  from  whatever  cm  ^ 


BUILDING, 


ny  arise,  so  that  it  may  be  de- 
liired  up  in  a  complete  state 
in  the  building  is  finished. 

he  whole  of  the  masonry,  and 
jjthe  beds,  joints,  faces,  mould- 
i i", • ,  and  drips,  to  be  worked  in 
cl  best  and  most  careful  manner, 
ai  put  together  according  to  the 
di  ctions  of  the  architect,  or  his 
cl  k  of  the  works,  with  the  re- 
ly cd  joggling,  sinkings,  and 
I  to  all  projections  and  upper 
palaces  ;  the  cornices,  and  all 
hczontal  mouldings,  projections, 
an  blocking  courses,  are  to  be 
raced  with  water  joints.  The 
is,  r  to  be  in  regular  courses, 
thcaces,  joints,  and  beds,  to  be 
■wed  fair,  each  stone  of  w  hich  is 
L  cramped  with  strong  copper 
Ups  ;  and  the  bed  of  every 
asl-r  stone  to  be  joggled  into  the 
■de  below  it  with  strong  copper 
Pfpes,  and  cramped  to  bond- 
mSks  with  strong  copper  cramps. 

le  whole  of  the  masonry  to 
be  it  in  the  best  manner,  and 

bedded  in  fine  mortar,  and 
craped  together  to  bond-stones 
wil  strong  iron  cramps,  (ex- 
ce]  where  described  to  be  of 
co)  er.) 

1  the  iron  cramps  and  chain 
banco  be  well  covered  with  rosin 
wh  t  hot. 

te  mason  is  also  to  cut  the 
neci,sary  grooves  for  iron- work, 
mo  >es  for  door-cases,  holes 
for  ars,  balusters,  iron  guards, 
and'every  other  description  of 
Hrorbr  other  work,  which  is  de- 
icnM  in  the  specification,  or 


oho 


M  in  the  drawings,  as  being 
con  cted  with  the  masonry. 

A  joints  marked  on  the  draw- 
MgHre  to  be  strictly  adhered  to, 
and 3  more  to  be  made,  unless 
ordt'd  by  the  architect. 

I|!  contractor  for  the  mason's 
worts  to  send  a  sample  of  the 
Wrelnt  Qualities  of  stone  intend- 
ed ti.be  used,  to  the  architect, 


previous  to  their  being  worked  in 
the  buildings. 

All  the  stone  described  as  self- 
faced  Yorkshire  must  have  an 
even  face,  but  need  not  be  tooled 
Smith  and  Iron- founder.  Pro- 
vide and  fix  cast-iron  raiting,  and 
iron  kirb,  enclosing  the  front 
court,  with  two  pair  of  folding 
gates,  and  one  side  giite,  with 
brass  joint  hinges,  and  brass 
warded  locks  and  bolts  of  unex- 
ceptionable quality,  each  of  the 
locks  to  be  not  less  than  twenty- 
one  shillings  value  ;  the  whole 
to  be  put  together  and  run  with 
lead  where  necessary,  and  cast 
and  put  up  with  the  several  orna- 
ments, and  in  every  respect  ac- 
cording to  the  drawings. 

Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  grat- 
ings to  passage  in  court-room,  to 
give  light  and  ventilation  to  the 
prisoners'  passage  under  ;  and 
two  cast-iron  ornamental  venti- 
lators, with  wrought-iron  straps, 
securely  screwed  to  the  woodwork, 
in  the  manner  shown,  and  in 
every  respect  according  to  the 
drawings. 

Provide  and  fix  wrought-iron 
ornamental  dwarf  folding  gates, 
as  per  drawing,  enclosing  the 
recesses  at  the  prisoners'  front 
entrance,  and  corresponding  blank 
entrance ;  the  said  gates  to  have 
a  good  latch  and  stay-bars,  as 
will  be  directed. 

Provide  and  fix  locks,  bolts, 
and  other  fastenings,  excepting 
the  hinges,  to  the  large  wood 
gates  for  prisoners'  entrance,  as 
also  to  the  wood  gates  to  the 
entrance  at  the  back  of  prisons, 
as  will  be  hereafter  described,  to 
the  value  of  not  less  than  five 
pounds  sterling  to  each.  Provide, 
hang,  and  fix  two  pair  of  open 
cast-iron  folding  gates,  with  fixed 
top  and  wicket  gate  to  prisoners' 
entrance,  and  corresponding  en- 
trance to  stable-court,  with  iron 

483 


BUILDING. 


rollers  and  kirb,  and  to  be  in  every 
respect  as  shown  upon  the  draw- 
ings. Provide  for  locks,  bolts, 
and  other  fastenings  to  these  gates 
which  will  be  hereafter  described, 
to  the  value  of  not  less  than  five 
pounds  sterling  to  each  gate. 

Provide  and  hang  an  open  iron 
gate,  with  proper  locks  and 
fastenings,  to  the  doorway  of  the 
passage  leading  to  prisoners'  box 
in  court,  according  to  the  draw- 
ing for  the  open  iron  gate,  fasten- 
ings, &c.  for  the  passages  in  the 
prisons. 

Provide  and  fix  an  iron  door, 
and  fastenings  to  the  doorway  of 
the  lock-up  room  adjoining  the 
prisoners'  entrance,  as  described 
for  the  cells  in  the  prisons. 

Provide  and  fix  wrought- iron 
rail  and  spikes,  screwed  to  the 
partitions  of  prisoners'  box,  and 
in  front  of  spectators'  seats  in 
court ;  also  to  the  divisions  of 
the  prisoners'  seats,  and  to  the 
partitions  of  the  debtors'  and 
female  prisoners'  pews  in  the 
chapel,  according  to  a  drawing 
full  size  for  the  same. 

Provide  and  fix  two  circular 
cast-iron  racks  in  the  stable,  with 
bars  and  rims,  forming  a  quarter 
sphere  2  feet  6  inches  diameter. 

Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  open 
enclosure  to  prisoners'  seats  in 
the  chapel,  with  iron  gates  and 
locks,  of  the  value  of  twenty-one 
shillings,  to  each  division  ;  and 
wrought-iron  horizontal  bar  at 
top  and  bottom,  as  shown  in 
drawing  of  iron  railing  and  gates 
for  prisoners'  airing  courts.  The 
bottom  bar  to  be  securely  fixed 
to  the  floor  timbers,  and  the 
whole  securely  fixed  to  the  wood 
partitions  and  side  walls,  also 
rivetted  to  the  iron  columns. 

Provide  and  fix  two  cast-iron 
columns,  with  caps  and  shoes,  in 
the  chapel,  firmly  screwed  and 
secured  to  the  carcass  timbers. 

4»4 


Provide  and  fix  doors,  wi 

ventilators,  to  cells,  iron  gat 
and  bars  to  the  passages,  sta 
cases,  and  lobbies,  in  the  upp 
story  of  the  prison  building, 
the  sizes  and  dimensions  shoi 
and  described  upon  the  drawinj 
Provide  and  fix  also  cast-ir i 
girders  and  shoes  over  the  d 
rooms  in  this  story,  according 
a  drawing  at  large  for  the  san 
Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  gratir 
and  shutters  to  windows,  w 
one  square  of  glass  to  each  shi 
ter,  to  the  cells,  described 
plans,  on  this  story,  according 
drawings  ;  and  cast-iron  gratii 
of  a  different  pattern  to  the  w 
dows  of  the  keeper's,  and  back 
prisoners'  staircases,  and  whi 
otherwise  shown  or  descrit 
upon  the  drawings. 

Provide  and  fix  on  the  ( 
pair  story  of  the  prisons,  i 
keeper's  house,  doors  with  vei 
lators  to  cells,  iron  gates,  £. 
bars  to  the  passages,  staircas  i 
and  lobbies,  cast-iron  gratin, 
and  shutters  to  windows.  Ca» 
iron  girders  and  shoes  over  i 
day  rooms,  as  last  described,  I 
the  upper  story,  varying  in  nu 
ber  and  sizes,  as  shown  or  I 
scribed  on  the  drawings. 

Provide  and  fix  on  the  groi  I 
story  of  the  prisons,  gratings  jl 
shutters  to  windows,  doors  vi 
ventilators,  &c.  to  cells.  1 1 
gates  and  bars  to  the  passa;  | 
staircases,  and  lobbies,  girts 
and  shoes  to  day  rooms,  as  MS 
described,  for  the  upper  st< , 
varying  in  number  and  sizes,  s 
shown  and  described  upon  e 
drawings. 

Provide  and  fix  wrought-  n 
hand-rails,  2  inches  wide,  and  If 
an  inch  thick,  properly  ramp 
wreathed,  and  twisted,  where  • 
cessary,  with  wrought-iron  bi- 
ters, I  inch  square  to  each  m 
to  be  let  into  tne  steps  and  lip 


BUILDING. 


jrs,  and  well  run  with  lead,  and 
s£rely  rivetted  to  the  hand-rail, 
ai  wrought -iron  newels,  1| 
iri  square,  to  the  bottom  steps, 
tl  whole  fixed  in  a  secure  man- 
ni  to  the  staircases  in  the  pri- 
st,, and  keeper's  house,  and  the 
kv  staircases  leading  to  the  in- 
fiiaries. 

Wide  and  fix  cast-iron  grat- 
ins  to  the  windows,  and  over  the 
dirs,  in  the  other  parts  of  the 
dierent  buildings,  where  shown, 
ai  as  described  on  the  draw- 
n  :  also  to  the  stone  kirb  of 
tli  basement  windows  in  front  of 
tl k  keeper's  house,  and  where 
ot:rwise  required. 

[rovide  and  fix  small  cast-iron 
gi  ings  in   the    external  walls 
nJer  the  ground -floor  of  the 
di.Tent  buildings,  for  the  free 
ci  ulation  of  air,  as  indicated  by 
th'  openings  made   in   the  plan 
;  living  the   drains,    &c,  also 
may  be  directed, 
rovide  and  fix   iron  linings, 
9  dies  by  3  inches,  and  14  in- 
cls  deep,  in  the  walls  of  each 
md  day  rooms,  for  ventilation, 
wording  to  drawing  at  large, 
Stjjrely  let  in  and  tailed  in  brick- 
w  k.  where  may  be  directed. 

'rovide  and  fix  cast-iron  in- 
j  (ion  holes  in  each  of  the  day 
rojns,  according  to  a  drawing 
at  irge,  securely  let  in  and  tailed 
in  he  brickwork,  where  shown 
uni  the  drawings. 


rovide 


iron  railing  and  kirb, 
l|i  gates,  locks;  and  fastenings, 
;iii;itav-bars,  with  kirbs  to  same, 
leading  to  drawing  at  large, 
Bojainiitg  also  farther  description 
or'  one,  to  the  front  of  the  pri- 


incluuing 
as  shown 


m  e  to  the  infirmaries 
up »  the  draw  ings. 

>  ovide  iron  railing  and  kirb, 
p|  stay-bars  and  kirbs  to  same, 
to 


ICjjrdiDg 


aforesaid  drawing, 


h;  without  gates  or  fastenings,) 


to  be  securely  fixed  between  the 
piers,  &c.,  of  the  boundary  of 
prisoners'  airing  courts,  as  shown 
on  the  drawings. 

Provide  and  fix  small  cast-iron 
grating  over  the  drains  through- 
out the  different  buildings,  as 
shown  on  the  drawing  of  the 
drains. 

Provide  and  fix  two  cast-iron 
girders,  with  shoes  IS  inches  long 
and  1  inch  thick,  under  each  of 
the  two  cisterns  in  the  prisoners' 
airing  courts,  according  to  draw- 
ings. 

Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  trough 
gutters,  with  ovolo  moulded  fronts 
and  iron  brackets  every  3  feet 
apart,  securely  fixed  in  brick- 
work throughout  the  different 
buildings,  according  to  a  drawing 
full  size,  excepting  the  roofs  of 
the  different  buildings  which  are 
only  one  story  in  height. 

Provide  and  fix  iron  troughs 
according  to  a  drawing  full  size 
for  the  same,  with  iron  brackets 
every  3  feet  apart,  securely  fixed 
in  brickwork  to  the  different  roofs 
before  referred  to  as  being  only 
one  story  in  height. 

Provide  and  fix  also  stacks  of 
cast-iron  rain-water  pipes,  4  in- 
ches diameter,  with  joints  made 
perfectly  water  tight,  and  with 
dragon  spikes  in  the  prisoners* 
airing  courts,  and  where  other- 
wise shown,  and  rain-water  heads 
with  overflow  pipe  at  top  pro- 
jecting 4  inches  with  convex  grat- 
ings in  each  ;  the  whole  to  be  se- 
curely fixed  to  the  walls  through- 
out the  different  buildings,  where 
shown  or  described  upon  the 
d  ra  wings. 

Provide  and  fix  3-inch  cast- 
iron  service  pipes  from  cisterns  in 
prisoners'  airing  courts,  properly 
turned  for  the  plumber's  lead 
pipes,  and  fixed  complete  where 
shown  on  the  drawing  of  the 
drains. 

485 


BUILDING. 


Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  scra- 
pers, value  three  shillings  and  six- 
pence each,  let  in  at  the  sides  of 
each  of  the  external  doors. 

Provide  also  five  box  ornamen- 
tal scrapers,  value  seven  shillings 
each,  to  the  entrance  door  under 
portico  and  the  side  entrances 
adjoining,  to  be  let  in  and  leaded 
into  the  stone-work. 

The  contractor  for  the  iron- 
work and  smith-work  must  pro- 
vide all  the  lead  and  coals  requir- 
ed for  fixing  his  own  work  ;  he 
must  also  provide  all  moulds  and 
patterns  required  for  the  execu- 
tion of  his  work  (which  are  to  be 
submitted  to  the  architect  before 
cast  or  worked)  according  to 
the  aforesaid  particulars,  and  in 
the  manner  shown  or  described 
upon  the  drawings.  All  the  iron- 
work is  to  be  secured  from  rust 
by  a  strong  coat  of  anticorrosive 
paint  applied  as  soon  as  possible, 
and  before  exposed  to  the  open 
air. 

All  the  wrought  iron-work  is 
to  be  of  the  best  English  charcoal 
iron-work;  all  the  castings  to  be 
of  the  best  quality  and  perfectly 
sound,  and  the  quality  and  strength 
of  every  article  must  be  submit- 
ed  to  a  full  proof  before  it  is  used, 
at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

Slater.  The  roofs  of  the  dif- 
ferent buildings  shown  or  describ- 
ed in  the  drawings,  excepting  the 
roof  of  the  portico,  are  to  be 
covered  with  sound  countess' slates 
of  the  best  quality,  laid  on  battens 
with  three  strong  copper  nails  to 
each  slate,  the  third  slate  over- 
lapping by  2\  inches  the  head  of 
the  first,  the  course  under  t'ne 
eaves  to  be  solid  throughout;  the 
battens  will  be  provided  by  the 
carpenter,  but  the  slater  is  to  at- 
tend him  in  setting  out  the  same. 
The  whole  of  the  slating  is  to  be 
left  by  the  contractor  for  the  same, 
complete  and  perfect  in  every  re- 


spect at  the  completion  of  all  j 

works. 

Plumber.  Cover  the  roof ; 
the  portico  with  cast-lead,  ei , 
pounds  to  the  foot  superficial,  . 
joints  to  be  well  dressed  roi| 
the  rolls  provided  for  them,  wh , 
will  be  fixed  3  feet  apart,  the  1  I 
at  the  valley  to  turn  up  under  \ 
slates  at  least  9  inches;  form  l\ 
gutters,  as  shown  in  the  draw  hi 
with  proper  laps  and  flashings » 
convey  the  water  through  i 
blocking-course  to  the  roof  | 
low. 

Provide  and  lay  cast-lead  g 
ters,  eight  pounds  to  the  foot  ■ 
perficial,  over  the  magistral 
and  grand -jury  buildings,  wra 
shown  upon  the  drawings;  i 
head  to  turn  up  under  the  si  s 
at  least  9  inches,  with  proper  1 
sufficient  drips  to  the  same,  1 
cesspools  at  each  rain-water  hi , 
the  whole  as  shown  upon  e 
drawings. 

Cover  the  ridge  and  hips  <  r 
the  court-room,  keeper's  ho  (, 
and  prison  buildings,  with  mi'd 
lead,  six  pounds  to  the  footsu  • 
ficial,  and  22  inches  wide,  dre  d 
down  upon  the  slates,  and  I 
secured  to  the  roll,  and  to  laj* 
the  meetings  at  least  6  inc  3. 
Cover  the  remaining  hips  d 
ridges  throughout  thj*  diffeit 
roofs  with  milled  lead,  six  poijls 
to  the  foot  superficial,  and  In  - 
ches wide,  well  dressed  dow  n 
the  slates  and  secured  to  the  rip 
and  hips,  to  lap  at  the  meet  i* 
at  least  6  inches.  Put  flashinll 
the  top  and  sides  of  lean-til 
shed  roofs,  with  milled  k»dJN 
pounds  to  the  foot  superficial,  H 
dressed  down  upon  the  slate  to 
lay  upon  the  slates  6  incheP 
turn  up  3j  inches,  and  let  i|f 
groove  1  \  inch. 

Put  flashings  of  the  same  de- 
scription round  the  skylights  P 
chimney-shafts,  with  gutte:  oi 


BUILDING. 


(gt-Iead,  eight  pounds  to  the  foot 
sierficial,  where  necessary.  Lay 
,  leys  where  shown  on  the  draw* 
i  s,  wit.li  milled  lead,  six  pounds 
t  tiie  foot  superficial,  to  turn  up 
tier  the  slates  at  least  9  inches, 
al  to  be  2  feet  wide. 

Provide  and  fix  three  two  and 
Mf  pumps,  with  proper  lead 
bckets  and  suckers,  iron  handles, 
Sich  pipe  from  bottom  ot  wells, 
ah  all  apparatus  complete,  ex- 
citing the  wood-work. 

i  lie  two  pumps  in  the  prisoners' 
a  ng  courts  to  be  made  so  as  to 
Hce  the  water  into  the  cisterns, 
will  two  handles  to  each,  in  order 
t  t  the  prisoners  may  work  the 
sle,  in  each  of  the  mill  airing 
cuts,  without  communication 
\m!i  either. 

Jne  the  cisterns  in  the  prison- 
e  airing  courts  with  milled 
I  K  the  sides  to  be  six  pounds, 
al  the  bottoms  eight  pounds,  to 
tl  foot  superficial,  well  soldered 
t(  ether.  Provide  and  fix  inch 
bl-cock  and  service-pipe  to  the 
s:ne,  with  2-inch  waste-pipe,  1 
fit  below  bottom  of  cistern,  and 
s  urely  soldered  thereto. 

Provide  and  fix  lj-inch  pipe 
fi  n  iron  services,  shown  on 
d  wings,  to  all  the  privies,  and 
1  inch  brass  cocks  to  each  as 
sl'wn  on  drawings  ;  those  to  the 
fV'it  buildings,  including  the  pri- 
vi  adjoining  the  hospital  wing, 
tclhave  an  iron  pan  and  trap 

•  r  each,  with  the  cocks  fixed 
iwer  the  seat,  as  will  be  directed  ; 
at  those  to  the  remaining  pri- 
scirs'  airing  courts  at  the  back, 
or  ail  building,  to  have  the  cocks 
m|e  without  handles,  for  a  key, 
w  :h  is  to  be  provided  for  each. 

rovide  and  fix  three-quarter 
in  service- pipes,  with  three- 
qi  'ter  inch  brass  cocks,  securely 
soiered  to  the  nearest  junction 
of  ie  iron  services  from  cisterns, 
to  upply  each  of  the  sinks  at  the 


end  of  the  prison  passages,  also  in 
the  prisoners'  wash-house,  kitch- 
ens of  the  keeper's  house,  wash- 
house  adjoining  prisoners'  en- 
trance, and  to  each  of  the  prison- 
ers' airing  courts,  as  shown  and 
described  upon  the  drawings. 

Provide  and  fix  2-inch  washers 
and  wastes  and  plugs  to  all  the 
sinks  shown  in  the  drawings  or 
described  in  the  mason  s  particu- 
lars, with  2- inch  lead  pipes  and  a 
stink  trap  from  the  same  into  the 
drains  outside  the  external  walls, 
those  at  the  end  of  the  passages 
to  turn  into  the  rain-water  pipes, 
a  hole  to  be  made  in  the  same  to 
receive  the  said  pipes. 

All  the  lead  or  plumber's  work 
to  be  provided  by  the  contractor, 
to  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  to 
be  weighed  in  the  presence  of  the 
architect,  or  his  clerk  of  the 
works,  proper  notice  being  given 
for  that  purpose. 

Plasterer.  The  stiles,  rails,  and 
panels  to  the  ceiling  of  the  por- 
tico to  be  lathed  with  stout  laths, 
floated,  and  rough  stuccoed,  joint- 
ed, coloured,  and  tinted  to  imitate 
stone-work  ;  the  frieze  under  the 
same  to  be  rendered,  floated,  and 
set  with  rough  stucco,  jointed, 
coloured,  and  tinted  as  before. 

Run  a  moulding  in  panels  and 
cornice  top  of  frieze,  as  shown  in 
the  drawing.  Render,  float,  and 
set  the  sides  of  the  four  chimney- 
shafts  in  the  front  buildings  with 
Roman  cement  stucco,  (not  less 
than  three-quarter  inch  thick  at 
any  part,)  jointed,  coloured,  and 
tinted,  to  imitate  stone-work,  and 
run  a  moulding  round  same  as 
per  drawing  ;  the  joints  to  be  from 
18  to  24-  inches  apart. 

Lath  with  stout  laths,  float, 
plaster,  and  set,  and  whiten  the 
ceiling  of  the  court-room  and  en« 
trance  passages,  and  run  a  cor« 
nice  round  the  court  according  to 
drawings. 

437 


BUILDING. 


Render,  float,  and  set  the  sides 
of  the  court-room  and  entrance 
passage  with  rough  stucco,  joint- 
ed, coloured,  and  tinted  according 
to  drawing  ;  and  lath,  float,  and 
stucco,  as  before  described,  the 
passage  side  of  partition  in  same. 
Run  a  stucco  moulded  impost 
round  the  sides  of  the  court-room, 
as  shown  upon  the  drawing. 

Lath,  plaster,  float,  set,  and 
whiten  the  ceilings  of  the  rooms 
and  passages  of  the  grand  jury 
and  magistrates'  wings,  and  run 
cornices  round  same,  as  per  draw- 
ings. Lath,  plaster,  float,  set, 
and  colour  the  partitions  or  bat- 
tening ;  and  render,  float,  set,  and 
colour  the  sides  of  the  rooms  be- 
fore described,  except  the  sides 
of  the  magistrates'  room,  which 
are  to  be  trowelled  stucco  ;  and 
lath,  plaster,  float,  and  stucco  the 
partitions ;  and  render,  float,  and 
stucco  the  partitions  ;  and  render, 
float,  and  stucco  the  walls  of  the 
passages  and  lobbies  in  the  afore- 
said wings  ;  to  be  coloured,  joint- 
ed, and  tinted  as  before  described 
for  the  court. 

Lath,  plaster,  set,  and  whiten 
the  ceilings  of  the  privies  and 
rooms  adjoining  the  wings  last 
described.  Also  of  the  rooms, 
passages,  and  staircases  of  the 
infirmary  wing,  the  wash-house, 
sitting-room,  and  lobbies  for  the 
gate-keeper,  at  the  prisoners'  en- 
trance ;  also  of  the  rooms,  passa- 
ges, staircases,  and  chapel  of  the 
keeper's  house,  and  prisoners' 
staircases  adjoining  end  of  the 
prisoners'  wash-house.  Lath, 
plaster,  set,  and  colour  the  parti- 
tions ;  and  render,  set,  and  colour 
the  sides  of  the  privies  and  rooms 
adjoining  the  grand  jury  and  ma- 
gistrates' wings,  and  the  rooms, 
entrance- hall,  passages,  and  stair- 
cases of  the  keeper's  house.  Lath, 
piaster,  set,  and  whiten  the  parti- 
tions in   the  infirmary  building 

48S 


and  prisoners'  wash-house,  J 
all  partitions  where  the  walls  a 
not  described  to  be  plastered. 

The  whole  of  the  remain!) 
walls  internally,  to  the  cells,  pa! 
sages,  and  staircases  in  the  m 
sons,  and  all  the  room*,,  passage 
lobbies,  entrances,  and  staircase 
and  cellars  throughout  the  di 
ferent  buildings,  excepting  t| 
walls  before  described  to  be  pla 
tered,  are  to  be  lime-whited  twi 
with  hot  lime,  excepting  the  ch. 
pel  walls,  which  are  to  be  colou 
ed  twice  with  lime  and  ochre,  ! 
imitate  light  wainscot. 

The  plasterer  is  to  make  ; 
quirks  and  arrises  where  neces 
ary  ;  and  is  to  find  and  prpvii 
himself  with  all  copper-mouk 
floating  rules,  and  other  impl 
ments  necessary  for  completii 
his  work  ;  and  whatever  damaj 
is  done,  by  any  other  woikme 
to  the  plastering,  during  the  pr 
gress  of  the  works,  must  be  r 
paired  by,  and  at  the  expense  J 
the  contractor  for  the  plastere 
work.  He  is  also  to  make  go 
after  all  workmen,  when  a 
where  required.  And  all  oth 
defects  in  the  plastering,  arisij 
from  blisters,  or  any  other  ir 
proper  workmanship,  must  be  i 
paired,  and  the  work  made  go 
at  his  expense. 

Painter.  The  whole  of  the  i 
ternal  door  and  window  fram 
shutters,  sashes,  railing,  wo 
and  iron  doors,  pewing,  wainscc 
ting,  skirting,  and  other  foten 
wood  or  iron  work,  described 
the  before-mentioned  particula 
or  shown  in  the  drawings, 
usually  painted,  is  to  be  prope; 
oil  knotted,  brought  forward,  a 
painted  three  times  in  good 
colour.  The  wood  partition  a 
doors  at  back  of  spectators'  g; 
lery,  sashes  and  frames,  and  otl 
deal  work  in  the  court- room, 
be  finished  and  grained  Dm 


BUILDING. 


^inscot,  and  varnished.  Trie 
J  Is  of  the  magistrates'  room 
a  to  be  painted  four  times  in  oil, 
b'C  colour. 

hie  whole  of  the  external  wood 
a|  iron  work  throughout  the  dif- 
RMit  buildings,  including  the 
fru  iron  railing,  usually  painted, 
ar  not  otherwise  described,  is  to 
)  properly  oil  knotted,  brought 
fcvard,  and  painted  four  times  in 
g<)d  oil  colour,  to  be  finished  of 
si  1  common  colours  as  the  ar- 
cl  ect  shall  direct.  The  doors 
at  frames  of  the  side  entrance 
ii  under  portico  to  be  finished 
ar  grained  Dutch  wainscot,  and 
vnished. 

'he  iron  gutters  and  cisfern- 
lu  Is  to  be  finished  stone  colour. 

■lazier.  The  whole  ofthesky- 
lijfts,  lights  over  doors,  windows, 
H  es,  borrowed  lights,  &c. 
Awn  or  described  upon  the 
dr'vings,  or  in  these  particulars, 
arto  be  glazed  with  second  New- 
cale  crown  glass  ;  the  borrowed 
li{.ts  in  ceiling  of  grand  jury 
ar  magistrates'  wings,  to  be  of 
grand  glass.  The  iron  shutters 
tohe  cells  are  to  be  glazed  with 
ki  ts  ;  and  the  whole  of  the  glaz- 
to  be  left  whole,  clean,  and 
peject,  by  the  glazier,  at  the 
completion  of  the  works;  and  to 
be,)erformed  in  the  most  com- 
ply and  workmanlike  manner. 

emral  conditions.  The  fol- 
lowing conditions  and  observa- 
are  to  apply,  and  to  be 
strtly  attended  to,  in  all  pro- 
po  Is  which  may  be  made  for  the 
-ion  of  any  of  the  foregoing 
wc|;s : — 

Bie  contracts  are  to  be  entered 
inr  with 

ie  whole  of  the  materials 
he  in  provided,  are  to  be  of  the 
be  in  quality  of  their  several 
kiis,  sound,  and  well  seasoned, 
an  to  be  applied  in  the  most 
3Q 


substantial  and  workmanlike  man- 
ner, under  the  direction,  and  to  the 
entire  satisfaction,  of 
the  architect. 

The  drawings  are  to  be  equally 
binding  with  the  specification  ; 
and  shpuld  any  thing  appear  to 
have  been  omitted  in  either,  or 
both,  which  is  usually  considered 
necessary  for  the  completion  of 
the  several  works,  the  contractor 
is  to  execute  the  same,  as  if  they 
had  been  particularly  specified, 
and  is  to  obtain  no  advantage  by 
such  omissions,  but  shall  supply 
whatever  may  be  wanting  to  com- 
plete the  whole  :  and  all  the  build- 
ings are  to  be  left  in  a  complete 
state,  according  to  the  true  intent 
and  meaning  of  the  drawings  and 
specification;  and  the  directions 
for  their  correct  performance,  as 
given  from  time  to  time  by  the 
architect,  or  through  his  clerk  of 
the  works,  are  in  all  cases  to  be 
strictly  adhered  to. 

The  whole  of  the  bricks,  lime, 
stone,  timber,  slate,  iron,  lead,  or 
other  materials,  to  be  delivered 
on  the  premises  ;  and  to  be  ex- 
amined by  the  architect,  or  his 
clerk  of  the  works,  previous  to 
their  being  worked  or  used  in 
the  building. 

No  contractor  is  to  suffer  any 
part  of  his  work  to  be  underlet, 
or  let  at  task-work  ;  but  all  the 
labour  is  to  be  done  by  his  own 
workmen,  and  paid  for  by  him  in 
days'  wages. 

i*  shall  be  in  the  power  of  the 
architect  to  reject  any  part  of  the 
materials  which  he  may  think 
unfit  for  the  work,  or  to  cause 
any  part  of  the  work  to  be  altered, 
which  is,  in  his  opinion,  unsound 
or  unworkmanlike,  and  not  ac- 
cording to  the  contract,  upon 
three  days'  notice  having  been 
given  in  writing  for  that  purpose, 
by  the  architect,  or  his  clerk  of 
the  works  ;  and  in  case  any  con- 

4S9 


BUILDING. 


tractor  shall  refuse  or  delay  to 
rectify  the  same,  or  comply  with 
the  orders  that  may  be  so  given 
to  him  in  writing,  or  shall  per- 
form all  or  any  part  of  the  works 
in  an  improper  manner,  or  in  case 
the  works  do  not  proceed  with 
proper  despatch,  the  magistrates 
shall  have  power,  and  be  at  full 
liberty,  to  suspend  the  further  ex- 
ecution of  the  works  by  the  said 
contractor,  to  take  it  out  of  his 
hands,  and  employ  or  engage  any 
other  person  or  persons  to  per- 
form and  execute,  and  to  find 
proper  materials  for  the  same  ;  in 
which  case,  the  costs  and  charges 
thereof  shall  be  paid  or  allowed 
to  the  magistrates,  by  the  con- 
tractor or  his  sureties,  or  retained 
or  deducted  out  of  the  moneys 
which  may  be  then  due,  or  be- 
come due  to  the  said  contractor  ; 
the  amount  of  which  shall  be 
valued  and  decided  by  the  archi- 
tect, whose  award  in  this,  and  in 
all  cases  respecting  the  works, 
shall  be  final. 

It  is  also  to  be  in  the  power  of 
the  architect  to  direct  such  alter- 
ations to  be  made  in  the  work 
during  its  progress,  as  may  be 
foundexpedient ;  whichalterations 
shall  not  vitiate  or  make  void  any' 
of  the  contracts,  but  shall  be  per- 
formed by  the  contractors  accord- 
ing to  the  directions  they  may 
receive ;  and  the  value  of  the 
same,  whether  an  addition  or  de- 
duction, is  to  be  ascertained  by 
the  said  architect,  and  to  be 
added  to,  or  deducted  from,  the 
amount  of  each  contract,  accord- 
ing to  the  rate  at  which  the  work 
was  undertaken  ;  the  award  of 
the  architect  in  such  case  to  be 
final. 

No  allowance  will  be  made  to 
any  contractor  for  extra  or  addi- 
tional work,  unless  the  same  shall 
have  been  ordered  in  writing  by 
the  architect,  and  unless  an  ac- 

490 


count  or  voucher  of  the  said  wo 

is  delivered  to  the  architect,  or  i 
clerk  of  the  works,  within  thr 
days  of  its  performance. 

The  contractors  are  to  provi 
themselves  with  all  manner 
labour,  tools,  implements,  sc; 
folding,  ropes,  ladders,  hotstin 
tackle,  materials  of  every  descri 
tion,  carriage,  freightage,  a 
every  requisite  for  the  conipleti 
of  their  respective  works;  th 
are  also  to  make  good  all  dama 
or  defects  which  may  be  occ 
sioned,  whether  from  carelessnt 
or  other  cause ;  the  contract 
repairing  the  said  damages 
defects,  is  to  charge  the  expei 
to  the  parties  by  whom  they  m 
have  been  occasioned,  and  t 
magistrates  are  not  to  be  charg 
with  the  same.  The  workmen 
the  different  contractors  mi 
attend  to  give  the  necessary; 
sistance  stipulated  for  each  otl| 
in  the  execution  of  their  woi 
wheu  required  to  do  so  by  t 
architect,  or  his  clerk  of  the  wor 
Each  contractor  is  to  clear  a>v 
from  time  to  time,  when  direct 
to  do  so  by  the  architect,  or  1 
clerk  of  the  works,  all  rubb; 
occasioned  by  the  performance 
the  works  contracted  for  by  bin 

Should  it  be  deemed  necesst 
at  any  time  to  suspend  the  wor 
or  any  part  of  them,  on  accoi! 
of  weather  or  any  other  cause,  tj 
architect  shall  be  at  full  liber 
to  do  so,  and  no  extra  char 
shall  be  made  on  this  account 1  > 
any  contractor. 

The  architect  is  to  be  at  fj 
liberty  to  order  the  discharge 
or  dismiss  from  the  works  aj 
premises,  any  man  or  men  I 
incompetency  or  misconduct,  ai 
the  contractor  or  contract  |i 
shall  not  replace  them  withtij 
the  approbation  of  the  architeci 

Should  any  of  the  materials  ; 
lost  or  stolen  from  the  preinii  , 


BUILDING. 


i|  allowance  will  be  made  to  any 
ijntractor  for  the  same. 
For  the  convenience  of  the  con- 
noting parties,  and  for  the  ge- 
i  al  security  of  the  materials, 
l\.  belonging  to  them,  a  gate- 
"  leper  will  be  stationed  within 
ti  premises  until  the  buildings 
i  completed,  and  the  wages 
r'd  to  him  will  be  charged  to 
a  the  contractors  in  proportion 
t  the  amount  of  their  respective 
extracts,  not  exceeding  two- 
dice  in  the  pound  sterling. 

1  he  works  shall  be  begun  as 
sm  as  the  contracts  are  signed, 
t|  front  range  of  buildings  must 
h  covered  in  by 
'*  and  the  whole  of  the  works 

Dfst  be  completed  by 

and  in  case  of  extra 
wks,  an  extension  of  time  will 
;      hallowed  of  one  week  for  every 
1     hidred  pounds  value  of  such 
elra  works. 

fhe  tenders  are  to  be  delivered 
a  on  or  before 

livery  tender  must  state  a  spe- 
ccsum  for  which  each  branch 
ope  works  will  be  undertaken, 
s  iject  to  the  conditions  contain- 
ed this  specification;  and  every 
p  son  offering  a  tender  must  de- 
i      lilr  with  it  a  sealed  paper,  con- 
it     tiling  a  copy  of  the  estimate, 
wli  the  quantities  and  prices  on 
wjch  such  tender  is  founded,  in 
;      o'er  to  show  that  it  is  made  on 
a |>na  fide  calculation.  Theseal- 
[ii     ejbaper  of  the  accepted  tender 
<•:/  will  be  opened,  and  the  copy 
"I he  estimate  contained  therein, 
pit  be  left  with  the  architect, 
iifrder  that  he  may  be  enabled 
to  alue  any  additions  or  deduc- 
ts s  which  may  arise,  according 
tche  prices  of  such  estimate. 

ach  contractor  must  enter 
in  a  bond,  with  two  proper 
su  ties,  approved  by  the  magis- 
Irfes,  for  the  due  performance  of 
Contract. 


The  contractors  will  receive 
payments  by  instalments  from  the 
magistrates,  upon  application  be- 
ing made  to  them,  as  the  works 
proceed,  when  each  quarter  of 
their  respective  works  shall  have 
been  performed,  upon  producing 
a  certificate  from  the  architect,  A 
that  the  amount  applied  for  does 
not  exceed  three- fourths  of  the 
value  of  the  said  work. 

The  balance  to  be  paid  within 
six  months  after  the  architect  shall 
have  certified  that  the  contracts 
have  been  duly  performed  and 
executed. 

The  utility  of  specifications  are 
too  well  known,  to  require  any 
apology  for  our  annexing  to  the 
above  a  specification  of  another 
description. 

Specification  of  works  to  be  con- 
tracted for  in  building  stables,  &c. 
at  the  for 
according  to  drawings  numbered. 

Bricklayer,  fyc.  The  ground  is 
to  be  excavated  for  all  the  walls, 
drains,  cesspools,  &c,  allowing 
sufficient  width  for  the  workmen  ; 
it  is  afterwards  to  be  filled  in 
to  the  proper  level,  and  well 
rammed. 

The  whole  of  the  mould  or 
other  loose  earth,  occupied  by  the 
stables,  coach-house,  harness - 
room,  court-yard,  &c.  is  to  be 
excavated,  and  carted  away.  The 
said  space  is  afterwards  to  be 
filled  in  with  dry  rubbish,  well 
rammed ;  and  the  space  oc- 
cupied by  the  coach-house,  and 
court-yard,  is  to  have  a  coat  of 
gravel,  not  less  than  3  inches 
thick  at  any  part,  and  to  be  laid 
in  a  workmanlike  manner,  with  a 
current,  from  the  end  of  the 
coach-house  and  the  cross  fence- 
wall  to  the  dungpit,  of  not  less 
than  2  inches  in  every  10  feet. 

Cut  away  and  take  down  the 
brickwork  between  the  piers  of 

491 


BUILDING. 


the  outside  fence-wall,  and  part 
of  one  of  the  piers.  Cut  out  the 
indents  in  old  wall,  and  rebuild 
18-inch  piers,  &c,  splayed,  &c. 
as  shown  in  the  drawings.  The 
top  course  and  outside  wea- 
ther of  courses  to  be  built  of 
Roman  cement,  of  half  cement 
and  half  sand. 

Assist  the  carpenter  in  taking 
out  the  present  garden  door  and 
frame,  and  cut  out  indents  in  old 
wall,  take  down  the  brickwork 
above,  and  brick  up  the  whole 
space ;  the  top  course  and  out- 
side of  weather  courses  in  cement, 
as  before  stated. 

Take  down,  and  clear  away  to 
the  foundations,  that  part  of  the 
old  fence  wall  adjoining  the 
party-wall  of 

leaving  a  toothing  into  the  walls. 
Clean  and  sort  such  of  the  old 
bricks  as  are  -perfectly  hard  and 
sound,  which  are  to  be  used  in 
the  different  works ;  fill  up  the 
space  at  each  end  of  the  party- 
wall  with  new  brickwork,  pro- 
perly flushed  with  mortar.  Assist 
the  carpenter  in  shoring  up  the 
old  party-wall,  if  it  should  be 
found  necessary. 

The  whole  of  the  walls,  &c.  are 
to  be  built  of  the  heights  and 
thicknesses,  and  in  the  manner 
shown  or  described  in  the  draw 
ings.  All  the  brickwork  to  be 
done  with  hard -burnt,  sound,  grey 
stocks  of  the  best  quality,  to  be 
approved  of  by  the  architect, 
selecting  the  best  and  most  even 
of  them  for  the  outside  ;  the  joints 
to  be  well  bedded,  and  flushed  up 
with  mortar  at  every  course  ;  the 
mortar  to  be  made  with  hot  lime, 
thoroughly  screened  and  slacked, 
and  clean  sharp  Thames  sand,  or 
other  sand  equally  approved  by 
the  architect,  in  such  proportions 
as  shall  be  directed,  not  less  than 
one  bushel  of  lime  to  two  bushels 
of  sand  in  any  part. 


Cut  all  indents,  splays,  skew, 
backs,  &c.  required,  ana  bed  ant 
point  all  the  sash  and  door  frames 
Cut  a  groove  2  inches  deep  in  th< 
party- wall  of  house  adjoining,  f0l 
the  lead  flushing. 

Flues,  14  inches  by  9  inches 
are  to  be  made  from  the  coach 
man's  room  and  harness-room 
and  to  be  well  pargetted.  Tin 
shafts  to  be  carried  up  above  tin 
top  of  the  party-wall  of  housi 
adjoining,  and  iron  straps  (whicl 
will  be  provided  by  the  smith 
are  to  be  fixed  by  the  bricklayei 
Turn  a  trimmer  in  half  brick 
under  the  slab  of  the  coachman' 
room.  Provide  two  third  siz 
chimney  pots,  and  set  the  sam 
securely  with  plain  tiles  in  cement 
at  the  top  of  the  chimney-shaft. 

The  brick  drains  and  six  cess 
pools,  in  and  out  of  the  building 
are  to  be  built  as  shown  in  th 
drawings,  with  Roman  cement 
of  half  cement  and  half  sand,  am 
rendered  inside  with  the  same 
not  less  than  half  an  inch  i 
thickness. 

Provide  and  lay  a  stone  pipe, 
inches  diameter  in  the  clear,  nor 
the  tank  to  the  ditch  or  sewer. 

The  sides  and  bottom  of  th 
tank  are  to  be  rendered  wit 
Roman  cement,  of  half  cemen 
and  half  sand,  not  less  than  three 
quarter  inch  in  thickness. 

The  whole  of  the  stable,  excep 
the  space  under  the  manger,  an 
stone  channel,  is  to  be  paved  wit 
Dutch  clinkers,  and  laid  on  edg 
in  sand,  with  a  fall  of  2  incite 
from  the  partition  of  the  harness 
room  to  the  sink  stone,  2 
inches  from  the  manger  to  th 
stone  channel,  and  1  inch  frod 
the  partition  of  the  coach -hous 
to  the  stone  channel ;  the  pavin 
between  the  last-mentioned  pari 
tition  and  channel  is  to  be  lai 
herring- bone.  The  spaces  undt 
the  mangers,  small  corn-bin,  an 


BUILDING. 


Ittom  of  dungpit,  are  to  be 
rred  with  brick  flat  paving,  laid 

i  mortar.  'J  he  ground  is  to  be 
];  1  to  the  current  before  describ- 
ed and  well  rammed,  to  receive 
t  whole  of  the  said  paving. 

The  bricklayer  is  to  lay  half 
bt-k-sleepers,  two  courses  high 

ii  mortar,  under  all  the  joints 
o  he  stone  paving  in  the  harness- 
r,m. 

Ml  the  brickwork  is  to  be  built 
ti!y  level,  straight,  and  perpen- 
dular,  and  the  plates,  &c.  are  to 
b  properly  bedded  in  mortar. 

[he  bricklayer  is  to  find  and 
e  ct  all  the  scaffolding  necessary 
f<  the  performance  of  the  said 
b:kwork,  and  other  works  re- 
qred,  and  take  down  and  clear 
Bay  the  same  at  his  own  ex- 
p.se. 

.arpenter  and  Joiner.  Provide 

a.  fix  turning  pieces  to  chim- 
n  s,  doors,  and  windows,  and 
tning  piece  to  trimmer  of  coach- 
m's  room,  and  centering  to  arch 
u  ler  tank,  and  arch  under  recess 
iriarness-room. 

Prepare  and  hang  2y-inch 
wught,  ploughed,  tongued,  and 
h;ded  gate  to  entrance  court, 
wi  a  rounded  and  rebated  cap- 
pE  on  the  top,  the  whole  con- 
n,ted  together  by  four  three- 
q  rter-inch  screw  bolts,  with 
n    and  plates,  (to  be  provided 

b,  the  smith,)  but  carefully  let  in 
a  securely  fixed  by  the  car- 
pi ter.  and  filiets,  countersunk, 
si^wed  on  each  side.  Provide 
a  hang  one  of  Collinge's  patent 
h  „res,  5  feet  long  at  the  bottom 
o  the  gate,  cranked  with  a  stay 
defies  deep,  (to  be  let  in  and 
hiled  by  the  mason,)  and  coun- 
ts, unk   beaded   screws   to  the 

e.  Provide  and  hang  one 
li  *e  as  last,  for  the  top  of  the 
g  p,  with  a  strap  21  inches  deep 
ir  the  pier,  and  calked  down 
fl  iches  in  the  brickwork,  (2  feet 


3  inches  long  in  all,)  the  whole 

as  shown  on  the  drawing.  The 
bottom  hinge  to  be  provided  with 
a  stop  bolt.  The  prime  cost  of 
these  hinges  may  be  had  on  ap- 
plication at  Collinge's  manufac- 
tory, Bridge  Road,  Lambeth. 
Provide  and  fix,  also,  a  two  bolt 
brass  warded,  mortise  gate-lock, 
and  box  staple  with  two  keys, 
value  fifteen  shillings,  and  two 
1 0-inch  strong  bolts,  staples,  and 
screws,  and  large  oak  bricks  of 
the  same  size  as  described  for  the 
stone- work,  let  into  the  piers  for 
the  same.  Provide  and  fix  an 
oak  brick  in  the  pier  of  the  cross- 
wall,  with  an  iron  catch  to  keep 
the  gate  open. 

Take  down,  repair,  remove, 
refix,  and  rehang  the  present 
door  and  frame  and  lintel,  where 
shown  at  the  new  cross-wall, 

Frame  and  fix  an  oak  wrought 
kirb  to  the  dungpit,  4  inches  by 
2\  inches  in  front,  and  5  inches 
by  4  inches  at  the  back,  the  sides 
cut  bevel,  with  ]  J-irich  deal 
wrought,  ploughed,  tongued,  and 
ledged  flap,  and  frame  hung  with 
lS-inch  cross  garnets  and  nails, 
and  a  ring  fixed  on  the  flap,  with 
an  oak  brick  and  iron  catch  in  the 
wall,  to  keep  the  door  open  when 
necessary. 

Frame  and  fix  an  oak  wrought 
kirb  to  the  top  of  the  cistern,  with 
l|-inch  flap,  &c.  as  last  described 
for  the  dungpit,  cut  for  cir- 
cular iron  pipe,  but  no  ring  or 
catch.  The  top  of  the  flap  to 
project  2  inches  over  the  brick- 
work. 

Cover  the  roof  with  half- inch 
rough  boarding  for*slates,  se- 
curely nailed  to  the  rafters,  also 
three-quarter  inch  featheredge 
lilting  fillets,  3  inches  wide,  to 
eaves  hips  and  party-walls,  and 
a  small  inch  gutter  and  bearers  at 
one  side  of  the  chimney-shaft. 

Frame  and  fix  the  roof  in  the 

493 


BUILDING. 


manner  shown  and  described  on 
the  drawings,  the  scantlings  to  be 
as  follows  : — 
Rounded  ridge  wedged  in 

party-wall   8x2 

Rounded  hips  tailed  in 
plate,  and  secured  to 
angle  tie  by  the  upright 
bearer,  4  inches  by  2f 
inches,  notched  and 
nailed  to  each  other  . .  11x2 
Common  rafters  tailed 
on  wall  plate,  calked 
down  on  purlin,  and 
cut  and  secured  to  ridge 
and  hips,  part  of  ditto 
to  form  ceiling  of  coach- 
man's room,  and  nailed 
with  6- inch  two  shil- 
ling nails    4x2 

Trimming  ditto  framed 
together  round  chim- 
ney, purlins  framed  to- 
gether at  hips,  and 
calked  down  on  tem- 
plate 2  feet  long,  4 
inches  by  2},  and  firm- 
ly secured  to  upright 
bearer  on  wall  plate  . .  6x4 
Struts  to  purlins,  halved 
and  nailed  together, 
and  notch-tailed  on 
partition,  part  of  ditto 
to  form  ceiling  joists 
of  coachman's  room  ..  4x3 
Remainder  of  ceiling 
joists  of  coachman's 
room,  notch-tailed  on 
plate  of  partition,  and 
cut,  and  firmly  secured 


to  purlins   4x2 

Three  dragon  ties,  5|  feet 
long  each,  dovetailed 
and  spiked  at  each  end 

/  on  wall  pkte    4x3 

Upright  quarter  halved 
and  nailed  to  ridge  and 
head  of  partition  for 

vane   3x3 

Wall  plate  halved  and 
spiked  at  the  angles, 


without  any  other  laps  4yX4 

494 


Provide  and  lay  inside  lintel! 
4 1  inches  by  3  inches,  to  wit 
dows  of  loft  and  coachman 
rooms,  and  to  loft  doorwiw,  eac 
IS  inches  longer  than  the  open 
ings. 

Provide  and  lay  one  tier  el 
bond,  4  inches  by  2\  inches,  3 
feet  above  the  loft  floor,  not  t 
be  cut  out  of  openings  unt 
directed  by  the  architect.  Pro 
vide  and  lay  also  wood  bricks  fj 
the  jambs  of  windows,  dooi 
skirting  of  coachman's  room,  ha 
flaps,  &c. 

Provide  and  fix  rough  fillet  t 
angle  of  partition  for  plasterer, 
cut  away  for  and  assist  the  smit 
in  fixing  the  vane. 

Frame  and  fix  quarter  partitio 
forming  the  coachman's  roon 
as  shown  in  drawings,  the  heai 
and  sills  let  into  the  walls  4  in 
ches,  the  quarters  13  inches  froi 
centre  to  centre,  and  the  scant 


lings  to  be  as  follows :  — 

Heads    4x3 

Sills    4x2 

Angle  post    5x4 

Remaining  posts,  princi- 
pal quarters  and  braces  4x2 

Common  quarters    4x2 

Upright  quarters  above 
head  at  door  side,  halv- 
ed and  nailed  to  purlin 

and  rafters,  &c   4x2 

Head  and  sill,  and  angle 
post  to  opening  for  hay 

flap   3X2 

Common  quarters  to  sides 
and  top  of  ditto   3X.2 


Cover  the  loft  sides  of  the  part; 
tion  last  named,  and  the  sides  an 
top  of  the  opening  for  hay  flap 
with  half-inch  rough  boardinj 
securely  nailed  to  the  same. 

Prepare  and  fix  deal  case 
frames,  oak  sunk  sills,  and  hall 
inch  deal  ovolo  sashes,  sing 
hung  with  iron  pulleys,  wbij 
lines,  iron  weights,  and  sa; 
fastenings  complete  to  the  W«! 


BUILDING. 


dos  of  loft,  and  coachman's 
roil,  and  rounded  nosing  to  bot- 
toi  of  same. 

•epare  and  fix  an  inch  chim- 
ne >heh,  4\  inches  wide,  with  a 
roi  ded  corner  and  plugged. 

epare  and  fix  three  quarter 
inr  deal  skirting,  4\ inches  wide, 
an  ploughed  for  plastering,  round 
co  h  roan's  room. 

ame  and  fix  a  proper  door 
fra-e,  4  inches  by  3  inches,  with 
m(ises  2  inches  square,  and 
i:  -quarter  inch  deep  in  bres- 

ner.  Prepare  and  hang  inch 
de; wrought,  ploughed,  tongued, 
an[  ledged  door,  with  18-inch 
cm  garnets,  padlock,  hasp,  and 
sta,  e. 

epare  and  fix  inch  rebated 
an '  ounded  lining,  ploughed  for 
ring,  and  prepare  and  hang 

nch  four  panel  square  door, 
m\  one  pair  <2|-inch  butts  and 
lews,  a  6- inch  iron  rim,  two 
ho  lock  with  brass  knob. 

ame  and  fix  a  corn  bin  in 
th<  oft,  7  feet  by  4  feet  3  inches, 
an  3  feet  6  inches  high,  with 
intj  rough  sides  and  top,  with 
tw  flaps  hung  with  12-inch  cross 
ga  ets,  and  a  padlock,  hasp,  and 
5ti  e  to  each.  Three  divisions 
be  formed  under  one  of  the 
fla:,  and  the  whole  of  the  inside 
is  have  proper  framed  skeleton 
gr  nds  or  bearers  to  receive  the 
sick  top,  &c. 

ame  and  fix  inch  rough  sides, 
u  bevel,   with   inch  flaps  and 

es  to  hayloft,  hung  with  10- 
Hnj  cross  garnets,  and  proper 
bejers  inside. 

ame  and  fix  the  floor  of  joists, 
ant  trim  the  same  for  stairs, 
cl'.mey,  and  two  flaps,  the  whole 
to  )e  executed  in  the  manner 
■h  'n  or  described  upon  the  draw- 
,nj.  and  of  the  following  scant- 
lini; : 

Mmon    joists  calked 
'vvn  1  inch  and  firmly 


secured  on  wall  plates, 
girder  over  columns, 
and  head  of  coach- 
house partition    8/2^ 

Trimming  ditto  ditto  ...  .  8x3 
Wall  plates  on  party- wall 
and  external  wall  oppo- 
site, to  tail  on  the  walls 
within  4\  inches  of  the 
outside,  the  external 
plate  to  have  a  mortise 
tenon  in  the  bressum- 

mer    4x3 

Girder  calked  down  1 
inch  on  template,  5  feet 
long,  9  by  3,  as  lintel 
to  window  of  harness- 
room,  chase- mortised 
in  front  post,  and  cut 
for  caps  of  iron  co- 
lumns   6x4 

Provide  and  lay  inch  wrought 
folding  floor  to  the  coachman's 
room  and  landing  of  stairs  adjoin- 
ing, and  inch  rough  folding  floor 
to  the  remainder  of  loft  story. 

Provide  and  fix  inch  steps, 
risers,  and  proper  carriages,  with 
rounded  nosings,  to  stairs  ascend- 
ing from  the  harness- room  to  the 
loft,  with  string  boards  complete. 
Prepare  and  fix  a  wrought  and 
framed  newel,  let  into  the  paving 
and  hanging  stile  at  the  fifth  step. 
Prepare  and  hang  an  inch  two 
panel  square  door,  hung  with 
2-inch  butts,  and  thumb-latch  to 
the  same.  Prepare  and  fix  inch 
wrought  spandrel  wainscotting  to 
enclose  the  space  under  the  stairs, 
and  prepare  and  hang  an  inch 
two  panel  square  door  to  the 
same,  hung  with  a  pair  of  2-inch 
butts,  and  a  thumb-latch  fixed  to 
the  same.  Prepare  and  fix  an 
inch  rounded  nosing  on  the  brick 
set-off  at  the  top  of  the  stairs,  with 
bearers  to  same. 

Frame  and  fix  quarter  partitions 
in  the  stables,  the  heads  and  sills 
let  into  the  wall  4-  inches,  and 
mortised  13  inches  from  centre, 

495 


If 


BUILDING. 


and  the  whole  to  be  executed  as 
shown  in  the  drawing,  and  of  the 
following  scantlings : — 

Heads...   4x3 

Sills    4x2f- 

Post  in  coach-house  par- 
tition,   adjoining  har- 
ness-room partition   ..  6x4 
Remaining  posts,  princi- 
pal quarters,  braces,  and 

door  heads   4x2} 

Common  quarters   4x2 

Frame  and  fix  a  bressummer, 
1 1  inches  by  9  inches,  wrought 
three  sides  over  the  story-posts 
in  front  of  the  stables,  mortised 
for  the  head  of  the  partitions  and 
the  wall  plate,  and  four  mortises 
in  soffit,  2  inches  square,  and 
three-quarter  inch  deep  for  the 
story-posts,  sunk  and  rebated  at 
top  for  the  opening  of  loft  door, 
and  stop  rebated  in  soffit  for  two 
sashes,  and  holes  cut  for  iron  bars. 
Prepare  and  fix  a  wrought  stop 
in  soffit,  2  inches  by  half  inch, 
screwed  to  bressummer,  for  the 
coach-house  gates.  Fit  and  fix 
three  bolts  through  bressummer, 
and  strapped  to  girder  head  of 
partition  and  wall  plate,  and  cover 
heads  of  bolt  holes  in  front  of 
bressummer. 

Prepare  and  fix  a  story-post, 
9  inches  by  9  inches,  for  the  hang- 
ing stile  of  the  coach-house  gate, 
wrought  three  sides,  and  rebated 
with  a  tenon  into  the  bressum- 
mer 2  inches  square,  and  three- 
quarter  inch  deep,  and  one  ditto 
in  stone  plinth,  2  inches  square 
and  ly  inch  deep.  Prepare  a 
story-post,  9  inches  by  7  inches, 
for  the  hanging  stile  of  the  stable 
door,  worked  as  the  last,  but 
double  rebated  and  framed  to 
transom.  Prepare  another  story- 
post,  9  inches  by  A\  inches,  work- 
ed in  every  respect  as  the  last, 
but  one  of  the  rebates  to  stop 
at  bottom  of  the  sash.  Prepare 
one  shorter  ditto  of  ihe  same 

496 


scantling,  and  worked  in  ev< 

respect  as  the  last,  but  single  ; 
bated.  Prepare  and  frame,  a! 
fix  a  wrought  weather  and  dou! 
rebated  transom,  9  inches  by! 
inches,  mortise-tenoned  into  | 
door-post,  and  a  wrought,  rebal 
and  weathered  sill,  9  inches 
3}  inches,  to  the  window,  morti 
tenoned  H  inch  into  the  posts. 

Prepare  and  fix  1 1 -inch  dj 
sash  over  stable  door,  and  mini 
bead  to  ditto  inside.  Prepare  J 
hang  a  pair  of  If -inch  fold, 
sashes  with  2-inch  butts,  a  br|, 
button,  and  two  small  bolts.  P 
pare  and  fix  inch  deal  round 
jambs,  and  1  |-inch  window  bo: 
and  bearers,  5\  inches  wide,  to1 
window,  &c. 

Prepare  and  hang  2-inch  d 
wrought    both   sides,  plough 
tongued,  and  beaded  door  to  ( 
trance  of  stable,  and  fillets  vv1 
countersunk  covered  screws 
each  side,  the  whole  connecii 
together  by  three  five-eight-in 
screw-bolt,  nuts  and  plates,  I 
be  provided  by  the  smith.)  Ii 
let  in  and  securely  fixed  by  1 
carpenter,  hung  with  a  pair  f 
Collinge's  patent  cast-iron  bul 
(to  be  provided  by  the  carpente 
with  a  stop  to  the  bottom  bin , 
a  12- inch  stop- lock  with  twokti 
of  unexceptionable    quality, | 
stable-door  latch,  and  two  9-irji 
bolts  and  staples  fitted  and  ffc 
complete,     with    inch  round 
lining,  5}  inches  wide,  adjoin; 
window. 

Prepare  and  hang  a  2y-in 
coach-house  gate,  wrought  til 
sides,  ploughed,  tongued,  t\ 
beaded,  and  fillets  countersu , 
screwed  and  covered  on  each  si;, 
the  whole  connected  together  r 
four  three-quarter  inch  sere- 
bolts,  with  nuts  and  plates,  (to  ? 
provided  by  the  smith,)  but  let i 
and  securely  fixed  by  the  carp*- 
ter,  hung  with  a  pair  of  Collins* 


BUILDING. 


pient  5  feet  gate  hinges,  (to  be 
p'vided  by  the  carpenter,)  with 
a  op  bolt  to  the  bottom  hinge. 
C  three  circular  holes,  o*  inches 
diheter,  in  the  gate,  where  will 
btiirected.  Provide  and  fix  also 
a  pong  bent  hasp  and  staple, 
v  i  an  iron  stop  chain  and  ring, 
a  I] -inch  strong  bolt  at  top, 
wh  iron -plate  fitted  in  bres- 
Biimer,  the  end  of  the  bolt  to 
beapered.  Provide  and  fix  also 
a  inch  bolt  at  the  bottom.  Pro- 
vii!  and  fix  an  oak  brick  in  the 


of  the  cross-wall,  with  an 
catch  to  keep  the  gate  open. 
?pare  and  fix  If -inch  wrought 


oa'skirting,  6  inches  high,  for  the 
caiage  wheel  in  the  coach - 
ho  e,  fitted  to  the  stone  lintels 
of  ory-posts,  and  securely  nailed 
n)  jak  spurs,  IS  inches  deep, 
dr  in  in  the  ground  as  shown  in 
■drawings. 

epare  and  hang  l|-inchtwo 
pa  1  square  door  from  stable  to 

CO 

fee 


h-house,  6  feet  high  and  2 
4  inches  wide,  with  2 -inch 
bu»,  and   a    thumb-latch,  and 
in( 
to 
we 


rounded  and  rebated  lining, 
tto,  and  an  oak  wrought  and 
liered  sill.  4  inches  by  3 
P<p,  let  into  the  posts  of  parti- 
tio 

P  vide  and  fix  1  {-inch  wrought 
■blframed  sides  and  bottom  of 
mm  with  wrought  and  framed 
mm  the  sink  2  feet  long,  8  in- 
ch' wide,  and  7  inches  deep  in 
tlu'  lear  inside,  securely  fixed  to 
pan  ion,  and  cut  away  for  plum- 
Dei  vhere  necessary. 

vide  and  fix  U-inch  wrought 
bo;  >id(.s  end  of  closet.  6"t  feet 


I  !  incites  wide,  inch 
ght.  rebated,  and  rounded 
tnj  iid  bottom  and  bearers,  inch 
tight  and  framed  front,  with 
P [panel  square  folding  doors, 
3  tot  10  inches  high,  3  feet  6 
Jncys  wide,  hung  with  2 -inch 
bui ,  a  cupboard  lock,  and  two 
3R 


small  bolts  fixed  to  same.  Two 
inch  shelves,  wrought  both  sides, 
and  bearers  inside,  and  one  ditto 
under  the  whole,  securely  fixed  to 
partition. 

Prepare  and  fix  inch  wrought 
and  rounded  stop  12  inches  wide, 
with  inch  wrought  risers  and 
proper  bearers,  H-inch  wrought 
two  sides  lining  1 3-j-  inches  wide, 
inch  wrought  and  beaded  fascia 
5  inches  wide,  with  lf-inch 
wrought  harness  rail,  5  feet  long, 
and  4  inches  wide,  with  three 
strong  wrought,  dovetailed,  and 
cut  harness  brackets,  10  inches 
projection,  the  whole  to  be  se- 
curely fitted  and  fixed  to  partition. 

Prepare  and  fix  inch  wrought 
front  2  feet  wide,  and  return  end 

5  inches  wide,  2  feet  9  inches 
high,  and  inch  framed  top,  and 
clamped  flap  with  rounded  nosing 
to  small  corn-bin  in  stable ;  also 
three-quarter  inch,  3-inch  square 
in  clear,  corn  shoot,  with  elbow  to 
ditto;  cut  holes  for  and  fit  the  same 
in  large  corn-bin  partition,  and 
flap  last  mentioned,  and  provide 
a  small  sliding  stop  to  the  same; 
and  three-quarter  inch  wrought 
both  sides  shelf  and  bearers  over 
ditto,  8}  inches  wide  ;  the  whole 
securely  fitted  and  fixed  with  pro- 
per bearers  to  partition,  Sec. 

Prepare  1 1  -  inch  four  panel 
square  framed  door  to  harness- 
room,  6  feet  high  and  2f  feet  wide, 
hung  with  2f-inch  iron  butts,  and 
a  6-inch  iron  rim  two  bolt  brass 
knob  lock  fixed  to  ditto,  and  inch 
single,  rebated,  and  double  rounded 
lining  to  ditto. 

Prepare  and  fix  deal  cased 
frame,  sill,  sash,  &c.  in  harness- 
room,  as  described  for  the  coach- 
man's room  above,  with  three- 
quarter  inch  wrought  and  round- 
ed jambs,  and  soifit  5|  inches 
wide,  and  inch  wrought  and 
rounded  window  board  and  bearer 

6  inches  wide. 

497 


BUILDING. 


Prepare  and  fix  three  inch 
shelves,  9  inches  deep,  in  recess 
adjoining  chimney,  and  cut  away 
brickwork  for  ends  of  same. 

Prepare  and  fix  an  inch  shelf 
to  the  chimney  4\  inches  wide, 
with  a  rounded  corner,  and  plug- 
ging for  same,  and  three- quarter 
inc.h  square  skirting  to  chimney 
side  of  room,  4f  inches  wide. 

Prepare  and  fix  1  ^-inch  rail,  8y 
feet  long,  with  twelve  turned 
pegs,  6  f  inches  projection  ;  l{-inch 
wrought  harness  rail,  A\  feet 
long  and  8  inches  wide,  with 
three  wrought  and  cut  brackets, 
10  inches  projection,  and  I  {-inch 
wrought  rail,  2\  feet  long,  9 
inches  wide,  with  three-quarter 
inch  wrought  and  cut  Arris  saddle 
bracket,  18  inches  projection, 
each  side  1\  inches  wide,  and 
rounded  nosing  to  ditto,  where 
will  be  directed  in  the  harness- 
room. 

Prepare  and  fix  I  |-inch  wrought 
rail,  Sj  feet  long,  with  twelve 
turned  pegs,  6  inches  projection, 
against  the  partition  in  the  coach- 
house. 

Prepare  and  fix  three-quarter 
inch  wrought,  ploughed,  tongued, 
and  beaded  wainscotting  in  stable 
to  harness-room  and  coach-house 
partitions,  and  brick  wall  in  front 
of  stable.  Prepare  and  fix  inch 
ditto  to  the  back  over  mangers, 
with  all  proper  strong  and  suffi- 
cient bearers,  excepting  that  part 
which  will  be  described  of  lf- 
inch  deal. 

Provide  and  fix  two  iron  rings 
with  screwed  ring  staples  to  side 
wainscotting,  corresponding  with 
similar  ones  fixed  to  iron  columns, 
and  two  large  ditto  in  front  of 
each  of  the  mangers,  as  shown  in 
drawings. 

Provide  and  fix  two  iron  screw 
pulleys  in  ceiling  of  stable  for  a 
lantern,  where  will  be  directed. 

Prepare  and  fix  oak  wrought 

498 


and  rebated  kirbs,  4  inches  by  ■ 
inches,  for  iron  gratings  in  stable 

Provide  and  fix  1  i-inch  pa 
tition,  and  fronts  between,  stal 
and  inch  ditto  enclosing  ha 
racks  as  high  as  the  loft  floor,  t 
fronts  prepared,  cut.  out,  ai 
fitted  for  iron  racks,  also  .Ar 
wood  fillets  at  back  of  racks,  t 
whole  with  proper  and  sufficu 
bearers;  I  ^ -inch  wrought,  *ph 
ed,  and  rebated  front  and  bottfj 
of  mangers,  and  bearers,  and  cij 
tings  in  stall  partitions,  &c, 
same  ;  1  {-inch  circular  heads  z\ 
gussets  to  hay  racks,  with  proj 
bearers  for  same. 

Provide  and  fix  four  tier:' 
bond,  where  the  wainscottijig  || 
been  described,  against  brick  w  j 
of  harness -room  and  stable,  i\ 
one  tier  round  the  remain; 
walls  and  back  wall  of  stable, 
will  be  directed.  Provide  :l 
fix  wood  bricks  for  skirting,  i, 
on  chimney  side  of  harness  rot, 
and  to  window  jambs  of  ditto. 

Provide  and  fix  oak  posts,  s1* 
porting  manger,  &c.  at  end  f 
stall  partitions,  wrought  all  rom 
cut  at  the  top  and  rebated,  6  it 
long,  44  inches  by  4  inches. 

Provide  and  fix  I^-inch  wrou  t 
oak  skirting,  9  inches  high,  t 
into  last  -  named  oak  post,  « 
three  small  oak  spurs  drivern 
centre. 

Provide  and  fix  oak  sill,  ; 
inches  by  4  inches,  to  stall  po- 
tions, wrought,  double  round, 
and  rebated  for  wood-work  abk 
and  ends  cut  and  fixed  to  >« 
lumns.  Provide  and  fix  l|-jih 
wrought  two  sides,  plough 
tongued,  and  beaded  paitun 
under  iron- work,  and  round 
fillets  screwed  against  ditto,  lid 
scribed  to  iron  columns. 

The  carpenter  is  to  assist  ie 
smith  and  other  workmen  in  & 
ing  all  works  necessarily  conr  tf 
ed  with  his  own. 


BUILDING. 


Open  spaces  are  to  he  left  on 
bach  side  the  ends  of  timbers  let 
nto  the  wall  and  secured  by 
rough  wedges  on  each  side. 
|  The  carpenter  is  to  cut  away 
ind  make  good  after  all  other 
workmen,  when  and  where  re- 
juired. 

:  All  the  joiner's  work  must  be 
)iepared  and  put  in  a  state  of 
orwardness  at  the  commencement 
if  the  works  ;  the  doors  and  other 
raming  to  be  put  together  for 
he  purpose  of  seasoning,  but  not 
yedged  up. 
Mf      i  All  the  timber  is  to  be  of  the 
test  Memel,  or  other  timber  equal- 
v  approved  by  the  architect,  to 
e  sawn  die  square,  and  free  from 
ap  or  shakes.    The  deal  to  be  of 
est  yellow   Christiana,   or  any 
ther  equally  approved  by  the 
rchitect,  free  from  sap  or  large 
|r  loose  knots.    The  oak  to  be  of 
English  growth,  of  the  best  qua- 
ty,  free  from  sap  or  shake,  and 
iwn  die  square.    The  whole  of 
le  materials  to  be  well  seasoned. 
Mason.    Provide  and  set  York 
indow  sills,   throated  8  inches 
ide,  to  the  windows  of  the  loft, 
oachman's  room,  and  stable,  the 
tst  sill  to  be  let  into  the  door- 
ost  half  an  inch,  and  have  a  mor- 
se hole,  1  j  inch  square,  cut  for 
ie  other  post. 

Provide  and  set  York  sill  to 
oorway  of  harness-room,  and 
ie  ditto  to  entrance  door  of 
able,  let  into  the  plinths  under 
ie  posts. 

Provide  and   set   two  York 

inths,  6  inches  high,  under  the 
)sts  in  front  of  stable  and  coach - 
Juse,  7  inches  by  9  inches,  and 
ie  ditto  12  inches  by  9  inches, 
pth  a  mortise  in  each  2  inches 
|uare,  and  \  \  inch  deep. 

Provide  and  set  a  York  channel, 
inches  wide,  in  stable  ;  the  chan- 
pl  to  be  6  inches  wide,  but  not 

exceed  .  inch  in  depth. 


Provide  and  set  in  Roman  ce- 
ment three  rough  York  stones, 
12  inches  square,  under  gratings 
in  stalls,  and  one  ditto,  15  inches 
square,  under  the  sink  stone  in 
stable,  with  a  hole  cut  a*nd  rebated 
in  each  for  a  bell  trap,  (to  be  pro- 
vided by  the  smith,)  but  fixed  and 
leaded  by  the  mason. 

Provide  and  set  one  five-hole 
sink  stone,  15  inches  square,  pro- 
perly dished,  adjoining  the  dung 
pit,  one  ditto  18  inches  square 
adjoining  the  tank,  and  one  ditto 
18  inches  square  in  stable,  the 
last  to  be  cut  out  for  channel  be- 
fore described. 

Provide  and  set  two  York 
plinths,  9  inches  square,  3  inches 
thick,  for  the  iron  columns,  with 
a  hole  cut  in  each,  6  inches  square 
and  half  an  inch  deep,  and  a  stub 
mortise  in  the  same,  1|  inch 
square  and  three-quarter  inch 
deep,  and  the  mason  is  to  assist 
the  smith  in  fixing  the  columns. 

Provide  and  set  in  cement  York 
bottom  to  tank,  let  into  the  walls 
on  every  side  ly  inch,  and  if  this 
is  not  to  be  procured  in  one  stone, 
the  joints  are  to  be  rebated  and 
set  in  cement ;  three  holes  are  to 
be  carefully  cut  for  lead  pipes. 

Provide  and  lay  York  paving, 
jointed  and  set  in  cement,  in  the 
harness-room,  including  the  back 
hearth  and  recess  adjoining  the 
same,  and  the  space  under  the 
stairs,  also  under  the  tank  and 
round  sink  stone,  as  shown  in 
the  drawings  ;  two  holes  to  be  cut 
in  the  last  for  lead  pipes. 

Provide  and  set  two  York 
stones,  splayed,  rebated,  and  cut 
for  top  and  bottom  hinge  of  en- 
trance-court gate,  the  iron-work 
of  the  hinges  to  be  let  in  and 
leaded  by  the  mason. 

Prepare  and  set  inch  rubbed 
Portland  jambs  and  mantels,  4 
inches  wide,  2  feet  2  inches  open- 
ing to  chimneys  of  harness-room 

499 


!• 


BUILDING. 


and  coachman's  room,  with  four 
chimney  cramps  to  each,  let  into 
York  slabs  notched  for  the  same. 
Provide  and  set  also  rough  York 
slab  and  b,ack  hearth  to  the  chim- 
ney in  coachman's  room. 

The  contractor  for  the  mason's 
work  must  provide  all  lead  requir- 
ed for  fixing  the  work  aforesaid. 

Slater.  The  roof  of  the  stables 
is  to  be  covered  with  sound 
dutchess  slates,  and  nailed  with 
strong  copper  nails,  every  third 
slate  overlapping  by  two  and  half 
inches  the  head  of  the  first.  The 
slates  to  be  well  cut,  and  fitted 
against  the  slips,  &c.  and  the 
whole  to  be  done  and  left  in  the 
most  workmanlike  manner. 

Plasterer*  Lath  with  sound  fir 
laths  free  from  sap,  plaster,  set 
up,  and  whiten  the  ceilings  and 
partitions  of  the  coachman's 
room,  and  the  soffit  and  sides  of 
the  opening  in  partition  for  flap 
in  hayloft ;  also  the  ceilings  of 
the  stable,  harness-room,  and 
coach-house,  and  strings  of  stairs, 
excepting  that  part  in  the  closet 
under  stairs. 

Render,  set,  and  whiten  the 
brick  sides  of  the  coachman's 
room,  and  the  chimney  side  of  the 
harness-room. 

The  ceiling  of  the  coachman's 
room  is  to  be  lathed  before  the 
slating  is  laid. 

Smith.  All  the  cast-iron  work 
must  be  of  perfectly  sound  cast- 
ings, all  the  wrought  iron  to  be 
of  the  best  quality. 

Provide  and  fix  a  vane  A\  feet 
above  the  roof,  and  3  feet  under, 
with  the  letters  N  S  E  W  firmly 
secured  to  the  wood-work  below 
the  upper  part,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing  ;  a  half  sphere  to  be  cast 
at  the  ridge  part  to  admit  of 
plumber's  flushing. 

Provide  two  iron  tie  straps  for 
the  chimney-shaft,  2  inches  wide, 
and  half-inch  thick,  with  staples 

500 


to  fix  in  the  brickwork:  these 

will  be  fixed  by  the  bricklayer 

Provide  three  wrought- iron 
straps,  three-quarter  inch  by  |l| 
inch,  2  feet  long  each,  with  a  nut  i 
at  one  end,  screws  and  holes 
drilled  at  the  other,  to  secure 
the  girder  to  the  plates  and 
partitions:  these  will  be  fixed  by 
the  carpenter. 

Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  seg- 
ment  water-troughs,  6  inches 
wide,  2\  inches  deep,  with  iron 
brackets  fixed  in  brickwork  every 
3  feet  in  length,  mitred  and  fitted 
together  with  a  stop  at  each  end 
against  tne  party-wall. 

Provide  a  cast-iron  rain-water 
head,  with  hole  provided  for 
wooden  gutter  in  the  roof.  Pro- 
vide one  ditto  for  the  head  of 
rain-water  pipe  in  front.  Both 
of  these  are  to  be  made  to  let  into 
the  trough. 

Provide  and  fix  a  rain-water 
pipe,  3  inches  diameter  in  clear,  as 
shown  in  the  drawing. 

Provide  iron  bars,  three-quar- 
ter inch  square,  to  the  windows 
of  stable  and  harness-room,  3f 
inches  apart. 

Provide  and  fix  two  iron  co- 
lumns in  stable,  as  shown  in  the 
drawings,  with.»a  cap  let  in  and 
screwed  to  girder,  and  base  let 
in  half  an  inch  on  the  York  stone, 
with  a  steel  tenon  cast  in  the 
same  \\  inch  square,  and  three- 
quarter  inch  deep. 

Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  railing 
to  stalls  of  partitions,  with  rings, 
&c.  as  shown  in  the  drawings, 
and  firmly  secured  to  the  iron 
columns  ;  the  top  rail  to  extend 
and  be  fixed  in  the  brick  wall. 

Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  racks 
with  holes  drilled  and  firmly 
screwed  to  the  wood-work,  and 
two  rings  fixed  to  each. 

Provide  and  fix  two  harness 
pegs,  and  one  ring  to  each  of'  the 
iron   columns,    at    the  heights 


BUILDING. 


pared  in  the  drawings,  with 
biiare  rivets  to  the  same. 

Provide  and  fix  iron  nosing  to 
root  of  partition  between  racks, 
cutely  screwed  to  the  wood- 
work. 

Provide  and  fix  cast-iron  nos- 
igs  to  manger,  as  shown  in  the 
rawings,  and  screwed  to  the 
ime. 

Provide  and  fix  three  cast-iron 
ratings  and  frames  to  the  top  of 
^sspool  in  stalls,  as  shown  in  the 
rawings. 

1  Provide  and  fix  four  G-  inch  bell 
aps  to  the  cesspool,  as  indicated 

the  drawings  of  the  section  at 
Yge  of  the  drains,   kc.  and  let 
to  the  York  paving. 
Provide  four  screw-bolts  for 
e  large,  and  four  ditto  to  the 
waller   or   outside    gate,  each 
ree-quarter  inch  diameter,  and 
inches  less  in  length  than  the 
dth  of  the  gates.    Provide  three 
Uo  to  stable  door,  five-eight- 
ch  diameter;  the  whole  of  these 
'th  proper  nuts  and  plates. 
All  defective  castings,  or  other 
)rk  found  insufficient  from  de- 
ctive  workmanship,  are  to  be 
nnediately  replaced. 
The  contractor  for  the  smith's 
>rk  must  provide   all  patterns 
'cessary,  and  all  lead  required 
r  fixing  his  work,  and  make  ar- 
ngements  with  the  other  work- 
.  if  any  scaffolding  should  be 
cessary  for  fixing  any  ofhis  work. 
Plumber.      Provide    and  lay 
ree-quarter   inch  service-pipe 
)m  the  main  to  the  tank,  to  rise 
inches  above  the  top  of  waste, 
JtH   all    necessary   joints,  and 
dered  to  bottom  of  tank,  and 
;  three-quarter  inch  brass  cock 
ihe  same,  and  an  inch  ferrule 
i  the  main. 
Provide  and  fix  a  2-inch  waste- 
i  >e  to  tank,  secured  at  the  top 

a  small  iron  stay  fixed  in  brick- 
>rk,  and  soldered  to  the  bottom 


of  the  tank,  with  a  three-quarter 

inch  brass  cock  outside  and  18 
inches  of  pipe  through  9-inch 
wall,  and  stone  bottom  of  tank 
soldered  to  bottom,  &c. 

Provide  and  lay  half- inch  pipe 
from  tank  to  sink  in  stable,  sol- 
dered to  bottom  of  tank,  to  rise 
3  feet  above  the  level  of  paving, 
with  all  the  necessary  joints,  and 
half-inch  brass  cock  to  the  same. 

Line  the  bottom  and  sides  of 
the  sink  with  cast  lead,  not  less 
than  eight  pounds  to  the  foot 
superficial,  with  an  inch  washer 
and  waste,  and  one-quarter  inch 
waste-pipe  into  the  drain. 

Cover  the  hips  and  ridges  of 
the  roof  with  milled  lead,  four 
pounds  to  the  foot  superficial, 
dressed  down  upon  the  slates, 
and  well  secured  to  the  wood- 
work, to  be  not  less  than  12 
inches  wide,  and  to  lap  at  the 
meetings  at  least  6  inches.  Put 
a  small  flushing  to  the  bottom  of 
the  vane.  Provide  and  lay  a 
flushing  as  last  described  against 
party-wall  and  round  chimney, 
but  eight  inches  wide,  with  a 
small  gutter,  six  pounds  to  the 
foot  superficial,  at  one  side  of 
the  chimney-shaft  9  inches  wide, 
and  to  jay  under  the  slate  at  least 
6*  inches,  and  to  turn  up  against 
chimney-shaft  4  inches. 

The  whole  of  the  materials 
aforesaid  to  be  of  the  best  qua- 
lity, and  applied  in  the  most 
workmanlike  manner. 

Glazier.  Glaze  the  sashes  of  the 
loft,  coachman's  room,  harness- 
room,  and  stables,  with  second 
crown  glass,  to  be  well  puttied, 
and  left  whole,  clean,  and  perfect 
at  the  completion  of  the  work. 

Painter,  Paint  all  the  usual 
wood  and  iron  work,  &c.  outside 
of  the  building,  including  both 
sides  of  the  outer  gates,  and  the 
inside  of  the  coach-house  and 
stable   door,   gates,   posts,  and 

501 


BUILDING. 


linings.  Wood-work  inside  of 
the  tank  four  times  in  oil,  stone 
colour,  or  other  common  colour, 
as  may  be  directed  ;  and  the  old 
removed  door  and  frame  to  garden 
twice  in  oil  on  both  sides. 

Paint  the  doors  and  linings,  sash- 
es and  linings,  &c.  iron  partitions 
of  stalls  and  bressummer  over 
hay-racks,  and  all  iron-work 
inside,  three  times  in  oil,  stone 
colour,  or  other  common  colour, 
as  may  be  described. 

The  white  lead  and  materials 
to  be  of  an  unexceptionable  kind, 
and  the  wood- work  to  be  oil 
knotted  and  stopped  with  putty 
where  necessary,  the  whole  being 
left  in  the  most  workmanlike 
manner. 

General  conditions.  The  follow- 
ing conditions  and  general  ob- 
servations are  to  apply,  and  be 
attended  to,  in  the  proposals  for 
the  whole  of  the  works,  or  for 
the  distinct  and  separate  trades, 
by  the  contractor  or  contractors. 

The  contracts  are  to  be  entered 
into  with  the  tenders  are 

to  be  delivered,  sealed  and  di- 
rected to  the  architect, 
at  on  or  before 
and  are  to  state  a  sufficient  sum, 
with  a  distinct  sum  for  each 
separate  trade,  for  which  the 
several  branches  of  work  will 
be  undertaken,  subject  to  the 
condition  contained  in  the  speci- 
fication. 

The  contractor,  whether  for 
the  whole  or  separate  trades,  is 
to  provide  all  manner  of  labour, 
tools,  implements,  scaffolding, 
ropes,  ladders,  materials  of  every 
description,  carriage  and  every 
thing  requisite  for  the  completion 
of  the  respective  works,  and  is  to 
make  good  all  damage  or  defects 
which  may  be  occasioned,  whe- 
ther from  carelessness  or  other 
cause ;  the  contractor  repairing 
such    damages    or    defects,  to 

502 


charge  the  expenses  by  whom  it 
has  been  occasioned. 

The  workmen  of  the  different' 
contractors  are  to  attend  to  give 
the  necessary  assistance  stipulated 
for  each  other  in  the  execution 
of  their  work.  Each  contractor 
is  to  clear  away  from  time  to 
time  all  rubbish  occasioned  bys 
their  respective  works. 

The  drawings  are  to  be  equally 
binding  with  the  specification: 
and  should  any  thing  appear  in 
them  which  has  been  omitted  to 
be  described,  the  contractor  is  t<j 
execute  the  same  consistent  with 
the  general  tenour  of  the  specifi- 
cation,  and  the  whole  building  is 
to  be  left  in  a  complete  state,  ac- 
cording to  the  true  intent  anc 
meaning  of  the  different  draw- 
ings :  and  the  directions  whicl 
may  be  given  from  time  to  time 
by  the  architect  for  its  strict  per- 
formance,  are  to  be  strictly  ad 
hered  to. 

The  architect  is  to  be  at  full 
liberty  to  order  the  discharge  of 
or  dismiss  from  the  works  o 
premises,  any  man  or  men  fo 
incompetency  or  misconduct,  am 
the  contractor  is  not  to  replac 
them  without  the  approbation  c 
the  architect.  It  is  also  to  be  ii 
the  power  of  the  architect  t 
direct  such  alterations  to  be  madj 
in  the  work  during  its  progress 
as  may  be  found  expedient ;  whic 
alterations  shall  not  vitiate  o 
make  void  the  contract,  but  sha 
be  performed  by  the  contractu 
according  to  the  directions  h 
may  receive;  and  the  value  of  th 
same,  whether  an  addition  or  de 
duction,  is  to  be  ascertained  b 
the  said  architect,  and  to  beadde 
to  or  deducted  from  the  amour 
of  the  contract,  and  the  awarj 
of  the  architect  shall  be  final. 

No  allowance  will  be  made  i 
the  contractor  for  any  extra  ( 
additional  work,  unless  the  sair 


BUILDING. 


jail  have  been  ordered  in  writ- 
Jr  bv  the  architect,  and  unless 
1  account,  or  voucher  of  the 
|d  work,  is  delivered  to  the 
ihitect  within  three  days  of  its 
Jrformance. 

Should  any  of  the  materials, 
I.  be  lost  or  stolen  from  the 
jfemises,  no  allowance  will  be 
Lie  to  the  contractor  for  the 
Inej  and  should  it  be  deemed 
i  cessary  at  any  time  to  suspend 
1-2  works,  on  account  of  weather 
<  other  cause,  the  architect  shall 
I  at  full  liberty  to  do  so,  and  no 
ttra  charge  shall  be  made  on 
lis  account  by  the  contractor. 
The  architect  shall  have  full 
]  wer  to  reject  any  of  the  mate- 
i  ls  which  he  may  think  unfit  for 
12  work,  or  to  cause  any  part  of 
fe  work  to  be  altered  which  is 
i  his  opinion  unsound  or  un- 
->rkmanlike,  and  not  according 
1   contract,    upon   three  days' 
]  tice  being  given  in  writing  for 
lit  purpose  by  the  architect; 
;,d  in  case  the  contractor  shall 
fuse  or    delay  to  rectify  the 
joae,  or  comply  with  the  orders 
it  may  be   so  given  him  in 
king,  or   refuse  or  delay  to 
Fform  all  or  any  part  of  the 
>;k  in  a  proper  manner,  or  in 
ike  the  works  do  not  proceed 

th  proper  despatch,  Mr.  

jail  have  power  and  full  liberty 


to  suspend  the  further  execution 
of  the  works  by  the  said  con- 
tractor, to  take  it  out  of  his 
hands,  and  employ  or  engage  any 
other  workmen  to  perform  and 
execute  the  same  ;  in  which  case 
the  costs  and  charges  thereof 
shall  be  paid  or  allowed  to  Mr. 
  by  the  contractor,  or  re- 
tained or  deducted  out  of  the 
money  which  may  be  then  due, 
or  become  due,  to  the  con* 
tractor,  the  amount  of  which 
shall  be  valued  and  decided  by 
the  architect,  whose  award  in 
this  and  in  all  other  cases  shall 
be  final. 

The  contractor  or  contractors 
shall  receive  the  amount  of  their 

tender  from  Mr.  within  one 

month  after  the  whole  of  their 
respective  works  have  been  com- 
pleted, upon  producing  a  certifi- 
cate from  the  architect,  stating 
that  their  respective  works  have 
been  performed  according  to  con- 
tract ;  or,  if  desired  by  them,  they 
shall  receive  a  payment  of  half 
the  amount  of  their  tender  upon 
producing  a  certificate  from  the 
architect,  stating  that  two-thirds 
of  their  respective  works  have 
been  performed,  and  the  balance 
within  one  month  after  the  whole 
of  their  respective  works  have 
been  performed,  upon  producing 
a  certificate  as  before  stated. 


Sir, 

We,  the  undersigned,  agree  to  perform  the  respective  works 
ipulated  for  each  of  us,  according  to  the  particulars  and  conditions 
intained  in  the  foregoing  specification,  and  according  to  the  true 
lent  and  meaning  of  Drawings,  (signed  also  by  us  at  the  back,) 
,*rked  without  any  reference  to  the  quantities  or  valuations 

|m  which  our  tenders  were  made,  and  for  the  sums  annexed  to  our 
matures. 

We  also  agree,  that  in  case  of  any  works  being  done  at  your  dwelling, 
any  other  premises,  on  your  account,  they  shall  be  done  according  to 

e  directions,  and  subject  to  the  valuation  of  Mr.  ,  your  archi- 

t,  and  according  to  the  conditions  contained  in  the  said  specifica- 
)n.    Witness  our  hands  day  of 


BUILDING. 


r  A 

Witness  1 
to  the    ]  C 

Signa- 
tures, 
M.  N. 


D. 

<  E.  F. 
1  G.  H. 
I  I.  J. 
V.K.  L. 


B. — Excavator  and  Bricklayer,  Slater") 

and  Plasterer   J 

Carpenter  and  Joiner   .  . .  :   190 

Mason    14 

Smith  and  Iron  Founder   43 

Plumber  and  Glazier   13 

Painter   7 


183  14  0 


0 

15 
14 
8 
0 


£452  11  6 


Building.  A  mass  formed  by 
Jhe  junction  of  materials. 

When  any  one  intends  to  build, 
he  should  make  choice  of  an 
architect  who  is  known  to  be 
trustworthy  and  well  skilled  in 
his  profession.  To  him  he  should 
communicate  his  ideas  with  re- 
spect to  the  required  number  of 
rooms  j  the  purposes  for  which 
those  rooms  are  to  be  destined  j 
and  the  total  expense  at  which  he 
wishes  the  building  to  be  com- 
pleted. The  architect,  being  thus 
acquainted  with  the  necessary 
particulars,  proceeds  to  make  out 
a  design,  and,  having  submitted 
it  to,  and  obtained  the  approval 
of,  his  employer,  then  makes  out 
a  calculation  of  the  expenses.  If 
those  expenses  exceed  theamount 
proposed  to  be  laid  out,  the  de- 
sign must  be  either  proportionally 
reduced  in  all  its  dimensions,  or 
such  parts  as  are  the  least  requir- 
ed may  be  omitted,  or  the  ex- 
terior or  the  apartments  may  be 
divested  of  some  of  the  proposed 
ornaments,  accordingly  as  either 
of  these  be  the  most  agreeable 
to  the  wishes  of  the  proprie- 
tor. Every  thing  being  thus 
adjusted,  so  as  to  bring  the 
sum  within  the  amount  proposed 
to  be  laid  out,  the  proprietor 
should  commit  the  entire  manage- 
ment to  the  architect,  who  then 
makes  out  a  specification,  (see 
the  preceding  article,)  and  selects 
such  masters  for  the  execution 
of  the  respective  departments  as 
shall  appear  to  him  most  com- 

504 


petent  to  the  undertaking.  It  j 
customary  for  the  architect,  whe 
he  has  made  out  the  specificatior 
to  submit  the  several  items,  to 
gether  with  the  drawings,  to  th 
respective  masters,  whom  h 
forthwith  requires  to  furnish  hit 
with  an  estimate  of  the  expens1 
If  the  estimate  appears  reason 
able,  each  master-tradesman  en 
ters  into  a  written  contract  fo 
the  due  completion  of  the  severe 
works,  accordingly  as  they  ar 
described  in  the  specification,  an 
at  the  sum  which  he  has  esti 
mated  as  a  fair  remuneration  fo 
the  time  and  labour  to  be  con 
sumed.  There  are,  howevei 
some  cases,  in  which,  from  novel 
ties  of  execution,  no  estimate  ca 
be  made  :  and,  again,  there  ar 
other  cases,  which,  though  pecu 
liarly  novel,  and  not  admittin 
of  an  estimate  previously  to  th 
commencement  of  the  work,  yet 
from  consisting  of  a  repetition  c 
the  same  novelties,  allow  of  i 
after  a  very  small  portion  of  th 
work  is  completed  :  in  such  cases 
the  architect  must  act  accord! 
ingly.  Again,  there  are  man 
proprietors  whose  ideas  are  eve 
changing,  and  who  no  soone 
see  a  portion  of  the  work  com 
pleted,  than  they  require  to  hav 
it  altered  :  under  such  circum 
stances,  it  would  be  impruden 
to  contract,  and  the  work  shoul 
be  charged  by  measure  and  value 
affixing  a  regular  price  to  ever 
correspondent  article,  and  takim 
an  account  of  the  work  pulle< 


BUI 


BUL 


dov,  and  the  time  employed  in 
its  jmolition.  In  whatever  way 
the  -ork  is  to  be  valued,  it  is 
nary  in  large  undertakings 
tp  e  ploy  a  person  stationary  on 
the  'eniises,  called  a  clerk  of  the 
war  ;  to  him  the  architect  com- 
muiiates  his  full  intentions,  and 

..  him  authority  to  superm- 
ini he  whole  of  the  execution, 
to  kbp  an  account  of  the  work- 
: 1 1 e i  time,  to  give  in  weekly 
epits,  and  to  examine  such 
part  of  the  work  as  may  be  pre- 
paid! out  of  the  premises. 

Ik  preliminary  measures  ne- 

is|y  to  the  construction  of  an 
i   are,  drawing  the  plans  of 
;  jg  veral  stories,  the  elevations 

t  facades,  a  longitudinal  and 
i  t:  erse  section  at  the  least,  a 
nor  mtal  and  vertical  section  of 
Oaclbf  the  most  difficult  parts, 
and1  detail  of  all  the  mouldings 
and  ornaments  at  large  ;  from 
drawings  the  specification 
i  iwn  out  and  the  expense 
csti  ited.  It  is  not,  however, 
an  ('  y  task  for  an  architect  to 
lun  h  all  the  detail  of  a  building 
jre^uslvto  its  commencement; 
but  sufficient  time  were  allow- 
ed is  might  be  done,  and  an 
esti.ile  of  the  expense  correctly 
ained.  For  further  parti- 
cal;i ,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
the  rticles  Architecture,  Brick- 
I'tijii,  Masonry,  Carpentry,  Join- 
ery,\c.  &c. 

b  lding.  In  Masonry.  The  art 
of  uuieeting  stones  together, 
Mihl  with  or  without  cement,  so 
as  t!form  the  whole  or  part  of 
an  (  fice.  It  also  signifies  the 
mas  n  body  which  is  formed  by 
the  nction  of  stones  with  regu- 
lar Irfaces  ;  in  which  sense  it  is 
anal  ;ous  to  masonry,  or  a  piece 
of  r  sonry.    See  Masonry. 

B  lding  act.    An  act  passed 
by  ie   legislature,  containing 
ctrta  restrictions  or  regulations 
3S 


for  the  erecting  of  houses  within 
the  cities  of  London  and  West- 
minster, the  weekly  bills  of  mor- 
tality, the  parishes  of  St.  Mary- 
la-bonne,  Paddington,  St.  Pancras, 
and  St.  Luke,  Chelsea.  This  act 
was  passed  in  the  14  th  Geo.  3. 
cap.  78.  and  a  faithful  abstract  of 
it  has  been  given  under  the  arti- 
cle Bricklayer. 

Building  of  beams.  The  unit- 
ing of  several  pieces  of  timber 
together,  by  means  of  bolts,  so  as 
to  form  a  beam  of  a  greater  length 
and  thickness  than  could  possibly 
be  obtained  from  a  single  piece 
of  timber.  Beams  which  have 
been  thus  built,  and  judiciously 
strapped  across  the  exterior  sides, 
are  much  stronger  than  such  as 
are  scarfed,  nor  is  so  much  tim- 
ber wasted  in  their  construction. 
Many  advantages  may  be  derived 
from  the  building  of  beams  j  for 
independently  of  their  being  much 
stronger,  and  requiring  less  waste 
of  timber  in  their  construction 
than  such  as  are  scarfed,  ribs 
may  be  built  for  vaulted  roofs 
that,  by  proper  attention  to  the 
degree  of  curvature,  will  require 
no  trussing.  See  the  articles  Rib 
and  Scarfing. 

Buleuteria.  In  Grecian  Anti- 
quity. Public  halls  at  Athens, 
where  companies  of  tradesmen 
assembled  to  deliberate  on  com- 
mercial purposes. 

Bulker.  A  term  in  Lincoln- 
shire for  a  beam  or  rafter. 

Bullen  nails.  Nails  with 
round  heads  and  short  shanks, 
tinned  and  lackered.  These 
nails  are  principally  used  in  the 
hangings  of  rooms. 

Bullock's-eye.  OSil  de  Bozuf. 
A  little  skylight  in  the  covering 
or  roof,  designed  to  illumine  a 
granary  or  the  like. 

Bullock-siieds.  In  Rural  Eco~ 
nomy.  The  houses  in  which 
bullocks  are  kept  while  feeding. 

505 


BULLOCK- SHEDS 


In  the  construction  of  these  build- 
ings attention  should  always  be 
had  to  their  being  well  aired,  to 
the  facility  of  feeding  and  clean- 
ing the  animals  in  them,  and  to 
their  being  kept  clean  and  dry  by 
their  having  suitable  drains  and 
conveniences  for  urine  and  dung. 
In  the  rural  economy  of  Nor- 
folk,   Mr.    Marshall  remarks, 
that  a  bullock-house  there  con- 
sists  of  a  centre   building,  36 
feet   long,    19    feet    wide,  and 
about  11  feet  high,  with  a  pair 
of  wide  folding  doors    at  each 
end,  and  a  lean-to  on  each  side 
the  whole  length  of  the  building, 
and  11  feet  wide.    The  centre 
building  is  the  turnip-house;  the 
lean-to  sheds  for  bullocks,  which 
stand  with  their  heads  towards, 
or  rather  in,  the  turnip-house, 
from  which  they  are  parted  by  a 
range  of  mangers  only,  having 
the  full  freedom  of  breathing  in 
its  spacious  area ;  by  opening  the 
doors  at  each  end,  a  sufficient 
degree  of  air  and  coolness  may 
be  given  in  hot  weather,  while 
behind,  the  eaves  of  the  sheds  are 
brought  down  to  within  five  feet 
of  the  ground,  and  are  boarded 
with  rough   boards,  except  an 
opening  at    each   end    for  the 
bullocks  to  creep  in  at,  to  pre- 
vent   too    great   a  coldness  in 
severe  weather  ;  thus  preserving 
a  due  temperature.    The  shed  of 
these  dimensions,  thus  construct* 
ed,  holds  twenty  bullocks,  ten  on 
each  side,  fastened  by  the  neck, 
with  chains,  swivels,  and  rings, 
playing  freely  upon  posts  seven 
feet  high.    At  each  corner  of  the 
turnip-house  is  a  triangular  bin, 
for  containing  the   topped  and 
tailed  turnips  or  other  provisions. 

In  autumn,  it  is  further  ob- 
served, the  entire  building  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  temporary 
barn  for  buck  wheat,  peas,  &c. 
and  in  summer  the  centre  part  is 


an  excellent  waggon-shed;  d 
the  doors  been  made  a  foot  a  a 
half  higher,  it  is  suggested  tl  it 
would  have  been  an  admirle 
refuge  for  loads  of  corn  or  I 
in  a  showery  harvest.  The  m 
building  is  covered  with  reed  ie 
lean-toes  with  tiles.  And  ii  le 
rural  economy  of  Glouce  r- 
shire,  the  same  writer  obse,  s, 
that  each  bullock  has  a  house  ic 
yard  to  himself,  in  which  he  es 
loose,  occupying  them  by  t;  s, 
as  appetite  or  amusement  di  ts 
him,  having  a  manger  ai  a 
drinking  trough  to  go  t  at 
pleasure. 

The  construction  of  these,  i  v- 
ever,  vary  in  the  minutiae; he 
water  trough,   for  instano  is 
sometimes  placed  by  the  mai  :r, 
in  the  hovel  or  shed,  somei  es 
in  the  open  pen;  other  less  no  e- 
able  variations  may  be  see  in 
different  buildings.    But  the  an 
and  dimensions  which  at  pn  nt 
seem  to   stand    in   the  hii.st 
esteem,    and  on   which  sef] 
erections  of  this  nature  have  en 
made  within  the  last  fiftef  or 
twenty  years,  are  the  follow,': 
the  building,  15  to  15 J  feet  I 
within,  and  of  a  length  por- 
tioned to  the  number  of  I 
required;  the  height  of  the  j  tes 
5  feet  to  6  feet  4  inches,  i 
ported  on  the  side  by  the  !  *th 
or  east  by  close  walling ;  oi  I 
to  the  south  or  west  by  \M 
set  on  stone  pedestals  ;  the  g  its 
walling,  the  covering  plain  M 
on  a  single  pitch  roof;  aflM 
the  back  wall  is  a  gangwaiS 
to  4  feet  wide,    formed  j 
length  of  mangers,  3  feet  &£ 
feet  wide,  from  out  to  oujM 
top  narrowing  to  about  15  i  J 
within  at  the  bottom:  thejer- 
pendicular  depth  14  to  15  in|es; 
the  height  of  the  top  rail  WJ 
the  ground  about  2  feet  9  in  es; 
the    materials    2-inch    1 llk 


„  md 


BULLOCK-SHEDS. 


stay*  and  supported  by  posts 
'  oss-pieces,  and  stiffened  by 
top  rails  j  the  dimensions 
area  of  the  covered  stalls 
feet  3  inches  square  ;  of 


.  pens  the  same.  The 
■  m  ms  between  the  stalls  are 
>f  bri.d  nails,  passing  from  the 
>uter|pillars   to   similar  posts, 

I  isinin  the  inner  or  stall  side 
"Sf  tbj  manger,  and  steadied  at 
"'he  t\  by  slender  beams,  reach- 

r  11  >ss  the  building,  each  stall, 
eai  partition,  having  a  beam 
11,:nd  jir  of  principals.    The  par- 
tition of  the   pens  are  gates, 
h  j,  from  the  pillars  to  the 
K  ounffry  wall,  and  likewise  from 

II  illarjo  pillar ;  when  they  are 

I  that  situation  each  bullock 
M-as  hi  stall  and  his  little  yard  ; 
ififhenpi  this,  each  is  shut  up  in 
k  is  stll :  the  yard  forms  a  lane 
i  r  drii-way  for  taking  in  or  turn- 
t   any   individual.  The 
ourury  wall  of   the    pens  is 
bout.1  feet  high,  coped  with 
•lock  of  copper  dross;  on  the 
:  uter  de  of  it  is  a  receptacle  of 
mnu.on  the  inner  a  range  of 
/ater -oughs,  with  a  channel  of 
i  omn'nication  for  the  conveni- 
ence \  filling  them.    The  mate- 
rials (|  the  troughs  are  stone,  of 
l<  he  cljinel  gutter  bricks,  cover- 
ed v[h    slates.     These  stone 
rougj,   which    are    about  14 
nche  jy  2  feet  6,  have  a  con- 
t  enieiy   in   their  construction 
,  vhichs  entitled  to  notice;  in- 
stead jf  the  sides  and  ends  being 
,,dl  of  hem  pecked  down  to  an 
ingleLsquare  with  the  bottom, 
)ne  o;  the  ends  is  left  bevelling 
slopir,  making  a  very  obtuse 
Wglekwith    the    bottom ;  this 
smiplivariation  makes  them  very 
,***y  I'  be  cleaned,  either  with 
the  s!  vel  or  the  broom. 

Thfloor  is  paved  with  hard- 
burnt  bricks,   laid    cdgwise  in 
mort;i  being  formed  with  a  deep 


descent  from  the  wall  to  a  chan- 
nel, from  3  to  4  feet  from  it,  and 
with  a  gentle  fall  from  the  manger 
to  the  same  channel,  which  be- 
comes the  general  drain  for  rain- 
water and  urine.  At  one  end  of 
the  pens  is  a  pump  (where  a 
natural  rill  cannot  be  had)  for 
supplying  the  troughs  of  water, 
and  at  the  other  a  stack  of 
stubble  for  litter,  which  is  used 
in  the  stall  only,  the  yard  being 
left  unlittered.  At  one  end  of 
the  building  is  a  cake-house,  at 
the  other  a  rick-yard,  with  a  door 
at  each  end  of  the  gangway  to 
receive  the  hay  and  the  cake. 

In  some  instances  he  has  seen 
a  double  range  of  stalls  on  this 
plan,  the  area  between  them  be- 
ing the  common  receptacle  for 
the  dung.     When  a  number  of 
stalls,  as  twenty  or  thirty,  are 
required,  their  arrangement  brings 
them  within  a  convenient  com- 
pass, and  the  two  ranges,  with  a 
proper  aspect,  become  shelter  to 
each  other.     Beside  these  loose 
stalls,  there  are  others  built  nearly 
on  the  same  plan,  but  without 
gates,  and  on  a  somewhat  larger 
scale,  in  which   the   cattle  are 
fastened  to  the  manger,  or  the 
partition  posts,  with  a  long  chain, 
which  gives  them  liberty  to  rub 
and  lick  themselves,  and  move 
about  in  their  stalls.    In  this  case 
a  water  trough  is  generally  placed 
at  the  end  of  every  second  parti- 
tion, level  with  the  manger,  and 
with  a  general  pipe  of  communi- 
cation to  fill  them,  each  trough 
supplying   two  bullocks.  This 
plan,  he  observes,  lessens  the  ex- 
pense in  some  degree,  and  pre- 
vents the  bullocks  from  fouling 
their  mangers.     In  the  Cotswold 
hills,  he  remarks  that  each  bullock 
has  different  troughs,  a  small  one 
for  corn,  a  larger  one  for  hay, 
with  a  water  trough  which  runs 
the  whole  length  of  the  shed,  and 


BUS 

is  covered  by  a  board,  each  bul- 
lock having  a  hole  to  drink  at. 
There  are  various  other  construc- 
tions of  sheds  for  this  use,  which 
will  be  more  particularly  describ- 
ed under  their  proper  heads.  See 
Cattle  Sheds  and  Feeding  Houses. 

Bui. lock-stalls.  The  parts 
that  are  partitioned  off  in  the 
sheds,  in  which  the  bullocks  stand 
to  eat  their  food.  They  should 
always  be  made  sufficiently  roomy. 
See  Cattle  Sheds. 

Bulwark.  In  Ancient  Fortiji- 
catlons:  Nearly  the  same  with 
bastion  in  the  modern.  See  Ram- 
part and  Torus. 

BUNDLK-PILLAR.  In  GotlllC 

Architecture.  A  column  consist- 
ing of  a  number  of  small  pillars 
round  its  circumference. 

Buonarotti,  Michael  Ancelo. 
See  Bonarrotti. 

Burca.  A  term  among1  the 
Turks  for  the  rich  covering  of  the 
door  of  the  house  at  Mecca.  It 
is  10  feet  long  and  5  feet  wide  ; 
and  there  are  several  figures  and 
Arabic  letters  on  it,  richly  em- 
broidered in  gold,  on  a  ground  of 
red  and  green.  This  is  carried 
round  in  their  solemn  processions, 
and  is  often  made  to  stop  that  the 
people  may  touch  it. 

Burg  ward,  burgwardus,  or 
bugwardium.  In  Middle  Age  Wri- 
ters. The  same  with  bulwark. 
The  name  is  also  extended  to  the 
town,  and  even  to  the  country, 
about  such  a  fortress. 

Bursa.  In  Middle  Age  Writers. 
A  little  college  or  hall  in  a  uni- 
versity for  the  residence  of  stu- 
dents. 

Burse.  In  Matters  of  Com,' 
merce.  Denotes  a  public  edifice  for 
the  assembly  of  merchants  and 
traders  ;  and  is  used  in  the  same 
sense  as  the  more  modern  appel- 
lation, Exchange. 

BUSCHETTO    DA    DuLICIIIO.  A 

celebrated  Grecian  architect,  born 

5jS 


BUT 

in  the  isle  of  Dulichio,  an<  m- 
ployed  in  1016,  by  the  rem 
of  Pisa,  in  building  and  ornajjZ 
ing  their  dome  or  catbCj 
church;  which  he  enriched  % 
many  marble  columns,  and  vfl 
has  ever  since  been  reckoner 
of  the  most  sumptuous  edihV  q 
Italy.  He  died  at  Pisa,  wn  a 
monument  was  erected  t  his 
memory,  bearing  an  inscr  inn 
which  intimates  his  extraort  irv 
knowledge  of  the  mec  nic 
powers.  His  disciples  wer  m 
merous,  and  he  is  regard  as 
the  principal  founder  of  mm 
architectural  science  in  Ital; 

Bust,  or  busto.  In  Scu,m, 
That  portion  of  the  human  I  ire, 
which  comprises  the  head,  ck, 
breast,  and  shoulders.  b  the 
Italians  this  term  is  applj.  to 
the  human  figure  as  low  ^ f the 
hips,  with  or  without  the. cad 
and  arms  ;  which  definition  :rees 
with  that  species  of  scujure, 
which  represents  the  portrjsoi 
illustrious  Romans,  either  ei;rely: 
round  and  mounted  on  pedals, 
or  in  alto  relievo  on  the  si  s  of 
sarcophagi  or  other  sepijnral 
monuments.  The  etymoloj'  ofc 
the  Italian  busto  most  pn;tbly 
is  from  the  Latin,  bustum. 

Bustum.  A  figurative  e  res- 
sion  among  the  Romans  f(f«BJI 
kind  of  tomb.  The  busti,  in 
the  Campus  Martius,  was  a  m 
ture  whereon  the  bodies  (  the 
emperor  Augustus  and  hi;  uc- 
cessors  were  burnt.  It  waiiiilt 
of  white  stone,  surroundedviA 
an  iron  palisade,  and  pjited 
within  side  with  alder  trees.jlbe 
word  bustum  also  denote!  the 
hearth,  or  pla^e  of  an  altar  pere 
the  fire  was  kindled. 

But-hinges.    Hinges  eiiloy* 
ed   in   the  hanging  of 
shutters,   casements,  &c.|See 
Hinges. 


1 

inpti 
ress 


C  A  A 


MtN'TS,      OR  ABUTMENTS. 

ts  or  props,  by  which  the 
'  arches,  or  any  bodies 
v  in  an  oblique  direction 
hihorizon,  are  sustained  in 
Jaces.    See  Abutment  and 


m:y  the 

[ENT-CHEEKS.       The  tWO 

id  Lrts  on  each  side  of  a  mor 
'ie  thickness  of  each  cheek 
nonly  equal  to  the  thick 
( the  mortise  j  but  circum 
lance  sometimes    arise  which 
nil  them  to  be  of  a  different 
;  ikktp. 

1     J  END  OF  A  PIECE  OF  TIMBER. 

id  of  a  plank  which  was 
resio  the  root  of  the  tree, 
the  I;  liu^-JOiNT.     In  Hand-railing. 
t   joi   at  right  angles  to  the 
f  the  rail.     See  Hand- 


ox  is 


ry.  A  store-room  for 
ns. 

ng-joint.  A  joint  form- 
e  surfaces  of  two  pieces 
,  the  surface  of  the  one 
eing  parallel  with  the 
ind  that  of  the  other, 
i  the  same,  or  in  an  ob- 
ection  with  them.  The 
lich  the  struts  and  braces 
h  the  truss-posts,  in  car- 
ire  of  this  description. 
in.  A  small  piece  of  wood 


C  A  A 

or  metal,  turning  on  a  centre,,  for 
fastening  a  door,  window,  or  other 
closure.  The  button  is  generally 
made  to  turn  on  a  nail,  which 
nail  is  consequently  made  round, 
and  has  a  smooth  head. 

Button  of  a  lock.  Denotes  a 
round  head  serving  to  move  the 
bolt. 

Buttress.  A  mass  of  masonry, 
or  brickwork,  serving  to  support 
the  side  of  a  wall  that  is  of  very 
great  height,  or  that  is  pressed 
on  the  opposite  side  by  an  adven- 
titious force,  as  a  bank  o(  earth, 
or  body  of  water.  In  those  struc- 
tures improperly  called  gothic, 
buttresses  are  placed  around  the 
exterior  sides  of  the  building,  one 
in  the  intermediate  space  between 
every  two  windows,  and  one  or 
two  at  each  of  the  angles,  in 
order  to   support  the  vaulting. 
In  gothic,  or  pointed  architecture, 
two  kinds  of  buttresses  are  used  j 
the  one,  formed  of  vertical  planes, 
and    attached  to  the    walls,  is 
called  piltared-buttresses;  the  other, 
which  rises  from  the  pillared-but- 
tresses  upon  the  sides  of  the  aisle 
with  an  arch-formed  intrados,  and 
sloping  extrados,  or  top,  is  call- 
ed Jiying-buttresses,    or  arc-bou- 
tants.    See  Arc-bouianis,  Pointed 
Architecture,  &c. 


c. 


aabai  A  square  stone  edifice  to  this  building  on  account  of  its 

c  t  tuple  of  Mecca ;  being  height,  which  surpasses  that  of 

principally  reverenced  by  the   other  buildings  in  Mecca; 

Mjiometans,  and  to  which  but  others,  with  a  greater  degree 

ey  allays  direct  themselves  in  of  probability,  derive  the  name 

nyer.  The  believers    of  the  from  the  quadrangular  form  of 

ahonjtan  faith    attribute    the  the  structure. 

<-'ctio  of  this  building  to  Abra-  This  building  is  so  ancient,  that 

imurfhisson  Ishmael.  its  original  use  and  the  name  of 

Ine.  ord  is  Arabic,  caaba  or  the  founder  are  lost  in  idle  tradi- 

gwj/i,  a    denomination  which  tions.    The  Mahometans  affirm, 

""tsipose  to  have  been  given  that  it  is  almost  coeval  with  the 

509 


CAABA. 


world,  and  they  pretend  that 
Adam,  after  his  expulsion  from 
Paradise,  supplicated  divine  per- 
mission to  erect  a  building  like 
what  he  had  seen  there,  called 
"  Beit  al  Mamar,"  or  the  fre- 
quented house,  and  "  Al  Dorah," 
towards  which  he  might  direct 
his  prayers,  and  which  he  might 
compass,  as  the  angels  do  the 
celestial  one.  Upon  which  God 
let  down  a  representation  of  that 
house  in  curtains  of  light,  and  set 
it  in  Mecca,  perpendicularly  under 
its  original,  ordering  the  patriarch 
to  turn  towards  it  when  he  pray- 
ed, and  to  compass  it  by  way  of 
devotion.  After  Adam's  death,  they 
say  that  his  son  Seth  built  a 
house  in  the  same  form,  of  stones 
and  clay,  which,  being  destroyed 
by  the  deluge,  was  rebuilt  by 
Abraham  and  Ishmael  at  the  com- 
mand of  God,  in  the  place  where 
the  former  had  stood,  and  after 
the  same  model.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  absurdity  of  these  tradi- 
tions, it  is  not  improbable  that  it 
was  erected  by  some  of  the  imme- 
diate descendants  of  Ishmael.  It 
is  most  probable  that  the  caaba 
was  primarily  designed  for  re- 
ligious purposes  ;  and  it  is  certain 
that  it  was  held  in  the  highest 
veneration  long  before  the  birth 
of  Mahomet.  Having  undergone 
several  reparations,  it  was,  a  few 
years  after  his  birth,  rebuilt  on 
the  same  foundations  by  the  tribe 
of  Koreish,  who  had  acquired  the 
custody  of  it,  either  by  fraud  or 
force.  It  was  afterwards  repaired 
by  Abdallah  Ebn  Zobeir,  the 
caliph  of  Mecca;  and  again  re- 
built by  Zusof,  surnamed  Al  Hejaj, 
in  the  seventy-fourth  year  of  the 
Hegira,  with  some  alterations,  in 
which  form  it  now  remains. 

The  length  of  the  caaba,  from 
north  to  south,  is  24  cubits  j 
its  breadth,  from  east  to  west, 
L23  cubits ;  and   its   height  27 

510 


cubits.      The    door  whi 
on    the    east    side,    is  Lj 
about  4  cubits  from  the  gr  id 
and  the  floor  is  level  wit  the 
door.    In  the  corner,  nex  h 
door,  is  the  "  black  stone  so 
celebrated  amongst  the    h  . 
metans.    This*  stone   is  u 
silver,  and  fixed  in  the 
east  corner  of  the  buildir 
that  which  looks  towards  u 
about  two  cubits  and  one  'in!, 
or  seven  spans  from  the  g'W 
The  Moslems  pretend  that  was 
one  of  the   precious  stor  of 
Paradise,  and  that  it  fell  di  i 
the  earth  with  Adam,  andj.'ing 
taken  up  again,  or  otherwL* pre- 
served, at  the  deluge,  was,  the 
angel  Gabriel,  afterwards  b  jight 
back  to  Abraham,  when  1| was 
building  the  caaba.    Be  th  is  it 
may,  the  "  black  stone"  held 
in  very  high  estimation  the 
Mahometans,  and  is  kissed!  the 
pilgrims    with    great  depn, 
some  of  whom  call  it  "th.ight 
hand  of  God  on  earth." 

The  caaba  has  a  doubl  roof, 
supported  within  by  threejitan- 
gular  pillars  of  aloes  wo|,  be- 
tween which  are  suspende  on  a 
bar  of  iron,  some  silver  imps. 
The  outside  is  covered  wii  rich 
black  damask,  adorned  \jh  an 
embroidered  band  of  gold  ]  hich 
is  changed  every  year,  and;  pro- 
vided by  the  Turkish  entrors. 
At  some  distance  the  cjoa 1S 
surrounded,  but  not  entir|r,  by 
a  circular  enclosure  of  pillaj  join- 
ed towards  the  bottom  b)j  l»w 
balustrade,  and  towards  p  *°P 
by  bars  of  silver.  Withjt  this 
enclosure,  on  the  south-vjt  and 
north  side  of  the  caaba,  ai three 
buildings  ;  which  are  th-prato- 
ries,  or  places  where  t(ee  oi 
the  orthodox  sects  asseide  • 
perform  their  devotion  : 
wards  the  south-east  sttjia  tn< 
edifice  which   covers  t  *el 


CAB 

Ze:?em,  the  treasury,  and  the 
curila  of  Al  Abbas.     All  these 
bui  ings  are  enclosed,  at  a  con- 
BidJible  distance,  by  a  magnifi- 
cenuiazza,  or  square  colonnade, 
sibling  the  Royal  Exchange 
ondon,    but   much  larger, 
Jed  with  small  domes  and 
I  p  as,  from  the  four  corners  of 
whip  rise  as  many  minarets  or 
ties,  with  double  galleries, 
[domed  with  gilded  spires 
odrescents,  as  are  the  cupolas 
whip  cover  the  piazzas.  Be- 
>  the  pillars  of  both  enclo- 
j  sure  hang  a  great  number  of 
m  ,  which  are  constantly  light- 
night.    The  first  founda- 
tion  of  this  outward  enclosure 
r  laid  by  Omar,  the  second 
j ,  who  built  no  more  than  a 
v  all,  to  prevent  the  court  of 
the  aba  from  being  encroached 
i  private  buildings ;  but  the 
irire  has  been  since  raised, 
>y  tfe  liberality  of  many  of  the 
■  succding    princes   and  great 
DM  I)  o  its  present  lustre. 
C.  in,  or  cabbin.    A  room,  or 
ajrtment,  in  a  ship,  where  an 
Be  usually  resides.    The  same 
tenuis  also  applied  to  the  huts 
and  ttages  of  poor  people,  and 
#thosjof  savages.    The  cabins  of 
a  the  idians  of  Virginia  are  about 
r  )  feet  high.  They  are  made 
by  l  ing  poles  into  the  ground, 
i  and  ringing  the  tops  of  them 
thin  another,  and  so  tying 
then  ogether,  as  to  leave  a  hole 
.  W  tj  middle  of  the  top  of  the 
cabin  for  the  egress  of  smoke. 
1<>  pserve  themselves  from  the 
mcle  encies  of  the  weather,  the 
Indies  cover  the  outside  of  their 
Ctbii  with  bark,   and  cast  up 
bmik  of  earth  round  the  interior, 
lo  se  e  as  stools  and  beds. 

CilNET,    OR    CABBINKT.  The 

mos  etired  place  in  a  building, 
fctt  ! art  for  writing,  studying, 
°r  ^serving  any  thing  that  is 


CAD 

valuable.  A  complete  apartment 
consists  of  a  hail,  an  antechamber, 
a  chamber,  and  a  cabinet,  with  a 
gallery  on  one  side. 

Sometimes  the  word  cabinet  is 
used  to  particularize  that  place  at 
the  end  of  a  gallery,  wherein  are 
preserved  the  pictures  of  the  best 
masters,  conveniently  arranged, 
and  accompanied  with  busts  and 
figures  of  marble  and  bronze, 
with  other  curiosities. 

The  same  term  is  also  applied 
to  a  highly  ornamented  kind  of 
buffet  or  chest  of  drawers,  set 
apart  for  the  preservation  of 
things  of  value,  and  used  partly 
as  a  decoration  of  a  chamber. 

Cabinet.  In  Gardening.  A  little 
insulated  building,  or  kind  of 
summer-house,  built  in  some 
agreeable  form,  and  open  on  all 
sides  j  serving  as  a  place  of  re- 
tirement, and  to  take  the  fresh 
air  under  cover. 

The  plan  of  the  cabinet  is  either 
square,  circular,  or  polygonal, 
after  the  manner  of  a  saloon. 

Cable.  A  moulding  in  the 
lower  part  of  a  fluted  column, 
representing  a  rope,  or  rush, 
lying  in  the  fluting  j  which  has 
given  to  columns  of  this  descrip- 
tion the  term  cable-Jluted. 

This  moulding  is  of  a  convex 
circular  section,  rising  from  the 
concave  surface  of  the  flute,  so 
that  its  most  prominent  part  may 
be  in  a  surface  with  the  fillet  on 
each  side  of  the  flute.  See  Co- 
lumn and  Flutes. 

Cabled  column.    See  Column. 

Cabled  flutes.  Such  flutes 
as  are  filled  with  cables. 

Cabling.  The  lilling  of  the 
flutes  of  columns  with  cables, 
or  the  cables  so  disposed.  See 
Flutes. 

Caduceus.  A  rod  or  sceptre 
entwined  by  two  winged  serpents, 
and  carried  by  Mercury,  as  an 
attribute  of  his  quality  and  office. 

511 


C  AI 

Caer.  In  British  Antiquity.  A 
term  which,  like  the  Saxon  Ches- 
ter, denotes  castle,  and  is  prefixed 
to  the  names  of  places  fortified  by 
the  Romans. 

Cage.  In  Carpentry.  An  outer 
work  of  timber,  enclosing-  another 
within  it.  In  this  sense,  the  cage 
of  a  staircase  is  the  wooden  sides, 
or  walls,  which  enclose  it. 

Caisso.w    Large  chests,  framed 
of  strong  timbers,  and  made  water 
tight,  sometimes  used  in  large 
and  deep  rivers  for  building  the 
piers  of  bridges.    The  bottom  of 
the  caisson    is  composed  of  a 
strong  grating  of   timber,  and 
is  so  contrived  that  it  can  be  de- 
tached from  the  sides  when  requi- 
site.   In  this   mode  of  bridge- 
building,  the  ground  where  the 
pier  is  to  be  sunk  is  first  excavat- 
ed and  levelled ;  and  the  caisson 
is  then  launched,  and  floated  to 
the  spot,  and  sunk.   The  building 
of  the  pier  then  commences  with- 
in it,  and  is  carried  up  above,  or 
nearly  to  a  level  with  the  water  j 
when  the  sides  of  the  caisson 
being  detached,  the  bottom,  with 
the  pier  upon  it,  is  allowed  to 
remain  as  a  foundation. 

The  most  considerable  work, 
that  has  come  to  our  knowledge, 
in  which  caissons  have  been  used, 
is  that  of  the  building  of  West- 
minster bridge  :  of  these,  there- 
fore, a  particular  description  may 
be  acceptable.  Each  of  the  cais- 
sons contained  one  hundred  and 
fifty  loads  of  lir-timber,  and  was 
of  more  tonnage  than  a  man  of 
war  of  40  guns ;  their  size  was 
nearly  80  feet  from  point  to  point, 
and  30  feet  in  breadth  ;  the  sides, 
which  were  10  feet  in  height, 
were  formed  of  timbers  laid  hori- 
zontally over  one  another,  pinned 
with  oak  trunnels,  and  framed  to- 
gether at  all  the  corners,  except 
the  salient  angles,  where  they 
were  secured  by  proper  iron- 


C  AI 

work,  which,  being  unscre  d, 
would  permit  the  sides  ofjS 
caisson,  had  it  been  necessar  to 
divide  into   two  parts.  iL 
sides  were    planked  acrossjne 
timbers  inside  and  outside  || 
3-inch  planks,  in  a  vertical  Z 
tion.    The  thickness  of  the  m 
was  18  inches  at  the  bottom  id 
15  inches  at  top  ;  and  in  orriito 
strengthen  them  the  more,  £ 
angle,  except  the  two  points,  nil 
three  oaken  knee-timbers,  o- 
perly  bolted  and  secured.   '1  jj 
sides,  when  finished,  were  fast  ed 
to  the  bottom,  or  grating,  tp 
pieces  of  timber  on  the  onde 
and  18  pieces  within,  called  st  )s, 
about  8  inches  broad,  and  ;  ui 
3  inches  thick,  reaching  and  p. 
ping  over  the  tops  of  the  sis : 
the  lower  part  of  these  s  ps 
were   dovetailed    to    the  <  er 
curb  of  the  grating,  and  ke  in 
their  places  by  iron  wedges,  he 
purpose  of  these  st  raps  and  w(  fpi 
was,  that  when  the  pier  was 
up  sufficiently  high  aboAe  m 
water  mark,  to  render  the  is- 
son  no  longer  necessary  fo  he 
masons  to  work  in,  the  wee? 
could  be  drawn  up,  so  as  to  N 
liberty  to  clear  the  straps  m 
the  mortises ;  in  consequen  of 
which,  the  sides  arose  by  eir 
own  buoyancy,  and  left  the  ( 
ing  under  the  foundation  o  he 
pier. 

The  pressure  of  the  water  'on 
the  sides  of  the  caisson  w;  re- 
sisted   by   means  of  a  giuw 
timber  or  ribbon,  14  inches  de, 
and  7  inches  thick,  pinned 
the  upper  row  of  timbers  oP< 
grating,  and  the  tops  of  the  ( 
were  secured  by  a  sufficient  m  < 
of  beams  laid  across,  whicljko 
served  to  support  a  floor,  on^ch 
the  labourers  stood  to  hoijfoe 
stones  out  of  the  lighters,  4  t0 
lower  them  into  the  caisson 

The  caisson  was  also  pro ^ 


C  A  L 

wil  a  sluice  to  admit  the  water. 
Th  method  of  working  was  as 
folks:   a  pit  being  dug  and 
levied  in  the  proper  situation 
for  ie  pier,  of  the  same  shape  as 
(helusson,  and  about  5  feet  wide 
all  und,  the  caisson  was  brought 
to  i  position,  a  few  of  the  lower 
ponies  of  the  pier  built  in  it,  and 
n  once  or  twice  to  prove  the 
level  of  the  foundation  ;  then 
ii  finally  fixed,  the  masons 
woi'id  in  the  usual  methods  of 
ti  ieork.    About  two  hours  he- 
re >w  water,  the  sluice  of  the 
isfn,  which   had    been  kept 
till  then,  lest  the  water, 
w  g  to  many  more  feet  on  the 
me  than  the  inside,  should 
Boafbe  caisson  and  all  the  stone- 
r  out  of  its  true  place,  was 
uitfown,  and,  without  waiting 
i.'  lowest  ebb  of  the  tide,  the 
waU  was  pumped  sufficiently  low 
to  at  lit  the  masons  to  set  and 
cran'  the  stone-work  of  the  suc- 
ceedig  courses ;  then,  when  the 
.  tide  Jul  risen  to  a  considerable 
g ,  the   sluice  was  opened 
tit  agaii  and  the  water  admitted  : 
I  ,  with  a  view  to  save  un- 
■  c  iry  expense,   the  caisson 
->  lrposely  built  but  16  feet 
h  gh  he  high  tides  flowed  seve- 
i  fit  above  the  sides,  but  with- 

i  v  damage  or  inconvenience 

ii  works.  In  tins  manner  the 
< »rl  jroceeded  till  the  pier  rose 

toth  urface  of  the  caisson,  when 
'lie   les  were  floated  away  to 
'  tie  same  purpose  at  another 
'  lyes  Description  of  West- 
/  Bridge. 
Ca  arkous  cement.    See  Ce- 

CaIiariuh.  A  brazen  vessel, 
Ofcifcjrn,  in  ancient  baths,  placed 
"»  th  hypocaustum,  full  of  hot 
^atei  to  be  drawn  thence  into 
the  p  inn,  or  bath,  to  give  it  the 
Utti  ry  degree  of  heat.  In  this 
'  '^e  he  caldarium  stood  contra- 
8T 


C  A  L 

distinguished  from  the  iepidarium 
and  frigidarium. 

Caldarium.  A  close  vaulted 
room,  in  which  people  were 
brought  to  a  profuse  sweat  by 
dry  hot  fumes.  In  this  sense, 
caldarium  was  the  same  with 
what  was  otherwise  denominated 
vaporarium,  sudatorium ,  and  iaco- 
nium;  and  in  the  Greek  baths, 
hypocaustum. 

Calendario,  Philip.  A  cele- 
brated architect  and  sculptor  of 
Venice,  who  flourished  in  the 
time  of  Martin  Faletri,  doge  of 
that  republic,  in  1354.  He  con- 
structed those  beautiful  porticoes, 
supported  by  marble  columns, 
which  surround  the  place  of  St. 
Mark.  By  these  works  he  esta- 
blished both  his  fame  and  fortune. 

Calf-pen.  A  place  in  which 
calves  are  confined  for  the  prac- 
tice of  fattening  them. 

The  calf-pen  is  most  commonly 
annexed  to  the  cow-house,  which 
is  a  plan  that  cannot  be  recom- 
mended, as  the  cries  of  the  calf 
have  an  influence  on  the  cow, 
keeping  her  in  a  restless,  agitated 
state,  preventing  her  from  feed- 
ing well,  and  from  giving  that 
quantity  of  milk  which  she  would 
otherwise  furnish. 

The  principal  thing  to  be  ob- 
served in  the  construction  of  calf- 
pens  is  the  laying  of  the  floor, 
which  should  be  made  of  laths 
or  spars,  about  2  inches  broad, 
laid  at  the  distance  of  an  inch 
from  each  other,  upon  joists,  so 
as  to  make  the  floor  above  1,  2, 
or  3  feet  from  the  ground,  as  the 
situation  will  admit.  This  not 
only  keeps  them  dry,  by  allowing 
the  moisture  to  pass  immediately 
away,  but  has  the  advantage  of 
admitting  fresh  air  below  the 
bedding,  and  thereby  preventing 
that  unwholesome,  disagreeable 
smell  too  often  found  among 
calves. 

513 


C  AL 


C  AL 


Stalls,   or  divisions,    are  but 
seldom  made   in    calf-pens ;  it 
would,  however,  be  much  better 
to  keep  them  separated,  as  by 
that  means   they  will  be  more 
easily  fed,  and  much  less  liable 
to  accidents.    Partitions,  about  3 
feet  high,  of  thin  deal,  nailed  on 
small  posts,  might  be  so  contrived 
as  to  be  movable  at  pleasure,  to 
increase  or  diminish  the  stall  if 
necessary,  according  to  the  age 
and  size  of  the  calf.    This  may 
be  done  as  represented  in  plate 
M  17,  fig-  If  which  is  the  ground 
plan  of  a  double  calf-pen  for  ten 
calves:    a  is  the  door;    b,  the 
passage  betwixt  the  pens  j  c,  c,  c, 
&c.  are  the  pens,  showing  the 
situation  of  the  partitions  ;  d,  d, 
d,  d,  are  four  joists,  in  which  are 
several  holes,  as  shown  on  the 
plan,  for  receiving  iron  pins  at 
the  bottom  of  the  partitions,  to 
keep  them  in  their  places ;  e  is 
a  window  or  door,  besides  which 
there  should  be  some  other  win- 
dows or  air-holes,  as  high  up  as 
possible.    If  it  be  thought  un- 
necessary to  make  the  partitions, 
there  might  oe  a  small  round 
trough,  in  a  circular  frame,  fixed 
in  the  corner  of  each  pen,  as  at/, 
for  holding  the  milk,  and  a  door 
in  the  next  adjoining  corner.  The 
troughs  should  be  round,  that  the 
calves  may  not  hurt  themselves 
upon  them,  which  probably  they 
might  do  on  the  angles,  if  the 
troughs  were  square.    Fig.  c2  is 
a  section  of  these  pens,  in  which 
r,  r,  show  the  position  of  the 
racks.     The  advantages  of  this 
kind  of  calf-pens  are,  that  the 
calves  are  all  kept  separate  in  a 
small  compass,  and  cannot  hurt 
each  other,  as  the  stronger  ones 
sometimes  do  the  weaker  when 
confined  promiscuously;  their  food 
also  may  be  much  more  easily 
and  equally  distributed  when  not 
suckled. 

514 


To  the  above   descriptioi  >f 
Mr.  Beatson  we  may  add,  E 
Mr.  Marshall,  speaking  of  \e 
rural  economy  of  Gloucester  » 
observes,  that  the  house  or  ri  )- 
Btead,  in  which  the  calf-pe  iS 
placed,  is  about  12  feet  by :  4 
feet  of  its  width  being  occu  d 
by  the  stage,  and  1  foot  t  a 
trough  placed  in  its  front,  lea  g 
S  feet  as    a  gangway,  into  e 
middle  of  which  the  door  op. 
The  floor  of  the  stage  is  for  nl 
of  laths,  about  2  inches  sqi  e. 
lying    lengthwise  of  the  si  c, 
and  1  inch  asunder.    The  fty 
fence  is  made  of  staves,  an  i 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  9ii.es 
from  middle  to  middle,  and  3  et 
high,  entered  at  the  bottom  to 
the  front    bearer  of  the  M 
(from  which  cross-joists  pas?  to 
the  back  wall,)  and  steadit  at 
the  top  by  a  rail,  which,  as 
as  the  bottom  piece,  is  erred 
at  each  end  into  the  end  11, 
The  holes  in  the  upper  rai  ire 
wide  enough  to  permit  the  s  es 
to  be  lifted  up  and  taken  01  to 
give  admission  to  the  calves  ne 
of  which  is   fastened   to  ry 
■second  staff,  by  means  otH 
rings  of  iron,  joined  l?v  a  su  i; 
one  ring  playing  upon  the  4i 
the   other    receiving    a  I 
leathern  collar,  which  is  bu 
round  the  neck  of  the  calf. 

Caliber,  or  calliper.  Th  i* 
meter  or  greatest  extent  o'iny 
round  body.  It  also  denoUm 
widen  of  the  bone  of  a  pi' 
ordnance. 

Caliber  compasses.  Comj 
with  arched  legs,  to  take  th 
meter  of  concave  or  c< 
bodies. 

Caliducts.    This  word 
rived  from  calor,  heat,  ami'1  ■ 
I  lead,  and  signifies  a  kind  of  P<js 
or  canals,  disposed  along  I 
of  houses  and  apartments  iseu 
by  the  ancients,  for  the  a  er 


CAM 


CAM 


ancof  heat  from  one  common 
furiice  to  the  several  remote 
par  of  the  house. 

Uliuer,  or  calliper.  See 
Caler. 

CoLicrates.     An  Athenian 
arc)  ect  and  sculptor,  who  lived 
B  o  47l2  years  before  the  birth 
irist.    He  is  said  to  have 
engjved  some  of  Homer's  verses 
on  ;;rain  of  millet,  and  to  have 
a   an   ivory    chariot  which 
be   concealed   under  the 
n  of  a  fly,  and  an  ant  of  ivory 
vlich  all  the  members  were 
i:t.    iElian,  however,  justly 
i  res  him  for  employing  his 
e  s  in  performances  so  trivial 
and  eiess,  and  yet  so  difficult. 
Cllmachus.     A  celebrated 
r  ,hian  architect,  painter,  and 
.  senior,   who   flourished  about 
ai340«ars  before  Christ.    He  is 
I  ^ed  to  have  been  the  inven- 
the  corinthian  order,  and 
,    1  de  a  golden  lamp  for  the 
ei.temj;  of  Minerva,   at  Athens, 
pfrltwhi(  he  furnished  with  a  wick 
jgjyof  Ajestos,  that  it  might  burn 
,.*.iutUit  wasting. 

oTTE.    A  concavity  or  de- 
pres  re  in  the  form  of  a  cup  or 
h  lathed  and  plastered,  to 
fldimi|sh  the  height  of  a  chapel, 
ibii  t,  alcove,  or  the  like,  which 
:ie,  ise  would  be  too  high  for 
the  leadth. 

s  C/AKosis.  An  elevation  ter- 
'.,  .minj.ng  with  an  arched  or  vault- 
ed hfd. 

Obkr.    An  arch  on  the  top 
of  ai  iperture,  or  on  the  top  of 
a  be<n  ;  hence  cainber-windows. 
Caber-beam.   A  piece  of  tim- 
4t  with  an  obtuse  angle  on 
the  1  >er  edge,  so  as  to  form  a 
lily  on  each  side  from  the 
of  their  length,  lieams 
w  t|;  description  are  used  in 
truntied    roots,   being  covered 
"  »oards,     and    the  boards 
»vci  I  with  lead,  to  discharge 


the  rain-water  towards  each  end 
of  the  platform. 

Came  rated.     The    same  as 
arched. 

Camks.  Small  slender  rods  of 
cast  lead,  12  or  14  inches  long, 
of  which  the  glaziers,  by  drawing 
them  separately  through  a  vice, 
make  their  turned  lead. 

Camp  ceiling.    See  Ceiling. 

Campana.  The  body  of  the 
corinthian  capital,  otherwise, 
from  its  figure,  called  the  vase 
or  bell. 

Campanile.  From  the  Italian 
campana,  which  signifies  a  bell.  A 
tower  allotted  for  bells.  In  Italy 
it  is  customary  to  hang  the  bells  in 
towers  that  are  separate  from  the 
churches,  and  not  to  hang  them 
in  steeples  upon  the  churches  as 
is  practised  in  England. 

Some  of  the  campaniles,  or 
belfries,  of  Italy,  are  very  lofty 
and  magnificent ;  and  of  these, 
that  of  Cremona  is  the  most 
celebrated,  being  395  feet  In 
height.  This  structure  consists 
of  a  square  tower,  which  rises 
262  feet,  surmounted  by  two 
octagonal  stories,  open  to  the  air, 
and  ornamented  with  columns; 
a  conical  shaft  and  cross  termi- 
nate the  elevation.  The  campa- 
nile of  Florence,  built  from  the 
designs  of  Giotto,  though  exhi- 
biting vestiges  of  a  barbarous 
taste,  must  still  be  admired  for 
its  richness  and  the  superiority  of 
the  workmanship.  It  is  a  tower 
of  267  feet  high,  on  a  base  of  45 
feet  square. 

The  great  elevation  of  these 
buildings,  combined  with  the 
narrowness  of  their  basis,  has 
occasioned  considerable  settle- 
ments in  many  of  them ;  the 
most  remarkable  of  these  is  that 
of  Torre  Pendente  at  Pisa.  It  is 
of  a  cylindrical  form,  surrounded 
with  eight  stories  of  columns 
placed  over  one  another,  each 

515 


CAN 


CAN 


having  its  entablature.  These 
columns  are  of  marble,  and  seem 
to  have  been  taken  from  the  ruins 
of  ancient  edifices.  Each  column 
carries  the  springing  of  two 
arches  j  and  there  is  an  open 
gallery  between  the  columns  and 
the  circular  wall  of  the  tower. 
The  height  of  the  last  story  of 
columns,  which  forms  the  belfry, 
retires  from  the  general  line  of 
elevation :  the  height  to  the  plat- 
form is  150  feet;  and  a  plumb- 
line  lowered  thence  to  the  ground 
falls  nearly  13  feet  beyond  the 
base  of  the  building. 

Canal.  A  duct  or  pipe,  through 
which  any  fluid  is  conveyed  ;  for 
example,  the  canal  of  an  aqueduct 
is  that  part  through  which  the 
water  passes.  In  ancient  aque- 
ducts the  canals  were  lined  with 
a  coat  ot  mastic. 

Canal.  This  word  is  some- 
times used  for  the  flutings  of  a 
column  or  pilaster. 

Canal  of  the  volute.  In  the 
ionic  capital  there  is  a  spiral 
channel,  or  sinking  on  the  face, 
commencing  at  the  eye,  and  ex- 
panding in  width  until  the  whole 
number  of  revolutions  are  com- 
pleted j  this  is  called  the  canal. 
In  the  Athenian  temples  of  Mi- 
nerva Polius  and  Erechtheus,  (see 
plate  A  1*2)  are  several  of  these 
canals,  commencing  and  ending 
in  the  manner  above  described. 

Canal  of  the  larmier.  A 
channel,  or  groove,  recessed  on  the 
soffit  of  the  larmier  upwards,  to 
prevent  the  rain-water  from  run- 
ning down  the  bed  or  lower  part 
of  the  cornice.    See  Beak. 

Canardiere.  A  small  turret, 
guerite,  or  sentry-box,  made 
either  of  wood  or  stone,  and 
sometimes  erected  at  the  salient 
angles  of  works  to  serve  as  a 
shelter  for  a  sentinel.  Formerly 
canardieres  were  constructed  on 
castles  to  secure  the  warriors 

516 


from  danger  while  they  disch  I 
ed  their  missiles. 

Cancelli.  Latticed  wmd^j 
or  such  as  are  made  with  tS 
bars  of  wood  or  iron:  also  ie 
balusters  or  rails  which  com  n 
a  court  of  justice,  commum- 
table,  or  the  like. 

Candelabrum.  Stands,  or  % 
ports,  on  which  the  anci  | 
placed  their  lamps.  Can  del -a 
were  made  in  a  variety  of  sh;  | 
and  much  taste  and  elegance  re 
displayed  in  their  constrnctic 

Cano,  Alonso.  A  distingui  >d 
individual  who,  from  excellir  in 
the  three  arts  of  architect, 
sculpture,  and  painting,  was c  d 
the  Michael  Angelo  ot  Spain,  le 
was  born  in  16*00,  at  the  ci  ot 
Grenada.  Having  studied  ie 
principles  of  architecture  u  er 
his  father,  an  eminent  architejf 
his  native  city,  he  next  dirfl 
his  attention  to  sculpture,  I 
disciple  of  Pacheco  of  Se  I 
and  afterwards  applied  himsdto 
the  art  of  painting  in  the  ac;u  I 
of  Juan  del  Castillo,  the.  pai  1 
in  the  same  city.  Besides  my 
fine  pieces  which  he  execute  I 
the  public  edifices  of  Sevillt  he 
also  practised  sculpture,  and  m 
two  colossal  figures  of  St.  ■ 
and  St.  Paul,  cf  such  peculiar 
cellence  that  the  Flemish  alB 
are  said  to  have  visited  Sevi'in 
order  to  have  an  opportumw 
copying  them.  Claiming  IP 
birth,  and  possessing  a  high  sft 
his  first  productions  were  gr  H* 
tous.  In  consequence  of  a  qup 
with  Sebastian  de  Lianas  an 
eminent  painter,  which  termii  ed 
in  a  duel,  he  was  obliged  tOP 
Seville;  and  in  the  suite  oft 
Count-duke  Olivares,  as  wijfo 
under  his  protection,  he  we  to 
Madrid,  where  he  was  soonp- 
pointed  first  royal  architect,  k|> 
painter,  and  instructor  to he 
prince,   Don  Balthazar  CP* 


CAN 

In  vis  situation  he  acquired  dis- 
tin^ished  reputation  as  an  archi- 
tect, sculptor,  and  painter.  His 
however,  excited  jealousy 
tndenvy,  and  he  was  charged 
witl plagiarism  in  the  composi- 
tion;^ his  pieces.    But  another 
i  ) |nstance  occurred  which  was 
ill  mu(  more  injurious  to  his  pros- 
:  .    Upon  his  returning  home 
vening,  he  found  his  wife 
11  Ted,  and  his  house  pillaged, 
d  1  Italian  journeyman  miss- 
:.  The    magistrates,  disco- 
ri  ;•  that  Cano  had  been  jealous 
t  s  Italian,  and  that  he  was 
Jed    to    another  woman, 
i  d  him  with  the  murder, 
induced  him  to  make  a 
;  eel  retreat.   He  fled  for  refuge 
1  lencia,  but  was  soon  be- 
,\  by  the  practice  of  his  art: 
n  sought  an  asylum  in  a 
rt.i-ian  convent  near  that  city; 
[  ing  deterred,  by  the  dread 
i   i  austerities,  from  taking  the 
ordc    lie  returned   to  Madrid, 
•  c  he  was  apprehended,  and 
deli  red  to  the  torture  in  order 
i  .  act  a  confession.  Having 
wilted  the  rack  without  self- 
n  ation,  he  was  again  taken 
a  o  ivour  by  the  king;  and  with 
n<   to  his  future  security,  he 
oljta  ed  the  Clerical  office  of  re- 
idejjary  of  Grenada.     In  this 
u;  hi  he  enriched  the  churches 
i  nadn  and  Malaga  w ith  many 
nbgs  and    sculptures.  But 
i   been  refused  the  payment 
U  pistoles  by  a  counsellor  of 
-  eyia  for  an  image  of  St.  An- 
thorj  of  Padua,  he  dashed  the 
main  pieces  on  the  floor  of  his 
Kadfny.    This  sally  of  fury  in- 
'<  *  the  chapter  of  Grenada  to 
wsp  <!  him  from  his  function  j 
'    was  restored  by  the  king, 
11   t|!  condition   of  finishing  a 
nag  icent  crucifix,  which  the 
Ufad  bespoken,  but  which  he 
M  ng  neglected.    From  this 


CAN 

time,  he  led  a  life  of  charity  and 

devotion  ;  and  when  destitute  of 
money,  he  supplied  the  wants  of 
a  beggar  by  sketching  a  drawing 
upon  paper,  and  directing  him 
how  to  dispose  of  it.  The  vio- 
lence of  his  temper  was  still 
unsubdued;  and  even  in  his  last 
moments  he  could  not  be  pre- 
vailed upon  to  make  use  of  a 
crucifix  which  was  presented  to 
him  for  adoration,  because  it  was 
such  a  wretched  piece  of  work- 
manship, that  he  could  not  bear 
the  sight  of  it.  Cano  died  in  the 
year  1676,  at  the  age  of  seventy- 
six. 

Ca>opy.  A  magnificent  co- 
vering for  an  altar,  throne,  tribu- 
nal, pulpit,  chair,  or  the«like.  See 
Baldachin.  Also  the  label  or  pro- 
jecting moulding  that  surrounds 
the  arches  and  heads  of  gothic 
niches. 

Cant.  An  external  angle,  or 
corner,  of  a  building. 

Cant.  A  term  among  carpen- 
ters, signifying  to  turn  a  piece  of 
timber  which  has  been  brought  in 
the  wrong  way  for  their  work. 

Cant-moulding.  A  moulding 
with  a  bevelled  surface.  See 
Moulding. 

Canted  column.    See  Column. 

Cantaliver.  Blocks  of  wood 
or  iron,  which  are  placed  at  regu- 
lar distances,  projecting  at  right 
angles  from  the  surface  of  a  wall, 
to  support  the  eaves  of  a  house, 
or  the  upper  mouldings  of  a  cor- 
nice. Cantaliver  is,  therefore, 
essentially  the  same  with  modil- 
lion  ;  but  the  latter  word  is  con- 
fined to  t  he  description  of  regular 
architecture,  while  the  former  has 
a  general  and  trivial  use 

Cantharus.  A  fountain  or  cis- 
tern in  the  middle  of  the  atrium 
before  the  ancient  churches, 
wherein  persons  washed  their 
hands  and  faces  before  they  en- 
tered. 

517 


CAP 

The  cantharus  of  a  fountain, 
among  the  Romans,  was  the  part 
or  apparatus  out  of  which  the 
water  issued.  It  was  made  in 
divers  forms,  sometimes  in  that 
of  a  shell,  at  other  times,  in  that 
of  an  animal,  &c 

Canthki*.  or  <  antkrii.  Beams 
of  wood,  in  the  framework  of  a 
roof,  extending  from  the  ridge  to 
the  eaves  ;  corresponding  to  the 
rafters  of  a  modern  roof.  The 
word  canterii  was  also  applied  to 
mean  two  inclining  reeds,  fixed  in 
the  ground,  some  distance  asun- 
der, and  meeting  at  the  top,  for 
the  support  of  vines. 

Canting.  The  cutting  away  a 
part  of  an  angular  body  at  one  of 
its  angles,  that  the  section  may 
form  a  parallelogram,  whose  edges 
are  parallel  from  the  intersection 
of  the  adjoining  planes. 

Canting  stairs.    See  Stairs. 

Cantoned.  When  the  angles 
of  a  building  are  adorned  with 
columns,  pilasters,  rustic  quoins, 
or  any  thing  which  projects  be- 
yond the  naked  of  the  wall,  it  is 
called  a  cantoned  building. 

Cantoned  columns.  See  Co- 
lumns. 

Cap.  In  Joinery.  The  upper- 
most part  of  an  assemblage  of 
parts,  or  that  which  crowns  the 
whole.  In  this  sense,  the  term  is 
applied  to  the  capital  of  a  column, 
cornice  of  a  door,  &c.  &c. 

Capacity.  In  Geometry.  The 
solid  content  of  any  body. 

Capeduncula.  Vessels  where- 
in the  ancient  Romans  preserved 
the  sacred  fire  of  Vesta. 

Capital.  From  the  Italian 
capitello,  or  Latin  caput,  signify- 
ing head;  so  that  the  etymology 
of  this  word  defines  its  meaning, 
the  capital  being  the  head  of  a 
column. 

The  capitals  used  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  Greeks,  though 
with  numberless   minute  varia- 

518 


CAP 

tions  of  ornaments  and  pn,r. 
tions,  arrange  themselves  to 
three  general  classes,  and  L 
the  most  obvious  distinctio  L 
tween  the  orders.  In  this  | 
also  it  is  easy  to  distinguis be- 
tween those  parts  which  L 
their  use  and  origin  in  thj  ri- 
ginal  type  of  that  wooden  in- 
struction, from  which  Gr  ft 
architecture  derived,  and  L 
which  are  merely  ornants 
and  accessaries.  Considerin  o- 
lumns  in  their  origin  as  dp. 
drical  wooden  posts,  the  ab  U 
which  is  a  square  tile  or  t;  et, 
has  an  evident  use  in  shelt -n^ 
and  protecting  the  upper  p  of 
the  column  by  its  projection  nd 
also  by  giving  a  broader  bei  nd 
more  convenient  form  foi  he 
placing  of  the  architrave,  he 
abacus,  therefore,  iqpy  be  re;  ti- 
ed as  the  original  capital,  \  ch 
is  most  conspicuous  in  that  ler 
which  bears  the  marks  o  k 
highest  antiquity,  attenu  itei  nd 
altered  in  succeeding  order  mi 
succeeding  ages,  but  never  on  ed 
either  in  the  purity  of  Gn.in 
architecture  or  its  deterio  ed 
imitations. 

In  all  the  orders,  an  ast:a 
and  fillet,  or  one  or  three  chai  h, 
separate  the  capital  fron  he 
shaft ;  and  these  are  always  n 
sidered  as  part  of  the  colum 

The  doric  capital,  whicbre- 
serves  more  of  the  primitive  pe 
than  any  other,  is  extremely  m, 
but  its  simplicity  is  not  mW 
beauty.  It  consists  of  a  l  ad 
and  massy  abacus,  an  ovolovler 
the  abacus,  from  three  to  ive 
fillets  under  the  ovolo,  and  m 
these  a  neck  called  the  frit  of 
the  capital. 

In  the  ionic  capital  the  is 
great  invention  and  a  parti .lnr 
character  displayed;  imleedM 
much  so,  that  it  never  foi  t0 
distinguish   itselfc    even  or  ^ 


CAP 

n  st  slight  and  careless  observa- 
?  t$>.  It  consists  of  a  small  and 
nulded  abacus,  below  which 
d  end  to  the  right  and  left  two 
Sf  il  volutes ;  it  has  also  an 
cdnus,  which  is  not  unfre- 
qintly  enriched,  and  a  bead. 

he  corinthian  capital  is  most 
ri  ly  ornamented,    and  differs 
eatemely  from  the  others.  In 
1     tli.  the  abacus  is  hollowed,  form- 
in  a  quadrilateral    figure  with 
cut::ave  sides,  the  angles  of  which 
ar  generally  truncated.  Some- 
i    tii|!S  the  abacus  is  enriched,  but 
if     m  e  frequently  ornamented  with 
i  nver  in  the  middle.  Below 
;k    th  abacus,  the  capital  has  the 
hi  of  a  vase  or  bell,  surrounded 
.  i  two  tier  of  leaves ;  which, 
bek  selected   from    the  most 
e  tiful  of  the  vegetable  crea- 
t    tic .  give^t  an  easy  and  fine 
prjection.    Under  each  angle  of 
thubacus  springs  a  volute  ;  and 
unlr  the  flower  in  the  centre  of 
MX  abacus   there  are  caulicoli. 
1  hancients,  however,  sometimes 
;d  the  ornament  in  the  centre 
of  e  abacus  :  an  example  of  this 
ii  was  in  the  porch  of  Septimius, 
wl  *e,  instead  of  a  flower,  there 
waan  eagle  holding  a  thunder- 
nil  ho 

)  the  capitals  above  enume- 
rate in  which  are  displayed  so 
n  i  of  Grecian  elegance,  the 
Hc  ans  have  added  two  others, 
th(  uscan  and  the  composite. 

ith  regard  to  the  tuscan 
caj  al,  there  are  no  authenticated 
renins  of  the  order,  and  the 
pr<tjpts  of  Vitruvius  on  this  head 
arctso  very  obscure,  that  the 
morn  compilers  of  systems  of 
arqtecture  have  of  course  varied 
exodingly  in  their  designs  ;  the 
ore,  therefore,  that  passes  under 
thi|  name,  must  be  regarded 
rat  r  as  a  modern  than  an  an- 
cie  invention.  It  has  been  made 
to  fFer  from  the  modern  doric, 


IT  AL. 

by  an  air  of  poverty  and  rudeness, 

by  the  suppression  of  parts  and 
mouldings.  But  though  the  tus- 
can capital  is  plain  anu  simple  in 
the  highest  degree,  it  well  be- 
comes that  column  whose  charac- 
ter is  strength. 

As  the  tuscan  capital  is  of  all 
capitals  the  plainest,  so  is  the 
composite  capital  the  most  ela- 
borately finished.  It  is,  as  its 
name  imports,  a  composed  order, 
formed  by  an  union  of  the  ionic 
and  corinthian,  and  never  appears 
to  have  been  admitted  by  the 
ancients  to  be  a  separate  order ; 
it  consists  of  a  vase  or  bell,  a 
first  and  second  row  of  leaves, 
with  some  small  shoots,  a  fillet, 
astragal,  ovolo,  four  volutes,  and 
a  hollowed  abacus  with  a  flower 
in  its  centre. 

From  the  remains  of  Egyptian 
antiquity,  it  appears  that  the 
architects,  confined  to  the  severest 
simplicity  in  the  general  form  of 
their  buildings  and  principles  of 
construction,  acknowledged  no 
given  rules  or  orders  of  architec- 
ture for  the  proportions  and  orna- 
ments of  inferior  members.  Ac- 
cordingly, we  find  an  infinite 
variety  of  capitals,  many  of  them 
possessing  great  richness  of  deco- 
ration and  elegance  of  outline. 
The  ornaments  are  in  general 
accurate  imitations  of  the  natural 
productions  of  the  country,  such 
as  the  lotus,  the  reed,  or  the  palm. 
The  temples  of  the  ancient  inha- 
bitants of  Hindostan,  works  of 
dateless  antiquity,  present  many 
capitals  of  extraordinary  form  and 
composition.  In  some  of  these 
we  find  represented  the  figures  of 
elephants  and  horses,  apparently 
couching  under  the  weight  of  the 
ceiling.  Capitals  very  similar  in 
ideas  to  these  are  also  found  in 
the  ruins  of  Persepolis  :  they  are 
composed  of  horses  and  camels. 
As  Roman  architecture  sunk 

519 


CAP 

into  the  degraded  and  barbarous 
style,  known  in  this  country  by 
the  name  of  Saxon  and  Norman, 
which  was  finally  superseded  by 
the  mode  commonly  called  Gothic, 
ancient  rules  were  forgotten  or 
despised,  ornaments  were  aban- 
doned to  the  caprice  of  the  carver, 
and  an  endless  variety  of  capitals 
were  produced,  more  or  less  happy 
according  to  individual  taste  or 
barbarism.  Variety,  indeed,  seems 
to  have  been  the  governing  prin- 
ciple of  decoration,  and  was  pur- 
sued to  an  unmeaning  excess,  in 
contempt  of  symmetry,  propriety, 
and  congruity.  (See  Supplement.) 

Capital,  angular.  See  Angular 
Capital. 

Capital  of  a  baluster.  One 
similar  to  that  of  the  tuscan  or 
doric  order. 

Capital  of  a  lantern.  The 
covering  which  terminates  the 
lantern  of  a  dome,  either  in  the 
figure  of  a  bell,  as  that  of  the 
Sorbonne,  or  of  a  cupola  or  a 
spiral,  as  that  of  the  church  of 
Sapienza  at  Rome. 

Capital  of  a  triglyph.  The 
projecting  band  above  the  plain 
vertical  area  or  face.  In  the 
Grecian  doric,  the  capital  of  the 
triglyph  projects  only  a  short 
distance,  and  is  not  returned  on 
the  Hanks,  except  at  the  angular 
triglyphb,  and  this  only  upon  each 
face  of  the  building :  in  the  Roman 
doric,  it  has  a  greater  projection, 
and  is  returned  with  the  same 
projection  on  the  flanks  as  in  the 
face. 

Capitol.  A  celebrated  rock, 
or  hill,  at  Rome,  whereon  stood 
many  ancient  edifices.  It  derived 
its  name  from  a  man's  head  being 
found  there  while  digging  the 
foundations  for  the  temple  of 
Jupiter. 

The  capitol  was  anciently  both 
a  fortress  and  a  sanctuary.  A 
fortress  surrounded  with  preci- 

520 


CAP 

pices,  bidding  defiance  to  all 
means  of  attack  employed  in 
cient  times  •  a  sanctuary  crowi  1 
with  altars  and  temples,  there 
sitory  of  the  fatal  oracles, 
seat  of  the  tutelar  deities  of 
empire.  Romulus  began 
grand  work,  by  erecting  the  tt 
pie  of  Jupiter  Feretrius  ;  Tare 
nius  Priscus,  Servius  Tullius, . 
Tarquinius  Superbus  continu. ; 
and  the  consul  HoratiusPulvel  , 
a  few  years  after  the  expulsioi  f 
the  kings,  completed  it,  wit  i 
solidity  and  magnificence,  s$ 
Tacitus,  "which  the  riches  of  s  - 
ceeding  ages  might  adorn,  t 
could  not  increase."  It  wash  t 
during  the  civil  wars  betwi 
Marius  and  Sylla,  and  reb  t 
shortly  after  3  but  again  destrod 
by  fire  in  the  dreadful  contest  f  t 
took  place  in  the^eiy  foil 
itself,  and  on  the  sides  of  e 
capitoline  mount,  between  e 
partisans  of  Vitellius  and  Ve& 
sian.  However,  the  capitol  l  e 
once  more  from  its  ashes,  Vh 
redoubled  splendour,  and  rece  d 
from  the  magnificence  of  Vem 
sian,  and  his  son  Domitian,  s 
last  and  most  glorious  emboli.* 
ments.  The  edifices  in  site  d 
destination  were  probably  ne  ( 
the  same  as  before  the  conllai  • 
tion  •  but  more  attention  was  j 
to  symmetry,  to  costliness,  » 
above  all,  to  grandeur  and  ma  i- 
ficence.  The  northern  enlr;  c 
led  under  a  triumphal  arch  0 
the  centre  of  the  hill,  and  to  e 
sacred  grove,  the  asylum  ope  d 
by  Romulus,  and  almost  the  cr  I* 
of  Roman  power.  To  the  ri  t, 
on  the  eastern  summit  of  the  1, 
stood  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Fl* 
trius •  to  the  left,  on  the  wesP 
summit,  was  that  of  J'i]jr 
Custos  :  near  each  of  these  t  ¥ 
pies  were  the  fanes  of  inf< )r 
divinities,  that  of  Fortune,  M 
that  of  Fides,  alluded  to  by  Ci<  * 


CAPITOL- 


In  ie  midst,  to  crown  the  pyra- 
tni  formed  by  surh  an  assem- 
ble of  majestic  edifices,  and  at 

l(  ame  time  to  afford  a  becom- 
inoesidence  for  the  guardian  of 
the  empire,  the  father  of  gods 
anuf  men,  rose  the  temple  of 
Jujler  Capitolinus,  on  a  hun- 
dre  steps,  supported  by  a thou- 

n  pillars,  adorned  with  all  the 
refitments  of  art,  and  blazing 
,-.  it  the  plunder  of  the  universe. 
In  e  centre  of  the  temple,  with 
Jui  on  his  left,  and  Minerva  on 
his  ght,  the  Thunderer  sat  on  a 
thne   of   gold,    grasping  the 

glfning  in  one  hand,  and  in  the 
wielding  the  sceptre  of  the 
umrse. 

1  the  midst  of  these  magnifi- 
nstructures,  of  this  wonderful 
disfiv  of  art  and  opulence,  stood 
forces  the  humble  straw-roofed 
e  of  Romulus,  a  monument 
of  imitive  simplicity,  dear  and 
arable  in  the  eves  of  the  Ro- 
The  cottage  vanished  in 
the  irst  conflagration :  but  not 
thecottage  only,    the  temples, 
the  mers,  the  palaces,  that  once 
sur'undeJ  it,  have  disappeared  ; 
n<  >f  all  the  ancient  glory  of  the 
ij  il  nothing  now  remains  but 
tholid  foundation,  and  vast  sub- 
struions  raised  on  the  rock;  and 
eve  its  very  name  is  almost  lost 
I !  semi- barbarous  appellation 
of  |  mpidaglio. 

i  present  the  capitoline  mount 
c»ered  with  buildings,  far  in - 
feri}-,  without  doubt,  to  the  im- 
peril edifices  above  described, 
Outlet  of  grand  proportions,  and 
fas  magnitude.  The  northern, 
stil  he  principal  entrance,  is  an 
eashscent,  adorned  with  a  marble 
balkrade  commencing  below, 
wit  two  immense  lionesses  of 
Egf'tian  porphyry,  pouring  a 
tor  nt  of  water  into  spacious 
bass  of  marble,  and  terminated 
ab(3  by  statues  of  Castor  and 
3U 


Pollux,  each  holding  his  horse. 
At  this  place  is  the  entrance  into 
the  square,  in  the  centre  of  which 
stands  the  well-known  equestrian 
statue  of  Marcus  Aurelius ;  and 
in  front,  and  on  each  side,  are 
three  extensive  buildings,  erected 
by  Michael  Angelo.  The  Museum 
Capitolinum  contains,  in  several 
large  rooms,  a  most  splendid  col- 
lection of  busts,  statues,  sarco- 
phagi, &c.  bestowed  by  different 
popes  and  illustrious  personages 
on  this  magnificent  cabinet,  de- 
voted to  the  use  of  the  Roman 
people,  or  rather  of  the  literary 
and  curious  of  all  nations. 

Anciently  there  were  two 
ways  from  the  capitol  to  the 
forum;  both  parted  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Tabularium, 
and,  diverging  as  they  descended, 
terminated  each  in  a  triumphal 
arch,  that  of  Tiberius  to  the  west, 
and  of  Severus  to  the  east :  of 
these  arches  the  latter  only  re- 
mains. 'I  he  descent  at  present  is 
a  steep  and  irregular  path,  wind- 
ing down  the  declivity  from  the 
senators'  stables,  without  any 
regular  termination.  The  tra- 
veller, as  he  descends,  stops  to 
contemplate  the  three  corinthian 
pillars,  w  ith  their  frieze  and  cor- 
nice, that  rise  above  the  ruins, 
and  preserve  the  memory,  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Tonans,  erected 
by  Augustus  as  a  monument  of 
his  preservation  from  a  thunder- 
bolt that  fell  near  him.  A  little 
lower  down,  on  the  right,  stands 
the  portico  of  the  temple  of  Con- 
cord, built  by  Camillus,  consisting 
of  eight  porphyry  pillars,  with 
capitals  and  entablature  of  irre- 
gular ionic.  To  account  lor  this 
irregularity,  it  is  to  be  remem- 
bered, that  the  edifices  on  the 
sides  of  the  hill  shared  the  fate 
of  the  capitol,  in  the  contest 
which  took  place  between  the 
parties  of  Vespasian  and  Vitellius, 

521 


CAR 


CAR 


and  were  rebuilt  shortly  after  by 
Titus  and  Domitian,  and  after- 
wards by  Constantine.  Hence 
the  word  M  restitutum"  in  the 
.'nsoription,  and  hence  the  want 
of  regularity  in  some  parts  of  the 
buildings,  which  being  monuments 
of  republican  Rome,  did  not  per- 
haps enjoy  the  favour  of  the  em- 
perors. The  triumphal  arch  of 
Septimus  Severus  is  nearly  half 
buried  in  the  ground.  Eustaces 
Tour  through  Italy,  1813. 

Capreoli.  The  struts  or  braces 
of  a  trussed  roof,  in  ancient  car- 
pentry. 

Caracol.  Is  sometimes  used 
to  denote  a  staircase  in  the  form 
of  a  helix  or  spiral. 

Caravansera.  A  large  public 
building,  or  inn,  in  the  east, 
destined  for  the  reception  of  tra- 
vellers, and  the  lodging  of  cara- 
vans. The  caravanserai  are  huge 
square  buildings,  with  a  spacious 
court  in  the  middle  of  them. 
They  are  encompassed  with  gal- 
leries and  arches,  under  which 
runs  a  kind  of  banquette,  or  ele- 
vation, some  feet  high,  where 
travellers  rest  themselves,  and 
make  their  lodgings  as  well  as 
they  can  ;  their  baggage  and  the 
beasts  that  carry  them  being  fast- 
ened to  the  foot  of  the  banquette. 
Over  the  gate  there  is  frequently 
little  chambers,  which  the  caravan- 
seraskier,  or  keeper,  lets  out  at  a 
very  dear  rate  to  such  as  wish  to 
be  retired. 

Though  the  caravanserai  serve 
in  lieu  of  inns,  yet  there  is 
this  essential  difference  between 
them  and  our  inns,  that  the 
traveller  finds  nothing  at  all  in 
the  caravanserai  either  for  himself 
or  his  cattle,  but  must  carry  all 
his  provisions  and  necessaries  with 
him.  They  are  chiefly  built  in 
dry,  barren,  desert  places,  and  are 
generally  furnished  with  water 
from  a  great  distance,  and  at  a 

522 


vast  expense;  there  being  no  i  j. 
vansera  without  its  well  of  w  r 
There  arc  several  of  thenjin 
cities  ;  where  they  serve  not  b 
as  inns,  but  as  shops,  warehoijg 
and  even  exchanges. 

Carcass.  The  shell  or  ril 
a  house  before  it  is  lathed 
plastered,  or  the  boards  are  1 

Carcass  flooring.  See  AM 
Flooring. 

Carcass  roofing.  See  Ro< 
Carpentry,  &c. 

Cardinal  scapi.  In  J?( 
Joinery.    The  stiles  of  doors. 

Cariates,  or  cariatides. 
Caryatides. 

Carina.  A  term  in  ancien'  o- 
man  architecture,  for  buiklin  in 
the  form  of  a  ship. 

Carnedde.  In  British  .ti- 
quity.  Denote  heaps  of  s  ic, 
supposed  to  be  druidical  rem  is. 
and  thrown  together  on  occ;  >u 
of  confirming  or  conunemorng 
a  covenant. 

Carolitic  column.  See  o- 
lumn. 

Carpenter.  An  artificer,  vv  se 
business  is  to  cut,  fashion,  id 
join  timber  and  other  \voo(  or 
the  purposes  of  building,  be 
word  is  formed  from  the  Frch 
charpentier,  which  is  de  etl 
from  charpente,  which  sigres 
timber. 

Carpenter's  rule.    See  k 

Carpenter's  square.  MB 
Square. 

Carpenter's  work.  See  » 
suration. 

Carpentry.  The  art  of  em]  y- 
ing  timber  in  the  constructs  d 
edifices. 

Though  carpentry  is  uncs- 
tionably  of  very  high  antic;  ty, 
our  information  with  respe<> 
its  history  is  short  and  sc.tv. 
and  Pliny  and  Vitruvius  ire 
the  only  ancient  writers  p 
this  subject,  whose  works  m 
reached  modern  times.  Thf.b- 


CARPE 

3  vations  of  these  authors,  being 
c  etlv  confined  to  the  choice  and 
Jlisg  of  timber,  are  of  no  use 
a  to  the  constructive  part,  and 
ii  rely  demonstrate  that  such  an 
a  then  existed. 

The  remains  of  Egyptian  archi- 
Kture  present,  perhaps,  the  only 
e  mple  of  a  complete  system  of 
biding  without  the  use  of  tim- 
h ,  while,  at  the  same  time, 
u  ics  and  vaults  were  unknown  j 
fcmany  Roman  edifices,  as  the 
ptheon,  temple  of  peace,  &c. 
n  ,lit  be  quoted,  which,  by  means 
0  auks,  are  independent  of  car- 
p  try.  In  the  Egyptian  con- 
slietion,  however,  flat  roofs  of 
nisy  stone  were  used,  which  it 
u  necessary  to  support  by  thick 
-i  avenues  of  columns,  arranged 
at  mall  equal  distances  over  the 
\v>le  area.  This  form,  though 
i  siiciently  striking  and  pictur- 
le,  was  of  course  incommodi- 
ov,  and  only  adapted  to  a  dry 
cliate.  A  pediment  roof,  there- 
foj,  was  the  first  effort  of  con- 
st ctive  carpentry  :  this  answered 
th  purpose  of  an  effectual  shelter 
bvhrowing  off  the  humidity  of 
v  th  skies  ;  at  the  same  time  that 
th  rafters,  in  connection  with  the 
|  tr  sverse  beams  of  the  ceiling, 
,     fo  ied  a  truss  which  would  be 

n  lually  improved,  and  thus  give 
tli  means  of  covering  a  wide 

p  e,  without  any  other  support 
thji  the  external  walls. 

he  invention  of  pediment  roofs 
sus  naturally  to  Greece,  where 
th  member  was  an  essential  part 

>i  rchitecture.  Besides  forming* 
ros,  the  Greeks  appear  to  have 
usj!  carpentry  in  the  framing  of 
flc|*s,  and  for  rustic  buildings 

m  other  purposes.     But  in  a 

M  n  climate,  abounding  with 
fctye  and  marble,  it  is  not  pro- 

>a|te  that  wood  was  much  used 
in  ne  internal   finishing  of  any 
ces,  except  for  those  objects 


N  T  R  Y. 

wherein   lightness   and  tenacity 

are  essential  Qualities,  as  doors  : 
though  there  are  some  remains 
of  marble  doors. 

Among  the  Romans,  the  use  of 
wood  was  much  more  common  ; 
and  they  appear  to  nave  applied 
the  art  of  carpentry  to  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  purposes  common 
to  the  moderns. 

In  more  modern  times,  the  art 
of  carpentry  has  been  much  culti- 
vated j  and  the  works  of  Palladio, 
Serlio,  De  VOrme,  Moulineau, 
Perronet,  and  Sir  (  hristopher 
Wren,  exhibit  many  admirable 
specimens.  At  the  present  time 
it  has  begun  to  assume  a  scientific 
form  j  and,  in  England,  the  accu- 
racy and  celerity  of  execution  of 
the  workman  are  unequalled. 

The  art  of  employing  timber  in 
building  is  divided  into  two  grand 
branches  :  carpentry  and  joinery. 
The  first  includes  the  larger  and 
rougher  kinds  of  work,  and  that 
part  which  is  material  to  the  con- 
struction and  stability  of  an  edi- 
fice ;  and,  generally,  all  the  work 
wherein  the  timber  is  valued  by 
the  cubical  foot.  The  second 
includes  all  the  interior  finish- 
ing and  ornamental  wood- work, 
and  is  valued  by  the  superficial 
foot. 

Carpentry,  or  that  branch  which 
is  now  to  claim  our  attention,  is 
divided  into  three  principal  heads, 
viz.  constructive,  descriptive,  and 
mechanical. 

Of  these,  descriptive  carpentry 
shows  the  lines  or  methods  for 
forming  every  species  of  work  in 
piano,  by  the  rules  of  geometry  : 
constructive  carpentry,  the  prac- 
tice of  reducing  the  wood  into 
particular  forms,  and  joining  the 
forms  so  produced,  so  as  to  make 
a  complete  whole,  according  to 
the  intention  or  design  :  and  me- 
chanical carpentry  displays  the 
relative  strength  of  the.  timbers, 


CARPENTRY 


and  the  strains  to  which  they 
are  subjected  by  their  disposi- 
tion. 

These  three  branches  will  be 
particularly  developed  under  their 
respective  heads.  It  being  our 
intention,  in  the  present  article, 
to  trace  carpentry  through  the 
several  stages  of  its  improvement 
in  England  ;  and  by  that  means 
make  the  reader  acquainted  with 
whatever  is  valuable  and  worthy 
of  transcription  in  the  works  of 
such  authors  as  have  preceded 
those  of  the  present  day. 

The  first  English  writer,  in 
point  of  time,  that  we  have  met 
with  on  this  subject,  is  Godfrey 
Richards  ;  who,  at  the  end  of  his 
"  Translation  of  the  First  Book  of 
Andrew  Palladio,"  published  in 
1676,  writes  thus  : — 

"  Of  roofs. — Rules  and  instruc- 
tions for  framing  all  manner  of 
roofs,  whether  square  or  bevel, 
either  above  pitch  or  under  pitch, 
according  to  the  best  manner 
practised  in  England. 

*'  Also  to  find  the  length  of  the 
hips  and  sleepers,  with  the  back 
or  hip  mould,  never  yet  published 
ed  by  any  architect,  modern  or 
antique;  a  curiosity  worthy  the 
regard  even  of  the  most  curious 
workmen,  exactly  demonstrated  in 
the  following  rules  and  designs, 
by  that  ingenious  architect  Mr. 
William  Pope,  of  London. 

"  Having  raised  the  walls  to 
their  assigned  height,  and  made 
the  vaults,  laid  the  joists,  brought 
up  the  stairs,  and  performed  all 
those  things  spoken  of  before, 
we  are  now  to  raise  the  roof, 
which  embracing  every  part  of 
the  building,  and  with  its  weight 
equally  pressing  the  walls,  is  as  a 
band  to  all  the  work ;  and  besides, 
defends  the  inhabitants  from  rain, 
from  snow,  from  the  burning 
sun,  and  from  the  moisture  of 
the  night  j  adds  no  small  help  to 


the  building,  casting  off  fro 
the  walls  the  rain  water,  whit 
although  for  a  while  seems  to  t 
but  little  hurt,  yet  in  process 
time  is  cause  of  much  damag 
The  first  men  (as  saith  Vitruviu 
built  their  houses  with  flat  roo! 
but  finding  that  thereby  they  we 
not  defended  from  the  weath( 
they  (constrained  by  necessit 
began  to  make  them  ridged,  th 
is  to  say,  raised  in  the  middl 
these  roofs  are  to  be  raised  to 
higher  or  lower  pitch,  accordii 
to  the  country  in  which  th 
are  :  wherefore,  in  Germany,  j 
reason  of  the  great  quantity 
snow  that  falls  there,  they  ra; 
their  roofs  to  a  very  great  pitc 
and  cover  them  with  shingh 
which  are  small  pieces  of  woo 
or  of  thin  slate  or  tiles ;  for 
they  would  raise  them  other\vi< 
they  would  be  ruined  by  reas< 
of  the  weight  of  the  snow.  B| 
we  who  dwell  in  a  more  tempel 
ate  country  ought  to  choo 
such  a  pitch  which  may  secu 
the  building  and  be  of  a  han 
some  form  ;  therefore,  we  divi 
the  breadth  of  the  roof  into  fo 
equal  parts,  and  take  three,  whi 
makes  the  most  agreeable  pit 
for  our  country,  and  is  the  foun 
ation  for  raising  any  manner 
roof,  whether  square  or  bevel, 
appears  in  the  following  desig 
and  descriptions. 

"Plate  13.  Carpentry.  1 
manner  of  framing  a  floor,  with  i 
names  of  each  member. 

"  1 .  The  thickness  of  the  w 
and  lintel,  or  wall  plate ;  and 
it  be  in  timber-work,  then  a  brt 
summer.  • 


"2. 

The  summer. 

"3. 

Girders  framed  into  t 

summer. 

"4. 

Spaces  between  the  jois 

"5. 

Joists. 

«  6. 

Trimmers  for  the  chimn 

way. 

CARPENTRY. 


Trimmers  for  the  staircase, 
oivell-hole,  for  the  stairs. 

Of  the  design.  Plate  14. 
Ctvenlry. — A  A,  the  breadth  of 
th  house,  cantilivers,  cornices, 
ar  eaves. 

A  B,  the  length  of  the  raft- 
in;  and  furrings,  which  ought 
to*e  one-quarter  of  the  breadth 
othe  house  A  A. 

The  principal  rafters  to  be  cut 
wi  a  knee,  (as  in  the  design,) 
thj  they  may  the  better  support 
thnselves  and  the  burthen  over 
thn,  upon  the  upright  wall,  and 
al  secure  that  part  from  the 
dr  ping  in  of  the  rain  ;  which 
ofrwise  would  happen  if  the 
raers  were  made  straight  and 
fu'ed. 

The  beam  to  the  roof,  or 
.  er  to  the  garret  floor,  ought 
o  rojeet  without  the  work  as  far 
asie  furring  or  shredding,  which 
is  e  projecture  of  the  cornice. 

This  manner  of  framing  the 
ro  will  be  useful  from  20  to  30 
fei  or  thereabouts. 

1.  Ground  plate. 

2.  Girder  or  -binding  inter- 
|uk  or  bressummer. 

3.  Beam  to  t  he  roof,  or  girder 
to  le  garret  floor. 

4.  Principal  post  and  upright 
br'k  wall. 

15,  Braces. 
6.  Quarters. 
7-  Interduces. 

B.  Trick  post  or  window  post. 

9.  Jambs  or  door  posts. 

10.  King  piece  or  joirgle  piece. 
111.  Struts. 

T2.  Collar  beam,  strut  beam, 
wi  1  beam,  or  top  beam. 

13.  Door  head. 

14.  Principal  rafters. 

15.  FurringS'or  shreddings. 
1G.    Ends  of  the  lintels  and 

Mra. 

17.  Bedding  moulding  of  the 
corice  over  the  window  s,  and 
?pi2  between. 


"  18.  Knees  of  the  principal 
rafters,  which  are  to  be  of  one 
piece. 

"  19.  Purlin  mortises. 

"  Design  of  the  gabel  end  or 
roof.  Plate  15.  fig.  1.— -Let  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  gable  end 
roof  be  20  feet,  divide  the  same 
into  4  equal  parts,  take  thereof 
3  for  the  principal  rafter,  and 
placing  that  perpendicular  from 
the  point  C  to  the  point  D  begets 
the  length  of  the  sleeper  A  D, 
which  w  ill  be  18  feet ;  and  the 
length  of  the  dormer's  principal 
rafter  from  A  to  E,  when  laid 
to  its  pitch  upon  the  back  of  its 
principals,  will  reach  to  level  line 
F  B,  or  top  of  the  principal  rafter  ; 
and  this  is  a  general  rule  for  all 
breadths. 

"  1.  Summer  or  beam. 

"2.  King  piece,  crown  post,  or 
joggle  post. 

"  3,  Braces  or  struts. 

"  4.  Principal  rafters. 

"  5.  The  sleeper. 

"  6   Purlin  of  the  dormer. 

"  7-  Principal  rafter  of  the  dor- 
mer. 

"8.  Single  rafter  of  the  dormer 
standing  on  the  sleeper  and  purlin. 

"  9.  Point  of  the  sleeper. 

"10,  11.  Thickness  of  the  wall 
and  lintel,  or  wall  plates. 

"Of  the  Italian  or  hip  roof. 
Plate  YZ.fig.  2. — A  A,  the  breadth 
of  the  roof,  being  20  feet. 

"  A  B,  the  length  of  the  sleep- 
ers or  hips,  being  18  feet,  which 
is  proportionable  to  the  breadth 
of  the  house. 

"E  D,  the  height  of  the  roof 
perpendicular. 

"  C  D,  the  length  of  the  hip, 
and  the  angle  which  it  maketh 
upon  the  diagonal  line,  which  is 
snowed  by  the  prick  line  G,  from 
F  to  C. 

«  1,  2.  The  wall  and  lintels. 
"  3.  Dragon  beam  for  the  hip 
to  stand  on. 


CARPENTRY. 


"  4.  Beam  or  summer,  wherein 
the  dragon  beams  are  framed. 

"  5.  King  piece  or  crown  post. 

"6.  Struts  or  braces,  from  the 
crown  post  to  the  hip  rafter. 

"7-  Hips  as  they  make  the  angle 
equal  to  the  breadth  of  the  house. 

"S.  Hips  as  they  make  the  angle 
in  the  diagonal  line  from  corner 
to  corner. 

"  9.  The  additional  length  which 
the  hips  make  upon  the  diagonal 
line  more  than  the  breadtli  of  the 
house. 

"  Of  flat  roofs.  Plate  16.  Jig. 
I, — Within  a  camber  beam  and 
rafters  joggled  in,  whose  weight 
lyeth  not  chiefly  in  the  middle, 
and  may  be  so  made,  that,  with- 
out hanging  up  the  beam,  the 
principals  may  discharge  the 
weight  j  and  how  drips  may  be 
made  to  walk  on. 

"  1.  Camber  beam. 

"  2.  Principals  joggled  into  the 
camber  beam. 

"  3.  The  place  where  the  prin- 
cipals are  joggled  in. 

"  4.  Puncheons  or  braces. 

"  5.  P>rips  to  walk  on,  and  may 
be  made  with  the  less  current, 
that  the  roof  may  be  made  the 
more  pitch  for  strengthening 
thereof  j  and  may  be  made  higher 
or  lower  according  to  the  build- 
ing or  discretion  of  the  architect. 

"  6.  B;ittlement. 

"  Fig.  2.  A  flat  roof  with  a  crown 
post  or  king  piece. 

"  Of  the  hip  roof.  Plate  16. 
Jig.  3.  Instructions  to  find  the 
length  and  back  of  the  hip,  so  as  it 
may  answer  the  side  and  the  end  of 
the  perpendicular  line  of  the  gable 
end,  the  two  skirts,  the  side  of  the 
roof  in  piano,  or  lying  in  ledgement 
with  the  hip  and  gable  end,  the 
diagonal  and  perpendicular  lines 
being  laid  down  proportionable  to 
any  breadth  or  length,  by  which  the 
most  ingenious  may  serve  himself, 
and  an  ordinary  capacity  {already 

526 


acquainted  with  the  use  of  the  n 
and  compass)  may  plainly  dem 
strate  all  the  parts  of  a  roof,  whet 
bevel  or  square,  above  pitch  or  un 
pitch,  by  lines  of  vroporlion,  as  n 
appear  in  tne  design  following. 

"  Suppose  the  roof  "20  f 
broad,  and  in  length  30,  40,  • 
50  feet,  more  or  less.  Let  A , 
CD  be  the  sides  and  ends  of 
said  roof,  one  end  to  be  hipt,  I 
other  a  gable  end.  Draw 
lines  A  B  C  D  the  breadth  ;  . 
length  of  the  roof;  then  draw 
gable  end  ABC,  whose  sides  j 
principal  rafters  being  three-qu  • 
ters  of  the  breadth  of  the  hou; 
then  draw  the  perpendicular!: 
E  F,  the  height  of  the  gable  e, 
which  line  is  of  general  use  to  le  1 
the  ridge  of  all  roofs  j  and  if  I 
other  end  be  kept  as  in  the  des  i 
D  C  G,  then  it  serves  to  find  I 
length  of  the  hip,  and  the  b;; 
of  the  hip,  so  that  it  may  ansv 
both  sides  and  ends  of  the  rc  , 
always  observing  that  the  mid; 
of  the  breadth  of  the  house  is) 
I  H  then  draw  the  line  K  I  f 
through  the  centre  I,  which  \\ 
make  right  angles  to  the  \\ 
E  F  H  G,  both  in  bevel 
square  houses;  then  extend  i 
line  A  B  on  both  sides  to  O.  be I 
the  length  of  A  E  or  E  B,  I 
length  of  the  principal  raft« , 
or  three-quarters  of  the  house;;) 
will  O  N  and  O  K  make  the  leiu 
of  the  rid^e  I  F,  and  K  D  and  (  J 
the  two  skirts. 

"  To  find  the  length  of  the  i 
— Draw  the  diagonal  line  111 
and  I  C,.  over  which  the  hip  if 
hang  when  in  its  due  place,  tj 
take  the  perpendicular  line  a 
and  place  it  from  the  point  1) 
P  P,  perpendicular  to  the  diago  1 
or  base  lines  D  I  and  I  C,  a, . 
So  is  I  P  and  J  P  the  pitchjf 
the  hip  equal  to  the  gable  ii 
E  F,  and,  when  erected,  will  bf 
perpendicular   to   the  point  . 


CARPENTRY. 


Tin  take  P  D,  the  hypotenuse 
0f  ,e  triangle  D  I  P,  and  C  P, 
(hehvpotenuse  of  the  triangle 
(  [',' placing  them  from  D  to  G, 
:  to  G  gives  the  length  of 
ip'D  G  C,  and  when  laid  to 
pitch,  will  all  meet  perpen- 
|gfei  ir  to  their  point  I. 
<fo  find  the  back  of  the  hip,  so 
a  it  may  answer  both  sides  and 
d  of  the  roof  whether  square 
or  \vcl. 

■Lay  the  ruler  from  the  point 
L  t  the  point  H,  and  from  the 
poi  H  to  M,  and  mark  where 
ts  the  diagonal  lines  D  I 
C  at  Q  Q,  then  set  one 
:  10  if  the  compasses  on  the  point 
Q,  id  extend  the  other  foot,  to 
,e  ip  lines  D  P  and  C  P,  at  the 
a  st  distance,  with  that  mark 
leloint  R,  upon  the  same  dia- 
lines,  then  draw  the  pricked 
L  R  H  and  H  R  M,  which 
ma  s  the  back  of  the  hip  for  the 
twoorners  of  the  roof. 

1  his  rule  serves  for  all  roofs, 
whiher  over  or  under  pitch. 
1  V  roof>  bevel  at  one  end  and 
neat  the  other,  the  gable  end 
f/r/ie,  and  the  bevel  end  hipped. 
Plc\  17.  Jig.  1. — Suppose  the 
bre.lth  of  the  roof  20  feet,  the 
:ti  h  more  on  one  side  than  the 
"tli',  as  in  the  design  ABCD, 
the  draw  the  gable  end  AEB, 
whie  side,  from  A  to  E  and  from 
E  t  B,  is  one-quarter  the  breadth 
oft:  house,  or  is  the  length  of  the 
pri  ipal  rafters ;  then  draw  the 
per-ndicular  E  F,  the  height  of 
thei-oof  from  the  floor ;  and  if 
kml  l,  then  from  the  top  of  the 
kn(t  as  in  the  design  of  a  kneed 
rati,-  beforegoing. 

'pie  sides  of  the  roof,  which 
"i"  s  the  ridge  G  H  I  K,  to  be 
dran  as  is  described  in  the  fore- 
goir  design. 

1  divide  the  breadth  of  the 
*orin  two  equal  parts,  as  F  L  Q, 
thatake  the  distance  L  N,  which 


is  the  half  breadth  of  the  house, 
and  make  it  parallel  to  C  Q  D, 
as  M  L  M  and  L  will  be  the 
point  whose  perpendicular,  O  T, 
will  meet  the  principal  rafters 
and  hips. 

"  To  find  the  length  of  each  hip 
distinct  from  each  other.  Of  the 
longest  hips. — Draw  the  diagonal 
line  L  C,  and  take  the  height  of 
the  gable  end  E  F,  and  place  it 
perpendicular  to  L  C  at  O :  so 
you  have  the  height  of  the  roof 
perpendicular  from  O  L  equal  to 
E  F>  the  gable  end  ;  and  line  O  C 
will  be  the  length  of  the  hip  raf- 
ter, which  will  be  equal  to  C  H, 
the  skirt  for  that  side  of  the  hip, 
and  C  P  the  side  of  that  hip  end. 

"  To  Jind  the  back  of  the  longest 
hip  C  O. — Lay  the  ruler  from  the 
point  M  to  Q,  and  mark  where 
it  cuts  the  diagonal  line  at  R, 
then  set  one  foot  of  the  compasses 
at  the  point  R,  and  extend  the 
other  foot  till  it  touch  the  line 
C  O  at  the  nearest  distance,  then 
make  it  touch  the  diagonal  line 
at  S,  then  draw  the  lines  M  S  Q, 
which  is  the  back  of  the  hip  for 
that  corner  of  the  roof. 

"To  find  the  shortest  hip.— Draw 
the  diagonal  line  of  L  I)  and  take 
E  F,  the  perpendicular  of  the 
gable  end  as  before,  and  place  it 
from  L  to  T  perpendicular  to 
L  D,  then  draw  the  line  J  D, 
which  is  the  length  of  the  hip  for 
that  corner,  and  is  equal  to  the 
skirt  D  I,  and  the  side  of  that 
hipD  P,  which,  when  erected,  will 
meet  with  the  other  principals 
perpendicular  to  the  point  L. 

"  To  Jind  the  back  of  this  hip. — 
Lay  the  ruler  from  the  point  Q 
to  the  point  M,  and  mark  where 
it  cuts  the  diagonal  line  L  D  at 
V.  Extend  the  compasses  from 
the  point  V,  to  touch  the  line 
T  D  at  the  nearest  distance,  and 
carry  that  distance  on  the  diagonal 
line  to  the  point  Wj  then  draw 

527 


CARPENTRY. 


the  pricked  I;nes  M  W  Q,  which 
will  make  the  back  of  that  hip  fit 
for  that  bevel  corner.  And  this 
rule  serves  for  all  bevel  roofs, 
whether  over  or  under  pitch. 

"  Of  a  roof  bevel  at  both  ends, 
and  broader  at  one  end  than  the 
other.  Plate  \7-fig  2. — A  BCD, 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  house. 

"E  F  G,  the  length  of  the 
rafters  or  pitch  between  the 
widest  and  narrowest  end  about 
the  middle  of  the  house,  to  stand 
over  the  pricked  line  T  T,  as  the 
foot  F  to  stand  on  the  one  T  foot 
G  to  stand  on  the  other  T. 

"  H  H,  the  point  of  the  two  hip 
ends,  when  brought  to  their  due 
place,  will  be  perpendicular  to 
P  P,  and  will  meet  the  sides  I  K 
L  M  over  the  points  P  P. 

"OOOO,  the  points  of  the 
perpendiculars  and  length  of  the 
hips  from  ABCD. 

"  Q  Q  Q  Q,  the  backs  of  the 
hip  or  hip  mould  to  each  corner. 

"RRRR,  the  points  to  find 
out  Q,  the  point  for  each  back. 

tf  S  S  S  S,  the  lines  represent- 
ing half  the  breadth  of  the  house, 
parallel  to  each  end. 

"  T  T,  representing  the  middle 
of  the  house. 

"Notwithstanding  the  bevel 
ends  you  may  place  your  beams 
for  your  principal  rafters  to  stand 
on,  square,  or  so  near  a  square  as 
may  be,  or  between  both,  as  from 
the  ends  of  the  pricked  lines 
I  K  L  M,  bringing  the  outside  of 
them  straight  under  P,  which  will 
be  more  handsome  for  the  house 
In  the  inbide,  although  it  bevels 
outward." 

The  preceding  comprises  the 
whole  of  the  information  con- 
tained in  Godfrey  Richards's  work 
relative  to  carpentry.  In  the  ex- 
planation to  plate  13,  we  are  made 
acquainted  with  the  names  of  the 
several  timbers  which  constitute 
a  floor,  and  the  manner  in  which 

528 


in 


they  are  disposed  :  n  the  ex 
nations  to  plates  14,  15,  and 
the  manner  of  framing  a  r< 
and  in  plates  16  and  17,  is  shi 
the  manner  of  finding  the  len*  | 
and  backs  of  the  hips,  a>  at 
sent,  which  discovery  he  g< 
rously  ascribes  to  Mr.  Pope. 

In  modern  buildings,  wher 
the  same  things  are  used, 
same  names  are,  with  but  1 
exceptions,  retained.    Of  t 
exceptions,   however,  we  < 
briefly  take  notice.    The  i; 
duces  are    now   called  inter 
the  word   prick-post  has 
superseded   by  the  terms  j<V 
posts,  window,  or  door  posts ;  ie 
names  king-piece,  crown-post^ 
joggle-post,  are  now  lost,  and  jfj 
post  substituted  ;  the  term  slt<  rs 
is  changed  into  valley -pieces 
valley-rafters ;  and  of  the  w  is 
collar -beam,  strut- beam,  wind-bn, 
or  top- beam,  the  term  collar- 
only  is  retained. 

In  modern  houses  also  tre 
is  some  difference  in  the  r 
of  construction  :  the  summem 
being  used  in  the  flooring ;  ar 
the  kneed-rafters,  and,  cce- 
quently,  neither  the  shred^s 
nor  furrings,  in  the  roofing. 

The  author  who  appears  to  ve 
been  the  next  to  .advance  a  ?p 
further  in  this  department  of  th  rt 
of  construction,  is  Mr.  Half'pe  v 
who,  in  "  The  Art  of  sound  B  d- 
ing,"  published  in  1725,  hane 
following  observations: — 

"  To  find  the  angle  or  Ut 
bracket  of  a  cove.  Plate  1$.  jm 
— First  draw  the  base  A  B  off! 
regular  bracket,  and  from  A# 
A  D,  perpendicular  and  equip 
it,  and  draw  the  line  D  B,M 
continue  the  line  D  A  to  Cm 
that  A  C  be  also  equal  to  A  B ;  ?u 
extending  your  compasses  W 
A  to  B,  and  setting  one  fof> 
A,  with  the  other  describe  >e 
arch  or  quarter  of  a  circle  A 


CARPENTRY. 


an  from  the  point  D  craw  D  F, 
pefendicular  to  D  B,  and  equal 
to:' A  or  AC,  and  another  as 
from  B,  likewise  equal  to 
D  and  draw  the  line  F  E,  which 
wilbe  parallel  to  D  B.  This 
Dei?  done,  divide  A  B  into  a 
iuer  of  equal  parts,  not  ex- 
eeeW  two  inches  and  a  half, 
Sn<  h  rough  the  divisions  of  them 
1  dra  lines  parallel  to  A  C.  to 
ie!  toufr  the  arch  C  B,  which  conti- 
imout  to  the  line  D  B,  and  this 
lim  vill  be  likewise  divided  into 
Iheame  number  of  equal  parts 
B  is.    Lastly,  from  the  di- 
lute visits  of  the  line  D  B  draw  lines 
riel  to  D  F,  and,  in  each  of 
r  the  ,  from  D  B,  lay  off  its  respec- 
uvtparallel  (from  A  B  to  the 
the ir.arcj  C  B)  and  at   the  points 
wheat  they  end,    stick  small 
ild  nai  or  pins,  and  take  a  thin  lath, 
i   anilbend  it  round  the  nails  or 
n  observing  that  it  touches 
the  all,  and  with  a  pencil  or  any 
it   Miii  else  proper  to  make  a  mark 
deslibe  the  arch  F  B,  round  the 
Ig  of  the  lath  ;  and  this  is  the 
c  or  the  angle  or  mitre  bracket. 
"'late  18.  fig.  2.-1/  the  lesser 
t|(  arch  of  an  irregular  groin  be  a 
'(  semicircle,  it  is  required  to 
.  rrjj  larger  one  (not  a  semicircle) 
so  t\t  the  intersection  of  these  two 
irck  shall  beget,  or  make  the 
'l  ine  of  the    angle    to  hang 
mdicular  over  its  base  ;  as  also 
i  to  WW  that  arch-line  of  the  angle. 
"  irst  draw  the  lines  A  B  and 
1  to  represent  the  walls  from 
pi  vOmce  the  arches  spring,  and 
Ira  the  line  C  B,  and  on  the 
n  i  C  describe  the  semicircle 
A  Bp  and  divide  A  C  into  any 
ii  er   of    equal  parts,  from 
"  e    draw  parallel  lines  to 
C  I  to  touch,  or  come  to  the 
arctV  E  C,  and  if  those  parallels 
are  ontinued  out    to  the  line 
H'.hey  will  divide  it  into  the 
«aui  number  of  equal  parts  as 
3X 


A  C  is  j  and  if  from  each  of  the 
divisions  of  this  last  line  parallels 
to  A  C  are  drawn,  they  will  divide 
the  line  A  B  into  the  same  num- 
ber of  equal  parts  as  A  C  or  C  B 
is  divided  into.  This  being  done, 
continue  A  C  to  I,  so  that  A  I  be 
equal  to  E  f,  and  continue  D  B  to 
K,  so  that  K  B  be  likewise  equal 
to  E f,  or  A  I,  and  draw  the  line 
I  K.  Moreover,  at  the  points  C 
and  B  raise  the  perpendiculars 
C  N  and  B  O  to  C  B,  each  of  the 
same  length  as  E/,  or  A  I,  or 
B  K,  and  draw  the  line  N  O. 
Lastly,  from  the  divisions  of  AB, 
draw  parallels  to  A  I,  (that  is, 
continue  the  parallels  drawn  from 
the  divisions  of  the  line  C  B,  to 
the  line  I  K,)  and  from  the  divi- 
sions of  C  B  parallels  to  C  N. 
Then  set  off  the  heights  or  lengths 
of  each  of  the  parallels  In  the 
semicircle  of  A  E  C,  upon  the 
correspondent  parallels  to  A  I  and 
C  N,  and  stick  in  nails  whereat 
they  terminate  ;  and  if  a  lath  be 
bent  round  thorn,  so  as  to  touch 
them  all,  and  a  pencil  be  moved 
round  the  edge  of  it,  the  arches 
A  H  B  and  B  M  I  will  be  found, 
which  was  required  to  be  done. 

'*  Note. — The  pricked  lines  in 
this  and  all  other  examples  of  this 
kind,  show  that  one  parallel  line 
has  a  relation  with  the  other. 
For  example;  the  lines  fE,gh,  and 
I  M,  are  all  equal  to  one  another ; 
so  that  if  the  three  arches  A  H  B, 
A  E  C,  and  C  M  B,  were  raised 
perpendicularly  upon  the  lines 
A  B,  AC,  and  C  B,  and  a  line 
drawn  from  H  to  M  and  another 
from  M  to  Ej  then  would  the 
line  H  M  be  parallel  to  and  di- 
rectly over  the  pricked  line  b  g. 
In  like  manner,  the  line  E  M 
would  be  parallel  to  and  directly 
over  the  pricked  line  f  b.  Under- 
stand the  same  of  the  other  paral- 
lels and  pricked  lines  in  this  figure 
and  any  others  of  the  like  nature. 

539 


CARPENTRY. 


"  Plate  IS.  fig.  3. — Having  one 
centre  given  for  an  unequal-sided 
groin,  to  form  the  other,  so  that 
the  intersection  thereo  f  shall  produce 
the  angle,  or  mitre  'arch,  to  hang 
perpendicularly  over  its  buse :  and 
moreover  to  draw  the  curve  thereof 

"  Draw  the  lines  A  B  and  B  D, 
and  D  C  and  C  A,  each  equal  to 
one  another,  to  represent  the 
walls  from  whence  the  arches 
spring,  and  on  the  line  A  B  de- 
scribe the  given  arch  A  F  B.  This 
being  done,  divide  the  line  A  B 
into  any  number  of  equal  parts, 
from  whence  raise  perpendiculars 
to  A  B,  to  touch  the  arch  A  F  B, 
and  draw  the  diagonal  lines  A  D, 
and  C  B.  Then  take  the  line  E  F, 
and  set  it  perpendicular  to  the 
lines  A  C,  A  D,  C  D,  C  B, B  D,  from 
A  to  O,  from  A  to  I,  from  C  to  P, 
from  C  to  S,  from  C  to  L,  from 
1)  to  K,  from  D  to  T,  from  D  to 
V,  and  from  B  to  M,  and  from  B 
to  Z,  and  draw  the  straight  lines 
O  P,  I  K,  S  T,  L  M,  and  Z  V. 
Now  divide  the  base  lines  D  B, 
D  C,  C  A,  A  D,  and  B  C,  each 
into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts  as  A  B  is  divided  into ;  and 
from  the  points  of  division  draw 
parallel  lines  to  touch  the  lines 
OP,  ST,  V  Z,  C  M,  and  I  K. 
Then  take  the  lengths  of  the  per- 
pendiculars to  A  B,  drawn  to 
touch  the  given  arch  A  F  B,  and 
set  them  off  in  the  correspondent 
parallels,  drawn  from  the  points 
of  division,  of  the  several  bases 
upwards,  and  the  arches  B  y  D, 
D  v  C,  C  q  A,  Ah  D,  and  CnB, 
will  be  described  as  in  the  fore- 
going example,  (plate  IS,  fig.  2,) 
whose  heights  xy,  w  v,  r  g,  g  h, 
and  g  n,  are  each  equal  to  E  F, 
as  likewise  all  the  other  corres- 
pondent heights  from  the  bases 
to  the  curves  that  are  formed. 

"Plate  IS.  fig.  4.-— "  The  arch- 
line  of  a  targe  ceiling  or  vault  sup- 
posed to  semicircular  being  given  • 

.530 


how  to  form  the  curve  of  a  h  • 
arch,  that  sliall  intersect  the 
thereof,  to  give  way  for  door 
windows,  so  that  their  insersec 
shall  produce  the  groin  to  h 
perpendicularly  over  its  buse; 
also  to  form  the  curve  line  there 
f4  First  draw  the  lines  A  B,  1 
D  C,  and  C  A,  to  represent 
walls  from  whence  the  an 
spring,  and  describe  the  two  g  jjj 
semicircular  arches  O  A  B,  C  J  i, 
and  in  the  line  DB  set  off  (e 
span  of  the  intersecting  arehf'n 
v  to  t.  This  being  done,  se'  tf 
the  height  you  design  to  raise  ie 
lesser  arch  v  z  u,  from  g  infgj 
line  A  O  B,  perpendicularl  y 
touch  the  arch  in  h,  and  from  :o 
R,  and  t  to  u,  and  draw  the  ie 
R  u,  which  halve  in  the  poi  | 
and  draw  the  -line  z  y  paralkto 
v  R  or  t  v.  Then  strain  a  ie 
or  lay  a  straight  rule  fro  h 
through  g  towards  x ;  as  ft 
from  z  through  y,  towards  x,  id 
these  two  lines  will  cut  one  | 
ther  at  x,  from  whence  to  ie 
points  v  and  t  draw  the  line  * 
and  x  v.  Now  set  off  g  h  | 
pendicular  to  x  t  from  x  to  to  id 
from  t  to  s,  and  draw  the  fl 
w,  and  divide  g  B  into  any  i  ft 
ber  of  equal  parts  at  plea  e, 
from  the  divisions  of  which,  ■ 
perpendiculars  to  g  B,  to  t  B 
the  arch  BOA.  between  he 
points  B  and  h,  and  divide  \ 
and  y  t,  the  halves  of  the  has  i  /.. 
each  into  the  same  numbe  ol 
equal  parts  as  g  B  is  di ■■ed 
into  ;  as  likewise  the  base  k 
and  from  the  points  of  di* 011 
draw  parallel  lines  to  touch  |W 
lines  u  R  and  s  w.  This  W 
done,  take  the  length  of  thep 
that  were  drawn  from  the  p 
of  division  of  B  g,  perpen ;;u- 
larly  to  touch  the  part  B  h,  m 
arch  B  O  A,  and  set  them  <  H> 
the  correspondent  parallels  W 
y  to  v  R,  and  from  y  t  to  z  i 


CARPE 

liVwise  from  xt  to  w  s.  Then 
if  t  the  extent  of  each  line,  as 
v')  set  it  off  in  the  parallels,  you 
[t  i  in  nails,  as  in  the  foregoing 
gxfcples,  and  bend  a  thin  ruler 
abit  them,  you  will  describe  the 
so;ht  arches  v  z  t,  and  w  t, 
Avlreof  v  z  t  is  the  true  inter- 
Being  arch,  and  w  t  the  curve 
[J of  the  groin  that  is  corres- 
pondent thereto. 

ifter  the  very  same  manner  the 
1    anes  k  m  z  and  kp  are  drawn. 

Plate  18.  Jig.  5. — How  to  form 
a  sucircular  niche  with  ribs,  as  is 
usk  when  it  is  to  be  plastered. 

First,  describe  the  semicir- 
cu£  plate,  A  C  B,  as  also  the 

i  circular  front  rib,  A  D  B, 

1 1  to  it,  and  fix  the  plate,  A  C  B, 
a\  in  the  place  where  it  is  to 

:  nue,  and  upon  it  set  the 

0  rib,  A  D  B,  perpendicular 
q  13.  This  being  done,  de- 
re  the  quadrantal  ribs  DC, 

1)  :  D  G,  and  D  H,  each  equal 
to  D  or  B  D,  and  place  them 
k  t  eight  inches  and  a  half  from 
smother  on  the  plate  ACB, 

1  C,  E,  F,  G,  and  H,  so  as  to 
:   me  in  one  point,  at  D,  on  the 

on  of  the  front  rib,  AD  Bj 
lis!  anc'hus  is  one  half  of  the  work 
iris  fini  ed.  And  after  the  same 
maner  may  the  other  be  done. 
'  low  to  form  an  elliptical  niche, 
\  uilnbs  for  plastering.  Plate  18. 
an  fm,  7,  8. 

1  irst  describe  the  two  figures 
7  ;  il  8,  k  n  m  being  a  semi- 
I  ell"  is,  representing  the  plate 
whjeon  the  ribs  stand,  and  being 
iqu  to  A  D  B  or  A  e  B.  The 
,  priced  lines,  /  n,  I  o,  I  p,  I  R, 
mini,  represent  the  base  lines 
oft'  ribseD,/D.g-D,/iD,iD, 
and.i  Dj  so  likewise  do  the  lines 
>'  t,  t,  s  w,  s  x,  and  s  y,  and  the 
permdicuUirs  at,  b  u,  c  v,  d  w, 
ix,hd  f  y,  do  represent  the  ris- 
mfirMf  the  ribs  e  D,  /  D,  g  D, 
n  I)  D.  and  B  D,  which  is  equal 


N  T  R  Y. 

in  length  to  CD;  observing  that 
within  those  lines  the  different 
arch  of  each  rib  is  to  be  descrid- 
ed,  viz.  the  arch  s  a  is  a  quad- 
rant of  a  circle,  having  t  for  its 
centre,  and  is  equal  to  the  arch 
of  the  rib  e  D.  The  lines  u  s, 
s  z,  equal  to  z  b,  bu,  are  the  semi- 
transverse  and  conjugate  axes  of 
a  semi-ellipsis,  whose  arch,  s  />  is 
equal  to  the  arch  of  the  rib  J  D, 
which  may  be  struck  either  with 
a  trammel,  or  oy  the  intersection 
of  lines.  Moreover,  the  lines  s  z, 
s  v,  equal  to  v  c,  cz,  are  the  semi- 
transverse  and  conjugate  axes  of 
a  semi-ellipsis,  whose  arch  is 
equal  to  the  arch  of  the  rib  g  D, 
and  so  of  the  rest.  Now  having 
the  ribs  all  ready,  set  the  front 
rib,  A  D  B,  perpendicular  on  the 
plate  A  e  B,  as  at  A  B,  and  fix 
the  feet  of  the  short  ribs  on  the 
plate  A  e  B,  as  at  ef  g  h  i,  which 
correspond  with  the  points  nop 
q  r  and  their  points  a  b  c  d  e,  to 
the  crown  of  the  front  rib  at  D ; 
and  thus  may  you  finish  your 
work." 

The  work  that  next  comes 
under  our  consideration,  is 
Smith's  "  Carpenter  s  Companion," 
published  in  1733  ;  and,  though 
he  presents  us  with  nothing  new, 
his  observations  are,  in  general, 
very  judicious,  and  worthy  of 
being  transcribed. 

His  introduction  commences 
thus  : — 

"  The  usefulness  of  carpenter's 
work  in  building,  and  the  little 
notice  taken  of  it  by  authors  who 
have  treated  of  architecture,  and 
the  few  there  be  that  rightly  un- 
derstand it,  prompts  me  to  write 
the  following  treatise. 

"  Carpenter's  work  is  one  of  the 
most  valuable  branches  of  archi- 
tecture; itwas  contemporary  with 
the  first  ages  of  this  world  ;  with 
the  knowledge  of  this  art  Noah 
closely  and  firmly  connected  those 

531 


CARPENTRY 


timbers  together  in  the  ark, 
which  were  so  nicely  wrought, 
that  they  not  only  kept  the  waters 
from  penetrating  into  it,  but  was 
proof  against  the  tempest  and 
the  rolling  billows,  when  in  its 
womb  it  carried  all  the  tenants 
of  the  earth  and  air. 

*'  Those  naval  preparations 
through  all  ages  of  the  world,  as 
well  as  those  stupendous  temples 
and  edifices  erected  in  all  coun- 
tries, demonstrate  the  perfection 
of  this  art.  The  innumerable 
floating  buildings,  which  roll  from 
one  country  to  another,  through 
tempestuous  storms,  tost  from 
the  mountain'sheight  to  the  depths 
of  the  ocean,  without  injuring 
the  vessel,  evidently  show  the  vast 
use  and  judgment  of  carpenter's 
work. 

**  But  as  that  branch  of  it,  as 
relates  to  templar  or  domal  uses, 
is  the  subject  of  this  work,  I  shall 
only  treat  of  its  usefulness  in 
them ;  and  I  may  venture  to 
affirm,  that  carpenter's  work  is 
the  chief  tie  and  connection  of  a 
building,  it  is  the  ligaments  which 
bind  the  whole  together. 

"  The  bond-timbers  which 
strengthen  and  tie  the  angles  of 
a  building,  and  prevent  its  sepa- 
rating, is  the  work  of  the  car- 
penter j  lintelling  over  doors  and 
windows,  with  other  discharge- 
ments  of  weight,  is  his  care  to 
perform. 

"  Bond-timber  in  cross-walls, 
when  settlements  happen,  if  they 
are  well  applied,  prevent  the 
cracking  of  the  walls,  for  that 
keeps  the  whole  together,  and 
every  part  settleth  alike,  which 
would  fill  the  buildings  with  gaps 
and  chasms  if  neglected. 

"  Next  for  floors  ;  the  rightly 
framing  them  by  trussing  the 
girders  by  placing  them  on  joists, 
so  that  they  come  near  no  funnels 
of  chimneys  j  the  manner  of  te- 
53a 


nanting,  tusking,  framing  of  tr . 
mers,  stairs,  &c.  1  say,  all  th » 
is  the  business  of  the  carper j| 
to  see  carefully  performed. 

"  Partitions  of  timber,  th 
manner  of  trussing  to  prev  t 
racking,  settlements,  &c.  and  » 
discharge  of  weight  of  gird*, 
beams,  or  cross- walls,  is  car  - 
ter's work,  as  is,  likewise,  » 
framing  of  timber  bridges. 

"  Roofs  of  various  sorts  r 
common  houses,  large  edifit , 
or  churches,  their  manner  f 
framing,  the  height  of  their  pit , 
their  strength,  usefulness,  . 
with  the  various  manner  of  j  - 
forming  all  these  works,  is  I 
subject  of  this  treatise,  whicl 
have  rendered  intelligible  to  evp 
capacity,  by  designs  of  every  s  , 
and  have  described  them  in  s  i 
a  manner  that  will  render  e 
work  useful  to  carpenters,  i 
particular  such  who  are  ur- 
quainted  with  the  manner  of  { - 
forming  these  operations  f 
framing. 

"  If  it  should  be  objected,  it 
there  are  few  things  here  treril 
of,  but  what  every  carpeir 
knows,  I  could  wish  such  j 
jectors  had  been  at  the  pair  I 
have  taken  to  inform  the  wol> 
since  I  reap  no  advantage  fra 
it,  but  the  satisfaction  of  comi  - 
nicating  any  thing  which  u 
prove  serviceable  to  my  coun  - 
men.  I  therefore  conclude,  fi'e 
est  inventes  addere." 

And  am, 
yours,  &c. 
James  6m» 

"  The  first  thing  which  a  r- 
penter  must  consider,  for  e 
carrying  on  a  building,  is  e 
plan  in  which  you  are  to  pre] c 
your  timber,  in  having  it  cut  o 
proper  scantlings,  which  shal  e 
hereafter  noted. 

"  You  are  to  prepare  for  W 
telling  and   bond-timbers  j  * 


CARPENTRY. 


liriils  over  doors  or  windows, 
3  of  5  inches  thick,  and  7 
br>d,  and  it  is  a  slight  way 
of  milding  to  put  in  any  of  a 
le;  scantling;  as  for  doorcases, 
th"  manner  of  making,  and 
sc;  tlings  of  stuff,  it  is  needless 
to  3eak  of ;  it  is  the  best  way  to 
ha?  them  put  in  when  the  foun- 
dajns  are  brought  up  high 
en?igh  for  them.  Bond  timber 
shJild  be  dovetailed  in  the  an- 
glj  of  the  building  and  cross- 
m  s,  as  represented  in  plate  19, 

I  %  and  3  ;  and  here  note 
th:  it  is  a  durable  but  expensive 
wl  to  have  all  fir  timber  which 

id  in  the  walls  of  a  building 
to  >e  pitched,  with  pitch  and 
ht  se  mixed  together;  the  quan- 
tity grease  one  pound,  to  four 
■fitch;  all  these  things  are  the 
ca  of  the  carpenter. 

Bond-timbers  should  be  4 
or  i  inches  thick  for  cross- 
was,  and  in  the  angles  of  a 
billing,  6  or  7  inches,  and 
pnortionably  broad,  6  or  8 
fet  long,  in  each  wall,  and  it 
weld  not  be  amiss  to  place  them 
•  8  feet  distance  all  the 
he  int  of  the  building,  in  every 
inje  and  cross-wall ;  these,  if  a 
baling  be  on  an  unfirm  foun- 
da'm,  cause  the  whole  to  settle 
toother,  and  prevent  the  cracks 
an  '  ractures  which  happen  if  this 
be  fglected. 

U'e  come  now  to  the  floors, 
in  liich  these  things  are  to  be 

rved:  the  magnitude  of  the 
''),  the  manner  of  framing, 
»n  Lhe  scantlings  of  the  timber  j 
for  he  first  you  are  to  observe  to 
la>  ie  girders  always  the  shortest 
w;i  and  not  to  have  a  joist, 
1  iy  time,  exceed  12  feet  in 
lerth. 

The  first  and  common  me- 
th(  of  framing  floors  is,  as  in 
ph  \9yJig.  4,  marked  A,  where 
th«'joists  are  framed  flush  with 


the  top  of  the  girder.    The  two 

cross  joists,  a  and  b,  are  called 
trimming  joists  ;  that  marked  a 
is  supposed  to  be  against  a  chim- 
ney ;  that  marked  6  is  the  stairs; 
these  joists  are  always  thicker 
than  common  joists,  being  weak- 
ened by  mortising.  Scantling  of 
joists,  when  a  floor  is  framed  in 
this  manner,  ought  to  be  as 
followeth. 

Common  Joists. 
Length  Scantling 
in  feet.  in  inches. 

5   7  x 

6   7  x 

8   7  x  «2|- 

9   8  x  3 

10   8  x  3j 

11   8  x  3j 

12   9  X  4 

Trimming  Joists. 

Length  Scantling 

in  feet.  in  inches. 

5   7X3 

6   7  X  4 

7   7x5 

8   8  x  4 

9   8  X  5 

10   9  X  6 

'*  These  are  such  proportions 
as  will  render  the  work  suffici- 
ently capable  of  sustaining  any 
common  weight. 

"  The  next  manner  of  framing 
floors  is  that  in  plate  18,  Jig.  4, 
marked  B,  with  binding  joists ; 
those  six  joists,  marked  6,  are 
called  binding  joists,  framed  flush 
with  the  under  side  of  the  gir- 
der, and  about  3  or  4  inches 
below  the  top  of  the  girder  to 
receive  the  bridgings  ;  which  are 
those  marked  m  in  the  floor,  and 
which  lie  across  the  bindingjoists, 
and  are  pinned  down  to  them 
with*  pins  of  wood,  or  spikes  of 
iron.  These  binding  joists  should 
be  framed  about  3  feet,  or  3 
feet  6  inches  distance  from  one 

533 


CARPENTRY. 


another,  and  their  thickness  4 
or  5  inches,  or  in  proportion 
to  the  length  of  their  bearing 
as  trimming  joists. 

k*  These  floors,  if  they  settle  out 
of  a  level  with  the  building,  are 
made  level  when  after  the  bridg- 
ings are  put  on,  which  is  gene- 
rally after  the  building  is  covered 
in  and  near  completed ;  they  are 
generally  double  tenanted,  as  re- 
presented in  plate  20,  Jigs.  1,  2, 

3,  4.  The  common  tenanting  is, 
as  Jigs.  5,  6,  7,  8.  That  part  of 
the  floor  marked  D,  plate  19,  Jig. 

4,  are  the  same  joists,  with  ceiling 
joists  tenanted  into  them,  the 
binding  joists  are  chased,  and  the 
ceiling  joists,  marked  n,  are  te- 
nanted into  them,  and  put  in 
generally  after  the  building  is  up. 
These  ceiling  joists  should  be 
about  13  or  14  inches  apart,  and 
the  scantling  2  and  3,  or  3 
inches  square  j  and  in  large  build- 
ings 3  and  4.  As  for  the  bridg- 
ings which  lie  on  the  top  of  the 
binding  joists,  they  may  be  placed 
12  or  14  inches  distance,  the 
scantlings  3  and  4,  or  3j  and 
5.,  their  bearing  being  only  from 
binding  joist  to  binding  joist, 
which  is  3  feet,  or 3  feet  6  inches, 
and  these  are  laid  even  with  the 
top  of  the  girder  to  receive  the 
boarding. 

"  I  come  now  to  speak  of 
girders  ;  and  first,  for  their  scant- 
lings, take  these  proportions. 


Length  Scantling 
in  feet.  in  inches. 

Breadth.  Depth. 

10   8     X  10 

12   8J  X  10 

14   9     X  10J 

16*   9J   X  10| 

18   ](>  x  11 

20   11   x  12 

22   lllX  13 

24   12  X  14 


"  And  here  observe,  that  as 

534 


every  weight  added  to  the  we  i\ 
of  the  timber  in  the  floor  i  if 
occasions  it  to  settle,  the  gi  >r 
should  be  cut  camber;  if  JL 
feet  bearing,  half  an  inch  cL 
ber,  if  20  feet  an  inch,  &c  n 
proportion  to  the  length  6fL 
bearing. 

"  And  further  to  strengthen  e 
girder,  and  prevent  its  sagging  s 
it  is  called  among  workmen,  a 
is,  its  bending  downward,  1  hi 
in  plates  20  and  21,  given  sevd 
ways  of  trussing  girders,  wlh 
have  been  most  of  them  practi  { 
There  are  two  sorts  in  plate  , 
Jigs.  6  and  7,  that  I  never  saw  y 
where  performed. 

"  The  manner  of  trussing  tl  e 
girders  is,  first,  to  saw  thegii  r 
down  the  middle  the  dee,  t 
way ;  then  take  two  pieces  of  y 
oak,  about  4 J  or  5  inches 
and  4  inches  thick  ;  let  half  e 
piece  be  let  into  one  side  c 
girder,  and  half  into  the  others 
in  plate  20,  Jig.  13,  marked  I, 
which  are  the  two  trusses. 
14  is  another  way,  which  is  v 
cutting  the  girder  through,  I 
driving  a  wedge  against  the  es 
of  the  trusses,  as  wedge  d.  W  a 
these  are  thus  prepared,  fa 
them  together  with  iron  b 
and  keys,  or  much  rather  a  sc  v 
at  the  end  of  the  bolt :  Jigs.  1  t 
2,  plate  21,  are  other  waysj'f 
trussing. 

"Some  carpenters  cut  t|r 
girders  down  the  middle  and  It 
them  together  without  trnssi , 
only  changing  the  ends  differ  t 
from  what  they  grew,  when 
the  grain  of  the  wood  is  croslj 
and  it  becomes  much  stron  r 
than  it  would  if  it  had  contin  d 
without  sawing  down  the  midr, 
and  thus  putting  it  together. 

"  Some  in  trussing  of  gir<  a 
make  use  of  other  trusses,  a|fc 
plate  21,  Jigs.  2  and  3,  with  L - 
ment,  as  Jig.  5,  marked  B.  m 
• 


CARPENTRY. 


pteZl  you  see  those  two  trusses 
I  Soke  of,  Jigs.  6  and  7,  of  my 
iiention,  with  one  inverted  arch; 
I  impose  that  to  be  of  iron, 
nrked  A,  which  is  let  into  the 
Uses;  the  upper  arched  one  I 
t;e  to  be  of  great  strength, 
tlugh  the  trusses  are  inverted  j 
fc;  the  pressure  being  upon  an 
an,  whose  butment  is  good,  I 
thk  a  great  weight  can  no  way 
o<  ision  the  bending  the  girder. 
F  4  is  a  girder  cut  camber,  but 
n«  trussed. 

The  girder  being  thus  trussed 
ai  put  together,  proceed  in  fram- 
ir1  the  joist,  as  in  common  floors; 
tl  strongest  way  being  double 
tt  mting  and  tusking,  as  is  before 
shvn  in  the  bending  joists,  plate 
DO.  Before  1  leave  this  plate  of 
fl'rs,  I  shall  observe  to  you, 
tl  the  best  and  most  workman- 
li  manner  of  framing  floors,  is 
tdplace  all  the  upper  edges  of 
joists  straight,  for  the 
slighter  ami  truer  your  joists 
In  the  truer  your  boarding  will 
la|  which  is  a  great  ornament  to 
a  magnificent  room  ;  but  if  you 
frpe  without  binding  joists,  and 
la  >n  bridges,  plane  the  bridgings 
ai  lay  them  very  straight  and 
kj:lj  this  care  taken  will  save  a 
gjit  deal  of  trouble  in  laying 
dm  the  boarding,  which  you 
ar often  forced  to  chip  and  fur  up 
tcjnake  them  lay  even,  and  those 
filings  are  not  only  troublesome 
bi  are  apt  to  give  way,  and  occa- 

;  the  creaking  of  the  boards  as 
y<!  walk  on  them  ;  it  would  be  a 
g<d  way  to  turn  arches  of  brick 
oy  the  ends  of  the  girders  of 
fl(rs,  because  if  any  alteration 
Mpens  they  are  easily  taken  out. 

J I  come  now  to  partitions  of 
tiuer,  with  their  manner  of 
fr  ling.  Timber  partitions  have 
tl)  e  properties  attending  them  ; 
th/  take  up  less  room  and  are 
cl  iper  than  those  of  brick. 


"  As  to  roofs,  there  is  a  plate 
to  go  round  the  building,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  deemed  a  part 
of  the  roof ;  it  may  be  deemed 
the  foundation  and  tie  of  the  roof 
ahd  walls,  or  it  may  be  taken  as 
only  that  on  which  the  roof  lieth. 
These  plates  are  to  be  dovetailed 
at  the  angles,  and  tenanted  toge- 
ther at  their  lengths  in  several 
ways.  The  beams  of  the  roof, 
which  serve  as  girders  to  the 
ceiling  floors,  (and  into  which  the 
principal  rafters  of  the  roof  are 
tenanted,)  are  dovetailed,  or  what 
by  workmen  is  termed,  cogged 
down,  to  the  plate,  which  pre- 
vents its  flying  out  from  the  foot 
of  the  rafter,  whose  butment  is 
against  it;  and  in  the  angles  of 
a  building,  pieces  dovetailed  across 
the  angles  of  the  plate,  serve  to 
keep  it  from  spreading,  and  is  the 
foot  of  the  hip. 

"  The  common  pitch  of  roofs 
is  to  have  the  rafters  length,  if  it 
span  the  building  at  once,  to  be 
three-fourths  of  the  breadth  of  the 
building.  Some  make  them  flatter, 
as  a  pediment  pitch,  and  the  old 
gothic  way  was  to  make  them  the 
whole  breadth. 

"The  common  pitch  is  not 
only  unpleasing  to  the  eye,  but  is 
attended  with  this  inconvenience, 
if  there  is  a  gutter  round  the 
building,  the  steepness  of  the 
roof  occasions  the  rain  to  come 
with  so  sudden  a  velocity  into  the 
pipes  which  are  to  convey  the 
water  from  the  gutters,  that  they 
fill  the  gutters,  and  sometimes 
so  fast  that  the  water  runneth 
under  the  covering  of  the  roof, 
and  doth  great  injury  to  the 
timber,  &c.  of  the  building;  and 
the  steeper  the  roof  is,  the  longer 
the  rafters,  and  the  greater  quan- 
tity of  timber  must  be  used  in 
the  roof,  as  well  as  the  more 
weight  from  the  great  quantity 
of  timber,  and  the  weakening  the 
535 


CARPENTRY. 


principal  timbers,  by  adding  more 
to  its  own  weight. 

"And  the  pediment  pitch  is 
inconvenient  in  lying  too  flat  for 
these  climates,  so  frequently  sub- 
ject to  rain  and  heavy  snows, 
which  last  would  greatly  press 
and  incommode  a  building,  and 
would  lie  much  longer  on  the 
roof,  its  declivity  being  so  small  j 
besides,  in  keen  winds,  attended 
with  rain,  the  rain  would  drive 
under  the  covering  of  slate  or 
tiles,  8cc.  and  create  much  decay 
in  the  timbers. 

"  For  the  proportion  of  beams 
whose  bearing  varieth  take  the 
following  rule  :  — 

If  the  lergth  of  the  The  scantling 

beam  in  the  clear  be  must  be  in 

Feet.  Inches. 

12   6     x  8 

16   6J  x  8£ 

20   6 J  X  9 

24   7     X  9j 

28   7%  X  9j 

32   8     x  10 

36   8J  x  10j 

40   8£  x  11 

44   9     X  12 

"  Principal  rafters  should  be 
nearly  as  thick  at  the  bottom  as 
the  beam,  and  should  diminish  in 
its  length  one-fifth,  or  one-sixth, 
of  its  breadth  j  the  king  posts 
should  be  as  thick  as  the  top  of  the 
principal  rafter,  and  the  breadth 
according  to  the  bigness  of  the 
struts  you  intend  to  let  into  them, 
the  middle  part  being  left  some- 
thing broader  than  the  thickness. 

"Struts  may  diminish  as  the 
rafters  do,  one-fifth  or  one-sixth 
of  their  length.  In  placing  struts 
or  collar  beams,  the  dividing  the 
rafter  into  as  many  equal  parts  as 
you  prepare  bearings,  is  the  rule, 
because  every  part  of  the  principal 
vrill  have  equal  distant  bearings. 

"  Purlins  are  the  same  thick- 
ness as  the  principal  rafters,  and 
the  proportion  of  the  breadth  is 

536 


6  to  8,  that  is,  if  the  rafter  b  ; 
inches  thick,  let  the  purlins  b  ; 
inches  thick  and  8  broad  •  if  it  i 
9  inches  thick,  the  breadth  of 
purlin  is  12  inches. 

"N.B.  The  purlins  are  &| 
pieces  into  which  the  small  raft  j 
are  tenanted,  and  they  are  tenan 
into  the  principal  rafters.  Lenj 
of  purlins  are  generally  from  6 , 
1 1  feet,  not  exceeding  that  leng 
small  rafters,  their  scantlings 
inches  and  4  inches,  3  inch 
and  4j  inches,  and  3|  inches,  ij 
5  inches,  according  to  the  mag 
tude  of  the  roof  and  the  lenj  j 
of  the  rafters ;  small  rafters  sho  1 
not  exceed  7  feet  in  length  in  ap  . 
lined  roof ;  if  it  happens  that  | 
length  of  the  principal  be  above  > 
feet,  it  is  best  to  put  in  two  tier  f 
purlins  in  the  length  of  the  raftr. 

In  respect  to  the  construct  i 
of  roofs  for  coves,  he  states, "ti; 
the  use  of  coving  a  room  o] 
considerable  height  is,  first,  I 
making  it  much  lighter  thar: 
would  otherwise  be,  if  level  i 
the  ceiling ;  the  rays  of  light  i 
a  cove  are  reflected  back  agi 
into  the  room,  which  would  oth  • 
wise  be  lost  and  confused  in 
room  with  a  flat  ceiling. 

"  Likewise,  all  rooms  with  d 
cular  roofs  or  ceilings  are  ml 
commodious,  and  useful  for 
tertainments  of  music  j  the  ang? 
of  incident  are  always  equal  I 
those  of  reflection,  so  the  undu- 
tion  of  sounds  flying  on  any  c(! 
or  spherical  part  of  a  bniklii 
reverberate  on  the  audience  j  n 
if  spherical  no  part  of  the  spiv: 
can  receive  the  vibration,  bu  t 
will  return  in  the  same  angle  fri 
whence  the  undulation  first  beg . 
The  reflecting  rays  of  light,  ail 
the  reverberation  of  sounds,  pi 
ceed  from  the  same  cause,  4 
from  incidents  naturally  affecti^ 
the  eye  and  ear." 

Having  thus  made  the  rear 


CARPENTRY 


acq'unted  with  the  information 
1  con ined  in  Smith's  "  Carpenters 
i  Conanion,"  it  is  necessary  for 
us  i  make  a  few  observations  on 
I  the  me,  that  such  as  are  inex- 
1  periiced  may  not  be  induced  to 
foil/  what  is  practically  bad. 

L  plate  C  19,  figs,  1  and  2, 
he  I  s  given  two  very  bad  exam- 
pIes?of  dovetailing,  which  are 
ryeldom  if  ever  used.    In  fig. 
h  has  shown  the  method  of 
framg  wall  plates  at  the  angles. 
t  Thi  example,  though  tolerably 
goo  is,  nevertheless,  much  infe- 
orp  those  used  at  the  present 
.  v  ind  in  fig.  4  he  has  repre- 
nt!  four  different,  and  very 
fair  >ecimens  of  naked  flooring. 
Pie  C  20,  figs.  1,  2,  3,  4, 
!  5,  (  7,  8  show  the  manner  of 
tenc  ng  the  binding-joists  j  figs. 
!C19, 1'  11,  12,  which  he  has  alto- 
t^getlf-  omitted  to  describe,  are 
vt  ds  of  lengthening  beams  ; 
1  and  gs.  13  and  14  are  common 
*  trus  s.  Of  the  two  former,  figs. 
3,  79,   10  are  the  only  fair 
anles;  and  even  these  might 
' '  be  c  isiderably  improved  by  the 
uli  >ns  and  alterations  repre- 
sent; by  the  dotted  lines.  Fig. 
K  3,  b<  he  addition  of  a  step  similar 
» to  tl«t  in  fig.  7  ;  fig.  9,  by  being 
m>  alte^l  to  the  shape  represented, 
1  he  addition  of  a  mortise  j 
t  and  \g.  10,  by  being  -cut  bevel, 
■d  mortise  introduced  in  the 
it  .    We  have  seen  fig.  12 
;i  exec  ed,  but  consider  both  that 
*  sr.  11  of  very  little  value, 
v  13  and  14  are  trusses  in 
i  common  use. 

Ii  ulate  C  21,  he  has  shown 
iri  s  ways  of  trussing  girders, 
t  t  one  of  them  of  sufficient 
prac:al  utility  to  deserve  our 
,  »Ppr  )ation. 

1    next  work  in  priority  of 
I  time.  Price's  " British  Carpenter ■," 
^hit  is,  upon  the  whole,  much 
*nor  worthy   of  transcription. 
3V 


This  author,  after  some  useful 
observations  in  his  introduction, 
treats  of  the  scarfing  of  beams, 
the  trussing  of  girders,  and  the 
various  joints  in  roofing ;  he  then 
proceeds  to  circular  domes,  and 
the  method  of  covering  polygonal 
buildings  ;  and  afterwards  treats 
of  the  centrings  of  groins,  the 
methods  of  covering  the  parts  of 
coved  ceilings,  and  the  nature  of 
oblique  and  rampant  arches. 

Mr.  Price  commences  thus : 
"Nevertheless,  it  may  not  be 
improper  in  this  place  to  mention 
some  general  observations.  There 
is  a  moisture  in  all  timber ;  there- 
fore, all  bearing  timber  ought  to 
have  a  moderate  camber  or  round- 
ness, for,  till  that  moisture  is  in 
some  sort  dried  out,  the  said 
timber  will  sag  with  its  own 
weight;  and  that  chiefly  is  the 
reason  that  girders  are  trussed 
and  used,  as  in  its  place  will  be 
shown.  But  here  observe,  that 
girders  are  best  trussed  when 
they  are  first  sawn  out,  for  by 
their  drying  and  shrinking  it  tight- 
ens the  trusses  in  them  yet  more. 

"  Observe  also,  that  all  beams 
or  ties  be  cut,  or  forced  in  fram- 
ing, to  a  camber  or  roundness, 
such  as  an  inch  in  the  length  of 
18  feet,  and  that  principal  rafters 
be  also  cut,  or  forced  up  to  a 
camber  or  roundness  as  before. 
The  reason  of  this  is,  that  all 
trusses,  though  never  so  well 
framed,  will  sag,  by  the  shrinkage 
of  the  timber  and  weight  of  the 
covering,  and  sometimes  so  much 
so  as  to  offend  the  eye  of  the 
beholder  j  by  this  preparation, 
therefore,  your  truss  will  ever 
appear  well. 

"Also  observe,  that  all  case- 
bays,  either  in  floors  or  roofs,  do 
not  exceed  12  feet,  if  possible  ; 
that  is,  do  not  let  your  joists  in 
floors,  your  purlins  in  roofs,  &c 
exceed  12  feet  in  their  length  or 


CARPENTRY. 


bearing,  but  rather  let  the  bearing 
be  8,  9,  or  10  feet,  which  should 
be  observed  in  forming  a  plan. 

te  Also,  in  bridging  floors,  do 
not  place  your  binding  or  strong 
joists  above  3,  4,  or  5  feet  apart, 
and  that  your  bridgings  or  com- 
mon joists  are  not  above  10  or 
12  inches  apart,  that  is,  between 
one  joist  and  the  other. 

"  Here  also  observe,  never  to 
make  double  tenants,  or  tenons, 
for  bearing  uses,  such  as  binding 
joists,  common  joists,  or  purlins  ; 
for,  in  the  first  place,  it  weakens 
very  much  whatever  you  frame  it 
into  ;  and  in  the  second  place,  it 
is  a  rarity  to  have  a  draught  in 
both  tenons,  that  is,  to  draw  your 
joint  close  by  the  pin;  for  the  said 
pin,  by  passing  through  both 
tenons,  (if  there  is  a  draught  to 
each,)  must  bend  so  much,  that 
without  the  pin  be  as  tough  as 
wire  it  must  needs  break  in 
driving,  and  consequently  do 
more  hurt  than  good." 

Plate  C  22  represents  Mr. 
Price's  manner  of  scarfing,  or 
pieceing  of  timber  together. 

"In  a  and  b  are  shown  joints 
for  plates,  lintels,  or  timber  for 
ties ;  and  if  for  beams,  add  the 
bolts  as  represented  in  the  figures. 

"  Where  more  strength  is  re- 
quired, c,  d,  e,  f  are  applicable; 
which  last  may  be  done  without 
wasting  any  of  your  timber.  That 
of  d  is  suited  for  an  extraordinary 
use ;  for,  by  its  being  in  two 
thicknesses,  it  may  be  made  as 
strong  in  a  manner  as  though  in 
one  piece.  I  do  not  propose  to 
limit  the  length  of  these  joints  ; 
but  only  to  show  their  form  of 
being  framed  or  sabled  together. 

"  In  g,  h,  i  is  shown  the  man- 
ner of  trussing  girders  that  are  to 
bear  above  94  feet. 

"  First,  cut  out  two  pieces  of 
timber,  which  together  make  the 
scantling   proposed,  with  some 

W538 


good,  dry,  and  straight  grr?(l 
English  oak,  of  4  inches  b  3, 
or  6  inches  by  4,  as  the  natu.ot 
the  thing  shall  require.  Let 
into  one  piece,  as  in  g,  at  /,  i 
as  tight  endwise  as  it  is  pos 
to  drive  them  in ;  then  cut  m 
cancy  in  the  other  half,  S 
which  shall  also  drive  on  thff 
h,  as  tight  endwise  at  /  and  m 
it  is  possible  ;  lastly,  bolt  m 
together,  as  is  shown  above  nd 
they  are  fit  for  use. 

"  In  i  is  yet  a  stronger  nie'  id, 
because  it  divides  the  bed 
into  three  equal  parts. 

"As  before,  let  in  the  pes 
o,  p,  o,  r ;  and  at  the  foot  o 
and  e,  you  may  mortise  thr.h 
both  flitches,  by  which  you  ft 
with  a  wedge,  tighten  the  ud 
girders,  when  the  buiklin  is 
covered  in  ;  which  conveniei  is 
worthy  of  the  strictest  rcrd, 
and  requires  to  be  well  perlmed. 

"  In  K  is  the  way  pro|  ed 
or  taught  by  Leon  Baptist  Allrti. 
Take  two  pieces  or  flitches,  ng 
well  dried,  and  turn  the  bu  nd 
of  the  one  to  the  top  end  o  :he 
other  without  trussing  at  all 
bolt  or  screw  them  together^ 
short  lines  at  the  ends  o  the 
truss  represent  the  walls  tcear 
them  when  down." 

Plate  C  23  represents  hi ine- 
thod  of  framing  timber  tog  »er. 

"  At  A  is  the  joint  of  a  in- 
cipal  rafter,  as  d,  framed .nto 
the  top  of  a  king  post,  as  ifl 
is  generally  framed,  as  F  G. 

"At  B  is  the  joint  of  aj;rut 
or  brace,  as  /,  framed  int  the 
bottom  of  a  king  post,  as  and 
may  be  framed,  as  F  G :  tp  w 
when  timber  is  scanty;  o»h< 
the  best  way  is  at  C,  hec.-  e  a 
square  joint  takes  the  fulljirce 
of  the  weight;  let  b  be  the  ^ 
post,  and  a  the  strut  or  m 
and  framed,  as  F  G. 

<(  In  D  is  shown  a  di  rent 


CARPENTRY. 


maier,  for  variety,  and  may  be 
fra;?d,  asH  I;  because  then  the 
butient  on  the  side  of  the  tenon 
niaje  cut,  as  the  pricked  line  h; 
thorn  the  joint  next  the  eye  be 
as  ;i  pears  at  g. 

'  Let  K  represent  a  beam,  and 
I  a  rincipal  rafter:  it  is  to  be 
frail'd,  as  H  1,  for  then  the  but- 
mep  give  it  a  greater  strength, 
n  F  O  is  shown  the  propor- 

i   tenon  or  mortise  ought  to 

10  the  stuff  to  be  made  use  of, 
for  e  aforesaid  uses  or  partitions. 

'  n  H  and  I  is  the  proportion 
e  tenon  or  mortise  for  the 
use  bserved  above, 
"n  K  and  L  is  shown  the  pro- 
r  in  the  tenons  and  mortises 
>ors  ought  to  bear  to  the 
ip  of  the  stuff  to  be  used ;  and 
n  t  may  not  be  amiss  to  ob- 
s  n  that  I  do  not  insist  it  ought 
exactly  so,  but  at  the  same 
infhe  nearei  the  better." 

11  plate  C  24,  Mr.  Price  has 
i  the  plan  of  a  house,  and 

the'nanner  »f  arranging  the 
'  prir'pal  timbers. 

•'  onsidering,"  says  Mr.  Price, 
tl  difficulties  often  arise  from 
mi  placfg  timbers  different  ways,  it 
letis  n pessary  to  observe  how  they 
leiare  lie,  and  also  how  they  shall 
med. 

"herefore,  here  is  the  plan 
i  ot  mouse;  in  which  is  shown, 
e  pricked  lines,  the  best 
waypf  placing  your  principal 
timlk-s,  so  as  to  lie  firm  j  that 
1 1  to  lay  them  over  doors  or 
wintfws,  nor  too  near  chimneys, 
"I   the  same  time,  to  have  the 
oai  lie  all  in  one  way,  which 
gfierally  the  way  that  you 
<  ie  best  vista;  as  M,  N,  O. 
;cause  I  would  not  confuse 
fne  l'-n,  hy  showing  the  manner 
*  ich  the   floors  are  to  be 
Irani  ,  observe  the  Moors  of  three 
1  »/"  as  P,Q,  R.    That  of  Q  is 
calle  bridging- floors,  as  being 


framed  with  a  binding  or  strong 
joist  in  every  3  or  4  feet  distance, 
and  flush  to  the  bottom  of  the 
girder ;  so  that  when  the  house 
is  covered  in,  you  pin  down  your 
bindings  thereon,  flush  with  the 
top  of  the  girder :  and  this  is 
the  best  way  of  carcass  flooring. 
That  of  P  and  R  may  as  well  be 
framed  flush  to  the  top  of  the 
girders  in  each,  and  have  every 
third  or  fourth  joist  the  depth  of 
the  girder,  and  those  between 
more  shallow. 

"  In  T  is  shown  the  manner  of 
bridging  floors  :  a  and  b  represent 
the  ends  of  two  binding  joists,  on 
which  is  the  bridging  d  c  :  into 
these  binding  joists  are  framed 
the  ceiling  joists  efg. 

"  In  V  is  shown  two  deep  joists 
of  the  other  floors,  or  common 
way,  as  I  m ;  and  also  three  shal- 
low ones,  as  n,  o,  p ;  and  also  the 
ceiling  joist,  q.  And  because 
these  deep  joists,  as  well  as  bind- 
ing joists,  are  so  prepared  as  to 
put  in  the  ceiling  joists,  when  the 
house  is  covered  in,  observe  in 
S,  the  supposed  side  of  either, 
with  the  mortises  for  the  said 
ceiling  joists,  as  h,  a  single  mor- 
tise ;  and  i  and  k,  double  or  pulley 
mortises." 

In  plate  C  25,  Mr.  Price  has 
represented  a  floor,  and  roof, 
lying  in  ledgement ;  and  in  his 
description  observes  that, 

"  Every  man  who  frames  roofs, 
does  first  piece  his  plates,  cock 
or  dovetail  down  his  beams  on 
the  said  plates,  and  prepare  pieces 
on  which  his  hips  are  to  stand, 
as  appears  in  this  plan  Q,  as  at 
YZ. 

"  Then  he  frames  his  princi- 
pals, as  R;  and  likewise  his  hip, 
as  S,  into  the  pieces  prepared  for 
them  to  stand  on  :  and  although 
all  these  respectively  are  framed, 
for  the  generality,  on  the  floor, 
and  which  in  practice  is  the  best 

539 


CARPENTRY. 


way,  they  are  here  placed  by 
themselves  to  avoid  confusion. 

"  I  hope  the  pricked  lines  are 
enough  to  show  that  the  skirts, 
T,  V,  NV,X,  are  laid  out  agreeably 
to  the  plan  Q  ;  and  in  which  are 
shown  that  one  purlin  lies  above 
the  strut,  and  the  other  below  it; 
for  if  all  were  to  lie  in  a  right 
line,  in  the  first  place  it  cuts  the 
stuff  to  pieces,  so  as  to  weaken  it 
still  more,  and  at  the  same  time 
you  lose  your  pinning. 

"  Here  is  shown  a  method  to 
turn  up  your  hip  most  exactly 
true  without  backing  at  all  ;  and 
is  thus  :  your  hips  being  first 
framed  into  the  piece  they  are  to 
stand  on,  take  a  broad  board,  or 
small  panel,  lay  it  on  the  piece 
where  your  respective  hip  stands, 
and  there  mortise  it  as  If  it  were 
your  beam  ;  cut  off  the  corner  of 
it,  so  as  to  make  it  more  agree- 
able to  your  plan,  whether  square 
or  bevel ;  lastly,  when  you  come 
to  turn  up  your  hip  in  framing 
the  skirts,  slip  this  mould,  as  Y, 
upon  the  tenon  at  the  foot  of 
your  hip,  and  there  give  it  a  tack 
with  a  nail  ;  the  angles  of  that 
board  will  turn  up  a  hip,  as  de- 
sired, and  is  far  preferable  to  any 
other  method  whatever.'' 

Plate  C  26. — "  But  because 
buildings  must  sometimes  be 
bevel,  and  necessity  requires  the 
beams  to  be  laid  so,  to  miss  some 
chimney  or  window ;  therefore 
let  A  represent  a  bevel*  plan,  and 
whose  beams  also  lie  bevel  :  I 
doubt  not  but  the  pricked  lines 
will  show  how  much  each  prin- 
cipal rafter  must  lie  bevel,  at  the 
time  of  framing;  and  that  is,  just 
as  much  as  half  the  beam  does, 
that  the  rafter  stands  on  j  the 
skirts  B,  C,  D,  E  are  the  same 
way  shown  as  before. 

"  The  method  described  in 
plate  C  25,  with  oeing  separate- 
ly applied,   will   turn  up  each 

540 


hip,  and  also  each  princil 
rafter. 

"  I  hope  it  will  not  be  ts 
ill,  my  saying  that  a  man  mus  1 
deprived  of  sense,  who  would  q 
into  this  almost  endless  torm  t, 
of  cutting  his  timbers  all  bt  I 
unless  some  unavoidable  nev 
sity  require  it,  such  as  at 
observed." 

Mr.  Price  next  proceeds  o 
treat  of  roofing,  and  the  mod  rf 
constructing  timoer  bridges, e y 
which  he  enters  upon  the  I 
struction  of  circular  domes,  id 
shows,  for  the  first  time,  w 
their  purlins  are  to  be  square 

Plate  C  27'.—"  Of  what  is 
hitherto  been  described,  not  ig 
appears  so  beautiful  when  de, 
as  domes,  or  circular  roofs ;  I 
as  far  as  I  can  perceive,  not  ig 
has  appeared  so  difficult  in  d<g. 
Therefore  it  will  be  propeto 
speak  something  of  them. 

"  Let  B  represent  a  plan  in 
which  let  6,  b,  b,  be  the  plat  3D 
the  supposed  wall ;  and  let  c,  c, 
be  the  kirb,  on  which  stands  r  I 
tern  or  cupola  ;  also  let  a,  a, 
represent  the  principal  ribs. 

"  From  the  plan  B  make-he 
section  A  ;  in  which  the  kir  or 
plate  by  should  be  in  two  tlk- 
n esses ;  as  also  that  of  c  by 
which  it  is  made  stronger  :nd 
indeed,  the  principal  ribs  wild 
be  much  better  in  two  thicknees. 
The  best  timber  for  this  uj  i* 
English  oak,  because  abund  ce 
of  that  naturally  grows  crood. 
As  to  the  curve  or  sweep  of  his 
dome  A,  it  is  a  semicircle  al- 
though in  that  point  every  «ne 
may  use  his  pleasure.  And' it 
are  described  the  purlins  d  e,  ^ 
which  perpendiculars  are  dreed 
to  the  plan  B ;  so  that  /  ii^e 
mould  the  lower  purlins  are  be 
cut  out  by,  before  they  are  sM 
or  squared  for  use;  and  tha:f£ 
is  the  mould  for  the  upper  pu  ns. 


CARPENTRY. 


18  I  nier  show  it  with  purlins,  be- 
cau  under  this  head  may  be 
shon  the  manner  of  framing 
arc  ar  roofs  in  form  of  a  cone. 

'  To  shape  or  square  these 
pur  is,  observe  in  A,  as  at  d  and  e, 
the'  are  so  squared,  that  the 
'  join]  of  the  supported  small  ribs 
iMiiare  t|ual.  Observe,  as  at  e,  the 
con  rs  of  the  purlins,  from  which 
the  ,irpendiculars  are  let  fall  to 


the 


Ian  B.    So  that  your  purlin 
heir  first  cut  out  to  the  plan 
ii|  reqred,  as  appears  in    e,  and 
also  j  the  sweep /;  so  that  k  is 
r  the  ould  for  the  bottom,  and  I 
i  f  the  |Ould  for  the  top  ;  by  which, 
t  and  he  lines  from  the  corners  of 
•  the  id  purlin  e,  the  same  may 
hi!  11  be  tily  shaped  or  squared, 
an    "LT.B.  This  particular  ought 
rate  ^  well  digested,  it  being  a 
prinpal  observation  in  a  circular 
,r  rooi 

nd  from  the  purlin  a  in  the 
:  sectn   A,    perpendiculars  are 
(Irojed  to  the  plan  B,  and  in 
whi    it  appears  that  h  is  the 
\\j  for  the  top,    and  i  the 
moij  for  the  bottom,  so  may 
.   s|so  be  squared,  which  com- 
t   the  performance.    As  to 
partieuhrrs,  due  inspection 
vplain  them.    If  any  should 
dome  cannot  be  done  so 
ithout  a  cavity  as  usual,  let 
view  St.  Stephen's  Wal- 
,  Stocks  Market,  built  by 
mi  reat  architect  Sir  Christo- 
m  pheijVren." 

H  then  continues,  with  some 
"  part.ular  observations    on  the 
r  of  covering  lanterns  or 
cupi  is. 

/J  te  C  27.  "  Let  C  be  the 
'"  plarthe  upper  part  of  which  is 
'  mac1! half  an  octagon. 

"  is  observable,  that  a  circular 
roof^s  D,  should  extend  no  fur- 
therhan  the  upright  of  its  sup- 
port" and  there  made  so  as  to 
t  off  the  water  :  whereas  an 


ogee  roof,  as  E,  may  extend  to  the 
extremity  of  the  cornice,  without 
injury  to  its  strength,  or  offence 
to  the  eye  of  the  most  curious. 
Also  a  hollow  roof,  as  F,  may  ex- 
tend to  the  extremity  of  the 
cornice. 

**  It  appears  to  me,  that  the 
many  angles  of  a  cupola  give  it 
beauty;  therefore  the  sweep  G  is 
a  regular  curve,  the  base  line,  I  k, 
being  taken  from  the  angle  of  the 
octagon  in  the  plan  C,  as  at  I  k. 
This  curve  G  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  equal  parts.  In  order 
to  trace  the  common  rib  H,  from 
the  said  angular  rib  G,  observe  in 
C  the  base  of  the  common  rib /  I, 
which  is  placed  in  H  as  from  I  to 
/;  continue  the  perpendicular  / 
at  pleasure  ;  take  the  base  /  k  in 
G,  on  which  are  the  perpendicu- 
lars dropped  from  the  curve,  and 
observe  to  place  that  distance  k  I 
in  G,  from  /  in  H,  to  any  part 
where  it  cuts  the  perpendicular  t 
in  H,  as  at  m ;  from  those  divi- 
sions raise  perpendiculars.  So, 
by  continuing  base  lines  from  the 
divisions  in  G  to  these  perpendi- 
culars in  H,  their  intersection  or 
meeting  is  a  curve  or  sweep 
exactly  agreeable  j  and  which 
indeed  may  serve  as  a  standard 
rule  to  trace  any  moulding  what- 
ever. 

"  To  back  the  said  angular 
bracket  F,  observe  to  describe  the 
thickness  of  it  on  your  plan,  as 
in  C  at  K  j  which  shows  how 
much  your  mould  must  be  shifted, 
as  may  appear  in  F.  This  also 
may  be  observed  to  be  a  general 
rule  for  the  backing  of  any 
bracket." 

In  plate  28,  Mr.  Price  has 
shown  the  nature  of  centring  of 
groins. 

*  Let  A  be  a  plan  of  a  vault  to 
be  centred  for  groins.  At  a  b  c 
d  are  piers,  generally  prepared  in 
and  with  the  foundation,  which 

541 


CARPENTRY. 


oear  the  weight  of  the  brickwork. 
First,  resolve  on  the  curve  you 
would  have,  as  a  e  c,  being  a 
semicircle,  which  is  shown  by  the 
section  B.  Begin  in  A,  at  d  e  c, 
centre  it  through  as  if  it  were  a 
common  vault,  and  board  it ; 
which  being  done,  to  make  your 
groin,  set  centres,  as  from  a  to  c, 
and  from  b  to  d ;  divide  the  curve 
dec  into  four  equal  parts,  as  at 
g  and  f ;  so  is  g  ef  small  centres 
you  will  want  to  nail  on  the  cen- 
tres first  boarded,  whose  place  or 
plan  is  at  h ;  these  small  centres 
may  be  put  in  at  pleasure,  accord- 
ing to  the  bearing  of  your  boards, 
that  is,  as  to  the  distance  between 
each  centre.  To  make  your  groin 
straight  on  its  base,  at  some  little 
height  over  the  centres  strain  a 
line  from  b  to  c  or  d  to  a ;  from 
which  drop  perpendiculars  on 
your  boarding,  first  fixed  at  as 
many  places  as  you  please,  there 
drive  in  nails,  and  bend  a  straight 
rod  till  it  touch  them  all  ;  and 
then  with  a  pencil  or  chalk,  de- 
scribe the  curve  so  formed,  to 
which  bring  the  boards  to  be 
nailed  on  these  little  centres,  and 
their  joints  will  form  a  straight 
groin.  If  this  should  be  disap- 
proved of,  in  the  next  plate  is  a 
more  accurate  method. 

"  Let  C  be  a  plan  of  greater 
extent,  and  which  suppose  to  be 
supported  by  two  piers,  as  f  I. 
The  section  D  is  composed  of 
entire  semicircles  ;  then,  conse- 
quently, your  curves  on  the  sec- 
tion E  will  be  elliptical,  as  b  in  d, 
and  may  be  described  with  a 
trammel,  or  traced  (by  proposi- 
tion K)  as  in  /  may  appear. 
What  was  said  of  A  explains  this 
at  one  view. 

"  If  these  pillars  should  be  in 
the  way,  view  the  plan  and  sec- 
tions again.  First  form  some 
principal  curve,  as  in  D,  at  a  g  h 
b  }  being  an  ellipsis,  so  that  the 

542 


centres  will  be  a  goihic  sw. 
against  the  windows,  as  e 
trace  the  curve  d  h  b,  in  E,  at 
able  to  e  g  a,  in  D,  with  \v 
centre  it  as  shown  in  A,  and  r 
good  your  groins  to  the  sk 
Lastly,  make  a  flat  centre,  ,  at 
g  h  ik,  which  flatness  is  shov  in 
either  of  the  profiles  or  sec  a? 
D  or  E,  and  fix  it  on  your  9 
tres    before   completed,  w  ti 
doubtless,    due   inspection  ill 
make  plain  5  and  hereby  you  M 
the  pillars,  and  are  equalhs 
firm. 

"  N.  B.  The  cause  of  t] 
centres  against  the  winfl 
being  a  kind  of  gothic  arch,  I 
ceeds  from  their  making  pa  of 
the  whole  sweep  or  arch,  w  I 
though  it  does  not  add  tuts 
beauty,  it  does  to  its  streng;  in 
a  particular  manner. 

"  Regarding  variety,  I  jve 
given  here  another  method  or 
vaults,  and  which  indeed  ay 
give  more  pleasure  to  the  rejr, 
as  being  a  curiosity  never  bitre 
published,  and  may  appear  ire 
intelligible  than  that  in  the  I 
going  plate. 

"  View  the  plan  G,  am  its 
section  H,  which  is  compos; of 
entire  semicircles,  as  bf  e.  ji$e 
also  section  I,  which  is  an  el  sis 
traced  from  bf  e  in  H  :  but  fo  se, 
nothing  is  more  true,  than,  he 
trammel,  as  shown  in  proponns 
L  M.  This  I  suppose  is  so  I 
as  to  need  no  explanation,  0  I 
wise  than  what  was  said  i  h' 
foregoing  plate  as  on  figure 

"  See  this  plan  again,  ancjlso 
its  section  I,  from  which  in- 
scribed the  curvilineal  faciR 
and  also  the  face  of  the  pgj 
circular  arches,  as  L,  all  I'ng 
alike.  And  this  is  what  I  ci  \ 
more  accurate  method  of  fiiW| 
the  groin,  so  as  to  be  strQj 
over  its  base,  and  at  the  '»e 
time  gives  a  standard  rule  w;«j 


CARPENTRY. 


jy  t<  account  for  any  curve  or 
ace  :  a  ceiling  whatever.  The 
,  ;urv  in  I  is  divided  regularly, 

II  houi  seemingly  into  unequal 
"  Sarti  which  being  drawn  to  the 

III  Toil  in  the  plan  G,  as  appears 
\ytl  figures  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,6,  7, 

\  9[and  which  are  transferred 
ito   at  1,  2,  3,  &c.    Also  the 
u\vc\$fe  in  H,  is  divided  into 
:  ighj;n  equal  parts  ;   the  half 
oris  uently  into  nine  ;  which 
ppes  from  b  to  e  in  L.  This 
oetld  doubtless  will  be  plain, 
nil  lerefore  needs  no  further 
xpkation. 
to  "  hat  of  K  belongs  to  the 
*  ecti  1 1,  extended  as  it  were ; 

ucl  at  of  L  belongs  to  one  of 
:  he  nnall  arches  of  H,  also 
notilret  ed  out,  they  being  all  alike. 

1   B.    To  find  the  groin  by 
er.  mcj  common  method,  do  thus: 
weect  straight  piece  of  board, 
icrif  tHlike,  on  the  corner  of  the 
ier  e  groin  springs  from  ;  and 
:    riviia  nail  in  the  point  of  the 
roii  meeting,  on  which  fasten 
:<•  ui  of  a  chalk  line,  straining 
dide  it  down  the  side  of 
p  raight  piece,  and   it  will 
irmhe  groin,  so  as  to  stand 
6rpjdicularly  over  its  base." 
Inflates  C  8  and  C  9  are 
fan  Mr.  Price's   method  of 
we  pg  the  parts  of  coved  ceil- 
■sldjoining  the  angles,  and 
io  e  covering  of  domes. 
"  ippose  AI  to  be  the  plan  of 
ceing,  as  a  b  c  d;  and  in  it, 
R  equired  to  have  a  large 
km  gulochi,  or  panel,  as  g  h 

rst,  produce  some  one  side 
j  ei  of  the  room,  as  N,  let  it 
b  retired  to  describe  the  curvi- 
ueatface  of  the  cove.  The 
iter- of  the  end  of  the  said  room 
«>  If,  e ;  anil  it  is  coved  one- 
Wrtbf  its  height,  as  m  b.  The 
■W  {ime  or  panel  being  g  h  ; 
ie  tjirter-circle,  m  g,  is  divided 


into  eight  equal  parts,  which  are 
transferred  to  P  j  so  that  m,  g, 
h,  I,  is  the  face  of  O,  as  stretched 
or  extended  out,  on  which  any 
thing  proposed  to  be  described 
therein  may  be  truly  performed. 

"  In  Q  is  shown  the  plan  of  a 
niche  or  dome  :  if  a  niche,  let  it 
be  demanded  to  be  veneered  with 
walnut-tree,  &c.  If  a  dome,  let 
it  be  required  to  be  covered  with 
boards  or  lead.  Divide  it  into 
any  number  of  parts,  as  here  into 
nine  ;  which  transfer  to  S,  as  ap- 
pears from  k  to  I.  Describe  the 
section  also,  as  R,  being  a  quar- 
ter circle,  which  divide  into  any 
number  of  parts,  as  here  into 
five,  as  is  shown  in  the  figure 
from  h  to  i ;  which  transfer  in 
the  plan  Q,  from  a  to  f ;  middle 
some  one  division,  as  from  4  to' 
5  j  then  take  those  distances  from 
R,  and  transfer  them  to  S,  as  from 
/to  5;  so  that  each  division  is 
halved  or  middled,  as  f  a,  f  a, 
&c.  ;  on  these  lines  place  the 
distances  from  Q,  as  at  e  d  c  b,  to 
1,  2,  3,  4,  in  S;  and  these  will 
form  such  curves  as  shall  meet. 

"  N.  B.  The  more  parts  it  is 
divided  into,  the  better  and  truer 
it  will  be  performed. 

u  In  T  is  shown  the  plan  of  an 
elliptical  niche;  its  section  is  the 
same.  In  the  plan  T  is  shown 
the  thickness  of  the  ribs,  (suppos- 
ing it  to  be  prepared  for  plaster- 
ing,) as  ikl  m  n.  The  manner  of 
forming  their  several  curves,  as 
U,  W,  X.  Y,  Z,  is  best  done  with 
a  trammel.  Some  of  these  ribs 
must  be  sloping,  so  as  to  require 
the  mould  to  be  shifted,  as  has 
been  before  shown  in  plate  C  27. 

"  Such  things  as  the  construc- 
tion and  use  of  lines,  are  not  con- 
ceived by  every  one  ;  therefore, 
because  I  would  omit  nothing 
that  I  think  would  prove  useful, 
I  have  inserted  several  more  ex- 
amples of  tracery,  the  knowledge 

543 


CARPENTRY. 


of  which  seems  indispensably  ne- 
cessary. 

"  That  of  T  is  a  regular  semi- 
circle, as  a,  b,  c ;  from  which  is 
traced  the  raking  (or  rampant)  on 
Uj  that  of  VV  is  a  regular  ellip- 
sis, as  d  e  f;  from  which  is  traced 
the  raking  one  X  ;  that  of  Y  is  a 
regular  segment,  (or  part  of  a 
circle,)  as  g,  h,  i ;  from  which  is 
traced  the  raking  one  Z  j  the 
manner  whereof  being  so  plain,  a 
farther  explanation  seems  need- 
less. 

"  As  to  the  particular  use  of 
these  kind  of  arches,  I  must  leave 
to  the  determination  of  the  cu- 
rious, and  have  nothing  farther 
to  say  on  that  head,  than  that  if 
occasion  require  either  of  them  to 
be  executed,  there  is  no  other 
true  way  to  describe  them. 

"  That  of  A  is  supposed  to  be 
the  mitre  bracket  of  a  cove,  whose 
projection  is  6,  c;  and  the  height 
thereof  is  a,  b;  the  curve  being  a 
segment,  or  part  of  a  circle,  let  it 
be  demanded  to  trace  a  curve 
from  it,  as  B,  which  shall  be 
agreeable  thereto,  if  applied  as  a 
common  bracket  j  e,  d,  being  its 
height  as  before,  and  e,  f,  its 
projection,  first  divide  the  given 
curve,  being  A,  into  a  number  of 
parts,  or  if  you  make  points 
thereon  promiscuously  it  is  equal. 
From  these  divisions  or  points, 
drop  perpendiculars  to  some 
straight  line,  as  that  of  a,  c,  ob- 
serving their  meeting  with  the 
said  line  a,  c,  and  for  practice, 
take  off  all  these  distances  on  a 
lath  (or  rod)  applying  the  proper 
end  thereof  to  the  projection  of 
the  common  bracket  B,  being/; 
observing  where  the  other  end 
passes  through  the  perpendicular 
line  e,  d,  as  at  g,  there  raise  per- 
pendiculars (long  enough)  from 
the  said  points  j  then  draw  the 
line  d,  f.  Lastly,  transfer  the 
distances,  as  from  the  straight 

544 


line  a,  c,  in  A,  to  the  figu  to 
that  of  d,f,  in  B,  which,  no  djbt 
inspection  will  explain,  more 
cially  if  the  letters  and  figui  be 
duly  observed. 

"  And  for   variety  view  ;he 
figure  A  again,  and  admit  it  ere 
the  curve  of  a  common  bn.et, 
let  it  be  demanded  to  tnii  a 
mitre,  or  angle  bracket  fnl  it, 
as  C  5  g,  h,  being  its  heig  as 
before,  and  h,  i,  its  proje  on, 
(as  to  the  method  of  findir.jthe 
projecture  of  either,  no  ;abt 
but  every  one  knows  it,)  talithe 
line  as  a,  c,  in  A,  which  inp> 
tice  (as  was  before  observl)  I 
suppose  to  be  on  a  rodonth, 
with  its  divisions  or  points  !  it, 
and  which  transfer  to  C,  a<j,ft, 
then  draw  the  line  g,  i;  lily, 
from  the  said  points  on  thine 
g,  k,  draw  base  lines,  obsung 
their  meeting  the  line  g,\  * 
which  respective  places  raiswr* 
pendiculars,  and   transfer  our 
several  heights  from  A  as  bore, 
observing  to  place  each  in  i  due 
position  j  and  although  the  un- 
dance  of  points  should  rend  this 
method  somewhat  confusi,  it 
may  be  evaded  by  makinbul 
few   points,   and   driving  nil* 
therein  ;  round  which  a  st  ght 
lath  being  bent  till  it  touchieni 
all,  the  curve  may  be  des  bed 
with  a  pencil. 

"  N.  B.  This  may  served  a 
general  rule  for  all  such  rves 
as  are  not  regular,  or  canft  be 
formed  with  a  trammel,  s!p°«' 
ing  either  to  be  the  given  rve, 

"  That  of  D  represents ;  om- 
mon  bracket  for  a  plasterejcor- 
nice,  whose  shape  the  pi  erer 
ought  always  to  be  cordted 
for ;  let  it  be  required  to  icea 
corner  or  angle  bracket  fijji  lt» 
as  E  ;  first  draw  base  line :rom 
the  respective  angles,  a,  c>ll> 
to  the  line  t,  r,  as  1,8,  3,  and 
also  perpendiculars  to  the  1  U** 


CARPENTRY. 


M  a  6,  7,  8 ;  and  (because  an 
exa  )le  for  finding  the  projective 
qfftl  angle  or  mitre  bracket  may- 


be r 
equ; 
oft! 
and 


„_d)  observe  to  make  r  u 
to  r  s,  so  is  w  s  the  projective 
said  angle  or  mitre  bracket, 
ie  points  will  be  w,  x,  y,  z, 
It  by  transferring  this  said 
line  rith  its  points,  as  before,  to 
l!B,  afalso  those  of  the  height,  as 
,'Sefol,  draw  perpendicular  and 
,Dase|nes,  as  no  doubt  inspection 
jbovl.  Their  meeting  gives  the 
%hap«of  the  bracket  as  desired 

*  mil  pis  also  may  serve  as  a 
w;tani>rd  rule  in  any  case.  As  to 
"c  ihiftfg  this  mould  (in  practice) 

1 !  o  ash  give  the  said  angle  bracket 

•  ts  tn;  back,  there  seems  to  have 
eII>eenjnough  said  in  plate  C  27. 
m.,"bte.  The  principal  curve 
'"'Ueinjjformed  on  any  plain  super- 
^■icieait  may  be  taken  off  on  a 
M1ilh,  5  before  was  observed,  and 
piy  itrie  required  curve  may  be 
'  1:esci[>ed  on  a  piece  of  slit  deal, 
lC  :c.  da  width  equal  to  what  the 
■Orchises  from  a  straight  line, 
il*rith  i  allowance  of  wood  capa- 
Me  o  i old i u g  it  together. 

M'Jat  of  ¥  is  a  plan,  or  speci- 
a  f  circular  groins,  whose 
ter  is  a  b  c  d,  an  example  of 
lie! may  be  seen  in  St.  Cle- 
fntf  Danes,  in  the  Strand,  and 
iiMiisevi  al  other  circular  buildings, 
nd  ilmy  opinion  it  is  a  curiosity 
pwortll  of  regard.    To  find  the 
lan  |f  these  groins  do  thus  : 
i,  ividlrom  a  to  d,  and  from  a  to 
tu*  inf  a  like  number  of  parts, 
iil  int-ten  ;  the  lines  a  b,  and  d 
continued,  meet  in  a 
ointlsg,  being  the  centre  of  the 
urveja  d,  and  b  c;  divide  also 
*om  to  d,  into  ten  parts,  which 
eingdrawn    to  the  centre  g, 
ividfr  the  line  6  c    into  the 
une  imber  of  jiarts  equally  ;  so 
•Wt  h  meeting  of  these  lines 
'  the!  Ian  of  the  groins,  as  a,  e, 
P«ncl,  c,  d,  and  their  upright 
3Z 


is  H,  I,  K,  L,  each  being  from 
the  semicircle  a  b,  in  g,  (being  the 
principal  curve j)  as  to  the  method 
whereby  it  is  done  enough  seems 
to  have  been  said  of  the  foregoing 
examples  to  explain  it ;  the  letters 
of  reference  show  plainly  what 
part  of  the  plan  each  curve 
belongs  to,  which  being  bent 
agreeable  thereto,  will  strictly 
correspond  with  each  other. 

"  N.  B.  If  the  principal  curve 
had  been  a  segment,  (or  part  of  a 
circle,)  or  an  ellipsis,  the  method 
of  performing  would  have  been 
the  same. 

"  This  plan  would  be  difficult 
in  performance  if  required  to  be 
ribbed  with  timber  for  plastering  j 
but  if  to  be  centred  for  brick- 
work, it  would  be  much  easier, 
because  the  centres  might  be 
placed  as  from  the  line  a  b,  to 
that  of  e  d,  as  in  a  common 
vault.  The  curves  of  each  centre 
would  be  different  on  account  of 
its  being  taper,  but  the  height  is 
equal  j  these  centres  should  be 
boarded  as  others  are,  the  boards 
requiring  to  be  taper  only. 

"To  make  the  groins  so  as  to 
hang  over  the  plan,  the  sides 
a,  b,  c,  and  c.  (/,  e,  must  not  be 
centred  as  usual,  but  have  ribs 
agreeable  to  the  plan,  and  placed 
horizontally,  so  that  the  boards 
would  stand  as  it  were  upright, 
as  in  domes,  which  was  explained 
in  the  foregoing  plates,  which 
show  the  method  for  rinding  the 
curvilineal  form  of  any  ceiling. 

"  N.  B.  The  foregoing  plates 
must  be  well  understood  in  order 
to  describe,  on  the  centres  first 
boarded,  the  accurate  curve  of  the 
groin,  which  can  be  done  by  no 
other  method  than  is  here  shown. 

"If  this  plan  were  to  be  exe- 
cuted with  ribs  of  .timber  for 
plastering,  then  the  groins  must 
be  performed  by  the  methods  as 
will  be  hereafter  inserted ;  for 

045 


CARPENTRY. 


the  twisted  rails  of  staircases,  on  At  the  end  of  his  work  J 
account  of  their  plan  not  being  Price  has  given  the  follow 
a  regular  curve."  tables  for  the  scantlings  of  tim 


A  TABLE  FOR  THE  SCANTLINGS  OF  TIMBER. 


A  Proportion  for  Timbers  of  small  Buildings. 

 .   .  ,  

Bearing  Posts  of  Fir. 
Height.  Scantling. 

Bearing  Posts  of  Oak. 
Height.  Scantling] 
If  10  feet                       6  in.  s 

12   8 

14   10 

Girders  of  Fir. 
Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  16  feet           8  in.  X  11  in. 

20                 10  .  .    X  12J 

24                 12  .  .    X  14 

Girders  of  Oak. 

Bearing.  Scantling 

If  16  feet  10  in.  x  13  in 

20                 12  .  .   x  14 

24                 14  .  .   x  15 

 ! 

Joists  of  Fir. 
Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  6  feet            5  in.  x    %  in. 

9.                6i.   x  21 
12                  8  .  .   X  21 

Joists  of  Oak. 
Bearing.  Scantlinj 
If  6  feet  ... .    5  in.  x    3  i; 

9                  7J.  .   X  3 

12                 10  .  .   x  3 

Bridgings  of  Fir. 
Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  6  feet            4  in.  x    2^  in. 

8                  5  .  .   X  2j 

10                  6  .  .   X  3 

Bridgings  of  Oak. 
Bearing.  Scantlin 

If  6  feet           4  in.  x    3  i 

8                  51.  x  3 

10                  7  .  .   x  3 

Small  Rafters  of  Fir. 
Bearing.  Scantling. 
If  8  feet ....     3J.  .   X    2j  in. 

10                  41.  .   X  21 

19                  51.   x  21 

Small  Rafters  of  Oak. 

Bearing.  Scantlin 

If  8  feet ....    4lin.  x    3  i 

10                  5±..  x  3 

12                  61.  X  3 

Beams  of  Fir,  or  Ties. 
Length.  Scantling. 

If  30  feet           6  in.  x    7  in. 

45                  9  .  .   X  81 

60                 12  .  .   X  1 1 

Beams  of  Oak,  or  Tie- 
Length.  Scantlii 

If  30  feet           7  in.  X  81. 

45.  !              10  .  .   X  111 

60                 13  .  .   X  15 

— 

Principal  Rafters  of  Fir. 
Length.  Scantling. 

Top.  Bottom. 

If24ft.  5,in.x  6.  .  6in.  x  7  in. 
36.  .  61  .  x  8.  .  8.  .  x  10 
48.  .  S  .  .  X  10.  .  10.  .  x  12 

Principal  Rafters  of  Oak 
Length.  Scantii 
Top.  Bottor 

If  24  ft.  7  in.  x  8..  Sx  9P 
36.  .  S  .  .  X  9.  .  9X  10 
48.  .  9  .  .  X  10.  .  10X  n 

546 


CARPENTRY. 


A  TABLE  FOR  THE  SCANTLINGS  OF  TIMBER. 

A  Proportion  for  Timbers  of  large  Buildmgs. 

Bearing  Posts  of  Fir. 
Height.  Scantling. 

Bearing  Posts  of  Oak. 
Height.  Scantling. 

12   12 

Girders  of  Fir. 
Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  16  feet            9jin.  x  13  in. 

20                12  .  .   X  14 

Girders  of  Oak. 
Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  16  feet          12  in.  x  14  in. 

20                 15  .  .   X  15 

24                 18  .  .   X  16 

Joists  of  Fir. 
Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  6  feet           5  in.  X    3  in. 

9                  7i--   X  3 

12                 10  .  .   X  3 

Joists  of  Oak. 
Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  6  feet            6  in.  x    3  in. 

9                   9  .  .   X  3 

12                 12  .  .   x  3 

Bridgings  of  Fir. 

'  Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  6  feet           4  in.  X    3  in. 

8.  •               5J. .  X  3 

10                 7  .  .  X  3 

Bridgings  of  Oak. 

Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  6  feet            5  in.  x    3 J  in. 

8                  61  .   x  3i 

10                   8  . .   x  3* 

Small  Rafters  of  Fir. 

Bearing.  Scantling. 

?f  8  feet           4j.  .   X    3  in. 

10                  5|.  .  X  3 

12                  6j.  .   X  3 

Small  Rafters  of  Oak. 

Bearing.  Scantling. 

If  8  feet            5 Jin.  x    3  in. 

10                  7  .  •   X  3 

12                   9  .  .   x  3 

,    Beams  of  Fir,  or  Ties. 

Length.  Scantling. 

1 30  feet           7  in.  x    8  in. 

45                 10  .  .    X  ll£ 

60                 13  ..   X  15 

Beams  of  Oak,  or  Ties. 

Length.  Scantling. 

If  30  feet            8  in.  x    9  in. 

45                 11  .  .   x  12J 

60                 14  .  .   x  16 

Principal  Rafters  of  Fir. 

Length.  Scantling. 

Top.  Bottom. 
24  ft.  7  in.  X  8.  .   8  in.  X  9in. 
;36 . .  8  .  .  X  9. .   9  .  .  X  101 
48 . .  9  .  .  X  10.  .  10  .  .  x  12 

Principal  Rafters  of  Oak. 

Length.  Scantling. 

Top.  Bottom. 

If  24  ft.  8  in.  x  9.  .  9  in.  x  lOin. 
36  .  .  9 . .  X 10. . 10  .  .   x 12 
48.  .  10  .  .  x  12.  .  12  .  .   X  14 

Ml 


CARPENTRY. 


**  Although,"  says  Mr.  Price, 
(t  this  table  seems  so  plain,  as  to 
need  no  explanation,  it  may  not 
be  amiss  to  observe  some  parti- 
culars, such  as  that  all  binding 
or  strong  joists  ought  to  be  half 
as  thick  again  as  common  joists  : 
that  is,  if  a  common  joist  be  given 
3  inches  thick,  a  binding  joist 
should  be  A\  inches  thick,  al- 
though of  the  same  depth. 

"  Observe  also,  that  if  conve- 
niency  do  not  allow  of  posts  in 
partitions  being  square,  in  such 
cases  multiply  the  square  of  the 
side  of  the  posts  as  here  given,  by 
itself :  for  instance,  if  it  be  6 
inches  square,  then  as  6  times  6 
is  36,  consequently,  to  keep  this 
post  nearly  to  the  same  strength, 
find  some  number  that  shall  agree 
thereto  ;  as  suppose  the  partition 
to  be  4  inches  thick,  then  let 
your  post  be  9  inches  the  other 
way,  so  that  9  times  4  is  36, 
being  the  same  as  6  times  6j  so 
that  the  strength  is  nearly  the 
same,  although  being  equal  in  its 
squares  is  best  for  strength. 

"  Posts  that  go  to  the  height 
of  two  or  three  stories  need  not 
hold  this  proportion,  because  at 
every  floor  it  will  meet  with  a 
tie  j  admit  a  post  was  required 
30  feet  high,  and  in  this  height 
were  three  stories,  two  of  10  feet, 
and  one  of  8.  Look  for  post  of 
fir  of  10  feet  high  in  the  table, 
their  scantling  is  5  inches  square, 
that  is  25  square  inches  j  which 
double  for  the  two  stories.  And 
take  also  that  of  8  feet  high, 
being  4  inches  square,  that  is,  16 
square  inches,  all  which  being 
added  together,  make  64  square 
inches  ;  so  that  such  a  post  would 
be  8  inches  square.  On  occasion 
it  may  be  lessened  in  each  story 
as  it  rises. 

*'I  do  not  insist  that  the  scant- 
lings of  timber  ought  to  be  ex- 
actly as  by  this  table  expressed, 

548 


but  may  be  varied  in  some  n 
spects,  as  the  workman  shall  s< 
fit.  The  reason  of  its  being  ii 
serted  is,  in  consideration  of  t\ 
scantlings  of  timber,  as  former 
settled  by  act  of  parliament,  ar 
which,  if  compared,  will  pro\ 
the  necessity  and  use  of  th 
table. 

"  As  to  plates  on  walls,  ( 
bressummers  to  support  walls, 
do  not  find  that  they  can  con 
into  any  regular  proportion  as  tl 
rest  do,  therefore  must  be  left  I 
discretion. 

"  And  as  I  have  herein  descril 
ed  a  great  variety  of  the  princ 
pal  things  requisite  to  be  know 
by  every  carpenter,  I  shall  coi 
elude  this  part  with  my  wishi 
that  it  may  prove  as  useful  as  m 
earnest  endeavours  have  been  I 
make  it  so." 

The  author,  whose  works  wi 
next  come  under  consideratioi 
is  Mr.  Batty  Langley.  In  h 
"  Builder's  Assistant,"  publishc 
in  1738,  he  has  the  following : 

"  Of  trussed  partitions. — Win 
partitions  have  solid  bearin; 
throughout  their  whole  exten 
they  have  no  need  to  be  trusse< 
but  when  they  can  be  supporte 
but  in  some  particular  place 
then  they  require  to  be  trussc 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  who 
weight  shall  rest  perpendicular 
upon  the  places  appointed  t< 
support,  and  nowhere  else ; 
partitions  are  made  of  differei 
heights,  to  carry  one,  two,  i 
more  floors,  as  the  kinds 
buildings  require. 

"  The  first  things  to  be  coi 
sidered  in  works  of  this  kind, 
the  weight  that  is  to  be  supporte 
the  goodness  and  kind  of  timb 
that  is  to  be  employed:  and  prop 
scantlings  necessary  for  that  pu 
pose. 

"The  strength  of  timber 
general  is  always  in  proportu 


CARPENTRY. 


the  quantity  of  solid  matter  it 
mtains.  The  quantity  of  solid 
latter  in  timber  is  always  more 
less,  as  the  timber  is  more  or 
s  heavy  ;  hence  it  is,  that  all 
avy  woods,  as  oak,  box,  maho- 
Iny,  lignum  vita,  #c.  are  stronger 
Ln  elder,  deal,  sycamore,  %c. 
jiich  are  lighter,  or  (rather)  less 
avy,  and  indeed,  for  the  sirae 
Lon,  iron  is  not  so  strong  as 
i  el,  which  is  heavier  than  iron ; 
;d  steel  is  not  so  strong  as  brass 
«  copper,  which  are  both  heavier 
1  m  steel.  To  prove  this,  make 
!  o  equal  cubes  ot  any  two  kinds 
(timber,  suppose  the  one  of  fir, 
fe  other  of  oak:  weigh  them 
f  gly,  and  note  their  respective 
i  ights  ;  this  done,  prepare  two 
pees  of  the  same  timbers,  of 
rial  lengths,  suppose  each  5 
f  t  in  length,  and  let  each  be 
til  up  as  nearly  square  as  can 
I.  but  to  such  scantlings,  that 
t  weight  of  a  piece  of  oak  may 
I  to  the  weight  of  the  piece  of 
/  as  the  cube  of  oak  is  to  the 
we  of  fir;  then  those  two  pieces 
I  ng  laid  horizontally  hollow 
\  h  equal  bearings,  and  being 
1  tied  in  their  middles  with  in- 
(  used  equal  weights,  it  will  be 
s  n,  that  they  will  bend  or  sag 
e  sally,  which  is  a  demonstration 
t  t  their  strengths  are  to  each 

0  er,  as  the  quantity  of  solid 
utter  contained  in  them. 

'  As  the  whole  weight  on  par- 
ens is  supported  by  the  prin- 

1  d  post,  their  scantlings  must 
1      h  first  considered  ;  and  which 

old  be  done  in  two  different 
mners,  viz.  first,  when  the 
<;  i  ters,  commonly  called  studs, 
a  to  be  rilled  with  brickwork, 
;i  rendered  thereon  j  and  lastly, 
W  :n  to  be  lathed  and  plastered 
o  both  sides. 

When  the  quarters  are  to  be 
fi  d  between  with  brickwork, 
tl   thickness  of   the  principal 


posts  should  be  as  much  less 
than  the  breadth  of  a  bfick,  as 
twice  the  thickness  of  a  lath  ;  so 
that  when  those  posts  are  lathed 
to  hold  on  the  rendering,  the 
laths  on  both  sides  may  be  flush 
with  the  surfaces  of  the  brick- 
work ;  and  to  give  these  posts  a 
sufficient  strength,  their  breadth 
must  be  increased  at  discretion  ; 
but  when  the  quarters  are  to  be 
lathed  on  both  sides,  or  when 
wainscotting  is  to  be  placed 
against  the  partitioning,  then  the 
thickness  of  the  posts  may  be 
made  greater  at  pleasure.  The 
usual  scantlings  for  principal  posts 
of  fir,  of  8  feet  in  height,  is  4  or 
5  inches  square ;  of  10  feet  in 
height,  5  or  6  inches  square ;  of 
12  feet  in  height,  6  or  7  inches 
square  ;  of  14  feet  in  height,  7  or 
8  inches  square  of  16  feet  in 
height,  from  9  to  10  inches  square. 
But  these  last,  in  my  opinion,  are 
full  large,  where  no  very  great 
weight  is  to  be  supported.  As 
oak  is  much  stronger  than  fir,  the 
scantling  of  oak-posts  need  not  be 
so  large  as  those  of  fir ;  and  there- 
fore the  scantlings  assigned  by 
Mr.  Francis  Price,  in  his  treatise 
of  carpentry,  are  absurd  j  as  being 
much  larger  than  those  that  he 
has  assigned  for  fir-posts.  To 
find  the  just  scantling  of  oaken 
posts,  that  shall  have  the  same 
strength  of  any  given  fir-posts, 
this  is  the  rule : 

"  As  the  weight  of  a  cube  of  fir 
is  to  the  weight  of  a  cube  of  oak 
of  the  same  magnitude,  so  is  the 
area  of  the  square  end  of  any  fir- 
post,  to  the  area  of  the  end  of  an 
oaken  post ;  and  whose  square 
root  is  equal  to  the  side  of  the 
oaken  posts  required. 

"The  distances  of  principal 
posts  is  generally  about  10  feet, 
and  of  the  quarters  about  14 
inches,  but  when  they  are  to  be 
lathed  on  both  sides,  the  distances 

549 


CARPENTRY. 


of  the  quarters  should  be  such  as 
will  be  agreeable  to  the  lengths 
of  the  laths,  otherwise  there  will 
be  a  very  great  waste  in  the  laths. 
The  thickness  of  ground  plates 
and  raisings  are  generally  from 
2^  inches  to  4  inches,  and  are 
scarfed  together  as  plate  C  29, 
Jigs.  1,2,3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8. 

*'  OJ  naked  jlooring. — The  prin- 
cipal things  to  be  observed  in 
naked  flooring  are,  first,  the  dis- 
position of  girders,  or  manner  of 
placing  them  in  the  most  secure 
and  advantageous  manner.  Se- 
condly, theirscantlings;  andlastly, 
the  manner  of  trussing  them, 
when  their  lengths  require  it. 

"  There  are  some  carpenters, 
who  insist  that  girders  should  be 
laid  on  strong  lentils  over  win- 
dows', and  who  fillege  that  girders 
being  laid  on  lentils  in  piers,  the 
piers  are  endangered  at  the  decay 
of  those  lentils.  Others  insist, 
that  it  is  best  to  lay  girders  in 
piers,  as  being  the  most  solid 
bearings,  and  that  if  sound  oaken 
lentils  are  laid  under  them,  they 
will  endure  as  long  as  the  brick- 
work will  remain  sound. 

"  In  buildings,  whose  piers  are 
narrow  at  the  renewing  of  lentils, 
the  piers  will  be  endangered  in 
both  these  cases  j  for  lentils  laid 
over  windows  must  be  laid  into 
the  piers,  on  both  sides  of  a  win- 
dow, and  which,  when  taken  out, 
will  make  large  fractures,  that 
will  be  very  little  less  dangerous 
than  the  other,  and  therefore  I 
shall  submit  this  point  to  the 
discretion  of  the  workmen. 

"  Lentils  laid  in  piers  between 
windows,  for  the  support  of 
girders,  should  have  their  lengths 
equal  to  the  breadths  of  the  piers: 
and  those  laid  in  party-walls,  or 
gable  ends  of  building,  should  be 
equal  in  length  to  the  distance 
that  is  contained  between  every 
two  girders.    The  thickness  of 


lentils  should  always  be  equal  > 
the  height  of  two  or  three  cours 
of  bricks,  and  their  breadth  i  > 
a  brick's  length  ;  so  that  in  ev  r 
of  those  particulars,  they  may ; 
conformable  to  the  brickwork  i 
which  they  are  placed,  and  ) 
that  which  is  raised  on  the, 
And  for  the  better  disposing 
the  weight  imposed  on  girdr, 
lentils  should  always  be  fin  t 
bedded  on  a  sufficient  number  f 
short  pieces  of  oak,  laid  aen 
the  walls,  vulgarly  called  te- 
plets,  which  are  of  excellent  i. 

"Let  girders  be  laid  in  pit, 
or  in  lentils  over  windows,  t 
will,  in  both  these  cases,  be  col 
mendable  to  turn  small  arc  s 
over  their  ends,  that  in  case  th: 
ends  are  first  decayed,  they  n| 
be  renewed  at  pleasure,  withi 
disturbing  any  part  of  the  bri  • 
work ;  and  for  their  preservat  i 
anoint  their  ends  with  meljl 
pitch  and  grease,  viz.  of  pitch;, 
of  grease  1  ;  and  indeed,  wi 
lentils  to  be  covered  with  pi;i 
and  grease  also,  it  would  con- 
bute  very  greatly  to  their  du- 
tion. 

"It  is  always  to  be  observ, 
that  the  shortest  girders  bd 
down,  or  sag,  as  workmen  tei 
it,  the  least,  and  therefore  its 
always  best  to  lay  girders  o;r 
the  narrow  parts  of  rooms,  ill 
whose  ends  should  always  ha, 
each,  at  least  14  inches  bearj* 
in  the  walls,  excepting  in  Sim 
buildings,  where  the  front,  | 
walls  are  but  a  brick  and  haljn 
thickness,  when,  to  prevent  | 
ends  of  the  girders  from  bei? 
seen  without  side,  their  beari  s 
cannot  much  exceed  11  inchej 

<f  It  is  also  to  be  observed,  tit 
girders  be  so  disposed  of,  that  e 
boards  of  every  floor  be  para|;l 
throughout  the  whole  floor;  1 
it  is  as  disagreeable  to  the  ey<o 
see  the  joints  of  boards  in  c 


CARPENTRY. 


s  ie  floor  lie  different  ways,  as 
in  to  see  steps  out  of  one  room 
ii )  another,  which  should  always 
b  avoided. 

In  the  carrying  up  the  several 
vWs  of  buildings,  it  should  be 

I  c^fully  observed,  to  lay  in  bond 
ti  bers  on  templets,  as  aforesaid, 
atavery  6  or  7  feet  in  height, 

,,'  ciged  down,  and  braced  toge- 
U  •  with  diagonal  pieces  at  every 
aide,  which  will  bind  the  whole 

i  i.    tcether  in  the  most  substantial 
n  iner,  and  prevent  fractures  by 
[•  ujqual  settlement. 

The  distances  of  girders 
iwuld  never  exceed  12  feet,  and 
tt  r  scantlings  must  be  propor- 
ti  ed  according  to  their  lengths  j 
aejy  experience  it  is  known,  that 
a  Mantling  of  11  inches,  by  S 
nies,  is  sufficient  for  a.  fir  girder 
ol'O  feet  in  length,  the  area  of 
w]!)se  end  is  SS  inches,  it  is  very 
er  to  find  the  proper  scantling 
fo  i  girder  of  any  greater  length, 
lose  20  feet,  by  this  rule  :  as 
(feet,  the  length  of  the  first 

1  toJer,  is  to  8S,  the  area  of  its 
^ ,  so  is  20  feet,  the  length  of 
n  second  girder,  to  17b',  the 
ail.  of  its  end. 

Now,  to  find  its  scantlings, 

-    th,  being  multiplied  into  each 

Ulu   ot.-r,  shall  produce  1/6  inches, 

,£    tharea  found,  one  of  them  must 
'  ;iven,  viz.  either  the  depth, 
oi  ie  thickness.  In  this  example, 
th  ^iven  depth  shall  be  12  inches  j 

i     th  efore  divide  176*  by  12,  and 

|l!     t!;  quotient  is  14  inches  and  two- 

ti     th'Js,  which  is  the  other scant- 

\kl  lir  or  breadth  required. 

1  To  prevent  the  sagging  of 
sb  t  girders,  it  is  usual  to  cut 
th  n  camber,  that  is,  to  cut  them 
wji  an  angle  in  the  midst  of  their 

t;  le  ths,  so  that  their  middles 
sh  1  rise  above  the  levels  of  their 

f     Wi,  as  many  half  inches  as  the 
gi  er  contains  times  10  feet.  And 
"  ed,  girders  of  the  greatest 


length,  although  trussed,  should 
be  cut  camber  in  the  same 
manner. 

"  The  next  in  order  are  joists,  cf 
which  there  are  five  kinds,  viz. 
common  joists,  binding  joists,  trim- 
ming joists,  bridging  joists,  and 
ceiling  joists.  First,  common  joists 
are  used  in  ordinary  buildings, 
whose  scantlings  in  fir  are  gene- 
rally made  as  follows,  viz.  joists 
of  6*  feet  in  length,  to  be  6-  by 
2J}  of  9  feet,  6 J  by2j;  of  12 
feet,  8  by2j.  But  in  large  build- 
ings the  scantlings  are  made 
larger,  where  it  is  common  to 
make  joists  of  6  feet,  5  by  3  ; 
of  9  feet,  "i\  by  3  j  of  12  feet, 
10  by  3. 

"As  oak  is  much  heavier  than 
fir,  it  is  customary  to  make  the 
scantlings  of  oak  joists  larger  than 
those  of  fir ;  but  1  believe  it  to 
be  entirely  wrong,  for  the  reason 
before  given,  relating  to  the 
strength  of  timber.  Secondly, 
binding  joists  are  generally  made 
half  as  thick  again  as  common  joists 
of  the  same  lengths,  and  are 
framed  flush  with  the  under  sur- 
faces of  girders,  to  receive  the 
ceiling  joists,  and  about  3  or  4 
inches  below  their  upper  surfaces, 
for  to  receive  the  bridging  joists ; 
so  that  the  upper  surfaces  of  the 
bridging  joists  may  be  exactly  flush 
or  level  with  the  girder  to  receive 
the  boarding.  InplateCW^gs.  11 
and  12,  A  represents  the  section 
of  a  girder  j  6  b,  &c.  parts  of  two 
binding  joists,  tenoned  into  the 
girder  ;  a  a,  &c.  the  ends  of  bridg- 
ing joists;  e  e  boarding  on  the 
bridgings  ;  d  d,  &c.  mortises  in 
the  binding  joists  to  receive  the 
tenons  of  ceiling  joists  ;  as  also  are 
the  mortises  b  c,  b  c,  &c.  But 
these  last  are  those  which  are 
called  pulley  mortises,  into  which 
the  ceiling  joists  are  slid.  To 
understand  this  more  plainly,  the 
figures  f  f  f  f  are  added,  which 

551 


CARPENTRY. 


represent  the  sections  of  so  many 
binding  joists ;  g  g,  &c.  the  sec- 
tions of  small  joists  between 
them  ;  x  x  a  side  view  of  a 
bridging  joist,  and  h  h  h  ceiling 
joists,  tenoned  in  the  binding  joists, 
flush  with  their  bottoms,  as 
aforesaid,  to  receive  the  lath  and 
plaster.  The  distance  that  bind- 
ing joists  should  be  laid  at,  should 
not  exceed  6  feet,  though  some 
lay  them  at  greater  distances, 
which  is  not  so  well,  because  the 
bridging  and  ceiling  joists  must  be 
made  of  larger  scantlings  to  carry 
the  weights  of  the  ceiling  and 
boarding,  and  consequently  a 
greater  quantity  of  timber  must 
be  employed.  But,  however,  as 
this  particular  is  at  the  will  of 
the  carpenter,  I  shall  only  add, 
that  the  scantlings  for  bridgings 
of  fir,  having  6  feet  bearing, 
should  be  4  by  3  inches  ;  those 
of  8  feet  bearing,  5 \  by  3  ;  and 
those  of  10  feet,  7  by  3.  Their 
distance  from  each  other  is  gene- 
rally about  12  or  14  inches. 

The  figs.  9  and  10  are  exam- 
ples of  floors  made  of  short 
lengths,  which  1  have  given  for 
the  diversion  of  the  curious. 

"  Of  roofs. — As  the  common 
method  of  framing  the  trusses  of 
principal  rafters  of  large  roofs,  is 
to  lay  the  whole  weight  of  the 
beam  and  covering  upon  their 
feet,  they  therefore  should  be 
secured  at  the  beam  with  iron 
straps,  to  prevent  their  flying 
out,  in  case  that  their  tenons 
should  fail ;  but  as  I  apprehend 
this  method  was  capable  of  im- 
provement, I  therefore  considered 
that  if  under  the  lower  parts  of 
principal  rafters  there  be  dis- 
charging struts  framed  into  the 
beams  and  prick  posts,  they  will 
discharge  the  principal  rafters 
from  the  greatest  part  of  the 
whole  weight. 

"  As  I  have  thus  given  a  brief 

552 


explanation  of  these  several  s 
of  trusses  for  straight  rafter, 
will  be  necessary  >to  say  so 
thing  of  the  scantlings  of  be 
and  rafters  before  I  proceed 
further. 

Beams. 

Length.  Scantli 
Feet.  Inches 

30    6  x 

45    9  x 

60    10  x 

75    10J  x  1 

90    12  xl 


Principal  Rafters. 


Length.    Scantling  at  Top. 


Feet. 

24. 

36. 

41. 

60. 


Inches. 
5x6 
7x6 
9x7 


10  x 


72  10  x  9 


Scantli : 
at  Bott . 
Inclx 

7  x 

9  x 
10  x 

10  X 

11  X 


Length. 
Feet. 

3  . 
10  . 
12  . 


Small  Rafters. 

Scantlii 
Inches 

  41  x  | 

  5  X 

  6     X  . 


"  How  to  lay  roofs  in  ledgrm 
Plate  C  30. — This  example  i;f 
an  irregular  roof,  whose  sevi 
angles  are  bevel,  wherein  f  jjy 
is  the  plan,  1  1,  e,  1  2,  k,  1  m 
and  1  4,  o,  are  the  beams  or 
which  the  principal  beams  an|) 
stand. 

"  Let  the  line  c  n  be  the  b 
of  the  ridge,  which  is  to  be  pla 
at  pleasure,  and  let  t  c,  a  c  i 
n  s,  n  q  be  the  bases  of  the  fir 
hips  j  on  the  points  c  g  k  n  er 
the  perpendiculars  c  d,  g  f, 
and  n  m,  which  make  each  eq 
to  the  height  of  the  pitch,  «' 
draw  the  lines  d  1.1,  d  e-}  fl%Jf 
i  13,  i  I;  m  14,  m  o;  which  vl 
be   the  lengths  of  the  sevel 
principal  rafters.    At  the  poip 
e  and  n,  erect  the  lines  n  r,  m 
and  c  Vj  c  b,  perpendicular  to  I 


CARPENTRY. 


seve 


.  base  of  the  hips,  and  each  equal 
i  to  t  heights  of  the  pitch,  and 
,  ..drav.hc  lines  t  v,  a  b,  and  r  s, 
hich  are  the  lengths  of  the 
1  hip  rafters  ;  make  s  x,  and 
.,.  he  sides  of  the  scalenum 
triarie  s  x  q,  equal  to  r  s  and 

0  q,  lso  t  w  and  w  a,  equal  to 
'  'teal  a  b,  which  will  complete 
'  WHgment  of  the  ends.  Make 

1  isqual  to  the  principal  rafter 
14  ir  and  s  z  equal  to  the  hip 

5;  Iso  make  0  z  equal  to  the 
priniial  rafter  0  m,  and  q  z  equal 
t]  hip  p  q ;  also  make  e  ij 

'"p  equato  the  principal  rafter  d  e, 
ind  y  equal  to  the  hip  a;  a  ;  also 

,  makiS  y  equal  to  the  principal 
rafte,/  8,  and  /  y  equal  to  the  hip 
'  r.  ;  ike  y  \V  and  y  Y  each  equal 
to  c    also  W  X  and  Y  Z  each 

,  jsquafo  g  k ;  also  X  z  and  Z  r 
eachjequal  to  /<:  n.  Draw  the 
rmoal  rafters  12  W,  13  X, 
and  Y,  IZ.  Lastly,  draw  in 
the  Irloins  c21,  22,  20,  23,  24,  at 
^iscrion,  and  they  will  complete 

•  thetole  letlgment,  as  required. 
"    the  manner  of  describing 
angh  brackets  and  hip  rafters  in 
whj:ial  roofs. — As  brackets  are 
usedery  frequently  in  buildings, 

1  I  sh;  therefore  show  how  to  find 
t  he  c  vature  of  any  angle  bracket 

l.by  0:  general  rule,  as  follows  : 
•t  A,  in  Jig.  1,  plate  C  31, 

llubt  a|ont  bracket  given,  whose 
beig  is  d  b,  its  projection  a  b, 
and  -  curve  a  caveto  ;  and  let 
the  suled  parts  b  d  represent  an 
an^l  )f  a  building,  against  which 
the  (  e  is  to  be  fixed. 

"  raw  the  lines  a  h  and  h  i 
para)-l  to  the  two  sides  of  the 
buildg,  at  the  distance  of  the 
I»roj(  ion  of  the  front  bracket, 
and  |iw  7  d  the  base  of  the  front 
brack,  and  fh  the  base  of  the 
<>ngl  bracket ;  divide  7  c  into 
any  mber  of  equal  parts,  as  at 
the  |  ints  G,  5,  4,  3,  2,  1,  and 
draw  he  ordinates  6,  83  5  93  4, 
4A 


10;  3,  11,  &c,  divide  fc/intothe 
same  number  of  equal  paits  as 
7  c  is  divided,  which  will  be  done 
by  continuing  the  ordinatts  of 
7  c,  until  they  meet  h  f  in  the 
points  6,  5,  4,  3,  &c.  whereon 
erect  the  ordinates  I,  13  j  2  12  ; 
3,  11,  &c.  equal  to  the  ordinates 
1,  13  2,  12  ;  3,  11,  &c.  on  the 
line  7  c ;  and  through  the  points 
13,  12,  11,  10,  9,  8  /,  trace  the 
quarter  of  an  ellipsis,  which  is 
the  curve  of  the  angle  bracket 
required. 

"  By  the  same  rule,  all  other 
kinds  of  angle  brackets  may  be 
described. 

"  The  curvatures  of  hip  rafters 
to  polygonal  roofs,  that  is,  those 
whose  plans  are  polygons,  as  the 
Jigs.  3,  4,  5,  6,  plate  C  31,  are  also 
found  by  transposing  the  ordinates 
of  a  principal  rafter  (which  must 
be  given)  upon  the  base  of  a  hip 
rafter. 

"  Suppose,  in  Jig.  3,  ad  to  be 
the  base,  over  which  the  caveto 
principal  rafter  c  d  is  to  stand, 
and  let  a  e  be  the  base  of  a  hip 
rafter.  Divide  a  d  into  equal 
parts,  and  draw  the  ordinates  2, 
1  ;  4,  3,  &c.  on  the  line  a,  cl ; 
divide  a  e  in  the  same  manner  as 
a  d,  and  on  the  line  a  e  draw  the 
ordinates  1,  2j  3,  4j  5,  6,  &c. 
and  from  the  point  through 
the  points  2,  4,  6,  8,  &c.  trace 
the  curve  of  the  hip  rafter  as 
required.  In  the  same  manner 
in  Jig.  5,  the  principal  rafter  c  d 
being  given,  the  hip  rafter  b  e  is 
found  ;  as  also  are  the  hip  rafters 
b  e  in  Jig .  6,  and  c  e  in  Jig.  7,  the 
principal  rafters  being  first  given. 

"  To  cover  or  line  the  head  of  a 
niche.  Fig.  4,  plate  C  31. — Let 
a  f  c  be  the  plan  of  the  head  of  a 
semicircular  niche,  and  complete 
the  circle  a  f  c  d.  Draw  the 
diameters  a  b  c,  and  d  b  f  con- 
tinued out  towards  e  at  pleasure. 
Make/  r,  and  f  s,  each  equal  to 
553 


CARPENTRY. 


one-fourth  of  a  f;  then/  s  will 
be  equal  to  half  a  f,  and  draw  the 
lines  h  b  and  s  b.  Divide  b  d  into 
any  number  of  equal  parts'  and 
draw  the  ordinates  I,  S ;  2,  9  ; 
3,  10,  &c.  and  on  the  points 
where  those  ordinates  cut  the 
semidiameter  6  d,  with  the  radius 
of  each  '  semiordinate,  describe 
semicircles,  as  the  dotted  semi- 
circles in  the  figure.  Make  ep 
equal  to  the  curve  a  f.  Make 
f  p  equal  to  a  1,  f  o  equal  to  a  2, 
f  n  equal  to  a  S,fm  equal  to  a  4, 
f  I  equal  to  a  5,  f  k  equal  to  a  6, 
and  /  q  equal  to  a  7.  On  the 
point  e  describe  the  arches  13, 
14  j  11,  12  j  9,  10,  kc.  Bisect 
the  half  part  of  each  of  the  dotted 
semicircles,  as  /  c  in  i,  1  8  in  2, 
3  9  in  4,  5  10  in  6,711  in  8,  9 
12  in  10,  13  IS  in  12,  and  13  14 
in  14.  Make  f  h,  and  f  g,  each 
equal  to  half  the  arch  f  i ;  p  1  and 
p  2,  each  equal  to  half  the  arch  1 
2  ;  o  3,  and  o  4,  each  equal  to  half 
the  arch  3  4;  and  so  in  like  manner, 
n  5,  and  5  6,  to  half  the  arch  5  6, 
kc.  From  the  point  e,  through 
the  points  12,  11,  9,  7,  kc.  and 
14,  12,  10,  &c.  trace  the  curves 
e  h  and  e  g ;  then  four  such  pieces, 
as  e  h  g,  will  cover  the  head  of 
the  niche,  as  required. 

"  Note.  If  the  niche  have  to  be 
lined,  then  the  diameter  of  the 
circle,  being  made  equal  to  the 
inside  diameter  of  the  niche,  the 
lining  may  be  found  in  the  same 
manner.  The  same  method  is 
also  to  be  used,  for  the  covering 
or  lining  of  a  semielliptical 
headed  niche,  as  is  plainly  seen 
by  Jig.  S,  where  every  of  the  same 
operations  is  performed  on  the 
plan  of  an  ellipsis,  and  where 
e  h  s  is  the  covering  for  one- 
eighth  of  the  whole  hemispheroid. 

"  As  sometimes  the  niches  are 
made  semipolygonal,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  show  their  covering  also, 
and  which  is  of  great  use  in  the 

554 


covering  of  polygonal  roo  M 
those  of  banqueting-housoiur. 
rets,  &c. 

"Let  Jig.  5,  plate  C  3lJ«, 
plan  given,  whose  princip  rib 
or  rafter  is  c  d,  and  hip  6  e.  fa 
the  length  of  k  f  equal  t  the 
curved  length  of  c  d,  and  aw 
the  lines  g  a  and  h  a.  Dra  the 
ordinates  to  the  principal  i; c d 
on  its  base  a  d.  Make  the  ve- 
ral  distances  k  i,  1,  2 ;  1,  or 
the  line  k  f,  equal  to  the  s|:ral 
parts  of  the  principal  c  d,  a yiev 
are  divided  by  the  ordijtes, 
making  k  i  equal  to  the  firs|iart 
from  d,  1,  2,  equal  to  thes  ind 
part,  2,  3  equal  to  the  thir  &c 
JLiivide  k  a  in  the  same  prop  ion 
as  a  d,  at  the  points  1,  5,  &c. 
through  which  draw  righ':ne$ 
parallel  to  g  h,  to  terminjiat 
the  lines  g  a  and  h  a;  also  thjigh 
the  points  1,  2,  3,  in  the  liiM 
draw  right  lines  at  pleasur  anii 
parallel  to  g  h.  Then  rc;.ing 
the  lines  1,  7 ;  2,  8;  3,  J|&c 
on  the  line  kfy  equal  to  thanes 
1,7;  2,  8 ;  3,  9,  &c.  on  tb|line 
k  a;  and  from  /,  throug  the 
points  13,  12,  11,  &c.  to  /i^ace 
the  curve/ h.  In  the  san^eian- 
ner  trace  the  curve  /  g.  hen 
the  piece  f  g  h,  being  bend  up, 
and  laid  on  the  two  hip; that 
stand  over  the  line  ga  arjAa, 
will  be  the  covering  for  tb;|side 
of  the  roof  or  niche,  as  req  eJ* 

"Note.  The  coverings  j  the 
two  ogee  roofs,  Jigs.  6  and  ^nd 
the  caveto  roof,  Jig.  3,  are/und 
in  the  same  manner,  as  is  ei^ni 
to  inspection. 

"  Of  straight,  circular,  an,  lly 
tical  arches  in  circular  walls.  Jkb 
32.— The  first  work  to  bjlone 
is  the  making  of  the  cenps  to 
turn  these  kinds  of  archesipoij, 
which  may  be  thus  perfjroed. 
Let  G  H  I  K  be  the  pUoi » 
circular  building,  and  at  jj  6  » 
be  required  to  make  a  cer  e  for 


CARPENTRY. 


sei  circular  arch  to  the  win 
0w,  vhose  diameter  without  is 
;  if  M  within  n  m.    Bisect  a  d 
)sc,i'/,p  describe  the  semicircle 
gilts i\ 'Divide  a  d  into  any  num- 
l' Wot  equal  parts  at  the  points 
f  4  2f>c.  and  draw  the  ordinates 
U  6; ,  4;  1,  2,  &c.    Divide  m 
.  to  fe  same  number  of  equal 
L  fftsimd  make  the  ordinates  6, 
4];  j  2,  1,  &c.  equal  to  the 
6,  6;  4,  4;  2,  2,  &c. 
id  t  ough  the  points  5  3  1  A:, 
c.  tee  the  curve  n  km,  then 
p  dhd  n  A:  m  will  be  the  two 
'!  bs  r  the  centre  :  this  being 
Mle,  lace  the  ribs  perpendicular 
We  lines  a  d  and  n  m,  and 
tverlhem,  as  centres  usually 
'"  e,  a!  then  applying-  the  edge 
a  lumb-rule  to  the  divers 
1  irts  '  the  inside  and  outside  of 
e  w  low's  bottom,  the  top  of 
Jllle  re  will  give  the  several 
!  >int<  it  which  the  inside  and 
1  ttsidjof  the  covering  is  to  be 
tt  0.  so  as  to  stand  exactly 
er  |e  inside  and  outside  of 
1  bifding,  and  then  the  centre 
ill  ^'completed  as  required. 
"  Jliivide  the  courses  in  the  arch 
this  indow. — On  a  flat  panel, 
c.  d  w  a  line,  as  b  e,  Jig.  7, 
akej/o  equal  to  the  curve 
c  rf,|  so  make  a  b  and  0  e  each 
|ual  p  the  intended  height  of 
e  bijk  arch.    Make  /  p  in  Jig. 
equ  to  e  p  in  Jig.  6,  also  make 
b  anfrf  e  in  Jig.  6  each  equal  to 
f          7>  then  the  points 
and  f  will  be  the  extremes  of 
tifi.  Makep  r  in  Jig.  7  equal 
>  b  fjlhe  given  height  of  the 
'ch,  d  through  the  points  br  e 
(}p  0  describe  two  semi- 
'hpst  which  divide  into  courses 
5  bef!e  taught,  and  which  will 
e  theface  of  the  arch  required. 
?  T\find  the  angles  or  bevels  oj 
^  tfftr  part  of  each  course. — 
Wile  the  splay- backs  of  the 
i&dc  m  d  and  n  a  until  they 


meet  in  F.  On  F,  with  the  radius 
F  m  and  F  a,  describe  the  arches 
n  yv  and  afs,  making  n  y  v  equal 
to  the  girt  of  the  arch  n  k  th. 
Make  n  6,  n  4,  n  2,  n  y,  &c.  on 
the  arch  n  y  v,  equal  to  n  6,  n  4, 
n  2,  n  y,  &c.  on  the  curve  n  k  m, 
and  draw  the  lines  6  F,  4  F,  2  F, 
yF,  &c;  make  the  ordinates  6,  5  j 
4,  3  ;  2,  1  j  y  x,  &c.  on  the  lines 
6  F,  4  F,  &c.  equal  to  the  ordi- 
nates 5,  63  3,  4  ;  1,2:  h  i,  &c. 
on  the  line  n  m,  and  through  the 
points  5,  3,  1,  x,  &c.  trace  the 
curve  v  x  m.  In  the  same  manner 
transfer  the  ordinates  5,  6  ;  3,  4  ; 
1,  2  j  c,  ff  &c.  on  the  line  a  d  to 
the  arch  s  f  a,  as  from  5  to  6, 
from  4  to  3,  &c.  and  tr  ice  the 
curve  sea;  and  then  will  the 
figure  n  y  v  s  c  a  be  the  soffito  of 
the  window  laid  out,  and  which 
being  divided  into  the  same  num- 
ber of  equal  parts,  as  the  under 
part  of  the  arch  a  p  0,  Jig.  7,  and 
lines  drawn  to  the  centre  F,  as  is 
done  in  Jig.  2,  to  the  centre  A, 
by  the  lines  2,  2,  2,  &c.  those 
lines  will  give  the  bevel  of  every 
course  in  soffito,  as  required. 
Fig.  5  is  another  example  of  a 
semielliptical  arch,  whose  front 
is  Jig.  4.  Also  Jig.  2  is  a  third 
example  of  a  scheme  arch,  whose 
front  is  Jig.  1.  And  Jig.  8  is  a 
fourth  example  of  a  straight  arch, 
which  in  general  are  performed 
by  the  aforesaid  rule. 

"  To  Jind  the  curvature  of  every 
course  in  front. — Suppose  the  rusti- 
cated semicircular-headed  win- 
dow, Jig.  9,  be  standing  in  the 
side  of  a  cylinder,  whose  sides 
are  the  lines  Q  T  and  P  V,  con- 
tinue out  the  sides  of  each  rustic 
until  they  cut  the  sides  of  the 
cylinder  in  the  points  Q  R  S  T 
and  NOP,  &c.  then  the  lines 
Q  N,  R  O,  Q  N,  &c.  will  be 
transverse  diameters  of  so  many 
ellipses,  whose  conjugate  dia- 
meters  are   each  eoual  to  the 


CARP 

diameter  of  the  cylinder,  which 
describe  as  in  fig.  10,  and  draw 
their  conjugate  diameters  k  I,  i  m 
and  n  o ;  make  the  distances  o  5, 
m  3,  I  1,  on  each  ellipsis,  equal 
to  a  g  the  semidiameter  of  the 
window,^.  9,  also  make  the  dis- 
tances 5  6,  3  4,  12,  on  each 
ellipsis,  equal  to  g  10  the  height 
of  the  rustic  arch;  then  the 
segments  of  the  several  ellipses, 
5  6;  3,  4  j  1,  2  j  at  Z  X  A,  will 
be  the  curves  of  the  several 
courses,  as  required. 

"  Fig.  3  represents  the  manner 
of  covering  the  outside  of  a  cone, 
the  arch  c  a  being  made  equal  to 
the  circumference  of  the  circle  e, 
which  is  equal  to  the  base  of  the 
cone :  this  figure  is  exhibited 
here  to  show,  that  the  soffito  of 
a  semicircular-headed  window, 
whose  splay  is  continued  all 
round,  is  no  more  than  the  lower 
superficies  of  a  semicone  ;  for  if 
the  splay  was  continued  in  every 
part,  it  would  meet  in  a  point,  as 
the  lines  k  d  h  and  i  e  h,Jig.  8, 
and  form  a  semicone  as  afore- 
said." 

Having  concluded  our  extracts 
from  Langley's  "  Builder  s  Com- 
plete Assistant,"  it  may  be,  per- 
haps, advisable  to  state,  that, 
though  we  are  indebted  to  Mr. 
Langley  for  some  useful  disco- 
veries, as  that  of  the  extension 
of  the  superficies  of  polygonal 
roofs  with  curvilinear  rafters,  and 
the  covering  of  the  frustum  of  a 
semicone  for  a  soffit  in  a  straight 
wall,  the  axis  of  the  cone  being 
at  right  angles  to  the  plane  of 
the  wall,  yet  many  of  his  deduc- 
tions are  very  erroneous. 

What  he  has  said  relative  to 
the  strength  of  timber  being  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  solid 
matter  it  contains,  is  void  of  all 
principle,  as  the  very  reverse  is 
not  unfrequently  proved  to  be 
the  case  :  and  with  respect  to 

556 


NTRY. 

his  idea,  that  the  relativejmnt. 
ling  of  oak  and  fir  posts  jy  be 
found  by  the  rule,  that  ' Lthe 
weight  of  a  cube  of  fir  i«,  tDe 
weight,  of  a  cube  of  oak  !  the 
same  magnitude,  so  is  tl | area 
of  the  square  end  of  any  i  post 
to  the  area  of  the  end  :  an 
oaken  post,  and  whose  iuare 
root  is  equal  to  the  side  j.  the 
oaken  post  required,"  it  no 
less  defective  and  errone's  in 
principle. 

Plate  C  29,  figs.  1,  2,^5, 
6,  7,  S,  exhibit  various  mhods 
shown  by  him  of  scarfir.j  for 
raisings,  plates,  &c.  Of i ese, 
which  bear  a  strong  reseni  wee 
to  those  exhibited  in  Sjth's 
work,  Jigs.  1,  3,  and  5  ;  the 
only  fair  examples.  Of  .  6, 
and  its  correspondent  Jigk  it 
may  be  said,  that  very  feweben- 
ters  would  work  it  true;  i|eed, 
carpenters,  in  order  to  save  em- 
selves  a  little  trouble,  are  t|  too 
apt  to  dish  or  hollow  outmcises, 
instead  of  paving  that  detje  of 
attention  to  them  whiehheir 
obvious  importance  deman  In 
the  same  plate,  Jigs.  9  a  1ft 
exhibit  two  examples  of  j.ked 
flooring,  wherein  the  timbd  are 
so  arranged  as  mutually  ti.up- 
port  each  other.  This  k  I  of 
flooring  had  its  origin  in  |aly, 
and  was  at  one  time  practijd  in 
England,  but  being  found  '^ad- 
vantageous has  been  discontjued. 
Figs.  11  and  12  represerj  the 
section  of  a  girder.  In  j  U 
the  joists,  g,  add  consider^  to 
the  expense  without  bei;  of 
adequate  utility. 

In  plate  C  30,  he  has  gijaW 
a  very  fair  specimen  ot  jMg 
roofs  in  ledgment,  in  whi  lie 
differs  from  Price  in  the  di  osi- 
tion  of  the  rafter  feet. 

In  plate  C3\,Jigs.l  and  j  are 
shown  his  methods  of  tiling- 
angle  brackets  5  and  Jigs.  3  ,  % 
I  1 


CARPENTRY. 


:f  7,  £  his  methods  of  covering 
cliea  r  domes. 

In  fte  C  3C2,  he  has  attempted 

exh  it  the  construction  of  semi- 
ii)  rcuk  semielliptical,  scheme, 
tight  arches  in  circular 
lit  most  of  them  are  void 

prin  pie,  defective,  and  full  of 

chimin t  lines. 

In  e  "  Builders  and  Work- 
:,.  s  reasury  of  Designs,"  Mr. 
ino-l«  has  an  appendix,  con- 
itingu  H  plates,  on  the  geo- 
yjtricj  principles  of  roofing, 
d  \iich  we  shall  transcribe 
e  foWing : — 

rPlaC33,fig.  1,  "a  bed,  plan 
using  ;  e  /,  the  central 
n  I  o,  base  lines  of  the 
iwa  principals  :  a  g,  g  c,  b  h, 
\r,i  lines  of  the  hips  ;  g  h, 
se  o^he  ridge  ,  k  n,  base  line 
the  Middle  pair  of  principals  ; 

Mase  lines  of  single  prin- 
»als,'vhich  meet  the  hips  in 
po  ts  g  h ;  i,  k,  I,  m,  n,  o, 
vcta  d  mortises  in  the  raising 
cefe  the  dovetails  or  calks, 
of  the  beams  ABC; 
tailed  mortises  to  receive 
!  braces,  as  p  p  in  Jig.  3 ; 
s  or  dovetail  at  large  j 
dovetail  mortise  in  the 
d  receive  the  dovetail  or 

"Fti  2.  To  find  the  lengths 
the  incipal  and  hip  rafters. — 
ake  J)  equal  to  the  breadth  of 
e  bu;  ing,  and  a  c  equal  to  the 
itrbt  the  pitch  ;  then  a  b,  a  d, 
the  hgth  of  a  pair  of  princi- 
ls,  ai  d  a  c  the  angle  of  the 
p,  an  a  d  c  the  angle  of  the 
ot  ot'ie  principal  a  d. 
"  Fil  3,  a  b  c  d,  plan  of  the 
,5'n&,/  /  g>  beams  calked 
>wn  d  the  raising  ;  p  p,  p  p,  &c. 
»gle  graces  calked  down  in 
W  miner  ;  a  e,  be,  c  e,  d  e, 
[ftgonjieces  to  receive  the  feet 
the  | j  rafters  ;  a  h,  b  h,  c  h, 
h,  hij,rufters  ;  a  h  k,  the  angle 


of  the  top,  and  h  a  k,  the  angle  of 
the  foot  of  the  hip,  a  h. 

u  Fig.  4.  To  find  the  angle  of 
the  back  of  a.  hip  in  any  regular  or 
irregular  building. — Rule.  On  any 
part  of  its  base  line,  as  c,  draw  a 
right  line  at  right  angles,  as  f  g ; 
set  up  the  hip,  as  h  b,  and  from  c 
draw  c  d  perpendicular  to  the  hip 
h  b  ;  make  c  e  equal  to  c  d,  and 
draw  the  lines  f  e,  eg;  then  the 
angle  f  e  g  is  the  angle  of  the 
back  required." 

Leaving  Batty  Langley,  we 
shall  next  proceed  to  Pain  s 
"British  Palladio,"  and  extract  the 
following  observations  on  groins 
and  angle  brackets  : — 

Of  groins  and  angle  brackets. — 
Plate  C  34.  Fig.  A  is  a  vault  to  be 
groined,  a  is  the  given  rib,  b  the 
jack-ribs,  which  cut  on  the  body 
range,  when  set  and  boarded  in, 
as  shown  on  the  given  rib  a. 
There  is  one  whole  rib  stands 
between  the  piers  and  two  jack- 
ribs,  which  is  plain  to  inspection: 
c  and  d  show  the  tracing  of  the 
jack-rib.  Divide  half  the  base 
line  c  into  four  parts,  and  the  last 
one  at  the  pier  into  two  parts, 
and  draw  those  parts  to  the  dia- 
gonal line  e  ;  then  draw  them  at 
right  angles,  across  the  base  line 
a ;  then  take  off  the  ordinates  1, 
2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  from  the  arch 
c,  and  set  them  on  1,  %  3,  4,  5, 
6,  7j  8,  from  the  base  line  d ;  then 
tack  in  nails  at  points  2,  4,  6,  8, 
10,  and  bend  a  thin  slip  round, 
and  mark  as  that  curve  directs; 
that  will  be  the  mould  for  the 
jack-ribs.  When  the  body-range 
of  the  rib  a  is  set  and  boarded  in, 
a  mould  must  be  made  to  get  the 
angle  or  place  of  the  jack-ribs. 
Divide  half  the  arch  c.  into  five 
parts,  and  run  ten  of  those  pans 
from  a  to  b,  which  will  be  the 
length  of  the  whole  arch  stretched 
out.  Then  divide  half  the  arch 
d  into  five  parts,  and  draw  them 

557 


CARPENTRY. 


from  the  arch  line  to  the  base 
line,  as  4,  1,  3,  2,  2,  3,  1,  4,  2,  5. 
Then  take  those  parts  from  the 
base  line  d,  and  set  them  from 
b  to  d,  and  from  c  to  d  the  same 
parts  ;  for  the.  line  b  c  is  equal  to 
the  base  line  d:  those  lines,  drawn 
to  meet  each  other,  form  the 
curve  b  e  f ;  so  the  shaded  part 
e  b  is  a  mould  to  be  bent  over 
the  body  range  from  the  centre  I 
to  the  pier  2,  mark  it  by,  and  it 
will  give  the  angle  line  exactly 
true  j  then  turn  the  mould,  and 
mark  all  the  angles  in  the  same 
manner.  This  method  will  find 
the  angles  of  any  groin,  regular 
or  irregular  :  the  ribs  set  a  foot 
or  14  inches  apart  on  temporary 
posts  and  plates,  on  wedges. 

"  Fig.  B  is  a  groin  ceiling.  The 
hips  are  traced  from  the  given 
arch  e,  which  is  an  ellipsis ;  the 
hips  are  got  out  and  set,  and  the 
jack-ribs  are  cut  and  nailed  be- 
tween them,  as  represented  in 
the  plan,^.  B,  which  is  plain  to 
inspection. 

"  Fig.  C  is  an  angle  bracket,  at 
an  external  angle  j  and  fig.  D  is 
an  angle  bracket  at  an  internal 
angle,  which  are  traced  by  ordi- 
nates,  the  same  as  the  groin  :  fig. 
E,  plate  C  35,  an  angle  bracket 
for  a  plaster  cornice,  at  an  inter- 
nal angle  j  fig.  F  an  external 
angle,  allowing  one  inch  for  lath 
and  plaster  j  fig.  G  an  angle 
bracket,  at  an  acute  angle ;  Jig. 
11  at  an  obtuse  angle. 

«  Plate  C  36.  Fig.  I  is  an  ellip- 
tical skylight,  showing  the  plan 
of  the  ribs  and  horizontal  bars, 
as  they  are  drawn  from  the  sec- 
tion of  the  bar  in  the  rib  to  the 
base  line  of  each  rib,  and  trans- 
ferred to  the  plan,  which  gives 
the  moulds  for  the  horizontal 
bars,  as  m  m.  The  ribs  are  all 
traced  from  the  rib  a,  which 
stands  on  the  conjugate  diameter  j 
the  rib  b  stands  on  the  transverse 

553 


diameter  ;  the  rib  c  d  e  Starij n 
the  quarter,  as  c  d  e.  Tr  Jcc 
tion  of  the  bars,  on  theirs 
shows  how  big  the  wood  ^Id 
be  to  get  the  bars  out ;  tb;hev 
are  circular  both  ways,  ^ 
some  are  not  aware  of. 

"  Fig.  K  is  one  quarter  I  the 
plan,  showing  the  plan  <;  the 
ribs,  and  the  wood  that  in!;  be 
taken  off  from  the  conca^nd 
convex  edges. 

((  Plate  C  37.  Fig.  LisaL 
gon,  to  be  covered  with  a  d<! ical 
roof ;  the  hip  b  is  traced  fn  the 
given  rib  a,  the  same  as  the  igle 
bracket,  which  is  plain  to  i  Sec- 
tion. To  find  the  backing  the 
hip,  draw  the  plan  of  the  p  at 
one  of  the  angles  to  the  j  p 
size,  and  that  will  show  the  ood 
that  is  to  come  off,  as  1,  i 
on  the  bottom  of  the  hip, si, 
2 ;  tack  in  a  nail  at  2,  and  )ply 
the  bottom  of  the  hip  medio 
the  nail,  and  top  out  to  ncing, 
and  mark  it  by,  which  wil'iow 
the  wood  that  is  to  be  takjofc 
The  same  rule  will  do  fj  the 
caveto  roof,  fig.  N,  whose  mis 
a  hexagon. 

"  Fig.  P  is  an  octagon  p  i,  to 
be  covered  with  an  ogeioof, 
or  cirna  recta.  The  hips  is  all 
traced  from  the  given  ribs.  The 
backing  of  this  hip  must ;  set 
on  at  top  and  bottom,  at] ,  2, 
1,  2,  and  nails  tacked  in  ail,  2, 
and  the  mould  laid  to  theails, 
and  mark  by,  which  will|Qow 
the  wood  to  come  off.  Th(jOod 
to  come  off  in  the  middlj  will 
be  much  less  than  at  to  m 
bottom. 

"  Fig.  M  is  a  hexagon,  9  be 
covered  with  a  cima  revei,  or 
bell-roof,  so  called  by  sonuThe 
backing  of  that  hip  must  sel 
on  in  the  middle,  as  1,  «W « 
line  drawn  parallel  with  thjbase 
line  of  the  hip ;  then  set  tj  hip 
mould  against  that  nail,  an  ^ 


CARPENTRY. 


he  ould  so  that  the  top  and 
3ott(i  ends  are  on  exactly  alike  j 
tj!o»rlt  by,  and  that  will  show 
he  V)od  to  come  off,  which  will 
|;  3e  rrch  less  at  bottom  and  top 
;han  is  in  the  middle. 

O  shows  the  method  for 
,i  ira4&  any  polygon  figure  to  a 
Jrive  side.    Suppose  a  b  to  be  a 
|e  ven  :  make  a  radius  of  a  b, 
ind  iscribe  the  arch  a  6  and  b6; 
i  then  I  vide  a  6  into  six  equal  parts, 
rn  one  down  on  the  per- 
Kndfular  line  to  5,  and  that 
^^iJi  the  centre  for  drawing  a 
touching  the  points  a  and 
will  receive  the  side  a  b 
imes.    The  centre  G  will 
\u  circle  touching  the  points 
a  6,  ?id  will  receive  the  side  a  b 
six  roes ;  and  so  on  to  twelve 
:  side-  the  circles  to  touch  the 
poin.  a,  b,  &c. 

" \ig.  Q  shows  the  method  for 
dravig  an  ellipsis,  or  oval,  as  it 
I  is  co'monly  called. — Suppose  f  b 
""tobjthe  length,  or  transverse 
dian  .cr,  and    1  2   to  be  the 
heig  .   or   semiconjugate  dia- 
hmetr,  make  b  a  equal  to  1  2 ; 
their  ivide  a  1  into  three  parts, 
id  \m  one  over  to  c ;  then 
mak  e/  1  equal  to  c  1  ;  with  c  d 
bfee'  e,  and  draw  the  lines  e  c  3, 
.  and  I  A)  then  set  the  compasses 
d  ,nd  draw  the  arch/  4  ;  then 
it  ;  c,  and  draw  b  3  j  then  set 
latii  the  '  mpasses  at  e,  and  draw  the 
•  '1  ;  2,  3;  which  completes 
nh  the  'emiellipsis.    This  method 
nil  will  raw  an  ellipsis  to  any  given 
ItnJi  and  breadth. 

''■late  C  38.  Fig.  A  is  a  pen- 
tagc  to  be  covered  with  a 
i{  don-al  roof.  To  find  the  curve 
of  tl  boarding,  divide  the  girth 
or  e  ve  of  the  rib  on  the  back 
intoour  parts,  and  drop  them 
to  t  base  line  of  the  rib ;  then 


■•t  je  compasses  in  the  centre 
of  tl|  plan,  and  draw  the  dotted 
pel.  .1.3.3.5.5:  then,  on 


the  other  half  of  the  cant,  draw 
the  straight  lines  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6j 
then  stretch  out  the  curve  line 
of  the  rib,  as  c  d,  and  draw  the 
lines  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  across  those 
divisions  ;  then  take  them  off  the 
plan,  and  set  them  at  right  angles 
with  the  line  c  d,  as  1,  2,  3,  4, 
5,  6,  which  gives  one  edge;  then 
set  them  on  the  other  side,  as 
1,  7,  2,  8,  5,  9,  and  tack  in  nails 
at  d  6,  4,  2,  e,  and  at  9,  8,  7,/j 
then  bend  a  thin  slip  to  the  nails, 
and  mark  as  that  curve  directs, 
which  will  be  the  edge  of  the 
covering  or  boarding.  The  cover- 
ing or  boarding  oi\figs.  B,  C,  D,  E, 
and  F,  are  found  in  the  same 
manner ;  which  is  very  plain  to 
inspection,  the  girth  of  each  rib 
being  stretched  out,  and  the  parts 
set  on  as  above  directed. 

"  Note.  The  bottom  part  of 
the  ribs  BCD,  must  be  divided 
into  two  parts,  as  you  see  on  the 
plan. 

"  Fig.  F  shows  the  method  for 
getting  out  the  veneer,  or  cover 
of  an  elliptical  niche  on  a  dome. 
Stretch  out  the  girth  of  each  rib, 
as  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  and  proceed  as 
directed  in  Jig.  A.  The  ribs  a,  6, 
c,  d,  e,  are  traced  from  the  given 
rib  cr,  which  is  a  quarter  of  a 
circle,  or  half  the  rib  that  stands 
on  the  conjugate  diameter. 

"  For  gluing  small  niches,  as 
Jig.  E,  get  the  staves  the  full 
length,  and  saw  them  down  to 
the  spring  to  the  thickness  of  the 
veneer,  and  bend  them  on  a 
templet  to  the  curve,  and  back 
them,  as  at  a.  Then  the  joints 
will  be  straight,  and  may  be  glued 
up,  the  same  as  a  column.  Sup- 
pose a  cornice  to  go  round  at  the 
spring  of  the  niche,  as  at  c,  and 
one  on  the  inside,  as  at  d;  draw 
the  face  line  of  the  cornices  to 
the  centre  of  the  bodv  at  e  and /, 
and  on  that  centre  draw  the  arch 
lines  a  b  and  e  d,  which  is  the 


CARPENTRY. 


top  edge  of  the  cornices,  and  will 
be  straight  when  bent  round  the 
body  at  the  spring  of  the  niche. 

"  Plate  C  39.  Wig.  G  is  a  circu- 
lar flewing  soffit  in  a  circular 
wall.  Continue  the  flewing  of 
the  jambs  till  they  meet  at  c  ; 
then  take  the  radius  c  a,  and 
draw  the  arch  lines  a  b  and  c  d ; 
then  divide  the  arch  lines  of  each 
into  eight  parts,  and  run  four  of 
those  parts  from  2  to  a,  and  from 
2  to  h  ;  then  take  one  of  the  parts 
of  the  lesser  arch,  and  run  them 
from  1  to  c,  and  from  1  to  d, 
which  is  the  soffit  Q  stretched 
out.  Set  the  compasses  at  1,  on 
the  inside  of  the  plan  ;  extend  to 
7,  and  describe  the  arch  7,  4; 
raise  the  perpendicular  11  4  to 
meet  the  arch  line,  and  draw  the 
flewing  line  3  4  ;  and  by  the 
same  rule  all  the  other  flewing 
lines  are  found,  as  in  Jigs.  I  and 
K,  the  length  of  these  flewing 
lines  gives  the  width  of  the  soffits 
t  and  s,  which  may  be  proved  by 
the  plan  j  for,  if  the  width  of  the 
soffit  was  to  be  taken  on  the 
plan  in  the  direction  of  the  lines 
dropped  from  the  two  arches,  it 
would  be  too  narrow,  as  much 
as  is  shown  by  the  two  arch  lines 
on  the  inside  of  the  plan  of  the 
soffit,  for  Jig.  H.  The  width  may 
be  taken  from  the  lines  drawn 
across  the  plan,  by  reason  of  the 
jambs  standing  square  to  the 
chord  line  of  the  opening,  &c. 

"Fig.  H  is  a  circular  soffit  in  a 
circular  wall,  the  jambs  standing 
square  to  the  chord  line  of  the 
opening  of  the  door  or  window. 
Draw  the  chord  line  of  the  arch 
8  8,  and  the  chord  line  9  9,  just 
to  touch  the  plan  of  the  wall  at 
3 ;  then  divide  the  arch  line  of 
the  soffit  into  eight  parts ;  draw 
the  line  8  8,  and  take  one  of 
those  eight  parts  in  the  com- 
passes, and  run  it  from  1  to  8 
each  way,  which  is  the  girth  of 


the  arc  stretched  out  *  then  ^ 
the  other  line  9  9,  at  the 
distance  as  9  8  on  the  plan; 
draw  the  lines  1,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
8,  to  the  line  9  9,  and  tak 
distance  from  the  chord  lir 
the  arch  to  the  plan,  as  1 
4,  5,  6,  7,  8  :  set  from  tin 
8  8,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8, 
way,  from   1  to  8,  and 
through  those  points,  which 
give  the    edge    of  the  s( 
then  take  from  the  plan,  J 
2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  8,  la 
set  them  on  the  soffit  r,  as 
4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  8,  10,  and 
through  those  points,  which 
give  the  other  edge  and  v  th 
of  the  soffit  stretched  out 


'Fig.  lis  a  circular flewine nd 
winding  soffit  in  a  circular  11, 

he 
es 
in 
m 


internal  flewing.  Continue 
flewing  of  the  jambs  till  the 
meet  each  other,  the  same  i 
Jig.  g  ;  then  extend  the  co.upi 
from  a  to  9,  and  draw  the 
line  9  9,  and  divide  the  two  ar  es 
into  a  like  number  of  part:  as 
here  into  S  :  take  one  of  t  se 
parts,  and  run  it  from  1  to  9  :h 
way  j  then  take  one  of  thef  ts 
from  the  lesser  arch,  and  n  I 
from  3  to  1  and  3  to  2  each  vy, 
and  draw  the  lines  1,  3,  3,  ■ 
7,  7,  9,  9,  10 ;  then  take  | 
ordinates  from  the  ba«e  linof 
the  great  arch  to  the  plan,  M 
2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7.  8,  and  set  t  in 
from  the  arch  line  1  9  on  I 
ordinates  1,  3,  3,  5,  5,  7,  7,  9|as 
1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  each  rv, 
and  trace  through  those  poiJJ 
which  will  be  the  edge  ofl 
soffit.  For  the  width  of  the  s<jt, 
take  the  ordinates  from  the  j  n, 
as  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  9, 1 
and  set  them  on  the  ordinatcin 
the  soffit  S,  ns  2,  3,  4,  5,  6',  7 
9,  9,  10,  which  gives  the  o 
edge  of  the  soffit  stretched  oi 
"Plate  C  40.  Fig.  K  is  a  circ 
flewing  and  winding  soffit  m 


CARPENTRY. 


gtr^ht  wall.  Continue  the  flewing 
of  he  jambs  till  they  meet  at  a  ; 
the  with  the  radius  a,  8,  draw 
Birch  line  8,  8  j  divide  the 
pe  er  arch  of  the  soffit  into 
Eg  parts  ;  take  off  one  of  those 
par.  and  run  it  each  way  on  the 
Ire  line  8,  8,  from  1  to  8;  then 
tak  one  of  the  parts  from  the 
i  —  arch,  and  run  it  from  1  to 
*i,  t  h  way,  on  the  arch  line  9, 

1  j  ien  draw  the  ordinates  2,  3, 
;  6,  7,  S,  9,  8,  9  ;  then  draw  a 

line  is  S,  2,  at  right  angles  with 
the  ice  of  the  wall,  and  divide 
the  .ickness  of  the  wall,  Jig.  K, 
mu'jur  equal  parts  ;  draw  them 
acre  the  flewing  line  a,  8,  to  the 
ligl|8,  2j  take  the  ordinates  1, 

2  34,  5,  6,  7,  8,  from  the  flew- 
ing )e  of  the  jambs  a,  8,  to  the 

je,  and  set  them  from  the 
KcHine  8,  8,  as  1,  2,3,  4,  5,  6, 
:,  8  trace  through  those  points, 
mi  will  give  the  edge  of  the 
soffi  then  take  the  ordinates 
aero-  the  plan,  as  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 7, 
h.  !  md  transfer  them  on  the 
soffi;  as,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9 ; 
tracchrough  those  points,  and 
it  w  give  the  other  edge  of  the 
BoffiH",  stretched  out. 

"  >te.  The  edge  of  the  soffit 
niay  e  found  another  way,  by 
draw  £  a  semicircle  equal  to  the 
semij-uneter  of  the  ellipsis,  and 
drawj  ie  ordinates  up  to  the  cir- 
cle: [en  the  spaces  between  the 
two  ^hes  are  equal  to  those  on 
the  iin ;  for  4,  1,  between  the 
nrcht;  is  equal  to  2,  1,  on  the 
plan  and  3,  2,  is  equal  to  3,  4, 
and  S3,  is  equal  to  5,  6,  on  the 
plan,  c. 

I  L  is  a  parallel  Hewing  and 
fifceu  f  soffit  in  a  straight  wall  j  p, 
the  s-jit  stretched  out.  For  this 
a  cenf;  must  be  made,  to  get  the 
soffit  and  a  thin  veneer  bent 
WUtkjLnd  marked  by,  which  will 
give  l;  edge  of  the  soffit,  &c. 
"  ip.  M  shows  the  method  for 
4B 


finding  the  pitch  of  a  pediment  to 
fronts.  Suppose  the  chord  line, 
1,  3,  to  be  the  width  of  any  pedi- 
ment from  out  to  out  of  the  cor- 
nice ;  then  set  the  compasses  at 
O  in  the  centre,  and  draw  the 
semicircle  1,  2,  3  ;  then  set  the 
compasses  at  2,  and  extend  to  1, 
and  draw  the  arch  line  1,4,  3  j 
then  draw  the  chord  lines  1,  4, 
3,  which  is  the  pitch  of  the  pedi- 
ment. If  it  be  a  circular  pedi- 
ment, the  arch  line  1,  4,  3,  is  the 
top,  or  pitch,  &c. 

"  Fig.  N  shows  the  method  for 
finding  the  centre  of  any  segment 
arch.  Suppose  the  points  a,  b,  c, 
to  be  put  down  promiscuously  ; 
set  one  foot  of  the  compasses  at  a, 
and  draw  the  arch  line  3  j  then 
set  at  b,  and  draw  the  arch  line 
4;  then  set  one  foot  of  the  com- 
passes at  c,  and  draw  the  arch  1  $ 
then  set  at  b,  and  draw  the  arch 
2;  then  draw  lines  through  the 
bisection  of  those  arches,  or  ox- 
eyes,  till  they  meet  at  d,  which 
will  be  the  centre  that  will  touch 
the  three  points  ;  and  so  for  any 
other." 

In  the  "  Practical  House  Car- 
penter," by  the  same  author,  we 
have  the  following : — 

"  Plate  C  41,  Jig.  1.  is  a  dome 
on  a  circular  plan  $  a  b  show  the 
section  of  the  horizontal  rib. 
Fig.  2  is  a  conical  skylight, 
showing  how  to  bracket  the  an- 
gles of  the  ceiling  under  the 
curb  :  the  hip  mould,  g,  at  the 
angle,  is  traced  from  the  rib,  b, 
and  that  mould  would  do  to  cut 
all  the  ribs  at  the  angles,  as 
shown  at  the  angle  a.  Fig.  3  is 
an  ogee  roof,  whose  plan  is  a 
pentagon,  and  shows  the  method 
for  drawing  any  polygon  figure  to 
a  given  side  :  make  a  radius  of 
the  side,  and  draw  the  arches  2,  6; 
divide  one  of  those  arches  into 
six  parts  ;  turn  them  to  the  centre 
line,  as  shown  by  the  letters  5  d, 

561 


CARPENTRY. 


4  e,  &c. ;  the  centre,  c,  will  draw 
a  circle  to  receive  the  side  five 
times,  6  is  the  centre  to  receive 
six  times,  d  seven  times,  and  so 
on  to  i,  which  is  the  centre  to 
draw  the  circle  to  receive  the 
side  twelve  times.  Fig.  4  is  a 
dome,  whose  plan  is  a  hexagon, 
and  shows  how  to  divide  a  circle 
into  any  number  of  parts  :  divide 
one-fourth  of  the  circle  into  the 
number  of  parts  you  would  have 
the  circle,  as  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6  :  and 
always  take  four  of  them  ;  to  find 
the  backing  of  the  curve  line  hips, 
lay  down  the  plan  of  the  hip  at 
the  angle,  as  a,  then  take  the 
distance  1,  2,  from  the  plan  of 
the  hip,  and  set  1,  2,  at  bottom, 
tack  in  a  nail,  and  shift  the  hip 
mould,  and  marking  by  it,  as  1 
2,  3  4,  5  6,  7  8,  9  10,  will  show 
the  wood  to  come  off. 

"  Plate  C  42,  fig.  1,  is  a  dome  on 
an  elliptical  plan  ;  the  centres  for 
the  mould  for  the  horizontal  ribs, 
dd,  are  a  a,  bb,  c  c,d  d,  the  place  of 
that  rib  on  the  plan  is  found  by 
dropping  dot  lines  from  the  sec- 
tions dd;  c  c  on  the  top  is  designed 
for  a  skylight.  Fig.  2  is  a  bevel 
roof;  the  sides  are  parallel  on 
one  part  of  the  plan,  the  other 
bevels  :  to  frame  this  roof  in 
ledgment,  the  principal  rafters 
must  be  framed  to  a  level  base, 
that  is,  the  ends  of  the  beams  all 
of  one  height  from  the  face  of  the 
plate ;  when  you  come  to  lay 
them  the  other  way  to  frame  in 
the  purlins,  there  must  be  wind- 
ing sticks  held  to  the  bases  of  the 
rafters,  which  winding  sticks 
must  be  all  out  of  winding,  and 
as  the  width  of  the  building  di- 
minishes, the  backs  of  the  rafters 
will  lie  in  winding,  as  they  will 
be  when  in  their  places  ;  and  mind 
that  they  are  backed  according 
to  the  bevel  of  the  plan,  for  turn- 
ing them  up  to  tumble  in  the 
purlins  :  by  this  method  the  busi- 

562 


ness  may  be  well  comply. 
Fig.  3  shows  the  method  for  kg 
ting  the  boards  to  cover  a  d£ 
Divide  the  dome  into  as  rib 
parts  as  you  think  it  will  Z 
boards  ;  and  draw  lines  to  cup 
edges  of  each  board,  and  w  re 
they  meet  the  centre  line,  i\\  % 
the  centre  for  the  edge  of  | 
board. 

«  Plate  C  44.  K  shows  be 
centring  for  groins.  L  is  a  | 
groin  cutting  under  pitch  or 
door  or  window ;  G  is  a  M  j| 
groin  cutting  under  pitch;  is 
the  method  for  tracing  the  bs 
and  hips  for  a  groin  ceiling  X, 
a  mould  to  bend  over  the  d> 
range  ;  K,  to  get  the  lines  u 
the  jack-ribs  by." 

In  reference  to  Plate  C  41  fc. 
2,  it  may  here  be  observed  uri 
Mr.  Pain  has  corrected  this  f  jre 
from  that  which  appeared  >lns 
first  edition  from  having  seeifc 
Peter  Nicholson's  "  Carptns 
New  Guide."  It  is,  however  till 
defective,  as  he  has  not  s  wn 
the  rib,  b,  nor  the  angle,  to 
which  he  has  alluded  in  theixt. 
On  this  figure,  in  the  plat  are 
the  following  words  : — "  A  »me 
with  a  skylight  on  the  top;  G, 
moulds  for  the  ribs  of  the  (  Kj 
a  a,  the  curb  of  the  light." 

Independently  of  the  aiiors 
we  have  named,  many  other  Ml 
written  treatises  on  this  bra  h  of 
architecture ;  but  their  inforr  tion 
being  principally  gleaned  roffl 
those  who  preceded  the:  «W 
have  not  thought  it  wor  Dili 
while  to  make  extracts  froi  heir 
works.  It  now,  therefore  only 
remains  for  us  to  state,  1 1  to 
the  inventions  and  disc<-ries 
of  the  writers  quoted,  and  hid 
may  be  reduced  to  the  foil  i"£> 
sections  of  prisms  at  right  ;igles 
to  one  side  or  plane  of  the  iSBH 
coverings  of  prismatic  and  onic 
surfaces  in  the  most  simpkase!> 


CARPE 

a   the  method  of  ascertaining 
tl  lengths  and  backings  of  hips, 
\  Peter  Nicholson,  the  author 
oKicholson's  "Architectural  Dtc- 
mry,"  and  many  other  scien- 
tii  and  useful  works,  has,  ac- 
ccling  to  the  statement  which 
u  tas  given  in  the  "  ArcJdtec- 
tu  l  Dictionary ,"  and  which  we 
tai  leave  to  transcribe,  added 
th  e  of  the  intersection  of  one 
pile  with  another,   the  latter 
relng  on  three  lines  perpendi- 
cu  •  to  the  former  ;  the  geome- 
tril  construction  of  all  cases  in 
splrical  trigonometry,  by  solid 
an:?s  j  sections  of  a  prism,  cone, 
meoid,  through  any  three 
i  points ;   the  section  of  a 
ri  i  making  a  given  angle  with 
ten  parallelogram matic  sec- 
tioljof  such  prism,  and  passing 
.  ;gh  any  given  line  on  the 
ection  j  the  section  of  a  cone 
pas/ig  through  any  line  on  a 
,  \ ,  axal  or  vertical  section,  and 
ma|ig  a  given  angle  with  that 
n  ;  the  section  through  any 
thrigiven  points  on  the  surface 
>  ;  ody,  of  such  property  that 
all  :;tions  parallel  to  a  certain 
n    will   be    similar  figures, 
bav  5  the  seats  and  heights  of 
....  the  .ints  upon  one  of  the  similar 
plarjji,  and  another  section  of  the 
bodkin  a  given  position  to  that 
plai  cutting  all  the  said  similar 
Beet  is  j  the  sections  of  various 
n<  bodies,  whose  properties 
fined  ;  the  formation  of  the 
i:' of  a  thin  pliable  surface, 
'hi  ,  when  bent  upon  the  sur- 
a  prism,  may  coincide  in 
'-  ".re  with  a  section  passing 
1  "  h  any  three  given  points 
t  surface  of  the  said  prism  5 
rmation  of  the  edge  of  a 
lirf; to  fit  a  conic  section, 
-  1  through  any  three  given 
:    "  on  the  surface  of  the  cone, 
•oil  5uch  surface  and  that  of  the 
^c  oincide;  the  formation  of 


NTRY. 

the  edge  of  a  thin  pliable  surface 
to  fit  the  section  of  a  body  cut 
by  any  prismatic  surface,  while 
the  pliable  surface  coincides  with 
that  of  the  section  made  by  the 
prismatic  surface  j  the  properties 
of  the  body  being  such,  that  all 
sections  parallel  to  a  certain  plane 
will  be  similar  figures  given  a 
section  of  the  body  parallel  to 
one  of  these  sections,  and  another 
cutting  all  the  said  similar  sec- 
tions in  a  given  position,  and  the 
intersection  of  the  given  planes 
on  each  other. 

These    subjects    include  the 
finding  of  the  sections  of  cylin- 
ders and  cones,  spheres  and  sphe- 
roids, and  the  coverings  of  these 
bodies  under  the  circumstances 
already  stated.     To  these,  Mr. 
Peter  Nicholson  has  added  the 
following   inventions  or  disco- 
veries,  viz.  the  method  of  ex- 
tending the  surface  of  a  cylinder 
or  cylindroid,  being  the  centre 
of   an    arched   aperture    in  an 
oblique  wall,  terminated  by  the 
faces  of  the  said  wall  j  and  the 
covering  of  the  surface  of  a  part 
of  a  semicone,  being  the  centre 
of  an  aperture,  with  its  axis  ob- 
lique to  the  surface  of  the  wall 
which  terminates  such  covering  ; 
in  ascending  groins,  he  has  like- 
wise   shown   the   centring  for 
brickwork,  and  ribbing  for  plas- 
tering ;  the  construction  of  poly- 
gonal and  annular  groins,  both 
level  and  ascending  in  a  spiral, 
whether  for  centring  or  ribbing  j 
cylindro-cylindric  arches,  or  what 
are  commonly,  but  improperly, 
called  Welsh  arches  j  spherical 
niches,  both  for  straight  and  cir- 
cular walls,  under  any  circum- 
stances j    the    true  methods  of 
constructing  pendentine  or  span- 
drel ceilings,  either  spherical  or 
spheroidal ;  the  bevels  of  purlins 
in  all  positions  to  the  common 
rafters  j  the  formation  of  boards 

563 


CAR 


CAR 


for  covering  spherical  domes, 
without  laving  down  either  plan 
or  section  of  die  dome,  entirely 
within  the  boards  themselves  j  the 
forming  of  the  lower  boards, 
without  centres,  in  the  covering 
of  a  dome,  with  the  joints  in 
horizontal  planes  ;  the  formation 
of  boards  to  cover  a  spheroidal 
dome,  with  the  joints  of  the 
boards  in  vertical  planes ;  the 
covering  of  an  elliptic  dome  with 
one  mould  only  j  the  covering  of 
a  spheroidal  dome  with  boards 
having  their  joints  in  parallel 
vertical  planes  j  the  construction 
of  a  dome  with  horizontal  ribs, 
without  taking  the  trouble  to 
square  them  by  horizontal  and 
vertical  faces  ;  the  method  of  cut- 
ting purlins  and  jack-rafters  to 
fit  the  hips,  without  laying  the 
roof  in  ledgment ;  principles  for 
the  equilibrium  of  polygonal  roofs 
without  ties,  so  that  the  rafters 
may  obtain  a  given  ratio  among 
themselves,  provided  the  abut- 
ments be  sufficient ;  a  principle 
for  preventing  rafters  without 
intermediate  ties  from  having  any 
lateral  pressure  :  these  two  latter 
inv  entions  have  been  several  years 
before  the  public,  in  the  archi- 
tectural plates  of  Rees's  Cyclo- 
paedia. To  these  might  be  added 
various  other  principles  of  less 
importance,  which  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  recapitulate  in  this  place 
In  most  of  the  subjects  above 
alluded  to  he  has  given  more  than 
one  method  of  operation,  and  in 
some  instances  he  has  multiplied 
his  examples  to  five  or  six  dif- 
ferent modes  of  practice. 

One  or  two  of  the  inventions 
in  the  foregoing  list,  he  acknow- 
ledges, are  only  his  own  by  their 
new  application,  the  principles 
being  known  prior  to  his  time ; 
but  he  has  adapted  them  to  sub- 
jects to  which  they  were  never 
before  applied  j  and  he  conceives 


that  it  requires  at  least  asmn 
ingenuity,  and  is  frequently  I 
tended  with  more  utility,  to  j 
able  to  apply  an  old  or  well-kno  i 
principle  to  a  useful  object,  as» 
discover  a  principle  destitute  f 
practical  application  :  he  Y 
therefore,  not  scrupled  to  inch; 
them  in  the  list  of  his  discover 
Nor  has  he,  in  the  "  ArcUtec 
ral  Dictionary ,"  while  thus  clap 
ing  credit  for  himself,  denied 
to  others  j  as  may  be  seen  in  5 
remarks  on  Pain's  lining  o!i 
cylindric  soffit  in  a  circular  w, 
the  principle  of  which  was  j  - 
viously  laid  down  by  Price  in  s 
centrings  of  groins.  The  inv  - 
tions  which  Mr.  Nicholson  s 
thus  appropriated  to  himself  e 
the  following:  the  application} 
the  principle  of  covering  the 
face  of  the  frustum  of  a  cone  1  a 
spheroidal  dome,  with  the  jo  s 
in  vertical  planes  ;  the  applica  11 
of  the  principle  of  coverings 
oblong  spheroidal  dome  by  e 
mould  only  ;  and  the  applica;  n 
of  the  principle  shown  by  Pa 
in  his  centring  of  groins  la 
cylindric  soffit  for  an  apertur  n 
a  straight  wall,  with  its  axis  1- 
lique  to  the  surface  of  such  w  I 
which  latter  was  likewise  | 
tempted  by  Pain,  but  witht 
success. 

Having  thus  furnished  ie 
reader  with  the  foregoing  infl- 
ation from  the  works  of  the  s  - 
ral  authors  who  have  precrd 
those  of  the  present  day,  I 
shall  refer  him  to  the  arte 
Constructive  Carpentry,  for  a  # 
tise  on  the  art  as  it  is  W 
practised. 

Carrara  marble.  The 
of  a  species  of  white  ma  e> 
which  is  called  marmor  lurm 
and  ligustrum,  by  the  ancient  N 
is  distinguished  from  the  Pam 
now  called  statuary  marble..' >y 
being  harder  and  less  bright. 

r i 


CAR 


CAR 


mirel.  In  the  Middle  Ages.  A 
ekit,  or  apartment,  for  privacy 
ani.*etirenient. 

i  rriage.  The  frame  or  timber 
wn;  which  supports  the  steps  of 

i  oden  stair.  See  Staircase  and 
Mdjjwilitig. 

i  rteli.    See  Cartouch. 

i  rtos,  or  cartoon.  A  design 
mn :  on  strong  paper,  to  be  after- 
ra  s  calked  through,  and  trans- 
fer d  on  the  fresh  plaster  of  a 
to  be  afterwards  painted  in 
fre  o  ;  it  also  signifies  a  coloured 
wDj  for  working  in  mosaic, 
tar,  try,  &c. 

i  rtouch.  An  ornament,  re- 
prt  'nting  a  scroll  of  paper,  being 

)  ly  in  form  of  a  table  or  flat 
OK  ber,  with  wavings,  whereon 
Is  )ine  inscription  or  device, 
omient  of  armory,  cipher,  or 
ike.  It  is  nearly  akin  to  a 
mr  lion,  from   which    it  only 

t!  5  in  this,  that   the  latter 

i;tl  both  externally  and  inter- 
nal, as  under  the  cornice  in  the 
eav;  of  a  house,  and  the  former 
i  onl|  internally,  as  in  wainscot- 
Some  workmen  call  the 
car.uches  dentils. 

(  rved  work.  Mouldings,  &c. 
fas'.med  by  the  carver. 

(  rvkr.  A  cutter  of  figures  or 
oth  devices  in  wood. 

(Irving.  The  art  of  engrav- 
ing; r  cutting  figures  in  wood  j 
and;,  according  to  Pliny,  prior 
bot  to  statuary  and  painting.  In 
a  n  -e  general  sense,  it  is  the 
act  f  cutting  or  fashioning  a 
har  body  by  means  of  some 
•ha  instrument,  especially  a 
clii;  ;  in  which  sense  it  includes 
stat  <ry  and  engraving,  as  well 
as  (  ting  in  wood. 

CjtYATic  order.  An  order  of 
arclecture  wherein  the  entab- 
latin  is  supported  by  female 
fi&u  s  clothed  in  long  garments, 
instd  of  columns  j  the  figures 
so  s,)porting  the  columns  being 


called  Caryatides,  Cariates,  or 
Carians.  In  plate  C  2,  we  have 
given  representations  of  three 
kinds  of  caryatides  :  that  on  the 
left-hand  side  of  the  plate  is  a 
copy  of  one  of  the  figures  that 
surround  the  choir  in  the  cathe 
dral  of  Milan,  the  work  of  Andrea 
Biffi,  a  celebrated  Milanese  sculp- 
tor ;  and  the  other  two  are  taken 
from  paintings  of  Daniel  da  Vol- 
terra,  in  the  church  of  the  Trinita 
del  Monte,  at  Rome.  In  plate 
C  3,  an  elevation  of  the  caryatic 
portico  of  the  Erechtheion  ;  and 
in  plates  C  3*,  4,  and  5,  the 
caryatides  on  a  larger  scale. 

The  origin  of  this  order  Vitru- 
vius  tells  us  is  as  follows  : — 

u  The  inhabitants  of  Caria,  a 
city  of  Peloponnesus,  having 
joined  the  Persians  in  a  war 
against  the  rest  of  the  Greeks, 
and  that  war  being  terminated  by 
the  defeat  of  the  Persians,  the 
Greeks  declared  war  against  the 
Caryatides,  took  their  city,  demo- 
lished it,  put  all  the  males  to  the 
sword,  and  carried  the  females 
into  captivity;  and,  to  treat  them 
with  the  greater  ignominy,  for- 
bade the  ladies  to  divest  them- 
selves of  their  robes,  or  any  of 
their  ornaments,  that  they  so 
might  not  only  be  once  led  in 
triumph,  but,  in  a  manner,  suffer 
the  shame  of  it  all  their  lives 
after,  by  appearing  constantly  in 
the  same  dress  as  on  the  day  of 
triumph  and  further,  as  an  ever- 
lasting testimony  of  the  punish- 
ment inflicted  on  the  Caryates, 
and  to  inform  what  had  been  the 
nature  of  their  chastisement,  the 
architects  of  that  time,  instead  of 
columns,  employed  the  represent- 
ations of  these  women  to  support 
the  entablatures  in  their  public 
buildings." 

Vitruvius  proceeds  to  inform 
us,  that    "the  Lacedemonians 
after  the  battle  of  Platea,  erected 

5G5 


CARYATIC  ORDER. 


with  the  spoils  and  plunder  the 
Persian  portico,  as  a  trophy  to 
transmit  to  posterity  the  valour 
and  honour  of  the  citizens  j  in- 
troducing therein  the  statues  of 
the  captives,  adorned  with  habits 
in  the  barbarian  manner,  support- 
ing the  roof.  Thus,  with  merited 
infamy,  they  punished  pride,  ter- 
rified their  enemies  with  the  idea 
of  their  power,  and  the  citizens 
beholding  this  monument  of  their 
courage,  were  inspired  with  a  love 
of  glory,  and  became  more  ani- 
mated in  the  defence  of  their 
liberty." 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  had 
also  two  other  denominations  for 
these  figures,  derived  from  their 
action  of  carrying  or  support- 
ing, Atlantes  and  Telamones;  but 
Caryatides  has  now  become  a 
modern  generic  term  for  these 
statue  columns. 

Notwithstanding  the  ingenious 
manner  by  which  Vitruvius  has 
attempted  to  explain  the  origin 
of  this  order,  it  is  very  evident, 
from  the  concurrent  testimonies 
of  creditable  authors,  that  the 
Greeks  are  not  entitled  to  the 
credit  of  the  invention,  and  that 
it  can  be  traced  among  the  Egyp- 
tians at  a  much  earlier  period. 

Le  Clerc  says,  it  is  not  cus- 
tomary to  represent,  as  formerly, 
Caryatides  with  attributes  of  sla- 
very and  servitude ;  such  charac- 
ters are  too  injurious  to  the  fair 
sex  :  on  the  contrary,  they  are, 
at  present,  considered  as  the 
richest  and  most  valuable  orna- 
ments of  buildings ;  being  repre- 
sented under  the  figures  of  Pru- 
dence, Wisdom,  Justice,  Temper- 
ance, &c. 

De  Chambray  blames  this  prac- 
tice, and  considers  it  an  effect  of 
inadvertency  in  the  architects 
who  first  introduced  it ;  observ- 
ing, that  if  they  had  sufficiently 
reflected  on  the  text  of  Vitruvius, 

566 


with  regard  to  tne  origii0f 
Caryatides,  they  would  have  re- 
ceived the  impropriety  of  em\  y- 
ing  the  representations  of  3m 
and  angels,  loaded,  like  skis, 
with  cornices  and  other  hm 
burdens  ;  and  likewise  tha  of 
employing  the  Caryatic  <m 
promiscuously  in  all  sorUof 
buildings,  particularly  in  sa  hi 
structures,  which  are  the  he  es 
of  God,  and  asylums  of  mj| 
where  vengeance  and  slary 
ought  never  to  appear. 

On  the  other  hand,  Bio  el 
observes,  that,  though  his  rerrk 
be  just,  if  the  origin  of  tsc 
ornaments  be  rigorously  atte  ?d 
to,  yet  to  serve  in  any  shaj  in 
the  house  of  God,  and  in  p  i- 
cular  at  the  altar,  hath  alp 
appeared  in  the  minds  of  le 
prophets,  and  the  best  of  u: 
saints,  so  great  and  glorious,  at 
not  only  men,  but  angels,  0  ht 
to  esteem  it  a  happiness ;  d, 
consequently,  that  it  can  bio 
indication  of  disrespect  to  em  1 
their  representations  in  oies 
which  they  themselves  w  Ui 
execute  with  pleasure. 

The  ancients,  says  Bio:  el, 
made  frequent  use  of  Car  ic 
and  Persian  figures,  anddeliged 
in  diversifying  them  in  a  thound 
manners.  The  modern  afl 
have  followed  their  example,  nd 
there  is  a  great  variety  of  <M 
positions  of  this  kind  to  beiet 
with  in  different  parts  of  Eui|>e. 
If  they  are  employed  to  si™ 
the  covering  of  a  throne,  they  ay 
be  represented  under  the  fiaW 
and  symbols  of  heroic  virt  s ; 
if  to  adorn  a  sacred  buil|fi 
they  must  have  an  affinity  tolw 
gion ;  and  when  they  are  pfj 
in  banqueting  rooms,  they  MM 
be  of  kinds  proper  to  inspire  M 
and  jollity. 

In  composing  them,  parti  ar 
care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  m 


CARYATIC  ORDER. 


C(,t  attitudes,  distorted  features, 
ai  all  kinds  of  monstrous  and 
hrid  productions,  of  which  there 
ar  such  frequent  instances  in  the 
Jks  of  the  Goths.  On  the  con- 
-  v,  the  attitudes  must  be  simple 
ar  graceful,  the  countenances 
rijiys  pleasing,  though  varied, 
l:  strongly  marked  with  the 
ex  ession  peculiar  to  the  occa- 
si(.  and  object  represented.  There 
in  t  be  but  little  flutter  in  the 
driery,  which  ought  to  fit  pretty 
cl<  i  to  the  body,  and  its  folds 
shild  be  contrived  to  express 
di  :tly  both  the  action  and  the 
sh  e.  Le  Clerc  observes,  they 
•t ild  always  have  their  legs 
elf  together,  and  their  arms 
dp  to  the  body  or  head,  that 
tlr  may  have,  as  much  as  possi- 
)1  the  form  of  columns,  whose 
ofe  they  are  to  perform;  and 
it  iay  be  added  that,  for  the 
reason,  their  attitude  should 
bets  near  a  perpendicular  as  it 
(^conveniently  be,  without  giv- 
ing stiff  and  constrained  air  to 
thogure. 

be  same  author  observes,  that 
Ca  atides  ought  always  to  be  of 
B  (derate  size,  lest,  being  too 
lark  they  should  appear  hideous; 
ani  indeed,  as  these  figures  are 
(•  rally  represented  in  endear- 
ii  (Rices,  and  under  the  forms 
»t  liable  and  benevolent  beings, 
th<  aution  seems  to  be  extremely 
j>n  er ;  and  it  will  therefore  be 
juc,ious  not  to  make  them  larger 
th;-  the  human  figure.  But  the 
nu!  figures  may  be  made  of  any 
sizr  and  the  larger  the  better,  as 
the  will  then  be  fitter  to  strike 
wi!  awe  and  astonishment. 

ile  figures  may  be  introduced 
wit  great  propriety  in  arsenals, 
or  illeries  of  armour,  in  guard 
rodts,  and  other  military  places, 
wh  e  they  may  be  represented 
urnr  the  figures  either  of  cap- 
tiv  or  of  martial  virtues,  such 


as  Strength,  Valour,  &c.  Their 
entablatures  must  be  doric,  and 
bear  the  same  proportion  to  them 
as  to  columns  of  the  same  height. 
The  proper  entablatures  for  Cary- 
atides will  be  either  ionic  or 
corinthian,  accordingly  as  the 
character  of  the  figures  is  more 
or  less  delicate.  Persian  and 
Caryatic  figures  ought  never  to 
be  employed  to  support  the  same 
entablature  with  columns;  for 
figures  of  men  or  women  as  high 
as  columns  are  considerably  more 
bulky,  and,  when  they  are  of  an 
uncommon  size,  carry  with  them 
an  idea  of  greatness  that  entirely 
destroys  the  effect  of  the  columns, 
making  them  appear  very  trifling) 
neither  should  they,  for  the  same 
reasons,  be  placed  upon  columns, 
as  in  the  court  of  the  old  Louvre 
at  Paris. 

It  is  somewhat  customary  to 
employ  Termini  instead  of  Cary- 
atides or  Persians,  to  support  the 
entablatures  of  monuments,  chim- 
ney pieces,  and  such  like  compo- 
sitions. These  figures  owe  their 
origin  to  stones,  used  by  the 
ancients  to  mark  the  limits  of 
each  particular  person's  posses- 
sions. NumaPompilius,  to  render 
these  inviolable,  and  to  prevent 
usurpations,  erected  the  Terminus 
into  a  deity,  instituted  festivals 
and  sacrifices  to  his  honour,  and 
built  a  temple  on  the  Trapejan 
mount,  which  he  dedicated  to 
him,  and  in  which  he  was  repre- 
sented under  the  figure  of  a 
stone. 

The  upper  part  of  the  Termini 
represent  the  head  and  breast  of 
the  human  body,  and  the  lower 
part  an  inverted  frustrum  of  a 
square  pyramid,  with  the  feet 
sometimes  projecting  out  below, 
as  if  the  body  had  been  partly 
cased. 

As  Termini  are  susceptible  of  a 
variety  of  decorations,  they  may 

567 


CAS 


CAS 


be  employed  as  embellishments 
for  gardens  and  fields :  where  they 
may  represent  Jupiter,  the  pro- 
tector of  boundaries,  or  some  of 
the  rural  deities,  as  Pan,  Flora, 
Pomona,  Vertumnus,  Ceres,  Pria- 
pus,  Faunus,  Sylvanus,  Nymphs, 
and  Satyrs. 

Cascade.  A  fall  of  water  from 
a  higher  to  a  lower  place  Cas- 
cades are  either  natural,  as  that 
of  Tivoli,  &c.  or  artificial,  as 
those  of  Versailles,  &c.  and  either 
falling  from  a  great  height,  as 
those  .of  the  Sceaux,  in  form  of  a 
buffet,  as  at  Trianon ;  or  down 
steps,  in  form  of  a  perron,  as 
at  St.  Clare}  or  from  basin  to 
basin,  &c. 

Case.  An  outside  covering, 
box,  or  sheath,  in  which  an  ob- 
ject may  be  enclosed  ;  it  also 
implies  the  carcass  of  a  house. 

Case-bags.  The  joists  that  are 
framed  between  a  pair  of  girders 
in  naked  flooring.  When  the 
flooring  joists  are  framed  with 
one  of  their  ends  let  into  a  girder, 
and  the  opposite  ends  let  in  the 
wall,  they  are  called  tail  bags. 
The  dimensions  of  the  case-bags 
of  floors  and  roofs  ought  not  to 
exceed  10  feet. 

Case  of  a  door.  The  wooden 
frame  in  which  a  door  is  hung. 
See  Door  and  Door-frame. 

Case  of  a  stair.  The  wall 
which  surrounds  a  staircase. 

Cased.  A  term  which  signifies 
that  the  outside  of  a  building  is 
faced  or  covered  with  materials 
of  a  better  quality  ;  for  example, 
a  brick  wall  is  sometimes  faced 
with  stone,  or  with  a  superior 
kind  of  brick  to  that  used  in  the 
back  part  of  the  wall. 

Cased  sash  frames.  Sash 
frames  having  their  interior  ver- 
tical sides  hollow,  to  conceal  the 
weights  bv  which  the  sashes  are 
hung. 

Casemate.    A  hollow  mould- 

568 


ing,  which  some  architects  r,  ^ 
one-sixth  and  others  one-f0  th 
of  a  circle. 

Casement.  A  glass  framnr 
sash,  which  is  made  to  opei  )V 
turning  on  hinges  affixed  to  lie 
of  its  vertical  edges. 

Casing  of  timber  work.  le 
plastering  of  a  wooden  hous  i| 
over  on  the  outside  with  mo  r, 
and  making  it  resemble  s  ;e 
work,  by  striking  it,  while  I 
by  the  corner  of  a  trowel  one 
like  instrument,  guided  by  a  1  e, 
which  gives  the  exterior  of  ie 
house  the  appearance  of  a  sS 
building.  This  is  best  perfor  >d 
on  heart  laths,  because  the  mc  ir 
is  apt  to  decay  the  sap  laths  1 
short  time.  It  is  commonly  | 
on  in  two  thicknesses,  the  sec  id 
before  the  first  is  dry. 

Cassine.  A  country  house  A 
house  surrounded  with  a  din, 
like  those  of  the  noblesse  n 
Flanders,  or  those  of  the  fe  al 
lords  or  barons,  favourable  | 
the  reception  of  a  small  bod  if 
men,  who  are  placed  by  it  1 
of  the  reach  of  an  attack  or  a  r- 
prise,  and  can  defend  themse?s 
in  it  till  detachments  conn  to 
their  relief. 

Cast.  A  little  brazen  fu  el 
used  by  plumbers  at  one  en.  of 
a  mould,  for  casting  pipes  \u- 
out  soldering,  by  means  of  w  1 
the  metal  melted  is  poured 
the  mould. 

Cast.  A  term,  in  sculpt 
for  the  impression  of  any  fi< 
taken  in  bronze,  plaster,  was 
other  fusible  metal. 

The  process  of  casting  i 
follows : — Plaster  of  Paris  ism 
with  water  in  a  basin  or  pan, 
stirred  with  a  spatula  until 
consistence  is  like  that  of  ba 
for  pancakes  ;  it  is  then  poi 
on  the  figure  of  which  the 
pression  is  to  be  made,  and  wl 
figure  has  been  previously  greii 


CAS 


CAS 


or  Jed  in  the  slightest  possible 
maier,  to  prevent  the  adhesion 
I  oft  plaster;  after  a  few  minutes 
i  the  (aster  acquires  the  hardness 
of  s ;  stone,  and  maybe  removed 
troche  object  on  which  it  has 
.".  beeil'laced,  when  it  will  be  found 
to  cfitain  an  exact  impression  of 
evei  part,  even   the  minutest 
pon  of  the  skin.    This  impres- 
sion! which   is  the  reverse  or 
holl'v  of  the  original  subject, 
[ike  seal  in  comparison  with  its 
knpission,  is  called  the  mould. 
The  iouhl  being  removed  from 
gure,  and  slightly  greased, 
ijhave   plaster   mixed  with 
m:  wat1  as  before,  poured  into  it  j 
Bud  is,  being  allowed  to  remain 
till  has  become  hard,  and  then 
rayed  from  the  mould,  is  an 
a.  image  of  the  original  figure. 
If  tl  figure  be  flat,  having  no 
1  deejiollows  or  high  projections, 
•  m  be  moulded  in  one  piece; 
.  it  urface  be  varied  with  great 
holivs  and  projections,  it  must 
be  1  ulded  in  many  pieces  fitted 
I  ^oer,  and  held  in  one  or  more 
e  or  containing  pieces.  This 
lev  art  supplies  the  painter  and 
s  il  or  with  exact  representa- 
(  m  rom  nature,  of  limbs,  bodies, 
hea<  of  men,  and  inferior  ani- 
mal anatomical  subjects,  dra- 
peri ,  and  plants;  it  multiplies 
mot  s  of  all  kinds,  and  is  now 
prated  in  such  perfection,  that 
cast  jf  the  antique  statues  are 
mac  so  precisely  like  the  origi- 
nal* hat  no  difference  whatever 
b  di  ernible,  excepting  in  colour 
and  laterials.    See  Bronze. 

C  tella.  One  of  the  three 
kirn  of  fortifications  that  were 
boil  dong  the  line  of  Severus's 
wal;  the  other  two  being  deno- 
min  ed  stations  and  towers.  These 
easts  were  neither  so  large  nor 
bo  irong  as  the  stations,  but 
muo  more  numerous,  being  no 
few!  than  eighty-one.   In  shape 


and  dimension  they  were  exact 
squares  of  66  feet  every  way. 
They  were  fortified  on  every  side 
with  thick  and  lofty  walls,  but 
without  any  ditch,  except  on  the 
north  side,  on  which  the  wall 
itself,  raised  much  above  its  usual 
height,  with  the  ditch  adjoining 
it,  formed  the  fortification.  The 
castles  were  situated  in  the  inter- 
vals between  the  stations,  gene- 
rally at  the  distance  of  about  seven 
furlongs  from  one  another,  and 
guards  were  constantly  kept  in 
them  by  a  competent  number  of 
men  detached  from  the  nearest 
stations.  (Hors.  Brit.  Rom.  p. 
108.) 

Castella.  In  Roman  Antiquity. 
A  reservoir  in  which  the  waters 
of  an  aqueduct  were  collected  \ 
from  whence  the  water  was  con- 
veyed through  leaden  pipes  to 
the  several  parts  of  a  city. 

Castellated  houses.  See 
Houses. 

Casting.  The  act  of  taking 
the  impression  of  any  surface,  by 
pouring  a  liquid,  which  possesses 
the  property  of  hardening  upon 
its  surface.  See  Cast,  Bronze, 
Plumbing,  #c. 

Casting  of  brick  or  stone 
walls.    See  Rough  Cast. 

Casting.  In  Carpentry  and 
Joinery.  A  term  analogous  to 
warping.    See  Warping. 

Castle.  A  place  fortified  either 
by  nature  or  art,  in  a  city  or 
country,  to  keep  the  people  in 
subjection,  or  to  resist  an  enemy. 
In  the  more  extensive  interpreta- 
tion of  the  word,  it  includes  the 
various  methods  of  encampment  j 
but,  in  its  stricter  meaning,  it  is 
usually  applied  to  buildings  walled 
with  stone,  and  intended  for  resi- 
dence as  well  as  defence. 

In  tracing  the  rise  and  progress 
of  this  branch  of  architecture,  we 
shall  witness  the  gradual  inter- 
mixture and  decay  of  the  Roman 

5G9 


CASTLE. 


art,  and  the  successive  improve- 
ments made  in  the  Northern, 
Saxon,  and  Norman  styles ;  we 
shall  also  observe  the  successive 
gradual  changes  which  were  intro- 
duced in  the  ancient  modes  of 
accommodation  and  defence,  and 
the  almost  imperceptible  transi- 
tions, made  by  the  ancient  chief- 
tains of  this  land,  from  a  residence 
in  stately,  formidable,  inconve- 
nient strong  holds,  to  that  of 
embattled  mansions,  (embattled 
without  use,  and  almost  without 
meaning,)  and  eventually  to  con- 
venient and  elegant  palaces, 
abounding  with  the  luxuries  of 
life. 

Some  of  the  earliest  castles 
are  still  existing ;  we  can,  there- 
fore, with  some  degree  of  cer- 
tainty, speak  of  the  nature  of 
their  construction.  Two  of  them 
especially  deserve  our  attention — - 
that  of  Connisborough  in  York- 
shire, and  Castleton  in  Derby- 
shire, the  antiquity  of  which,  upon 
examination,  will  appear  of  much 
greater  antiquity  than  is  generally 
conceived.  Of  Connisborough, 
Camden  states,  that  it  is  an  old 
castle,  called  in  British  caer  conan, 
situated  upon  a  rock,  whither, 
after  the  battle  of  Maisbelly,  when 
Aurelius  Ambrosius  had  routed 
the  Saxons,  and  put  them  to  a 
disorderly  flight,  Hengist,  their 
general, retired  to  secure  himself; 
a  few  days  after  which,  he  took 
the  field  again  against  the  Britons, 
which  proved  fatal  to  himself  and 
to  his  army. 

This  castle  has  a  most  extraor- 
dinary appearance,  and  is  very 
much  unlike  a  Norman  fortress. 
The  great  court,  it  is  true,  has 
some  resemblance  to  the  courts 
of  other  castles,  but  even  this, 
when  carefully  examined,  will  be 
found  to  be  very  unlike  those 
ballia  that  were  in  use  after  the 

570 


An  area  appears  walle 
which  was  entered  by  a 
gateway  between  two 
towers,  after  passing  a  i 
bridge  and  deep  ditch  ;  bu  . 
area  has  neither  the  regutity 
nor  the  extent  of  those  of  the  >r. 
man  castles,  nor  any  appea  ice 
of  those  additional  interior  tid- 
ings, beside  the  keep,  which  in 
common  with  that  people  in 
short,  the  area  of  this  strong  M 
might  just  as  well  be  conr  ed 
to  the  Roman  castle  at  ]  h- 
borough,  as  to  any  NormarV 
tress :  and  might  be  supp 
with  the  same  degree  of  p  la- 
bility, to  have  been  fonw  bv 
a  Roman  general  as  by  Wi  im 
de  Warren,  to  whom  it  has  en 
attributed.  This  extraordiry 
castle  stands  in  one  corner  <  he 
area,  and  commands  a  mostlo- 
rious  view  of  the  windings  (  he 
river  Dun,  or  Dune,  and  o. he 
adjacent  country. 

'Plate  C  65.— The  first  jng 
that  strikes  the  eye  is  a  fjry 
remarkable  sloping  part  oi:he 
foundation  walls,  rising  to  a  eat 
height,  like  a  mount,  and  h  tig 
in  many  parts,  in  consequer  of 
its  being  covered  with  eartlind 
moss,  the  appearance  of  a  {tall 
hill,  e,  f,  g,  h.  jig.  1,  exac  of 
the  same  dimensions  as  the^tle 
itself.  The  bottom  of  this  sling 
part  appears  almost  circularbut 
higher  up  are  seen,  more  py» 
six  vast  projecting  buttrltes, 
ascending  in  a  still  more  3*p 
direction  to  prop  and  suort 
the  building.  Modern  enters 
would,  perhaps,  call  the  wr  e  a 
regular  glacis,  or  rather  a  ta  . 

Immediately  above  this  sluing 
part  the  tower  rises  perpenjeu- 
larly,  to  a  great  height.  Its  ijide 
forms  a  complete  circle,  bj  on 
the  outside  appear  six  addiW 
square  turrets  $  which  are,  W" 
ever,    merely  the  continuion 


CASTLE. 


Ms  of  the  buttresses  just 


UPW;'  , 

e,  meDl'ned. 

Til  walls  of  this  tcwer  are 
'  Vervjiearly  half  as  thick  as  its 
iiatnier  within,  which  is  about 
r,tl;2i  ft;  j  and  some  of  the  turrets 
\s  th'  ascend  towards  the  top  are 
v  v  few  places  hollowed  out, 
inverted  into  closets,  which 
arrow  loops. 

ing  surveyed  this  strange 
nee  of  the    outside,  the 
,iing  that  draws  attention  is 
ent  to  the  grand  entrance, 
is,   and   most  probably 
was,  by  an  exceedingly 
flight  of  deep  steps,  a,  b, 
iich  more  than  3  feet  in 
on  the  south  side.  These 
r.re  so  shallow,  in  the  space 
tors  ing  the  feet,  and  having 
n  to  hold  by,  and  an  abso- 
»  ute  ecipice  on  either  side,  that 
.^ven  le  going  up  is  frightful, 
mi  ind    coming  down  not  to  be 
icconlished  without  help,  ex- 
ficcpt  |'  workmen  accustomed  to 
tiscaffciis,    and    the  impending 
i^iacigl;,  of  lofty  buildings, 
rij  At|;he  top  of  this  ascent  is 
ill  gr«iL  doorway,  a,  very  low, 
aowtir,  in  comparison  to  those 
gin  Nil  nan  towers,  and  of  very 
singer   construction ;    for  al- 
thoujj,  there  is   a  stone  arch 
0!;  turntj  over  it,  probably  in  imita- 
i  hi  ( those  which  had  been  seen 
i(  inRc|an  buildings, yet  the  nature 
lf[  of8u!  an  arch  seems  hardly  to 
fh*vej:en  understood,  for  directly 
aero?  the  diameter,  and  under- 
neatl,t,  is  placed  a  great  transom 
atone,  ke  a  beam  ;  and  the  space 
betw  n  it  and  the  arch  is  filled 
UP  wii  stone  work,  as  if  to  assist 
1M  i  h  in  supporting  the  wall 

Up[i  the  whole  it  makes  a 
:  most  rotesque  compound,  of  the 
floor ;  an  ancient  dun,  or  even 
of  an  old  Egyptian  temple  and 
Horn  arch,  seeming  to  proclaim 


aloud  the  age  in  which  it  was 
built,  to  have  been  a  period  when 
a  little  improvement  in  architec- 
ture had  been  made,  in  conse- 
quence of  seeing  a  few  Roman 
works,  but  when  the  rude  archi- 
tects had  not  seen  enough,  nor 
been  sufficiently  informed  to  com- 
prehend them. 

On  entering  the  door,  we  find 
an  area,  in  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  like  a  little  vestibule, 
a,  Jig.  4.  On  one  side  of  this  is 
a  passage  to  the  staircase,  which 
ascends  not  in  a  spiral  form,  as 
those  of  latter  ages,  but  goes 
straight  through  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  like  the  rude  staircase 
of  an  ancient  northern  dun  ;  it  is, 
however,  well  and  neatly  con- 
structed, and  has  a  noble  appear- 
ance. This  staircase  has  no  com- 
munication with  the  room  on  the 
first  floor,  except  through  the 
vestibule  ;  and,  therefore,  might 
be  ascended  without  entering  into 
that  room. 

The  room  ought  not,  however, 
to  be  passed  by  unnoticed  :  it  is 
completely  circular,  and  has  no 
window  or  even  a  loophole  to  it. 
But  in  the  centre  of  the  floor  is  a 
round  aperture  like  the  mouth  of 
a  well,  b,Jig-  2,  which  opens  into 
a  most  dismal,  dark,  deep  dun- 
geon, b  w  t,  excavated  out  of  the 
midst  of  the  artificial  mount, 
and  enclosed  within  the  sloping 
part  of  the  foundation  walls,  and 
rudely  vaulted  over ;  at  the  bottom 
appears  to  have  been  a  draw  well, 
but  there  was  no  admission  for 
light  or  air,  except  through  the 
aperture  b;  nor  could  the  room, 
in  the  floor  of  which  this  aperture 
is,  have  the  benefit  of  either, 
when  the  door  was  shut,  except 
by  means  of  a  similar  aperture, 
which  there  must  have  been,  at  c, 
in  the  floor  above.  We  cannot 
therefore  err  in  calling  the  lower 
of  these  frightful  apartments  the 


CASTLE. 


dungeon  j  and  that  next  above 
the  store  room,  and  the  aperture 
at  e,  must  have  answered  the 
triple  purpose  of  drawing  up 
water,  of  drawing  up  stores,  and 
of  admitting  air  and  light :  to  let 
in  the  latter  the  more  effectually, 
there  is  good  reason  to  suppose, 
that  a  similar  aperture  was  left 
in  every  floor,  to  the  very  top  of 
the  castle ;  and  the  rather,  be- 
cause, without  such,  even  the 
state  apartments  would  be  most 
wretchedly  dark,  each  of  them 
having  no  more  than  one  win- 
dow. 

In  other  respects  we  shall  find 
they  were  highly  finished,  and 
magnificent  for  such  a  barbarous 
age. 

The  ascent  of  the  grand  stair- 
case, from  the  vestibule,  through 
the  wall,  from  a  to  d,  Jig.  4,  is 
stately.  It  has  no  necessary  com- 
munication either  with  the  store 
room  or  dungeon,  and  enters  at 
y  into  a  fine  circular  room,  the 
floor  of  which  appears  to  have 
been  supported,  not  by  timbers 
let  into  the  wall,  but  laid  upon 
great  projecting  trusses  of  stone, 
which  still  remain  all  round  the 
building.  This  room  appears  to 
have  been  finished  and  adorned 
with  as  much  elegance  as  the 
times  would  admit.  The  stone 
work  is  exceedingly  compact, 
smooth,  and  good  ;  the  entrance 
from  the  staircase  at  d  F  V  is  by 
a  handsome  arch  ;  and  directly  op- 
posite to  it  is  another  at/,  equally 
as  well  constructed,  leading  to 
the  second  flight  of  stairs,  which 
go  up  to  the  state  apartment, 
passing  through  the  wall  from  / 
to  e. 

Fig.  %  shows  the  concave  inte- 
rior half  of  the  tower,  looking 
towards  the  south. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  concave  inte- 
rior half,  looking  towards  the 
north. 

572 


Fig.  4  is  the  plan  of  the  fm 
floor,  on  which  you  enter  on, 

the  grand  portal ;  and 

Fig.  5  is  the  plan  of  the  r>* 
grand  apartment,  of  whic  we 
are  now  speaking. 

In  Jigs.,  2  and  3,  d  v  is  thi  ec- 
tion  of  the  cavity,  through  \ich 
the  first  flight  of  stairs  asdds, 
within  the  thickness  of  thevjljj 
and  e  x  is  the  section  o  be 
cavity  through  which  the  si  .mi 
flight  ascends  in  u  is  the  sf|ion 
of  the  floor  of  the  first  jjuuj 
apartment ;  and  o  p  the  sdion 
of  that  of  the  state  apartmel 

As  to  the  rest,  the  lette  or' 
reference,  both  in  the  se  on 
and  plans,  all  correspond. 

The  first  grand  apartmen  m 
probably  the  guard  room,  or  ief 
place  of  rendezvous,  of  the  in- 
cipal  part  of  the  garrison ,  a  in 
this  there  is  one  object  that  »t 
obviously  strikes  the  eye  at  > 
glance,  and  raises  astonish  in 
in  the  mind ;  a  vast  fire  hHh 
at  Z,  Jig.  3,  on  the  north  le, 
constructed  with  an  elegce 
which  resembles  that  of  H 
latter  ages,  but  having  a  chit  ey 
carried  up  through  the  wallke 
those  in  other  ancient  castles  id 
opening  through  a  loop  onhe 
outside.  The  front  of  this  e- 
place,  however,  is  supported^ 
like  the  door  of  entrance,  I 
wide  arch,  not  trusted  to  as  m 
cient  for  the  purpose,  but  haig 
two  great  transverse  stones  li- 
ning across  under  it.  To  ■ 
rude  imitation  of  the  Roman  i 
is  joined  as  rude  an  imitatit  ot 
ionic  or  corinthian  pillars ;  tee 
of  which,  in  clusters  on  1 
side,  support  the  trans^e 
stones,  and  at  some  little  >c- 
tance  produce  the  elegant  ei» 
mentioned,  of  the  resemblaniot 
a  modern  ornamented  chim  y- 
piece. 

The  whole  device  seems  i  • 


tton 


ion 


CASTLE. 


y  to  indicate  a  period  of 
etween  the  departure  of 
mans  and  their  arts  from 
untry,  and  the  introduc- 
savage  foreigners,  and 
heir  inal   establishment   here  ; 

I    between    the  loss  of 
,  ,  ,i   architecture,  and  the  in- 
roduion  of  the  Gothic ;  a  period 
?hen? barbarians,  just  arrived, 
nxir  with  the  rudest  part  of 
he  Jtives,  were  prompted  to 
nita  imperfectly,  and  as  far  as 
onceptions  would  allow, 
■  specimens  they  had  seen 
ian  magnificence, 
next  thing  that  attracts 
«y  is  a  narrow  doorway,  h, 
here  the  arch  was  either 
n,  or  thought  quite  use- 
is  jfid  where  a  transverse  stone 
lone  overs  the  top;  this  led  to 
lo  t,  that  served  for  a  privy, 
n  ed  as  it  were  out  of  one 
)fthtrreat  buttresses,  and  hav- 
a  arrow  winding  drain  to  a 
Mt  hp. 

In 'is  room  there  are  no  win- 
Jows  but  at  g,  Jig.  <2,  there  ap- 
pears great  arch,  which  leads 
to  a  [sort  of  recess,  or  small 
lobby  over  the  grand  portal, 
when  is  the  window  that  ap- 
pearsfit  i,  Jig,  1,  commanding 
entire  the  steps  of  ascent  on  the 
outsi«i ,  but  small  indeed  for  the 
convince  of  light  and  air  to 
this  rartment.  We  must  con- 
clude herefore,  that  it  was  more- 
over ghted,  as  already  hinted, 
by  a Circular  perforation  in  the 
midsof  the  floor  above.  The 
wind  /  just  described,  like  the 
doorfy  underneath,  has  a  hand- 
some rch  at  top;  but  this  arch, 
simil  to  the  one  above,  is  not 
trust;  to,  but  has  the  assistance 
of  a  /eat  transverse  stone. 

Or'me  side  of  the  fire  hearth, 
and  >out  half  way  between  it 
and  e  door  of  entrance,  is  a 
little  mare  niche  in  the  wall,  at 


g,  fig.  %  too  small  for  any  ser- 
viceable use  as  a  locker,  or  cup- 
board, and  the  original  design  of 
which  may,  perhaps,  best  be  in- 
vestigated from  what  we  shall 
find  in  the  state  apartment  over 
head. 

To  that  apartment,  after  pass- 
ing quite  across  this  guard  cham- 
ber, the  approach  is  by  a  second 
flight  of  steps,  constructed  in  the 
same  manner,  and  as  noble  as  the 
former ;  no  winding  staircase  is 
seen,  but  a  regular  continued 
gradual  ascent,  going  straight  on 
through  a  cavity  in  the  wall,  from 
the  arched  door  /  up  to  another 
arched  door  e. 

This  chamber,  from  its  decora- 
tions, appears  to  have  been  the 
place  of  royal  residence  ;  and  it 
had  a  great  window  to  the  south- 
west at  r,  Jig.  2;  which  is  the 
only  considerable  one  that  appears 
in  the  whole  building. 

At  S  is  an  arched  doorway, 
leading  to  a  little  room  over  the 
grand  portal,  which  seems  to 
have  served  for  a  bedchamber, 
and  where,  that  no  person  resting 
therein  might  be  injured  by  any 
missive  weapon,  no  light  or  air 
was  admitted,  except  by  a  narrow 
loop,  although  the  only  great 
window  of  the  lower  apartment 
was  directly  under  it. 

As  the  upper  state  room  was 
not  designed  to  contain  a  great 
number  of  persons  like  that  be- 
neath, the  fire  hearth  is  smaller, 
but  rather  of  still  more  elegant 
construction.  In  this  we  also 
find  the  imitation  of  Roman  capi- 
tals, and  a  transom  stone,  instead 
of  an  arch  ;  the  former  appearing 
to  have  been  constantly  thought 
the  greater  security,  where  there 
was  any  considerable  width  and 
a  weight  above  to  be  supported  ; 
indeed,  the  arch  appears  to  have 
been  deemed  only  an  additional 
help,  for  it  is  very  remarkable 

573 


CAS 

that,  in  this  building,  all  the 
arches  which  are  without  transom 
stones  are  very  narrow. 

But  the  most  remarkable  ap- 
pearance in  this  room,  and  indeed 
in  the  whole  structure,  is  a  small 
niche,  at  I,  Jig.  S3  richly  orna- 
mented, the  design  of  which  can 
hardly  be  mistaken.  From  its 
dimensions  and  form  it  seems 
totally  unfit  for  any  other  purpose 
than  that  of  containing  some 
small  idol,  and  strongly  indicates 
that  this  castle  was  built,  and  in 
use,  in  pagan  times. 

And  now,  whoever  considers, 
in  this  building,  the  rude  but 
diligent  imitation  of  Roman  ar- 
chitecture, the  staircase  running 
straight  through  the  walls,  with- 
out any  turnings  or  windings, 
exactly  like  those  in  a  northern 
dun,  the  whole  inside  differing 
so  little  from  that  of  a  dun,  and 
only  having  smoother  and  better 
finished  walls  and  arches,  and  the 
floors  contrived  to  hold  more 
people,  and  better  to  exclude  the 
weather,  but  still  leaving  a  cir- 
cular area  from  top  to  bottom, 
open  in  the  middle,  and  considers 
the  unlikeness  of  the  whole  to 
any  Norman  structure,  and  adds 
to  these  considerations  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  niches,  will,  I 
think,  have  little  scruple  to  allow, 
that  nothing  can  more  strongly 
proclaim  an  age  of  pagan  barba- 
rity and  ignorance,  struggling 
amidst  the  disadvantages  it  la- 
boured under,  and  striving  to 
emerge  from  its  wretched  state, 
to  a  degree  of  civilization  and 
refinement. 

We  cannot,  therefore,  but  con- 
clude this  tower  to  have  been 
built  by  Hengist,  or  some  Saxon 
king,  before  the  conversion  of 
that  people  to  Christianity,  and 
to  be  one  of  the  most  ancient,  as 
well  as  the  most  perfect,  remains 
of  antiquity  in  this  kingdom. 

574 


TLE. 

Neither  machicolations,  n  the 
portcullis,  nor  the  mode  oft  ur. 
ing  loopholes,  seems  to  hav6en 
invented  at  the  time  this  1 3 
was  built. 

We  shall  therefore  callj  a 
Saxon  castle,  of  the  first  at  E 
the  heptarchy,  begging  led  to 
oppose  an  idea,  too  comnB 
received,  that  all  these  cafe, 
were  Norman  structures,  am  I 
the  Saxons  had  no  fortifical 
but  of  earth,  which  is  undfl 
edly  no  more  true  than  tlujfre 
Romans  had  only  such;  an  1 1 
tion  that,  notwithstanding  I 
numerous  camps  fortified  ii  I 
manner,  can  never  be  supped 
whilst  the  ruins  of  Richborgh 
remain. 

What  greatly  confirms  als  he 
idea  of  this  castle  being  bu  at 
the  time  of  which  we  speaiis, 
its  very  near  resemblance  a 
Scotch  dun  ;  it  appearing,  infl 
to  be  only  the  first  improve  nt 
of  such  a  kind  of  buildingby 
architects  a  little  more  civilijfi 

We  are  well  informed,  thahe 
Saxons  had  made  a  league  th 
the  Picts  and  Scots  about  at 
era  and  that  the  greatest  irt 
of  their  force  consisted  of  rat 
bodies  of  those  people,  whojced 
them  when  they  issued  01  of 
Kent  towards  the  north,  assed 
them  to  waste  all  Britain  tdbe 
western  sea,  and  were  their  n- 
federates  when  they  seized  lis 
very  part  of  the  country.  If, 
therefore,  we  may  be  allcjfld 
such  an  odd  conception,  we  (Br 
not  but  view  this  tower  as  o- 
claiming  an  alliance  of  Pic  hi 
Scottish,  Saxon,  and  Romanr- 
chitecture. 

The  preceding  informatic!  is 
extracted  from  Mr.  King's  obl  - 
ations on  ancient  castles,  ir*C 
"  ArchcEologia  ;"  but  Mr.  Bri >n, 
in  "  The  Architectural  Antiquik 
has  supposed  this  castle  to  lit* 


CASTLE. 


)urst 


Vne;l  Norman  construction  5  we 


jes,  however,  are  more  dis- 
wseco  coincide  with  Mr.  King. 

?l<?  C  66,  Jig.  I,  is  the  door 
|  iq  Id  Saxon  tower  of  a  church 
it  Li  join. 

Jfc[2  is  a  slight  sketch  of  a 
loorjy  of  the  old  tower  of  the 
:hur(|  of  the  knights  templars, 
,tTeple  Brue,  which  was  un- 
loobllly  Saxon,  although  the 
nsid(|was  afterwards,  by  the 
-njgt,;  templars,  adorned  and 
inediith  pointed  gothic  arches. 

An  Fig.  3  is  a  remarkable  old 
^axourch,  in  an  ancient  build- 
Dff,  pposite  to  the  palace  of 
iohn Gaunt,  at  Lincoln. 

Th.next  castle  which  strikes 
is  wi  high  ideas  of  its  great 
I  y,  is  Castleton,  in  Derby- 
■  erched  proudly,  like  a  fal- 
|  est,  on  the  summit  of  an 
inaccessible   rock,  high 
ingover  the  mouth  of  one 
most  horrid  and  august 
i  that  nature  ever  formed, 
linence  whereon  it  stands 
ly  insulated ;  the  top  of 
icent  hill  over  the  cavern 
oeingjmuch  lower,  and  joined 
!ven  ?ere  only  by  a  steep  preci- 
i  rice  iling  from  the  summit  of 
t  he  of  down  to  the  other. 

On  ie  west  and  east  sides  the 
rock  i  quite  perpendicular  j  and 
is:o  thtfiorth  and  south  so  steep 
t;bat  ipnnot  be  ascended  with- 
out C:  utmost  difficulty.  The 
wholcommands  a  fine  view  of 
stbe  tfintry  round,  and  of  the 
mounin  called  Mam  Tor,  with 
the  do  jle  fosse  of  the  old  encamp- 
ment' o  little  known,  placed  on 
the  hi'iest  brow  of  that  shivering 
moun  in. 

Thfe  is  not  even  any  tradition 
prese:ed  of  the  first  building  of 
.CaatUm.  And  some  herring- 
bone i'ork  in  the  walls  shows 
that  f  must  have  been  of  vast 
antiql.y,    Camden,  speaking  of 


the  village  of  Burgh,  in  Derby- 
shire, says,  "  Near  this  Burgh 
there  stands  an  old  castle,  upon 
the  top  of  a  hill,  formerly  belong- 
ing to  the  Peverells  called  the 
castle  in  the  peake,  and  in  Latin 
de  alto  pecco-,  which  king  Edward 
III.  gave  with  this  manor  and 
honour  to  John  duke  of  Lan- 
caster, his  son,  after  he  had  re- 
stored the  earldom  of  Richmond 
to  the  king."  But  he  does  by  no 
means  assert  that  it  was  built  by 
the  Peverells,  or  any  Normans ; 
and,  indeed,  all  that  appears  from 
the  best  account  that  can  be 
obtained,  amounts  merely  to  this  ^ 
that  in  this  castle  William  de 
Peverell,  natural  son  of  William 
the  Conqueror,  had  his  residence, 
and  kept  court ;  and  that  he  had 
also  another  habitation  connected 
with  this  at  Brough,  or  Burgh, 
near  Castleton  j  from  whence  was 
an  ancient  road  to  Buxton,  called, 
long  before  his  time,  Batham 
gate,  or  the  gate  leading  to  the 
bath ;  all  which  plainly  imports 
that  here  was  a  very  considerable 
fortress,  the  dwelling  of  some 
ancient  chief  and  his  train,  for 
whose  use  such  road  was  made 
long  before  the  conquest  ;  and 
that  even  William  de  Peverell, 
so  far  from  having  built  it,  found 
the  smallness  of  this  tower  incon- 
venient. 

After  the  first  towers  built 
upon  this  small,  confined,  and 
rude  plan,  the  next  improvement 
in  the  military  art  of  defence, 
and  in  national  fortifications,  was 
by  that  great  and  extraordinary 
man,  for  the  times  in  which  he 
lived,  king  Alfred.  Educated  in 
the  school  of  adversity,  and  taught, 
by  suffering,  to  seek  surer  and 
more  convenient  means  of  pro- 
tection for  himself  and  his  people 
than  those  with  which  they  were 
as  yet  acquainted,  he  contended 
with  ancient  prejudices,  brought 

575 


CASTLE. 


from  abroad  all  the  information 
he  could  gain,  and  improved  that 
knowledge  by  the  assistance  of 
his  own  great  natural  genius  and 
that  of  the  most  enlightened  of 
his  contemporaries.  He  applied 
every  known  improvement  of 
architecture  to  military  purposes, 
which  before  his  time  had  been 
confined  almost  wholly  to  reli- 
gious structures,  and  erected 
noble  fortresses  in  different  parts 
of  the  kingdom.  To  him,  or  at 
least  to  his  skill  and  abilities,  we 
owe  those  once  glorious  piles, 
Colchester  castle,  built  by  his  son 
king  Ed  ward,  and  Norwich  castle, 
built  by  king  Canute,  in  imitation 
of  the  style  of  building  introduced 
just  before  the  conquest. 

Norwich  castle  is  a  most  noble 
specimen  of  Saxon  architecture. 
There  is,  however,  a  tradition  of 
its  having  been  built  by  Roger 
Bigot,  about  the  time  of  William 
Rufus,  and  of  its  having  been 
finally  completed  by  Thomas  de 
Brotherton,  even  so  late  as  in 
the  time  of  Edward  II.,  but  we 
suspect  this  to  be  a  mistake ;  for, 
though  it  may  be  true  with  regard 
to  the  outworks,  and  the  many 
great  buildings  enclosed  within 
the  limits  and  outward  walls  of 
this  castle,  yet,  with  respect  to 
the  keep,  or  master  tower,  which 
is  the  only  considerable  part  now 
remaining,  it  may  be  said,  that 
the  style  of  its  architecture  is  so 
different  from  the  towers  erected 
in  the  reigns  of  William  Rufus, 
and  Henry  L  and  II.,  and  the 
ornaments  so  different  from 
those  which  were  in  use  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  II.,  that  we 
cannot  but  conclude  that  this 
building  is  of  much  greater  anti- 
quity, and  completely  Saxon ; 
though  it  is  possible  that  the 
staircase  might  be  repaired,  or 
even  rebuilt,  by  Thomas  de  Bro- 
therton, whose  arms  are  to  be 

576 


seen  on  a  part  of  the  wall.  fa 
ther  we  be  or  be  not  right  ith 
regard  to  the  era  of  this  bui  m 
certain  it  is  that  all  itsornai  ots 
are  of  the  true  Saxon  style  md 
whatever  reparations  it  niavm 
received  at  different  times  Ly 
have  been  made  carefully  tc  in- 
form thereto,  so  that  it  m  be 
considered  as  one  of  the  , 
complete  remains  of  Saxon  Mij. 
tecture  in  the  kingdom.  Imk 
place  we  cannot  but  observe  iflt 
the  resemblance  which  the  d< 
and  mode  of  fortification  ii  his 
castle,  and  that  at  Colch  er, 
have  to  those  built  even  i  t 
more  improved  Norman  t  es, 
seems  to  indicate  that  the  pe- 
ral  plan  was  taken  from  sic- 
tures  of  a  still  earlier  date  ;  >e- 
cially  as  Josephus's  descri  on 
of  the  tower  of  Antonia  at ,  u- 
salem,  may  lead  us  to  su  jet 
this  mode  of  building  to  vc 
been  very  ancient  indeed,  a  to 
have  been  known  and  introt  ed 
even  before  the  age  in  whic  he 
lived. 

In  taking  a  survey  of  this  t  tie 
at  Norwich,  we  shall  find  alpst 
precisely  the  same  cautions  ed 
as  in  that  at  Rochester,  whic)  ill 
be  hereafter  detailed.  Am<p 
these,  the  first  and  most  string 
circumstance  that  offers  itscj  to 
our  attention,  is  the  ancient  i  de 
of  entrance  ;  it  was  by  a  ■ 
stone  staircase,  running  alon  he 
eastern  front  of  the  building  H 
ascending  to  a  very  beaitul 
little  tower,  at  the  northnst 
corner:  see  plateC67Kfig-  1-PP 
wall  of  this  staircase  is  sho\  i» 
the  sketch  ;  and  as  a  great  ut 
of  it  still  remains  entire,  M* 
two  little  windows  that  Mf 
originally  in  it,  we  have  re- 
sented the  whole.  Upon  t:se 
steps,  which,  though  they  jj 
been  often  repaired;  appear  pW 
nearly  in  their  original  situaW! 


CASTLE. 


are  vo  ^reat  stone  arched  door- 
way one  over  a,  and  the  other 
ove  k  which  formerly  had  strong 
I  d  iassive  gates  to  them.  Be- 
o  these,  higher  up,  and  just 
Jth  the  uppermost  window, 
a  is  ajplatform,  where  the  steps 
are  r  a  space  discontinued,  and 
H  ,e  there  is  every  appearance 
af  t\[-e  having  been  a  drawbridge. 
Beyld  this  is  a  larger  arch,  with 
i  stonipillars  on  each  side  :  from 
if  this  atform  the  steps  were  again 
a,  conrenced,  and  were  continued 
r  ouit  ip  to  the  first  grand  portal, 
the  (tside  of  which,  though  now 
i.l  up,  is  shown  at  b. 
V    Bailie  this,  there  does  not  ap- 
tr  i  have  been  originally  any 
r  ce  to   the  inside  of  the 
t  except  by  a  small  narrow 
h   passage,  some  feet  from 
;  ninci,  situate  beneath  the 
;u-idge  ;  which  passage  now 
lead*  rom  the  inside  of  the  castle 
"to  tb|  debtors'  cell,  and  is  that 
tbroih  which  the  present  en- 
trant is  into  the  lower  part  of 
tie.    The  debtor's  grate  is 
reprinted  at  o,  and  this  passage, 
irhicl  was   unquestionably  the 
sally  ort,  is  just  behind  it.  As 
therts  a  resemblance  between 
-t  grand  portal  here  and 
lat   Rochester,  so,  in  the  next 
h  a e  find  here  also  a  vesti- 
bule the  little  towers,  between 
't  an  the  second  portal.  This 
estille  was  much  exposed,  and, 
1  »|>  arance,  carelessly  defend- 
each  of  the  three  great 
"  seen  at  c,  together  with  a 
I  r»t  the  north  end  of  the 
m  though  now  bricked  up, 
'ere  rmerly  left  entirely  open, 
•e  so  large,  and  take  up 
it  a  portion  of  the  side 
alls  that  this  vestibule  must 
(I  almost  the  appearance 
in  )en  portico,  and  must  have 
very  beautiful  ornament 
th  castle;  whilst  its  great 
4D 


height,  and  its  being  merely  the 
passage  between  the  first  and 
second  portal,  rendered  it  not  in 
the  slightest  degree  detrimental 
in  case  of  a  close  siege.  This 
vestibule  has  now  not  only  the 
arches  bricked  up,  but  is  divided 
into  two  rooms,  the  one  over  the 
other,  it  being  in  the  upper  room 
principally  that  the  remains  of 
the  two  portals  are  to  be  dis- 
covered. In  this  upper  room  is 
to  be  seen,  directly  opposite  to 
the  three  arches  represented  at  c, 
one  vast  arch  in  the  wall  of  the 
castle,  reaching  across  the  whole 
side  of  the  vestibule,  and  under 
that  a  second  great  arch,  but  of 
less  dimensions,  which  was  the 
second  grand  portal,  and  under 
this  latter,  in  the  lower  room, 
the  remains  of  the  side  pillars. 
In  the  upper  chamber,  near  the 
floor,  at  the  south-east  end,  may 
also  be  discerned  the  top  of  the 
first  great  portal,  the  outside  of 
which  is  visible  at  b.  From  this 
vestibule  there  is  still  preserved 
a  passage  into  the  castle,  and  on 
one  side  of  it  is  a  small  arch,  now 
walled  up,  communicating  with 
a  winding  staircase  at  that  corner, 
which  went  to  the  top  of  the 
castle,  as  is  shown  at  a  in  the 
plan,  Jig.  3. 

Beneath  the  vestibule  was  ori- 
ginally an  open  arch  and  a  vaulted 
room,  or  rather  recess,  left  quite 
exposed  to  the  area  before  the 
castle ;  its  roof  or  ceiling  being 
richly  decorated  with  intersecting 
arches,  which  must  have  had  a 
fine  effect,  and  greatly  increased 
the  beautiful  appearance  of  the 
front  :  notwithstanding,  however, 
that  it  seemed  so  light  and  airy, 
it  was  by  no  means  a  weak  part 
of  the  building;  for  the  side  walls 
of  this  recess  are  of  extraordinary 
strength,  and  the  wall  at  the  back 
of  it,  adjoining  to  the  castle,  i9 
11  feet  thick.    Indeed,  as  this 

577 


CASTLE. 


was  the  strongest  part  of  the 
castle,  the  front  arch  is  now  filled 
up,  and  the  recess  is  converted 
into  the  felons'  cell,  whose  grate 
is  seen  over  p,  Jig.  1,  the  entrance 
to  it  being  now  in  the  side  wall 
from  the  debtors'  cell.  The  ves- 
tibule, portal,  and  top  of  the 
stairs,  being  here  at  so  great  a 
height,  there  were  not  any  win- 
dows whatever  in  the  eastern 
front  of  the  castle,  except  in  the 
staircase  and  vestibule ;  for  on 
the  level  with  the  grand  apart- 
ments there  were  only  loopholes, 
and  those  in  the  places  where 
they  are  represented  in  Jig.  1. 
The  arches,  therefore,  as  well  as 
the  pilasters,  in  this  front,  were 
merely  ornamental,  and  even  the 
two  at  d,  which  have  so  much 
the  appearance  of  windows,  are 
only  a  fantastic  variation  of  orna- 
ment, probably  placed  there  even 
by  way  of  deception  j  but  on  all 
the  other  sides  of  the  castle  the 
windows  were  very  magnificent, 
placed  at  a  great  height,  and  on 
the  same  floor  where  the  principal 
and  state  apartments  were  situate. 
Four  of  them  may  be  seen  within 
the  four  great  arches  of  the  west 
front,  Jig.  2.  There  is,  however, 
on  this  side,  at  /,  a  brick  arch 
and  modern  window,  which  should 
be  distinguished  from  the  rest,  as 
it  has  been  forced  out  since  the 
completion  of  the  castle,  as  is 
evident  from  the  breaks  in  the 
ornaments  on  the  adjoining  parts 
of  the  wall,  where  originally  there 
was  merely  a  loophole  and  arch 
leading  to  it.  The  door  also  at 
g,  which  is  now  the  entrance  to 
one  of  the  staircases  of  the  castle, 
marked  b  on  the  plan,  Jig.  3,  has, 
m  like  manner,  been  forced  out 
of  late  years,  through  a  cavity  or 
loophole. 

In  this  western  front,  the  space 
between  the  letters  h,  i,  k,  I,  has 
been  faced  with  new  work,  but 

578 


the  other  parts  appear  to  r<  t 
as  they  originally  were,  v 
new  work  has  also  been  fin  ted 
in  a  manner  suitable  thereto  mi 
the  windows  have  been  presL] 
in  the  very  places  where  h* 
perforations  of  the  old  ones  , 
found,  and  ornamented  in  a  in- 
ner similar  to  those  on  the  ier 
sides  of  the  castle,  and  to  ri 
in  this  front. 

The  two  arches  which  we  v 
before  mentioned  in  this  die 
as  being  intended  to  decei  bv 
an  appearance  of  weakness,  \  ich 
they  did  not  possess,  are  s  wa 
at  m  and  n;  and,  in  order  to  ike 
the  deception  still  stronger,  »re 
were  in  each  of  them  four  )p. 
holes  at  the  top  j  but  wh«  we 
examine  the  inside  of  the  tid- 
ing we  find  the.  wall  as 
there  as  in  any  other  parind 
moreover  flanked  by  two 
buttresses,  or  rather  oblique m, 
each  supported  by  a  great  h 
and  reaching   from  the  ndle 
wall  to  the  back  of  these  ares, 
as  represented  by  c  d  e  f:Jig . 

The  inside  of  this  castle,  h  ng 
been  long  used  as  a  coinon 
county  gaol,  is  so  built  upiitk 
a  variety  of  rooms,  cellsjind 
offices,  and  all  the  great  oities 
leading  to  the  loopholes  a!  so 
carefully  bricked  up,  that  Jiny 
curious  particulars,  and  maili  of 
the  old  mode  of  fortificatioi 
no  longer  be  seen  ;  enough  »w- 
ever  remains  to  merit  atten  u. 

The  inside  of  this  castle,  ir  ?ad 
of  containing  an  open  yards  it 
now  does,  was  filled  up  wi  lithe 
floors  of  most  magnificenliiml 
spacious  apartments;  and,  tl  igh 
the  timbers  are  now  renietl, 
and  small  sheds  built  ajjnst 
the  walls,  yet  the  traces  cjthe 
original  disposition  of  the  i'olc 
may  easily  be  discovered  b;|any 
person  accustomed  to  exijune 
these  kinds  of -buildings;  *H 


CAS 

are  tlso  visible   marks  of  the 
fitrciT  partition    wall,  running 
Bcrffrom  west  to  east.  This 
walfias  been  thrown  down  from 
de:  g  A,  Jig.  3  5  but  a  gaoler 
wb<  vas  living  at  the  time  Mr. 
Kin  examined  this  castle,  re- 
niei  )ered  the  foundation  of  that 
)eing  discovered  under  the 
.entof  the  present  yard;  and 
a  go  hat  on  digging  by  the  side 
hey  found  great  arches  of 
Wunication  made  through  it 
ttodkround,  and  the  obvious  re- 
iii  of  vaults  or  dungeons.  It 
furtlfr  appears,  that  the  apart- 
n  on  the  ground  floor  were 
ulld  over  with  stone;  for  a 
a  >art  of  the  old  vault,  at  g  I 
n  the  great  stone  arches  of 
the  Stresses,  c  d  ef,  and  a  stone 
'vauljig  over  a  part  where  the 
►resit  chapel  is,  between  c  d 
:  o,  still  remain. 
At  e,  where  now  appears  the 
reni&ing  partition  of  the  pro- 
jecti(  wall,  may  be  seen  a  part 
roun  doff,  and  cased  with  brick, 
iki\ir  the  appearance  of  a  round 
towe  in  the  middle  of  this,  a 
leep  rcular  cavity  of  stone  work, 
like  t  pipe  of  a  well,  which  has, 
says  Jr.  King,  been  filled  up  in 
ifthen  nory  of  persons  now  living, 
uul  Inch  therefore  was,  in  all 
«  (>robi  lity,  the  original  well  in 
the  4.11  of  the  castle,   as  at 
Rochjter  and  Canterbury.  What 
kephis  still  more  probable  is, 
iut  ere  was  a  passage  to  it 
le  of  the  galleries  through 
'  Wl,  the  entrance  to  which, 
(dioug  now  bricked  up,  is  still 

As   the  chimneys,  or  any  of 
the  ot  !r  passages  or  cavities  in 
Wj  s,  they  are  all  so  carefully 
l'p<  up,  and  have  so  many 
""'i  s  erected  against  them, 
tie  or  nothing  is  to  be 
'  d  as  to  their  situation  or 
struct  e.    The  staircase  also  at 


TLE. 

the  south-west  corner  has  its 
ancient  entrance  at  the  bottom 
at  present  stopped  up,  so  as  to 
have  no  communication  with  the 
inside  of  the  building,  except  to 
those  apartments  which  nowcom- 
prise  the  hospital  of  the  castle  ; 
and  the  lower  entrance  to  it  is 
now  only  through  the  forced 
doorway  at  g,  Jig.  2.  The  other 
staircase  at  the  north-east  corner 
is  walled  up  entirely. 

The  next  succeeding  step  in 
the  alteration  of  military  struc- 
tures in  this  kingdom,  is  that 
which  took  place  at  the  time  of 
the  conquest. 

The  Normans  seem,  at  first,  to 
have  entered  this  country  with 
ideas  of  fortification  quite  different 
from,  and  inferior  to,  those  of  the 
Saxons.  Descended  from  the 
Danes  they  still  retained  Danish 
ideas,  and  considered  the  high 
mount  as  the  most  essential  part 
of  a  fortress ;  as  therefore  the 
high  insulated  hill  is  characteristic 
of  almost  every  Danish  camp,  so 
the  same  kind  of  hill,  as  the  basis 
of  a  round  tower,  is  characteristic 
of  all  the  first  Norman  castles. 

"  William  the  Conqueror,"  says 
Stowe,  i(  with  an  army,  went  to 
Nottingham,  and  there  budded  a 
castle ;  he  also  went  to  York, 
and  there  caused  two  castles  to 
be  builded,  and  put  in  them  gar- 
risons ;  he  commanded  also  castles 
to  be  made  at  Lincoln,  and  in 
other  places,  about  the  year  1068." 
We  will  now  see  whether  the 
remains  of  these  will  not  illus- 
trate most  fully  the  Norman  mode 
of  constructing  such  edifices.  As 
to  that  at  Nottingham,  the  keep 
has  long  since  been  destroyed  j 
it  was,  however,  on  a  very  high 
and  steep  hill,  from  whence  was 
the  curious  subterraneous  passage, 
still  remaining,  called  Mortimer's 
hole;  but  one  of  those  at  York, 
called  Clifford's  tower,  is  still  in 

579 


CASTLE. 


being.  Camden  gives  very  little 
information  with  respect  to  it ; 
and  merely  says,  u  William  the 
Conqueror  built  a  prodigious 
strong  castle,  to  keep  the  citizens 
in  awe;"  to  which  the  editor 
adds,  **  near  the  castle  stands 
the  shell  of  Clifford's  tower, 
which  was  blown  up  in  1684." 
This,  therefore,  which  was  most 
evidently  the  strongest  part  of 
the  building,  having  defied  the 
blast  of  powder,  and  the  injuries  of 
time,  was  undoubtedly  apart  of  one 
of  the  two  castles  mentioned  by 
Stowe;  and  being  one  of  the  first 
buildings  of  the  Conqueror,  may 
serve  to  explain  the  style  first 
introduced  by  him. 

It  is  built  on  the  summit  of  an 
exceedingly  high  artificial  mount, 
the  sides  of  which  are  still  so 
steep,  that  it  can  only  be  as- 
cended by  a  modern  winding 
path,  or  by  an  old  steep  flight  of 
steps,  situated  on  the  side  next 
the  other  part  of  the  castle.  On 
this  side  there  was  originally  a 
drawbridge,  passing  over  the 
ditch,  to  afford  complete  com- 
munication ;  and  in  the  old  wall, 
which  enclosed  the  area  of  the 
adjoining  castle,  there  is,  though 
now  blocked  up,  visible  signs  of 
a  gate. 

Situate  in  this  manner,  on  such 
an  inaccessible  eminence,  it  did 
not  require,  nor  do  we  find  that 
it  had,  the  great  elevated  portal, 
placed  at  a  great  height  above 
the  foundations,  as  we  find  in  the 
succeeding  Norman  keeps.  On 
the  contrary,  this  portal  stands 
on  the  ground,  at  the  brink  of 
the  precipice,  and  at  the  very 
brow  of  the  slope  and  steps  that 
ascended  from  the  drawbridge. 

The  plan  of  the  tower,  plate  C 
66,  fig.  4,  consists  of  four  seg- 
ments of  circles  joined  together  ; 
the  longest  diameter,  from  peri- 
phery to  periphery,  being  64  feet; 


eel 


bat 


the  shortest,  from  intersecti  to 
intersection,  45  feet ;  am  the 
walls  between  9  and  lc 
thick. 

From  hence  it  is  obviou 
no  beams  for  floors  could  P|! 
reach  across,  though  the  j  ces 
for  the  timbers  are  still  vble 
in  the  walls  ;  consequently^ 
must  have  had  some  supp  j;i 
the  middle,  which  was  probly 
either  by  posts  or  stone  p 
placed  around  the  circumfe  ice 
of  a  sort  of  open  well,  tn| 
afforded  both  light  and  air  tn 
the  top  to  the  bottom,  an<  lso 
the  means  of  drawing  uj the 
machines  of  war  to  the  per 
part  of  the  tower. 

On  the  same  side  as  the  >cp 
flight  of  steps  and  the  drawbl£ 
there  is  a  small  square  t  er, 
which,  Mr.  Drake  says,  was ;  led 
to  the  building  in  the  tiiij  jf 
Charles  I. ;  but  whether  it  ere 
then  a  new  addition,  or  a  ere 
reparation,  in  the  room  (  an 
ancient  turret,  it  is  certain  t  tl 
was  the  original  and  only  enti  ce, 
a,  Jig.  4. 

This  was  defended  by  a  sing 
massy  gate,  at  the  head  otoe 
steps,  where,  before  theinvejion 
of  gunpowder,  a  single  man  i|^t 
make  a  stout  defence  agata 
host  ;  it  was  then  secured  at  by 
a  portcullis,  (a  means  of  deliee 
which  seems  to  have  beei trst 
introduced  by  the  Normans,  »nd 
at  c  by  a  third  and  mneriite. 
Arrived  within  this  we  vi'  » 
large  store  room,  taking  iwi 
whole  of  the  ground  floor  ed 
having  no  light  but  from  n;jow 
loops. 

At  d  and  e  are  two  ci;|ikr 
stone  staircases,  ascending  lithe 
floor  above  ;  there  is  also  *  ad- 
ditional small  brick  staireas<i*^ 
between  the  first  gate  andprt- 
cullis;  but  this  is  manifeip  ■ 
late  addition,  and  merely  uilt 


CASTLE. 


wiih  the  body  of  the  little 
t0\v<,  which  it  much  encumbers, 
as  t)  inner  area  is  only  about  10 
feet  'juare. 

\  f  is  the   well  for  water, 
'  wbici  still  remains  entire. 
f   Ait,  according  to  Drake,  there 
s  so  a  dungeon,  so  dark  as 
take  in  the  least  ray  of 
light  but  its  entrance  is  now 
blocid  up. 
Atl  k  were  two  fire  hearths. 
Ail  at  g  h,  two  recesses,  or 
los<f. 

Ji   As(;nding  the  stairs,  d  and  e, 
iter  the  state  apartments, 
t'whici  had  large  windows,  of  a 
ngijir  construction,  as  repre- 
sents in  Jig.  5. 

Althe  intersections   of  the 
(ircir  parts  of   the  building, 
I  r<  hree  hanging  closets,  re- 
ed  in  Jig.  6.    And  at  the 
fourllintersection,  over  the  tower 
iilf of  enhance,  there  was  a  bedcham- 
ti.bcry  lie  outside  of  which,  with 
its  njrow  safe  windows,  is  re- 
.. -.presetted  in  Jig.  7  ;  where  also 
i  y  observe  the  manner  in 
whic  both  loops  and  windows 
fewereiontrived,  to  command  the 
i  raw  idge  and  steep  ascent  of 
stepsiefore  the  great  portal. 

IT  next  castle  built  by  the 
;  oik  ror  was  that  of  Lincoln  : 
le  k  p  of  this  castle  was  situated 
a  :h  artificial  mount,  though 
Dot  1  e  the  former  excluded  out 
)  of  th'pistle  area,  but  the  walls 
U  tig  the  whole  circuit  of  the 
were  made  to  ascend  on 
'  !e  the  slope,  and  to  join 
til  (_rreat  tower;  which  was, 
<i  r  respects,  in  consequence 
deepness  of  the  hill,  and 
tab,  equally  inaccessible  both 
rom>ithin  the  castle  area,  and 
»m  ithout,  except  by  a  steep 
f  steps  and  a  drawbridge 
i  r  ditch,  and  therefore  was 
Imoiias  completelv  insulated  as 
that  t  York. 


It  was  nearly  round,  covering, 
like  the  preceding,  almost  all  the 
summit  of  the  mount.  But  here, 
as  at  York,  the  great  portal  was 
still  on  the  ground,  protected 
only  by  the  difficulty  of  access, 
in  consequence  of  the  steepness 
of  the  hill.  Indeed,  this  sort  of 
security  was  so  much  depended 
upon,  that  we  here  even  find 
remains  of  two  great  portals,  one 
within  the  castle  area  to  the  south- 
east, and  one  without  to  the  north- 
west ;  so  that  it  is  evident,  notwith- 
standing the  walls  of  the  castle 
area  adjoin  on  both  sides,  that 
this  keep  was  considered  a  distinct 
independent  strong  hold,  equally 
tenable  with  the  rest  of  the  castle, 
or  without  it. 

The  great  portal  towards  the 
castle  area  was  not  considered  as 
forming  any  communication  be- 
tvveen  the  different  parts  of  this 
strong  hold,  except  in  times  of 
peace  and  security  ;  and  in  case 
of  close  siege  must  have  been 
very  little  used,  but  safely  shut 
up,  and  as  strongly  defended  as 
that  on  the  opposite  side,  without 
the  castle  walls,  the  one  and  the 
other  being  designed  merely  for 
state  and  convenience,  when  a 
numerous  retinue  were  constantly 
passing  in  and  out.  On  that  side 
where  a  communication  was  really 
made  with  the  rest  of  the  build- 
ings of  the  castle,  the  utmost 
caution  was  displayed. 

The  last  castle  that  we  shall 
mention  of  the  original  Norman 
style  is  that  of  Tunbridge.  Cam- 
den informs  us,  that  it  was  built  by 
Richard  de  Clare,  about  the  time 
of  William  Rufus,  who  got  it  by 
exchange  for  Briony,  in  Nor- 
mandy ;  his  great  grandfather 
Godfrey,  having  been  natural  son 
to  Richard,  the  first  duke  of 
Normandy,  and  made  earl  of  Ewe 
and  Briony. 

The  great  gate,  or  tower  of 

581 


CASTLE. 


entrance,  in  this  noble  pile,  was 
erected  long  after  the  first  con- 
struction of  the  fortress,  and  con- 
tained more  convenient  apart- 
ments for  the  residence  of  a 
commander-in-chief  than  are  to 
be  met  with  in  any  of  the  original 
buildings  of  the  age  near  the 
conquest. 

The  entrance  was  by  a  strong 
tower,  defended  by  a  drawbridge 
and  deep  ditch.  From  the  upper 
apartments  of  this  tower  there 
still  maybe  traced,  very  distinctly, 
the  remains  of  a  covered  way, 
leading  to  a  round  keep,  situated, 
like  those  already  described,  on 
tne  summit  of  a  high  artificial 
mount. 

Part  of  the  walls  of  this  build- 
ing are  still  remaining,  and  dis- 
cover far  more  of  its  nature  and 
design  than  those  at  Tickhillj 
indeed,  it  is  obvious,  that  a  con- 
sistency with  the  original  plan 
and  general  device,  has  been  pre- 
served in  the  very  re-edification 
of  the  tower  of  entrance,  and  in 
the  communication  formed  be- 
tween it  and  the  keep,  though 
the  former  is  a  building  not  only 
of  a  much  later  date,  but  much 
more  complete,  than  any  of  the 
older  square  towers  of  entrance 
hitherto  described. 

The  refinements  which  the 
progress  of  arts  introduced,  soon 
caused  the  lords,  who  possessed 
these  kind  of  castles,  to  begin 
to  consider  the  residence  in  tne 
round  keep,  except  merely  in 
time  of  siege,  as  a  mode  of  dwell- 
ing not  so  eligible  as  it  had 
appeared  to  their  haughty  ances- 
tors. The  large  open  well  in 
the  centre  probably  began  to  be 
thought  uncomfortable,  and  there- 
fore induced  them  to  prefer  more 
convenient  and  pleasant  apart- 
ments in  other  parts  of  the  for- 
tress, where  before  they  had  been 
contented  with  one  single  room 

582 


for  state.  From  hence,  ho\i  er 
they  still  took  care  to  leave  nfe 
retreat  to  the  ancient  keep  elf 
in  case  of  necessity ;  to  \ 
they  might  retire  whenev  a 
close  siege  commenced. 

Plate  C  68,  Jig.  1,  is  a  gLl 
plan  of  the  whole  area  ol  his 
fortress,  to  which  there  jfcre 
great  outworks,  with  severaijiep 
ditches,  extending  to  a  con 
able  distance  into  the  com, 
and  having  fine  contrivaru  of 
sluices  and  locks  for  filling  cm 
with  water  j  the  latter  ng 
brought  not  only  to  sun  nd 
the  whole  castle,  but  to  lib 
the  very  foot  of  the  great  vcr 
of  entrance. 

At  1,  just  beyond  the  i 
was  a  round  tower,  nowdestred, 
whereof  the  foundations  st  re 
main  under  ground,  and  \ 
served  as  a  barbican  to  d  ml 
the  approach. 

At  2,  a  drawbridge,  so  conl fed 
as  when  drawn  up  to  rest  ain't 
the  front  of  the  castle,  ai  to 
close  the  entrance  complete 

a  is  the  great  tower  o|;n» 
trance  ;  b  a  high  circular  mnt, 
rising  70  feet  above  the  pr;nt 
area  of  the  castle,  and  lOCeet 
above  the  bed  of  the  rive  its 
base  forming  a  circle  conta  Dg 
almost  exactly  an  acre  of  < 
On  the  top  of  this  is  situate  b 
keep,  of  an  oval  form,  its  lojest 
diameter  without  being  86  et, 
and  its  shortest  76  feet;  ai  its 
longest  diameter  within  64  et, 
and  shortest  50  feet  j  so  thi 
walls  must  have  been,  in  BM 
parts,  at  least,  about  11  P 
feet  in  thickness. 

It  appears  from  these  di 
sions,  that  there  must  have 'en 
a  well,  or  small  open  area  i  W 
centre,  with  pillars  or  ajP 
round  it,  both  to  support^ 
timbers  from  the  side  wall  n 
also  to  afford  air  and  light. 


CASTLE. 


tie  mount  has  been  discovered 
up!i  examination  to  have  been 
foled  of  earth,  dug  out  of  the 
rrjt  ditches  and  trenches  which 
rotund  the  castle,  and  from  the 
print  bed  of  the  river.  And  to 
pr(^nt  such  an  enormous  mass 
as  e  keep,  when  reared  upon 
SUi  new-made  ground,  from 
h.Tig  any  dangerous  or  irre- 
>  u  •  settlement,  its  walls  were 
,  ,,i  ructed  in  a  very  singular 
maber;  for  they  were  not  only 
of  eat  thickness,  and  supported 
by  trong  buttresses,  but  com- 
ic d  with  timber  wrought  up 

ieir  substance.  It  even  ap- 
pend, upon  pulling  down  the 
rui  a  few  years  ago,  that 
at  bout  the  height  of  one- 
,«  thi  part  of  the  building  from 
tht.ground  floor,  there  was  a 

unued  range  of  timber,  by 
wa  of  curb,  wrought  up  in  the 
mk  of  the  substance  of  the  wall 
I  all  >und,  so  that  whatever  settle- 
nie  there  should  be  at  any  time 
in  ie  ground,  the  whole  must 
.  ig  arly  settle  together  or  not 
It  It  is  to  be  observed,  how- 
u'  that  the  ground,  both  within 
and '  ithout  the  area  of  this  build- 
ups l»een  raised  considerably 
abo:  the  original  floor,  and  that 

coper  part  of  the  wall  is  now 
dcsiiyed. 

l!  this  keep  there  were  two 

>•  extraordinary  and  well-pro- 
tect ;  approaches  from  the  other 
of  the  fortress,  which  de- 
icn  the  most  minute  descrip- 

1 ;  one  is  a  covered  way  from 
the  :pper  part  of  the  tower  of 
entriice  at  a,  along  the  top  of  a 
-rl  vail,  which  joins  that  tower 
I  keep  at  b ;  but  where  it 
termates  at  the  keep,  like  that 
at  L  coin,  it  never  entered  either 
upo  he  ground  floor  or  upon  that 
nexi  .bove,  but  went  with  a  very 
■tee  ascent  quite  to  the  state 


apartments,  at  the  top  of  this 
building. 

The  whole  nature  of  it  may 
more  fully  be  understood  by  fig, 
2,  where  a  represents  the  tower 
of  entrance,  and  b  the  lower  part 
of  the  walls  of  the  keep,  and 
so  much  of  the  mount  as  now 
remains. 

At  d  is  the  arch,  leading  from 
the  tower  down  to  the  top  of  the 
wall,  which  appears  to  have  been 
secured  by  a  strong  portcullis 
and  an  iron  door. 

From  d  to  e  is  the  covered 
way. 

At  e  is  the  foot  of  the  exceed- 
ing steep  flight  of  steps,  ascend- 
ing from  thence  to  f;  but  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  is  manifest  they 
neither  ended  there  nor  entered 
the  keep  at  /,  but  went  up  a  con- 
siderable way  above  the  present 
ruins,  where  we  may  be  assured 
there  was  a  doorway,  at  least  as 
well  secured  as  that  at  d ;  and 
so  contrived  that  on  any  emer- 
gency all  communication  might 
easily  be  cut  off,  even  from  this 
covered  way. 

The  wall  of  communication  is 
considerably  higher  on  the  out- 
side of  the  castle  than  within  : 
which  latter  is  the  side  here  re- 
presented. The  ground  without 
is  even  lower  by  26  feet,  on  the 
outward  north  side  of  the  wall, 
than  within  on  the  south,  and  the 
buttresses  at  the  bottom  of  the 
outward  front  of  the  tower  of 
entrance,  spread  out  till  they 
nearly  meet  the  continuation  of 
the  foot  of  the  mount,  under  w ; 
in  which  spot  was  an  open  arch 
that  let  water  in  from  the  outside 
ditches  to  a  well  at  c.  Upon  the 
top  of  the  wall,  over  this  well, 
appear  the  rrftirks  of  a  projecting 
frame-work  of  timber,  made  for 
the  purpose  of  drawing  up  water 
on  either  side,  to  supply  these 
two  buildings  5  but  in  all  proba- 


CASTLE. 


bility  there  was  also  a  well  of 
water  within  the  body  of  the  keep, 
as  at  York,  for  the  service  of  the 
garrison  in  case  of  a  close  siege. 

The  other  extraordinary  ap- 
proach to  the  keep  is  now  in 
great  part  destroyed  ;  but  it  ap- 
pears to  have  been  from  a  great 
round  tower,  of  which  the  foun- 
dations only  now  remain  at  the 
west  corner  of  the  area  of  the 
castle  c,  fig.  1.  From  this  tower 
it  came,  as  a  covered  way,  upon 
the  top  of  the  wall,  about  half 
of  the  intermediate  distance  to- 
wards the  keep,  as  far  as  f,  where 
was  a  steep  descent,  by  stairs,  to 
a  square  subterraneous  vault,  still 
remaining  most  perfectly  entire  j 
from  thence  was  a  subterraneous 
ascent  leading  to  the  summit  of 
the  mount,  where  it  communi- 
cated only  with  the  store  room, 
or  lower  apartment  of  the  keep, 
and  with  a  small  winding  staircase 
within  the  substance  of  the  wall 
at  k3  which  latter  appears  to 
have  g;one  up  directly  to  the 
leads  at  the  top,  and  to  have  had 
no  sort  of  communication  with  the 
state  rooms,  or  any  other  of  the 
intermediate  apartments  within. 

As,  therefore,  the  former  cover- 
ed way  was  obviously  designed 
for  the  use  of  the  governor,  or 
lord  of  the  castle,  and  his  imme- 
diate attendants,  so  we  may  de- 
pend upon  it  this  latter  was  de- 
signed for  the  use  of  the  soldiers 
of  the  garrison,  and  was  their 
common  mode  of  approach  from 
the  tower  a,  and  other  barracks 
where  they  lodged,  so  long  as 
the  area  of  the  castle  was  pre- 
served from  the  hands  of  the 
enemy,  or  till  they  were  more 
closely  besieged  and  shut  up  in 
the  keep  itself.  Part  of  the  steps 
of  this  ascent  were  remaining  in 
the  year  1742. 

In  the  buttress  at  x,  is  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  square  pipe,  form- 

584 


ing  a  drain  to  the  upper  RjL 
ments. 

At  d  are  discovered  the  fou  a. 
tions  of  another  round  t<>£ 
and  at  g  the  remains  of  a  saJS 
square  tower,  which  seem  t0 
have  had  only  two  rooms,  ie 
one  above  the  other. 

At  h  was  a  sally  port, 
constructed,  and  secured  wl 
flight  of  steps  descending-  tow 
the  river  ;  and  between  m  a 
have  been  discovered  foundat 
of  a  range  of  buildings,  whicl 
have  good  reason  to  believe  \ 
mere  additions,  made  after 
time  of  Ed  ward  I. 

The  walls  surrounding  the  :a 
of  the  castle  are,  in  general,  at  it 
10  feet  thick. 

At  i  i  is  the  river,  but  it  d 
not  run  originally  in  the  preiit 
channel,  as  this  latter  was  n  le 
for  it  at  the  time  the  mount  is 
raised,  which  was  in  great  rt 
composed  of  the  strata  of  eh 
dug  from  thence. 

From  the  corner  tower  d  is 
a  strong  wall,  built  across  e 
mouth  of  the  last  ditch  at  aj 
keep  the  water  to  its  frm 
height,  and  over  this  wall 
found  a  passage  and  forme  a 
continual  fall;  whilst  thewle 
work  was  well  protected  b]  s 
nearness  to  the  adjacent  tone 

At  g  was  another  large  j 
strong  weir;  and  from  s(e 
foundations  discovered  at  /> ;  t 
seems  that  a  tower  or  other  \vk 
had,  in  like  manner,  been  ei 
structed  there  for  its  protect^ 

At  a  little  distance  from  s 
weir,  to  the  west  of  the  easjj 
began  a  bank,  which  was  car  d 
two  miles  up  the  country,  thro  ii 
hills  and  vallies,  to  enable  the 
who  had  the  care  of  the  ca  e 
to  fill  the  mote,  at  least  14  t 
above  the  level  of  the  valle;n 
the  neighbourhood.  And  to  e 
north,  in  front  of  the  castle,  wl 


CAS 

two  ther  ditches,  at  a  consider- 
f  ^distance,  the  one  dry,  and 
the  her  capable  of  being  filled 
,  bv  (?ans  of  the  bank  just  men- 
tionl ;  this  last  was  very  deep 
„  and  >road,  and  passed  through 
,f  the  »wn  only  at  a  quarter  of  a 
milrrom  the  gate  of  the  castle, 
,  it';,  we  have  reason  to  believe, 
was'  drawbridge. 

jk  great  tower  of  entrance, 

hi  next  claims  our  attention, 

d)  of  the  most  curious  struc- 
;  rt  at  this  day  remaining  in 
|  )i  nd ;  and  appears,  from  the 
.  vl  of  its  ornaments,  to  have 
bee  erected  either  in  the  time  of 

bj  John,  or  beginning  of  the 
of  Henry  III. 

me  C  6S,  Jig.  3,  is  a  plan  of 

6  round  floor,  and  of  the  great 
por'i.  through  which  is  a  passage 

ft  bass-court  of  the  castle,  or 
I .  dl'm.  The  water  of  the  ditches, 

\  have  before  stated,  washed 
the  ot  of  this  tower ;  and  at  x  xy 
in  i  north  front,  is  the  part 

;a?$t  which  the  drawbridge 
was  rawn  up. 

A  .appear  the  places  for  fixing 
the  ndlass  to  draw  up  the  bridge, 
andiver  head,  just  beneath  an 
arcl'it  a  vast  height,  are  three 
ma(  eolations,  for  pouring  down 
boil  g  lead  and  hot  sand  on  any 
tm  mts,  in  case  the  drawbridge 
sho;l  at  any  time  be  torn  down 
ikI  lis  first  entrance  forced. 

h  %  was  an  enormous  port- 

II,  descending  from  another 
of  t :  high  arches,  near  the  top 
of  t':  tower. 

A3,  a  pair  of  strong  gates  j 
<indetween  the  portcullis  and 
the;  gates,  that  is,  between  2  and 
3,  a  three  more  machicolations, 
pla^l  under  an  arch  somewhat 
low  than  the  former ;  besides 
whi'i,  there  are  two  narrow  loop- 
bol  one  on  the  right  hand  and 
the  other  on  the  left,  from 
whi'ce  any  besiegers  attempting 


TLE. 

the  second  gate  might  be  wound- 
ed, even  with  spears  as  well  as 
by  crossbows. 

Between  3  and  4,  is  a  larger 
area  the  arch  of  which,  over 
head,  is  perforated  the  whole 
way  with  rows  of  machicolations,  1 
placed  at  equal  distances.  At  4, 
another  pair  of  great  gates.  At  5,  a 
second  portcullis,  but  t:ot  ascend- 
ing so  high  in  the  tower  as  the 
former  j  and  at  6,  other  machico- 
lations, as  at  the  first  entrance. 

In  the  middle  of  the  whole 
passage,  on  each  side,  at  a  a,  are 
two  small  doorways,  4  feet  6 
inches  in  width  j  they  were  each 
of  them  secured  first  by  a  strong 
portcullis  and  then  by  iron  doors, 
and  lead  to  the  two  apartments 
on  either  side  the  gateway. 

Even  the  inner  walls,  wherein 
these  doorvvaya  are  placed,  are  5 
feet  5  inches  in  thickness;  from 
whence  we  may  judge  of  the  vast 
strength  of  the  rest  of  this  building. 

The  rooms,  on  each  side,  are 
of  equal  dimensions,  being  about 
28  feet  in  length,  and  15  feet  9 
inches  in  breadth.  The  passage 
between,  from  what  was  the  foot 
of  the  drawbridge,  to  the  end 
next  the  area  of  the  castle,  is 
about  40  feet ;  and  the  gateways 
are  about  10  feet  wide.  The 
room  on  the  left  hand  A  had 
neither  chimney  nor  recess  be- 
longing to  it,  and  seems  to  have 
served  merely  for  lodging  stores  ; 
but  that  on  the  right  B  had  a 
large  fire  place  at  /,  and  near 
adjoining  to  it,  in  the  wall  at  g, 
a  recess,  approached  from  the 
staircase,  which  served  for  a 
privy,  having  a  very  small  win- 
dow at  h,  in  the  construction  of 
which,  it  is  not  a  little  remark- 
able how  completely  it  is  secured 
from  the  possibility  of  any  wea- 
pons that  might  be  shot  doing 
mischief  to  those  within. 

In  both  the   apartments  are 

5S5 


CASTLE. 


loopholes  at  c  c,  and  at  b  b  those 
already  mentioned,  all  of  which 
are  placed  so  high,  that  although 
the  soldiers  who  defended  the 
tower  might  most  easily  annoy 
the  assailants  without,  it  was 
hardly  possible  for  the  latter  to 
wound  those  within. 

At  d  d,  are  two  other  loops, 
which  being  towards  the  inside 
of  the  castle,  are  made  both 
wider,  and  in  every  respect  larger 
for  the  admission  of  air  and  light. 

At  e  e,  are  two  circular  stair- 
cases, well  constructed,  and  arched 
over  head,  both  of  them  going 
quite  to  the  top  of  the  tower,  but 
not  descending  any  lower  than 
this  floor.  They  have,  however, 
as  you  ascend,  recesses  in  the 
eide  wall,  leading  to  the  loop- 
holes, which  are  wonderfully  well 
guarded.  These  lower  rooms  were 
each  13  feet  6  inches  in  height. 

Fig.  4,  is  a  plan  of  the  vaults 
underneath,  which  never  had  any 
way  down  to  them  but  by  traps 
in  the  floors  of  the  rooms  just 
described,  and  having  neither 
light  nor  air  but  what  was  ad- 
mitted by  two  very  remarkable 
narrow  sloping  flues,  opening  to 
the  air  on  the  outside,  at  the 
height  of  9  or  10  feet  above  the 
ground,  and  so  small  that  the  one 
marked  g  is  only  1  foot  by  10 
;nches  ;  and  the  other,  marked  h, 
only  6  inches  in  width. 

The  walls,  being  thicker  near 
the  foundations,  render  these 
vaults  rather  smaller  than  the 
rooms  above. 

At  i,  is  a  reservoir  of  water, 
that  has  been  made  of  late  years 
for  a  sort  of  cold  bath,  but,  from 
its  being  so  readily  and  constantly 
supplied,  we  may  conceive  how 
easy  it  was  to  have  had  a  well  for- 
merly in  this  spot,  and  may  con- 
clude that  in  all  probability  there 
actually  was  one,  either  here  or  at 
least  in  some  part  near  adjoining. 


At  k  k,  are  the  remains  ^ 
strong  partition  wall;  amffc 
floor  at  I  appears  to  have  en 
formerly  sunk  much  beneatl  he 
rest,  which  indicates  this  to  L 
been  the  place  of  the  dunget 

Fig.  5,  is  a  plan  of  the  L 
apartments  on  the  first  floorai  e, 
being  of  just  the  same  dimenjL 
as  the  rooms  on  the  ground  in 
only  the  height  is  no  more  n 
11  feet  6  inches. 

in  m  m  m,  are  narrow  log, 
there  being  no  windows  orhe 
outside  of  this  tower  next  the  c  i 

n  n  n,  are  three  small  wind  «, 
one  to  each  apartment,  loo  kg 
into  the  court  of  the  castle,  id 
in  the  midst  of  the  floor  of  he 
recess  leading  to  that  in  ie 
middle.  Just  over  the  inner  je- 
way  is  the  perforation  of  or  ot 
the  machicolations. 

z  z,  an  open  groove  for  Aw  m 
up  the  inner  portcullis,  w:h 
was  worked  in  this  apart™ 
whilst  the  grooves  of  the  cer 
and  greater  portcullis  appeam 
the  outside  of  the  wall  at  x  a  It 
may  be  remarked,  that  the  w  le 
boarding  of  the  floor  of  is 
middle  room  p,  was  obvioiy 
laid  on  loose,  with  design  1 1 
taken  up  occasionally,  in  ord(  o 
use  the  machicolations  that  ve 
formed  in  the  great  vaulted  jft 
on  the  top  of  which  it  was  pla  I. 

At  o  o,  in  the  rooms  on  <  I 
side,  are  large  fire  hearths  d 
chimneys. 

At  q  q,  the  doors  leading  to  c 
staircases,  the  steps  whereof  e 
still  in  excellent  preservation  d 
well  wrought;  everyone  of  tin 
being  11  inches  in  depth.  I 
cause  of  this  great  depth  seijl 
to  have  been  that  they  wen  o 
contrived  as  to  ascend  by  one  t » 
only  from  this  floor  to  the  nl 
and  so  as  to  have  the  first  stei 
7,  and  the  last  step  of  the  turn ;  > 

From  the   staircase,  on  P 


CASTLE. 


riJt  hand,  at  r,  is  a  passage  to 
a  cess,  or  small  room,  formed 
inihe  thickness  of  the  wall, 
exjtly  of  the  form  and  dimen- 
sion laid  down  in  the  plan  ;  from 
wHice  at  u  is  a  passage  to  an 
irid  doorway  at  /,  which  ap- 

el  clearly  to  have  been  strongly 
leered,  both  by  a  portcullis  and 
an  pn  door,  and  led  down  to  the 
cofed  way  on  the  top  of  thewall 
the  communicated  with  the  keep. 

]om  the  staircase,  on  the  left 
bar,  at  q,  is  another  small 
pa<  ge  w,  leading  to  a  privy,  of 

n  ame  construction  with  that 
on  .ie  opposite  side  on  the  floor 
betith ;  and  at  y  y,  are  the 
ves  for  drawing  up  the  small 
ullises  over  the  side  doors. 
ate  C  69,  Jig.  1,  is  a  plan  of 
thetate  room  above,  which  ap- 
pei  to  have  been  very  magnifi- 
ceri!  and  of  great  dimensions, 

cling  the  whole  area  of 
theihree  rooms  beneath.  It  is 
t  n  divided  into  three  apart- 
me:?,  but  the  walls  forming  the 
(!  vons  are  mere  modern  erec- 

iort  raised  on  the  top  of  the 

ri:ial  ones  in  the  lower  floor, 

fit  a  view  to  fit  up  a  small 
roo<  as  a  library,  which  design 
hasince  been  laid  aside. 
Az,  is  a  large  fire  hearth  and 
iifiey  j  and  at  t  t  are  two  large 
win  i\vs,  highly  ornamented  in 

lie  vie  that  began  to  be  intro- 
duc.  in  the  time  of  king  John, 
and  irliest  part  of  Henry  III. ; 
but  bey  appear  to  have  had  no 
gla*  and  have  been  fenced  only 
itl  ron  bars  and  wooden  shut- 
tersns  is  known  to  have  been 
age  in  early  times. 
A-vv  v,  are  four  narrow  loop- 
bole,  but  there  is  reason  to  think 
that  ie  arches  leading  to  them 
wer  shut  up   as  mere  closets 

"  h  1  the  arras,  except  on  par- 
>  'J     emergencies;    and  that 
-  oble  room,  when  finished 


and  adorned,  was  no  ways  dis- 
figured by  them  ;  it  was  no  less 
than  17  feet  in  height. 

The  beams  of  the  floor  were 
placed  much  nearer  to  each  other 
than  those  of  the  floor  beneath  j 
indeed  they  are  hardly  the  width 
of  a  beam  asunder,  and  seem  to 
have  been  intended  to  support 
occasionally  the  weight  of  a  great 
concourse  of  people. 

The  great  portcullis,  at  the 
first  entrance,  was  drawn  up  here 
behind  the  arras  at  x  x,  but  seems 
to  have  been  so  constructed  that, 
when  at  its  utmost  height,  it  only 
just  filled  up,  and  made  level,  the 
cavity  left  for  it  in  the  floor.  The 
dotted  part  adjoining  shows  the 
top  of  the  wall  underneath,  upon 
which  the  floor  rested  j  for  on 
account  of  the  projection  of  the 
hanging  arches,  in  the  front  of 
the  tower,  the  flat  wail  in  the 
middle  was  advanced  further  out 
here  than  in  the  room  below. 
The  ceiling  of  this  room  was 
still  more  remarkable  than  the 
floor,  being  no  less  than  3  feet 
in  thickness  ;  designed  to  support 
not  only  the  lead  of  the  flat  roof, 
but  the  great  weight  of  balistas, 
catapultas,  and  other  engines  of 
war. 

In  both  the  front  and  back 
walls  appear  the  perforations  of 
the  machicolations,  going  up  quite 
through  to  the  top  of  the  tower, 
where  they  were  easily  approached 
by  means  of  a  set-off  in  the  para- 
pet wall  above,  and  could  with 
more  convenience  and  advantage 
be  made  use  of  than  if  they 
had  opened  into  the  apartments 
beneath. 

*At  y  y,  are  the  doors  to  the  two 
staircases  ;  that  on  the  right  hand 
merely  led  directly  to  the  top  of 
the  building ;  but  from  that  on 
the  left,  at  o,  is  a  passage  leading 
to  a  small  room  in  the  wall,  of 
the  same  proportions  and  dimen- 

567 


CASTLE. 


sions  as  here  represented ;  and 
from  thence  a  second  narrow 
passage  p,  leading  to  an  arched 
doorway,  defended  by  a  portcullis 
and  iron  door ;  and  from  this 
doorway  was  an  exceeding  steep 
flight  of  steps  leading  down  to  a 
covered  way,  on  the  top  of  the 
adjoining  wall,  which  commu- 
nicated with  the  small  square 
tower  marked  y,  in  the  general 
plan. 

At  the  end  of  this  passage- 
room  was  another  arch  leading 
to  a  small  recess,  serving  for  a 
privy,  constructed  just  like  the 
former.  On  the  outside  of  the 
tower,  far  underneath,  appears  a 
large  arched  doorway,  answering 
to  one  exactly  similar  at  the  op- 
posite end  of  the  tower,  the  use 
of  which,  at  first  sight,  is  not  at 
all  obvious;  they  were  both  ori- 
ginally considerably  above  the 
level  of  the  ground,  and  look  in 
every  respect  like  small  side 
portals,  as  much  as  those  above, 
defended  by  the  portcullises  and 
iron  doors.  These  being  placed 
on  the  outside  of  the  walls  of  the 
castle  give  the  tower  a  strange 
appearance  of  injudicious  weak- 
ness ;  but,  odd  as  it  may  seem, 
they  are  found  on  examination  to 
bave  been  designed  partly  for 
deception,  to  mislead  an  enemy 
by  a  false  outside,  and  principally 
to  preserve  cleanliness  5  for  the 
sake,  first  of  concealing,  and  then 
of  easily  removing  the  soil  and 
filth  from  the  easements  above, 
and  to  prevent  its  disfiguring  the 
outside  walls  of  the  tower,  in 
such  a  manner  as  was  the  case 
in  many  other  castles,  where  the 
outlets  to  the  easements  were 
only  loops.  Within  each  of  these 
doors  is  nothing  more  than  a 
small  square  area,  excavated  out 
of  the  wall ;  the  flues  descending 
down  to  which,  from  above,  are 
so  well  constructed  and  secured, 

588 


that  from  this  contrivance  tl 
could  not  happen  even  the  1 
diminution  of  the  strength  of 
castle,  whilst  at  the  same  t 
the  external  appearance  to 
enemy  could  only  serve  to  o.l- 
sion  a  most  ridiculous  kincif 
deception. 

The  situation  both  of  the  J 
doorway  and  of  the  one  for  dei  - 
tion,  that  towards  the  wes.s 
represented  in  Jig.  6,  wher 
shows  the  place  of  the  for 
above  the  top  of  the  wall,  \ 
the  steps  leading  from  th(  e 
down  to  the  covered  way 
goes  to  the  keep ;  and  b  the  p  ie 
of  the  latter,  which  is  one  of  e 
remarkable  arches  of  which  e 
have  been  speaking,  on  the  ( 1 
side  of  the  wall  next  the  ditci 

Besides  these  in  the  tov, 
there  were  more  than  one  net  - 
sary,  in  the  small  tower  ak 
plate  C  68,  Jig.  1 ;  another  at  e 
top  of  the  steps  ascending  to  e 
keep  at  b,Jig.  2  ;  and  a  whole  Jg 
of  them  on  the  wall  from  h  t| 
besides  one  or  two  others  | 
tween  h  and  c ;  the  wholeif 
these  were  so  contrived  aso 
cast  all  filth  out  of  the  arejif 
the  walls,  and  to  be  easily  clean  d 
by  means  of  the  river. 

We  have  already  mentiod 
that  there  was  a  set-off  a 
the  wall  on  the  leads  above;.t 
the  top  of  the  tower  we  be 
been  surveying.  The  wall  tie 
is  not  of  half  the  thickness  i 
it  is  in  all  the  apartments  | 
neath  ;  and  by  that  means  a  m 
and  station  for  the  soldiers  i 
formed  all  round.  On  ascend^ 
these  leads  the  two  circular  sf- 
cases  ended,  being  covered^ 
with  stone  arches  at  top ;  <M 
which  were  formed  platform  « 
lead ;  and  over  the  top  of  e 
windows  t  t  were  two  strai  t 
staircases,  leading  from  the  w 
leads  to  those  two  platforms. 


CASTLE. 


|  the  parapet  wall,  all  round, 
We  many  loopholes  ;  and  from 
sor  appearance  of  remains  of 
theower  parts  of  windows,  next 
'  the:onrt  of  the  castle,  there  is 
rea  n  to  suspect  that  there  were 
alsi  some  smaller  apartments 
,  cor  ructed  here. 

rrieC  69,  Jig.  <2,  represents 
-  e'lorth  front  and  entrance  of 
thereat  tower  ;  remarkable  for 

sigh  arches  hanging  in  a  most 
maiificent  manner,  one  within 
anr  ler,  far  above  over  the  portal, 
am  ontaining  the  first  machico- 

i  is  and  groove  for  the  port- 

;'"c  cui'. 

\thin  the  second  set  of  hang- 
ingirches,  against  the  letter  b, 
ire  the  second  machicolations; 

h  he  loops  of  defence  are  on 
1  eacside. 

'  ere  are  also  two  loopholes 
b  2  above  for  defending  the  ap- 
pro h  to  the  entrance. 

1.3,  represents  the  inner  south 
fro;  next  the  bass-court  of  the 
1  cas1'.  The  great  windows  of  the 
stairoom  are  richly  ornamented, 
but'he  other  smaller  windows, 
5  tho^h  of  the  same  form,  are 
vitiut  the  enrichments  over 
hea'  In  the  gateway  appear  the 
"U  mging  arches,  one  within 
anc'er,  but  neither  so  many  in 
miner  nor  so  lofty  as  those  in 
nher  front.    At  1,  1,  are 

•  >penings  of  the  small  flues 
in  {»  wall,  going  down  to  the 
▼airs  beneath. 

'.  ere  now  remains  but  one  or 
twrhings  more  to  be  observed 
wit  regard  to  this  extraordinary 
bai'ing :  first,  there  seems  to 
be  'mewhat  of  a  new  improve- 
in  e  in  the  device  of  several  of 
the'opholes,  for  they  are  formed 
as  '  presented  in  Jig.  4.  The 
low1-  part  of  the  loop,  on  the 
out  le,at  6,  descending,  by  means 
of ;  , loping  cavity  cut  in  the  wall, 
far'ineath  the  original  opening 


inwards  at  c,  and  by  that  means 
giving  a  far  greater  command  of 
the  area  before  the  castle  to  the 
cross-bow  men,  whilst,  at  the 
same  time,  it  would  mislead  any 
one  who  should  attempt  to  shoot 
a  weapon  into  it  from  without ; 
and  would  direct  that  weapon  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  its 
doing  any  harm,  since  it  must 
strike  either  against  the  plane 
b  c,  or  against  the  top  d  e. 

It  is  remarkable,  too,  that  the 
ornamental  arches,  forming  the 
entrances  to  the  recesses  that 
lead  to  these  loops,  dip  below 
the  rest  of  the  wall  somewhat  in 
the  manner  represented  at  d,  or 
even  lower,  so  that  although,  at 
first  sight,  in  consequence  of  the 
slope  e  f,  these  loopholes  appear 
more  carelessly  formed  than  those 
at  Rochester  or  Canterbury,  yet 
they  are  in  fact  even  more  fully 
secured. 

The  construction  of  the  chim- 
neys also  are  curious  ;  for  not- 
withstanding they  are  unavoid- 
ably represented  in  the  plan,  as 
if  formed  by  means  of  recesses 
in  the  walls  in  the  usual  mode, 
yet,  in  reality,  the  wall  at  tiie 
bottom,  behind  each  fire  hearth, 
is  level  with  the  rest  of  the  walls 
in  the  several  rooms,  and  only  is 
so  formed  as  to  rise  up,  from 
thence  sloping  backwards  con- 
tinually, within  the  thickness  of 
the  rest  of  the  wall,  till  it  reaches 
the  loop  of  exit,  in  the  manner 
represented  in  Jig.  5,  and  so  as 
just  to  afford  room  for  piles  of 
wood  to  be  set  up  on  end  leaning 
against  it,  under  the  flue  ;  which 
mode  of  construction  must  have 
thrown  greater  heat  into  the 
rooms,  and  have  occasioned  a 
better  draught  up  the  chimneys. 

Further,  to  avoid  weakening 
the  walls  too  much,  the  small 
rooms  and  recesses  formed  in 
them,  are  no  where  alike  on  the 
ssy 


two  sides  of  the  tower  on  the 
same  floor,  but  are  placed  counter 
to  each  other  ;  so  that  if  the  wall 
was  at  all  weakened  by  the  recess 
3vi  one  floor,  the  defect  was  made 
good  in  the  strengthening  of  the 
next. 

But  notwithstanding  all  these 
various  devices  and  improvements, 
and  the  elegant  construction  of 
the  whole  of  the  great  tower  of 
entrance,  beyond  what  appears  in 
the  towers  of  entrance  at  Tickhili 
and  Lincoln,  yet  we  may  perceive 
that  the  general  mode  of  fortifi- 
cation most  peculiarly  belonging 
to  the  Normans,  and  which  was 
at  their  first  coming  introduced 
by  them,  has  been  carefully  pre- 
served with  all  its  characteristic 
marks  in  every  part  of  the  general 
plan  of  this  curious  fortress. 

We  find  the  high  mount,  the 
round  keep  on  the  mount,  and 
the  connection  of  this  by  a 
covered  way,  with  the  tower  of 
entrance. 

There  are  many  castles  of  this 
kind  of  construction  in  different 
parts  of  this  kingdom  :  amongst 
which  we  may  safely  venture  to 
pronounce  Trematon  castle,  in 
Cornwall,  notwithstanding  the 
doubts  of  the  ingenious  Dr. 
Borlase  to  the  contrary  to  have 
been  a  Norman  structure  of  the 
first  age,  and  to  have  been  built 
by  Robert,  earl  of  Moreton  and 
Cornwall,  and  half  brother  to  the 
Conqueror. 

Restormcl  castle,  in  Cornwall, 
seems  also  to  have  been  another 
structure  of  the  same  age.  But 
we  agree  with  Dr.  Borlase,  in 
concluding  Lanceston  castle  to 
be  of  much  higher  antiquity,  and 
must  place  it,  both  on  account 
of  the  manner  in  which  the  stair- 
cases are  constructed,  and  on  ac-, 
count  of  the  small  dimensions 
of  the  area  of  the  inner  tower, 
amongst   the   very  first  Saxon 


castles,  and  deem  it  to  be 
of  more  early  date  than  Com . 
borough  itself. 

Nay,  perhaps,  we  should  t 
greatly  err,  if  we  were  to  vente 
still  further,  and  to  conclud  t 
to  have  been  a  work  of  the  . 
cient  Britons,  erected  in  the  i  t 
ages,  in  consequence  of  that  g;  t 
degree  of  art,  beyond  the  res  f 
the  Britons,  which  the  Corn 
men  might  attain  by  means  f 
their  great  intercourse  with  si 
foreigners  as  came  from  afan 
trade  for  tin. 

Whence  the  rude  Picts,  j 
Celtic  Britons,  the  primis 
Saxons,  or  the  Normans,  all  f 
whose  buildings  have  some  L 
tant  resemblance,  obtained  tl  r 
first  ideas  of  military  architecti , 
so  unlike  to  the  Roman,  can  t 
be  precisely  ascertained  j  but 
is  very  remarkable  what  a  gi  t 
similarity  there  is  between  1 
castle  at  Lanceston,  and  the  - 
scription  given  by  Herodotiuf 
Ecbatana,  the  capital  of  Mei 
built  in  the  first  ages  of  I 
world  j  and  of  that  part  pa  • 
cularly  which  may  be  conclud 
to  have  been  the  keep  of  tjt 
ancient  and  magnificent  fortrJ 

At  Lanceston  we  find,  acco- 
ing  to  Dr.  Borlase,  three  grt 
and  elevated  circular  walls,  tow- 
ing over,  and  behind  each  oth; 
namely,  that  of  the  first  wal 
that  of  the  second  ward,  andtt 
of  the  innermost  ward,  or  cenil 
tower.  Besides  which,  there, 
on  one  part,  the  outward  wal  f 
the  bass-court  of  the  cast; 
which  would  appear,  in  imp 
directions,  at  a  distance,  asi 
fourth  wall  beneath  the  rest. 

It  is  almost  impossible  for  if 
one  acquainted  with  ancient  1- 
tory  to  view  these,  and  not  > 
call  to  mind  what  Herodotus  s  s 
of  Ecbatana.  He  tells  us,  Dejos 
compelled  the  Medes  to  co* 


und  one  polity,  and  to  build  a 
eitv  surrounded  with  fortifica- 
tion  and  that  those  strong  and 
nmpficent   walls,  which  were 
kno  i  under  the  name  of  Ecba- 
tanawere  then  built.  They  were, 
'be  iys,  of  circular  form,  one 
(rittf  the  other,  and  each  gra- 
dual; raised  just  so  much  above 
the  :her  as  the  battlements  are 
high  the  situation  of  the  ground, 
'!  wbii  rose  by  an  easy  ascent, 
at!;  beini  favourable  to  the  design, 
eiing's  palace  and  treasury 
wer  built  within  the  innermost 
circiof  the  seven  which  com- 
11  pose  the  city.    The  first,  and 
iskpacious  of  those  walls,  was 
equaia  circumference  to  the  city 
hens,  and  white  from  the 
>t  the  battlements  j  the  second 
»  blatj  the  third  of  a  purple  colour  5 
li  the  urth  blue ;  and  the  fifth  of  a 
«  deeprange  :  all  being  coloured 
ki  withlifFerent  compositions.  And 
i,i  of  t\  two  innermost  walls,  one 
I  was  minted  on  the  battlements 
a  lver  colour,  and  the  other 
lit  gild  with  gold.    Having  thus 
ived  for  his  own  security,  he 
le  (I  the  people  to  fix  their 
m  tions  without  the  walls  of 
6k:  thisjty. 

Ir  his  description,  surely,  we 
(  ery  nearly  a  description  of 
n  Lan  ston  castle,  and  the  adjacent 
:  vi\  almost  the  only  difference 
bein>  that  the  scale,  in  one  in- 
ilan[,  is  rather  larger  than  in 
the  her;  and  that  the  battle- 
men  of  the  walls  of  the  one  were 
paintd  with  different  colours, 
and  ose  of  the  other  left  plain. 

N  cannot,  however,  forbear 
obseing,  that  the  judicious  Mr. 
Comer  concludes  most  of  the 
dun.'cr  round  towers,  in  Scot- 
land o  have  been  built  by  the 
Dan  j  and  informs  us,  from 
goo(' authority,  that  the  Picts 
wen;  connected  with  the  Nor- 
weg  is,  who,  under  the  com- 


mand of  Harold,  assisted  them  in 
the  endeavour  to  recover  their  lost 
possessions  in  Scotland.  Whence 
we  may  infer,  that  all  their  build- 
ings had  one  and  the  same  Celtic 
origin,  jointly  with  the  Norman 
castles,  and  with  these  structures 
of  the  earliest  times  in  Cornwall  3 
and  certainly  they  scarcely  differ 
the  one  from  the  other,  except  in 
such  manner  as  they  might  well 
do,  in  consequence  of  the  slow  ad- 
vancement of  civilization  amongst 
the  various  people  who  built 
them. 

Having  now  investigated  three 
successive  different  methods  of 
constructing  these  important  for- 
tresses, namely,  the  ancient  Saxon, 
the  improved  magnificent  build- 
ings of  Alfred  and  his  successors, 
and  the  first  Norman  piles,  we 
may  easily  perceive  how  the  next 
alteration  was  introduced. 

There  were  but  few  castles  in 
England  before  the  invasion  of 
the  Normans  which,  as  Dr.  Bar- 
low observes,  greatly  facilitated 
the  conquest.  VVrilliarn  was  so 
sensible  of  this  circumstance,  that 
he  promoted  the  building  of  new 
ones  with  all  possible  ardour ; 
several  therefore  were  soon  con- 
structed, as  we  have  seen,  on  the 
original  Norman  plan,  by  himself, 
and  certain  of  his  chieftains.  But 
amongst  other  persons  whom  he 
employed  and  consulted  on  the 
occasion,  was  that  great,  saga- 
cious, and  ingenious  man,  Gun- 
dulph,  bishop  of  Rochester.  This 
extraordinary  genius  began  to 
reason  with  more  acuteness  upon 
the  subject  than  any  architect 
had  done  before  ;  and  being  em- 
ployed, about  the  year  .1078.  to 
direct  the  building  of  the  tower 
of  London,  and  of  some  other 
fortresses,  he  blended  together 
both  the  excellencies  of  Alfred's 
castles,  and  those  of  the  great 
round  towers  of  his  own  country- 


CASTLE. 


men,  and  added  thereto  many  new 
inventions,  for  the  sake  of  increas- 
ing not  only  the  security,  but  also 
the  magnificence,  of  these  piles. 

His  mode  of  building  was  im- 
mediately so  greatly  admired,  and 
so  soon  came  into  fashion,  that, 
although  the  prejudices  in  favour 
of  the  old  plan  long  continued 
amongst  the  Normans,  and  many 
castles  continued  to  be  built 
according  to  it,  yet  many  also,  in 
the  very  same  age,  and  even  in 
the  very  same  year,  were  erected 
on  Gundulph's  plan. 

He  determined  to  get  rid  of 
tne  awkward  labour  of  raising 
high  artificial  mounts,  by  way  of 
defending  the  entrance  and  ap- 
proach to  the  keep,  despised  the 
inconvenience  of  the  central  wall, 
for  the  purpose  of  affording  air 
and  light  in  the  round  towers, 
and  saw  many  defects  even  in 
the  great  castles  of  Alfred,  espe- 
cially in  their  want  of  inward 
defence  to  the  loopholes  in  the 
lower  apartments,  and  in  the 
unguarded  design  of  their  great 
windows  above. 

In  short,  to  him  appears  clearly 
to  be  due,  the  honour  of  the  in- 
vention of  the  noble  high  elevat- 
ed portal,  so  completely  defended 
by  drawbridges,  gates,  and  port- 
cullises, all  placed  in  the  most  ju- 
dicious manner,  in  lieu  of  the  high 
mount ;  the  invention  of  the  mode 
of  properly  defending  loopholes  ; 
the  invention  of  wells  concealed 
in  the  walls,  for  the  purpose  of 
drawing  up  timbers ;  the  improve- 
ment of  the  manner  in  which 
galleries  of  communications  were 
constructed  in  the  walls  j  other 
judicious  devices  with  regard  to 
the  situation  of  staircases,  and  an 
improved  mode  of  constructing 
even  the  very  dungeons. 

The  noble  proportion  and  dis- 
position of  the  state  apartments, 
were  also  another  excellence  in 

592 


Gundulph's  keeps,  as  well  the 
stately  mode  of  approacl  and 
ascent  to  them. 

Of  the  several  castles  bi  by 
Gundulph,  we  shall  particniy 
enumerate  that  at  Roclter, 
Rochester  castle  was  in  eat 
part  re-edified,  if  not  origiUy 
built  by  this  great  man,  out 
the  year  1088,  and  is  one  the 
finest  remains  of  antiquity  i  :his 
country.  It  is  true,  that  j jt  of 
it  is  said  to  have  been  1  ten 
down  in  king  John's  time  but 
the  uniformity  of  the  whole  \m 
that  it  was  most  certainly  re  red 
in  a  manner  similar  to  that  the 
original  construction. 

This  castle  has  been  buii  an 
the  brow  of  a  considerablt 
on  the  banks  of  the  river  ed- 
way;  and  its  principal  t  er, 
which  is  75  feet  by  72,  so 
situated  as  to  command  bos  the 
river  and  the  whole  adent 
country.  It  was  fortified I'itk 
strong  outworks  and  deepdiies, 
and  had  a  considerable  areaa  ind 
it,  enclosed  for  the  use  cthe 
garrison. 

In  the  construction  of  the  t/er, 
the  circumstances  most  man:  stly 
endeavoured  to  be  provide;  for 
by  the  architect,  were, 

1st.  The  security  of  th  en- 
trance,  and  the  rendering^  it 
difficult  to  an  enemy,  but  so  jag- 
nificent  as  to  be  suitable  1  the 
dignity  of  the  person  w!|,« 
commander  in  chief,  was  ere 
to  have  his  residence. 

2dly.  The  protection  ojthe 
whole  garrison  in  case  of  aiose 
siege,  so  that  they  might  njher 
be  annoyed  by  the  weapoj  of 
the  enemy,  nor  be  subje!  to 
have  their  apartments  s •  on 
fire  j  at  the  same  time  tjWg 
care  to    devise  such  mea  *s 


would  enable  them  to  annt 


besiegers  with  safety  to 
selves. 


the 


CASTLE. 


3c» .  The  contriving  to  mislead 
\nd  ceive  the  besiegers,  and  to 
jrawheir  attacks  upon  such  parts 
'.Ml' building  as  were  in  reality 
longest,  and  the  least  liable 
'b  bjnjured  by  them 
,    4t  y.  The  security  of  the  stores, 
nd  e  securing  of  the  prison- 
ers rsuch  a  manner  as  to  need 

0  v2/  considerable  guard. 

M  5tSr'.  The  easy  conveyance  of 
he  eat  engines  of  war,  such  as 
"!  :ilisl,  catapultae,  warwolfs,  and 
:  'Tensive  weapons,  into  the 
'  ario1  apartments,  and  up  to  the 
3p  ope  tower. 
6tl|\  The  means  of  giving  a 
lictdarm  to  all  the  garrison, 
Kt  producing  confusion,  or 
ei  g  the  enemy  to  be  apprized 
11  fit.. 

It.  The  supplying  the  gar- 
:c!  isorit  ith  water. 

Stri  The  conveying  away  the 
moklfrom  the  apartments,  and 
naing  of  drains  to  carry 
ff  thulth. 
i  Ami  lastly,  the    providing  a 
iabiujion   for   the  commander 

1  chf,  or  lord  of  the  castle, 

itely  and  airy,  and  free 
e  annoyance  of  the  ene- 
struments  of  war.  These 
nds  '  re  obtained  by  the  most 
i£en:js  devices.  First,  as  to  the 
ntran1,  nothing  can  be  con- 
e<  nore  completely  adapted 
o  anvcr   the  double  purpose 
^oth  '  state  and  security.  It 
t  in  this  castle.,  nor  in- 
deed i  any  other  ancient  castle 
hat  Have  seen,  says  Mr.  King, 
hat  t('.  entrance  was  either  in 
1  *er   story   or   upon  the 
,rroun,  or  near  to  it,  but  at  a 
onsid  able  height  by  means  of  a 
JFtnd taircase,  which  went  partly 
ound  wo  of  the  fronts  of  the 
sullen  the  outside,  and  termi- 
nated |  a  grand  portal.   But,  be- 
<*e  tl^  portal  could  be  entered, 
foere  as  a  drawbridge  to  be 
4r' 


passed,  the  pulling  up  of  which 
cut  ofi  all  communication  with 
the  flight  of  steps ;  and  there  was 
also  a  strong  gate  about  the 
middle  of  the  staircase,  between 
the  foot  of  it  and  the  drawbridge. 
Nor  was  this  the  only  security, 
for  even  the  grand  portal,  beyond 
the  bridge,  was  not  the  real  en- 
trance of  the  fortress,  but  merely 
the  entrance  of  a  small  adjoining 
tower,  the  whole  of  which  might 
be  demolished  without  any  mate- 
rial injury  to  the  body  of  the 
castle.  Within  this  little  tower 
was  a  sort  of  vestibule,  and  from 
thence  was  a  second  entrance 
(the  real  entrance  of  the  great 
tower  itself),  through  a  second 
portal,  placed  in  the  thickness  ot 
the  wall,  which  was  here  about 
12  feet  thick  ;  and  this  second 
entrance,  as  well  as  the  first 
portal,  was  defended  by  a  port- 
cullis, or  herse,  sliding  in  a  strong 
stone  groove,  and  also  by  a  strong 
pair  of  gates  5  so  that  there  were 
three  strong  gates  to  be  forved, 
and  two  portcullises  to  be  de- 
stroyed, before  this  entrance 
could  be  gained  j  and  one  pair  of 
gates  was  to  be  broken  down,  and 
the  drawbridge  at  a  great  height  to 
be  replaced,  before  even  the  first 
portcullis  could  be  approached. 

How  strong  the  mode  of  forti- 
fying by  means  of  the  portcullis 
was  before  the  invention  of  can- 
non, is  so  well  known,  that  it  is 
almost  needless  to  describe  it; 
but  as  it  will  tend  to  explain 
some  other  parts  of  the  building, 
we  will  just  mention,  that  the 
herse,  or  portcullis,  was  a  strong 
grating  of  timber,  fenced  with 
iron,  made  to  slide  up  and  down 
in  a  groove  of  solid  stone  work, 
within  the  arch  of  the  portal,  just 
as  a  sash  window  does  in  its 
frame,  and  that  its  bottom  was 
furnished  with  sharp  iron  spikes, 
designed  both  to  strike  into  the 

503 


1 


CASTLE. 


ground  or  floor,  for  the  sake  of 
greater  firmness  and  solidity,  and 
to  break  and  destroy  whatever 
should  be  under  it  at  the  time  of 
its  being  let  fall.  Its  groove  was 
contrived  so  deep  in  the  stone 
work,  that  it  could  not  be  injured 
cr  removed  without  pulling  down 
the  whole  wall. 

The  remains  of  the  grooves  of 
both  the  portcullises,  in  both  the 
portals  we  have  described,  and 
the  places  for  working  them  in 
the  rooms  above  are  still  visible, 
as  also  the  remains  and  places 
of  the  hinges  of  the  gates.  We 
may  also  perceive  that,  for  state, 
there  were  in  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  at  the  second  entrance, 
two  stone  seats  in  large  niches 
for  the  warders,  or  for  those 
who  by  military  tenure  kept 
castle  guard. 

Besides  this  grand  entrance 
there  was  none  other  of  any  con- 
sequence, and  indeed  there  was 
no  possibility  of  getting  in  or  out 
the  castle  otherwise  than  by  it, 
except  by  a  small  sally  port,  or 
narrow  doorway,  situate  directly 
under  the  drawbridge,  and  there- 
fore in  a  place  where  any  assail- 
ants might  easily  be  annoyed, 
both  from  the  top  of  the  stone 
steps  and  from  the  first  portal, 
and  if  there  were  any  machicola- 
tions over  that  portal  by  them 
also.  This  little  sally  port  was 
at  such  a  height  from  the  ground 
that  it  could  only  be  approached 
by  a  scaling  ladder,  as  it  had 
neither  stone  nor  other  fixed  steps. 
And  lest  even  this  entrance,  thus 
secured,  should  be  forced,  provi- 
sion was  made  within  the  castle 
that  it  should  give  no  easy  ad- 
mittance to  the  main  body  of  the 
building;  for,  from  hence,  to  the 
grand  entrance  in  the  apartments 
of  the  floor  above,  there  was  no 
ascent,  except  by  one  small  wind- 
ing staircase,  although,  in  the 


next  story,  there  were  nc  ess 
than  three  convenient  stai  51 
leading  to  the  upper  apart 
of  the  castle.    This  staircas 
so  narrow  that  a  single  se  , 
could  easily  defend  the  pas 
it  was  also  well  secured  by:W 
doors. 

Fig.  1  and  %  plate  C  7( |  are 
plans  of  the  tower  ;  the  first  i  inn 
designed  to  represent  the  our 
where  the  grand  entrati  j 
situate,  at  the  top  of  the  fli  t  of 
steps  ;  and  the  second  a  ]  10! 
the  floor  above,  which  co  m  5 
the  state  apartments. 

Fig.  3  is  an  elevation  1  the 
tower  on  the  north-east  sit  to- 
gether with  the  smaller  wee 
with  which  it  is  connecte  and 
in  which  is  the  vestibul  bu 
grand  entrance. 

In  Jig.  1,  a  b  c  is  the  ai 
flight  of  steps,  the  bottom  ling 
at  a.    At  /,  on  the  first  la 
was  a  strong  arch  over  hea 
a  great  massy  gate  ;  and  at  was 
the  first  grand  portal,  ft 
by  a  strong  gate  and  porlllis. 
Between  c  and  d  was  the  aw- 
bridge;  at  e  was  the  vest  lie ; 
and  at  g  the  second  grand  pal, 
fortified  also  by  another  ga  and 
portcullis.    At  h  are  the  real 
niches  on  both  sides  the  ; 
with  stone  benches  for  thjvar- 
ders,  or  those  who  kept 
guard  at  the  gates. 

In  the  plan  of  the  groun  Inor 
at  i,  Jig.  2,  is  the  place  for 
ing  the  herse,  or  portcul 
the  last  portal  ;  and  at  A|  the 
place  for  working  the  poiMNi 
over  the  first  portal.    Tl  v 
proach  to  the  first  mention  was 
from  a  gallery  within  the  '  - 
ness  of  the  walls;  and  t|, ap- 
proach to  the  second  wa  ro 
the    former,    and    throug  the 
chamber  over  the  vestibuh 

In  Jig.  3,  I  and  1  she  the 
remains  of  the  grand  staiW 


C  A  S  T  L  F. 


4  ie  grand  portal,  the  bottom 
elwhich,  notwithstanding  the 
so  and  dirt  that  has  accumulated 
c  id  the  castle,  is  still  20  feet 
)  the  ground  ;  and  at  3  is  the 
-port  still  at  the  height  of  7 
fel  so  that  we  may  conclude 
th  it  was  in  former  times  still 
m  e.    Over  this  was  the  draw- 
brige. 

he  present  entrance  to  the 
i  e  is  through  a  modern  breach 
e  in  the  wall  at  a  place  where 
th,e  was  originally  a  loophole  ; 

represented  at  /,  Jig.  1.  At 
m  the  only  staircase  leading  to 
th<  ground  floor ;  and  at  n  and  o 
arttwo  other  staircases,  com- 
bing at  this  floor,  where  the 
d  entrance  was  formerly 
-it  te,  and  thence  leading  to  the 
to  >f  the  castle. 

condhj.  The  contrivances  in 
:  structure  of  this  tower  for 
lirotection  of  the  garrison  in 
i-  of  a  close  siege,  and  after 
thoutworks  should  be  taken, 
we  most  remarkable,  and  the 
me  ods  devised  to  secure  them 
(it  fro|    being    annoyed    by  the 
,    eney's   weapons,   and    yet  to 
ai  e  them  to  annoy  the  be- 
liejrs,  were  most  curious,  and 
are  ell  deserving  our  attention. 
(  the  ground  floor  there  were 
o  indows,  and  but  few  loop- 
<l  ,  and  even  these  were  ex- 
e  )gly  small,  not  being  much 
k*!  0'  inches  square.    On  the 
ii  »r  -east  side  there  was  abso- 
lute,  none,  and  on  the  other 
BiiU  only  two  at  the  most;  their 
ri  ure  and  situation  being  such 
Ibajjio  weapon  could  possibly 
enUfar  enough  to  fall  into  the 
>a  nents,  nor  could  any  fire- 
»rai   be  thrown  in  to  do  mis- 
chit  or  reach  further  than  the 
boti.n  of  the  arches,  through 
•hi    these  loopholes  were  ap- 
pro; ied  from  within  the  castle; 
"or  ere  there  any  other  beside 


loopholes  in  the  story  above, 
where  the  grand  portals  were 
situate. 

The  third  story  contained  the 
rooms  of  state,  and  although 
there  were,  indeed,  in  these 
rooms,  most  magnificent  win- 
dows, yet  they  were  placed  so 
high  in  the  apartments,  which 
were  on  that  account  exceedingly 
lofty,  and  were  so  peculiarly  con- 
trived that  it  was  almost  impos- 
sible for  any  weapon  to  be  shot 
into  the  room  to  do  any  mischief. 
If  the  weapon  entered  in  an  as- 
cendingdirection  it  struck  against 
a  low  arch  and  could  not  enter 
the  room  ;  and  if  it  was  shot  with 
such  force,  and  from  such  a  dis- 
tance, as  to  enter  the  room  nearly 
horizontally,  it  must  then  have 
force  also  to  go  quite  across  the 
room,  at  a  great  distance  over 
head,  and  most  probably  would 
lodge  in  the  arches  of  the  wall 
on  the  opposite  side,  so  that  it 
was  hardly  possible  for  a  weapon 
to  have  fallen  into  the  room,  and 
if  perchance  it  did  so,  it  must 
have  been  after  it  had  struck  the 
opposite  wall  and  lost  its  force. 

But,  in  order  to  understand 
this  the  more  fully,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  recourse  to  some 
diagrams.  Fig.  4,  plate  C  70, 
shows  the  front  view  of  an  arch 
on  the  ground  floor,  in  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall,  and  its  corres- 
pondent loophole,  as  seen  within 
the  castle  ;  and  Jig.  5,  plate  C  71, 
is  a  section  of  ihe  same. 

The  loophole  is  placed  at  the 
end  of  an  arch  cut  through  the 
wall,  which,  in  this  part,  is  at 
least  12  feet  in  thickness  The 
hole  is  placed  at  the  very  top  of 
the  arch,  and  is  approached  by  a 
flight  of  steps,  which  do  not  begin 
till  you  have  advanced  some  little 
way  under  the  arch  ;  and  the 
loophole,  by  means  of  a  rising  in 
the  vaulted  roof,  at  the  further 


CASTLE. 


end,  is  not  only  placed  at  the  top 
of  the  arch,  but  in  reality  con- 
siderably above  the  vaulting  at 
the  entrance  :  so  that  whatever 
weapon,  or  stone  from  a  cross- 
bow, or  firebrand,  or  firearrow, 
was  shot  in  by  the  besiegers,  it 
must  strike  against  the  rising  part 
of  the  vaulting,  and  fall  down 
within  the  arch,  without  a  possi- 
bility of  doing  any  great  injury. 
It  could  strike  no  one  unless  it 
were  a  crossbow  man,  who  might 
at  that  very  instant  be  at  the  loop- 
hole within  the  castle,  going  to 
shoot  at  the  enemy,  and  even  he 
must  place  himself  very  awkward- 
ly to  be  struck  by  it ;  for  these 
loopholes,  though  the  lowermost 
in  the  castle,  are  yet  so  high  from 
the  ground,  that  any  weapon  from 
without  must  ascend  to  enter 
them  ;  and  as  to  any  firebrand, 
or  firearrows,  shot  in,  it  is  plain 
that  such  must  fall  down  within 
the  stone  arch  and  there  remain. 

Another  circumstance  that  de- 
serves notice  is,  that  whereas 
the  wall  might  appear  to  have 
been  weakened  by  these  arches, 
yet  the  steps  so  strengthen  it, 
and  there  is  so  great  a  thickness 
left,  even  close  round  the  loop- 
hole, that  not  the  slightest  danger 
could  be  apprehended  from  that 
account. 

Thus  was  the  lower  floor  pro- 
tected ;  which,  both  on  account 
of  its  strength  and  darkness,  was 
in  general  designed  merely  to 
hold  the  stores. 

These  lower  rooms  (for  there 
were  two  of  them)  reached  from 
the  ground  to  a  little  beneath  the 
bottom  of  the  drawbridge  and 
grand  portal,  so  that  their  height 
was  at  least  above  14  feet. 

The  next  rooms  reached  in 
clear  height  above  20  feet  more, 
almost  to  the  lower  range  of 
loopholes,  seen  in  Jig.  3  j  it  is 
therefore  plain,  that  on  this  floor, 


which  contained  the  prin.  al 
entrance,  there  were  no  wind  j 
nor  lights,  nor  even  looph  I 
on  the  same  side  with  thJj 
trance.  The  reason  of  thll 
obvious,  for  had  there  been  ay 
they  would  have  been  too  n':h 
exposed  to  the  enemy  when  I 
had  made  themselves  masteluf 
the  steps,  or  were  making  m 
attack  upon  the  portal. 

It  is,  however,  to  be  obser  ], 
that  in  the  vestibule,  in  the  si 
tower,  on  this  very  floor,  tl 
are  large  and  handsome  m 
dows ;  but  then  this  vesti  lie 
seems  to  have  been  considid 
as  a  place  of  very  little  imp  t- 
ance  in  a  close  siege,  and  w  e 
none  of  the  garrison  would  ie 
found.  The  portcullises  of  1  h 
portals  were  worked  in  or  iir 
the  room  above,  and  in  thatroi, 
though  so  much  higher,  ti  e 
are  only  loopholes ;  the  dispi- 
tion  of  the  loopholes  and  e 
windows  of  this  small  tower  bt  g- 
in  an  inverted  order  from  tl  e 
of  the  great  tower. 

The  large  and  elegant  winds 
in  the  vestibule,  added  to  e 
stateliness  of  the  entrance,  ol 
sioned  therefore  no  sort  of  dar:r 
to  the  garrison. 

This  second  story,  thought 
had  no  other  large  windows  ta 
those  in  the  vestibule,  had  h 
ever  loopholes  on  all  the  si< 
except  that  to   the  north-e: 
and  being  so  much  higher  t 
were  allowed  to  be  larger 
those  on  the  ground  floor 
other  respects    they  were  c 
trived  much  in  the  same  mam 
only  that  instead  of  steps  tl 
was  a  stone  stage,  within  the 
wall,  on  which  two  crossbow  TP- 
might  stand.    (See  Jig.  6,  jm 

C71°  .  i 

On  this  floor  was  the  ZW 
chamber  ;  and  here  the  chief  jit 
of  the  garrison  had  their  reside  e 


CASTLE. 


an  lodging.  Within  the  wall 
a]J  at  the  north  corner,  is  a 
BIJl  room  with  a  fire-place, 
wjkh  seems  to  have  been  the 
rtfjon  of  some  officer  who  com- 
ded  the  guard.  Its  situation 
J  be  seen  at  p,  fig.  1,  plate 
C  ). 

o  us,  in  this  more  refined  age, 
v  naturally  seem  astonishing 
hoi  so  great  a  number  of  men 
cold  find  lodging  in  such  a  build- 
in!  but  an  anecdote,  which  we 
w|  on  good  authority,  relate  of 
rh  family  of  lord  Lovat,  (who 
wj  one  of  the  last  chieftains  that 
rerved  the  rude  manners  and 
da-arous  authority  of  the  feudal 
i  may,  perhaps,  give  us 
3e  idea  of   their  manner  of 

ling.  "This  powerful  laird 
re  led  in  a  house  which  would  be 
-lined  but  an  indifferent  one 
fo  i  verv  private,  plain,  country 

lenmn,  in  England,  having, 
wielieve,  only  four  rooms  on  a 
flok  and  those  not  very  large. 
He,  however,  he  kept  a  sort  of 
co  i,  and  several  public  tables, 
an  had  a  numerous  body  of 
rei  ners  always  attending.  His 
ov  constant  residence,  and  the 


2  where  he  received  company, 
at  dinner,  was  in  the  very 
i  where  he  lodged  ;  and  his 
s  sole  apartment  was  her 
oom  ;  and  the  only  provision 


ev 
ro 
Ia< 
be 

f oi the  lodging  of  the  servants 
an  retainers  was  a  quantity  of 
Up,  which  they  spread  every 
nr^t  on  the  floors  of  the  lower 
rons,  where  the  whole  of  the 
infior  part  of  the  family,  con- 
sis  ig  of  a  very  great  number  of 
pe  ins,  took  up  their  abode." 

le  next  floor  to  this,  or 
■fl  story,  contained  the  rooms 
of  ate,  and  was  about  32  feet 
in  eight,  taking  in  the  lower- 
m<  range  of  loopholes,  and  the 
munificent  windows  above. 

ie  loopholes  were  contrived 


just  like  those  last  mentioned ; 
but,  in  all  probability,  the  arches, 
through  which  they  were  ap- 
proached, were  concealed  behind 
the  arras,  with  which,  according 
to  the  custom  of  the  times,  these 
rooms  were  hung ;  and  the  great 
windows  were  placed  at  such  a 
vast  height  in  the  rooms,  and  so 
far  from  the  ground,  that  any 
weapons  shot  in  must,  in  all  pro- 
bability, on  that  account  alone, 
strike  against  the  top  of  the 
arches  that  were  cut  in  the  wall 
to  give  light  from  these  windows. 
The  vaulting  of  these  arches  was 
purposely  placed  so  low,  and  so 
near  to  the  top  of  the  windows, 
that,  large  and  magnificent  as 
they  were,  it  was  nevertheless 
almost  impossible  for  any  wea- 
pons shot  in  to  reach  the  ceilings 
of  the  rooms,  or  considering  the 
thickness  of  the  walls,  even  to 
come  into  the  rooms  at  all. 

It  also  deserves  notice  that,  for 
the  convenience  of  the  garrison, 
in  case  of  a  close  siege,  and  that 
orders  might  be  speedily  com- 
municated to  all  parts,  there  was 
on  this  floor,  within  the  thickness 
of  the  wall,  in  the  space  between 
the  loopholes  and  the  windows, 
a  gallery,  as  represented  by  the 
dotted  lines  in  fig.  2,  which  in 
different  places  ascended  and  de- 
scended by  means  of  steps.  From 
this  gallery,  and  the  staircase  at 
m,  there  was  an  easy  communi- 
cation both  with  the  great  cavities 
in  the  walls  at  i  and  k,  w  here  the 
two  great  portcullises  of  the  two 
portals  were  worked,  and  also 
with  the  chamber  over  the  vesti- 
bule. Besides  these,  there  was, 
in  the  floor  above,  a  smaller  and 
narrow  er  gallery, within  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall. 

As  to  the  fourth  or  uppermost 
story  of  all,  the  rooms  of  which 
were  about   16'  feet  in  height, 
there  was  no  need  of  anv  prccau- 
5^7 


CASTLE. 


tions  in  the  structure  of  the  win- 
dows. It  had,  therefore,  very 
large  ones,  like  the  grand  apart- 
ments, and  these  were  not  far 
from  the  floor.  The  rooms  here, 
as  well  as  the  leads  of  the  castle, 
were  occasionally  used  for  the 
catapultas,  balistas,  warwolfs, 
and  other  instruments  of  war,  to 
annoy  the  enemy,  and  were  the 
places  from  whence  the  soldiers 
most  conveniently  attacked  the 
besiegers.  From  these  rooms 
there  was  a  door  which  opened 
upon  the  leads  of  the  small  tower, 
as  may  be  seen  in  fig.  3,  on  which 
instruments  of  war  might  also 
be  placed. 

Thirdly.  It  was  customary  in 
ancient  castles  to  enJeavour  to 
draw  the  attention  of  the  besieg- 
ers from  the  weakest  part  of  the 
buildings  by  giving  to  some  parts 
that  were  much  stronger  a  still 
greater  appearance  of  weakness. 
In  the  castle  under  consideration, 
the  first,  and  most  remarkable, 
was  a  stone  arch  and  false  portal 
on  the  staircase,  just  by  the  first 
gate  g,  fig.  3.  Its  appearance, 
certainly,  could  answer  no  other 
end  than  to  deceive  and  mislead 
the  besiegers,  by  inducing  them 
to  attempt  a  breach  in  this  place, 
when  once  they  had  made  them- 
selves masters  of  the  steps  and 
of  the  first  gate  ;  for  any  one 
who  looks  at  the  north-east  front 
of  this  building,  would  instantly 
conclude,  that  there  was  formerly 
an  ancient  entrance  at  this  place; 
but  upon  carefully  measuring  and 
examining  the  inside  of  the  castle 
it  will  be  found  that  this  imagi- 
nary entrance  is  directly  against 
the  most  solid  part  of  the  trans- 
verse wall,  being  not  only  against 
the  side  cf  the  solid  north-east 
wall,  which  is  here  1*2  feet  thick, 
but  moreover  against  the  end  of 
the  north-west  wall  at  N,  fig.  1. 
It  may  also  be  observed,  that  the 

598 


small  apartment  p,  before  in. 
tioned,  as  being  at  this  nfe 
corner,  is  above  the  crown  o  g 
arch,  and  consecpiently  couk  (>t 
diminish  the  strength  of  the  ill 
of  this  false  portal. 

That  deception  alone  was  - 
signed  by  the  construction  of  lis 
arch  appears  the  more  probw 
because  in  Dover  castle  therej  a 
similar  great  arch  and  false  r- 
tal,  situated  in  a  somewhat  sin  ir 
manner,  and  another  small  p 
portal  on  the  ground,  on  ie 
the  south  side,  which,  on  exiii- 
nation,  is  found  to  be  not  ■ 
against  the  whole  thickness 
the  wall  of  that  front,  but  ,o 
directly  against  the  end  of  ie 
strong  partition  wall  in  the  mice, 
that  separates  the  rooms  of  it 
castle.  Something  of  the  sjie 
kind  may  also  be  observe* in 
the  castle  at  Norwich,  where  e 
two  great  arches  onthegrod 
on  the  west  side,  which  1  e 
often  been  supposed  ancient  - 
trances,  and  at  least  appear  w  k 
places,  are  in  reality  the  stroni  t 
parts  of  the  walls. 

The  next  deception  was  e 
round  tower  at  the  south  anglis, 
fig.  1  ,•  and  here,  as  well  as  y 
the  false  portal,  many  late  I 
servers  of  this  building  have  bn 
deceived,  just  as  the  besie^s 
were  intended  to  be;  for  it  s 
been  taken  for  granted,  that  s 
was  a  weak  part  of  the  buildi  \ 
and  that  this  tower  was  raiseo 
strengthen  it.  Indeed  it  appt$ 
on  the  outside  that  this  roil 
tower  might,  at  any  time,  e 
more  easily  battered  down  t'i 
any  other  part  of  the  castle.  H 
whoever  attempts  the  experimt , 
will  soon  discover  his  error ;  r 
though  it  has  loopholes,  ;1 
seems  on  the  outside  to  bd 
very  injudicious  structure,  it  , 
in  reality,  almost  a  mass  of  8(1 
stone,  having  no  cavities,  excl 


CASTLE 


a  irrow  passage,  and  a  dark 
rod  or  cell,  at  the  bottom,  of  very 
co'facted  dimensions.  The  dun- 
gel  for  the  reception  of  prisoners, 
wa invariably  attached  to  the  old 


En 
it 

to\ 


ish  castle;  in  Rochester  Castle 
as  beneath  the  small  square 


oining  the  keep;  in  others 
under  the  keep  itself.    It  was 
enied  by  a  narrow  and  steep  flight 
ps  in  the  wall.    Air  was  ad- 
d  only  by  an  aperture  in  the 
roci  which  was  secured  by  a  fall- 
in"  or  trap-door.      Within  the 
may  walls  of  this  castle,  there  are 
11  square  wells,  which  open  at 
thoottom  on  the  ground -floor,  and 
ried  to  the  top  of  the  build- 
.  laving  in  their  ascent  branches 
f  tssage  leading  to  galleries  on 
d  upper  floors.    It  is  believed 
such  cellular  passages  within 
pal,  first  occur  in  the  castles  of 
bis  p  Gundulph,  and  were  pro- 
bab  intended  for  quick  convey- 
an<  to  the  ramparts  and  top  of 
the  :astle.    The  principal  castles 
bui1  on  the  plan  of  bishop  Gun- 
iifi,   are,   Canterbury,  Dover, 
Lupw,  Richmond  in  Yorkshire, 
anrrledingham  in  Essex. 
'  e  reign  of  Stephen  is  most 
ted  for  the  erection  of  castles 
dm  g  the  prevalence  of  the  mixed 
An  >  Norm  an  style.     The  castle 
f  iwark  in  Nottinghamshire  is  a 
finfispecimen   of   the  castellated 
tntfuities  of  the  twelfth  century. 
It  i  believed  to  have  been  erected 
by  exander  bishop  of  Lincoln,  and 
thej)riginal  and   most  important 
par.  of  it  still  exist.    It  occupied 
a  l^e  oblong  square,  on  a  high 
bail  by  the  side  of*  the  Trent ;  the 
kee,  appears  to  have  been  in  the 
cen(2  of  one  of  the  ends  ;  it  is  of 
an  ,blong  form,  and  consists  of 
thr<  stories.    On  the  ground- floor 
are  vo  rooms,  without  either  win- 
dov^r  loop-hole  ;  in  one  of  these 
wan  well,  and  a  recess  leading  to 


a  dismal  dungeon.  Next  above 
was  the  principal  room,  which  was 
entered  by  a  covered  way  from  the 
adjoining  wall.  The  grand  stair- 
case of  the  keep  commences  on  this 
floor,  and  leads  to  the  state  apart- 
ments, which  are  immediately  above. 
These  were  small,  and  chill  in  as- 
pect ;  but  the  principal  room  was 
lighted  by  a  large  and  handsome 
window.  The  outer  staircase  pro- 
ceeded from  the  base  of  the  inner 
court,  to  the  battlements  and  top 
of  the  building:,  having;  no  commu- 
nication  with  the  apartments  of  the 
keep  :  smaller  towers  appear  to 
have  been  placed  at  each  corner  of 
the  fortress,  one  of  which  yet  re- 
mains. The  castle  of  Tiverton  in 
Devonshire  is  an  interesting  speci- 
men of  the  time  of  Henry  I. 
Amongst  the  strongest  castles  of 
the  reign  of  Stephen  were  Norham 
in  Northumberland,  Sheriff-Hutton 
in  Yorkshire,  and  Brancepeth  in 
Durham.  The  persons  most  dis- 
tinguished in  the  time  of  Henry  I. 
and  Stephen,  for  castle  building, 
were  Roger  bishop  of  Sarum,  and 
Alexander  bishop  of  Lincoln.  The 
former  is  particularly  celebrated  by 
contemporary  historians.  He  built 
or  much  enlarged  the  castles  of 
Malmsbury,  Devizes,  Sherborne, 
and  Sarum.  He  was  the  first  who 
in  his  buildings  joined  the  courses 
of  stone  so  nicely  together,  that, 
according  to  William  of  Malms- 
bury,  "  the  joint  deceives  the  eye, 
and  leads  us  to  imagine  that  the 
whole  wall  is  composed  of  a  single 
block." 

The  last  specimens  of  castellated 
architecture,  between  the  reigns  of 
Stephen  and  Edward  I.  are  Knares- 
borough  and  Beeston  castles  ;  both 
of  them  very  irregular  piles,  the 
latter  of  which  consists  of  circular 
towers. 

About  the  time  of  the  first  Ed- 
ward, in  the  thirteenth  century,  a 


CASTLE. 


more  magnificent  style  was  intro- 
duced, with  numerous  towers,  splen- 
did and  capacious  halls,  and  occa- 
sionally the  appendage  of  religious 
houses.    The  castle  of  Caernarvon 
was  built  by  Edward  after  his  con- 
quest of  Wales  in  1282,  and  the 
external  walls  yet    remain  ;  two 
sides  of  which  were  originally  de- 
fended by  an  embattled  terrace, 
extending  to  a  deep  water  ;  a  fosse 
fronted  the  remaining  sides.  The 
walls  are  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in 
thickness,  surrounded  by  an  enclo- 
sed passage,  with  narrow  loop-holes. 
Above    the    embattled  parapet, 
arise,  in  majestic  grandeur,  nume- 
rous turreted  towers,  not  uniform, 
but  pentagonal,  hexagonal,  and  oc- 
tagonal ;  with  three  others  to  the 
north,  two  rising  higher  than  the 
rest.      The  Eagle  Tower    has  a 
stone  carving  of  that  bird,  with 
three  elegant  turrets,  and  is  remark- 
ably beautiful.    There  is  a  peculiar 
grandeur  in  the  principal  entrance 
on  the  east ;  and  beneath  a  tower, 
on  this  front,  is  a  statue  of  Edward, 
in  a  menacing  posture,  with  a  sword 
half-drawn  in  his  hand.     It  may 
be  seen,  by  the  grooves  in  the  gate- 
way, that  it  was  defended  by  four 
portcullises.    The  Queen's  Gate  is 
considerably  raised  above  the  moat, 
and  only   accessible  by  a  draw- 
bridge.   There  is  a  deep  well  in 
the  north-east  corner,  contiguous  to 
a  round  tower,  over  a  dungeon. — 
Such  is  the  delineation  of  Caernar- 
von Castle,  founded  on  a  rock,  and 
remaining  almost  entire.  Within 
is  an  irregular,  oblong  area,  with 
two  walls,  forming  an  outer  and 
inner  court.    The  remains  of  spa- 
cious windows  and  elegant  tracery 
distinguish  the  state  rooms,  which 
present  a  square  front,  but  are  all 
polygonal  internally.      About  70 
yards  remain,  of  a  covered  passage, 
originally  extending  round  the  in- 
terior of   the   castle  ;    the  only 

600 


remaining  staircase,  is  that  o  lie 
Eagle  Tower,  whose  summit  n>- 
mands  an  extensive  view  of  their, 
rounding  country,  and  the  is  0f 
Anglesea.  Edward  the  Secoi  i8 
said  to  have  been  born  in  a  tie 
dark  room  in  this  tower,  in  vU 
there  is  a  fire-place;  but  the d- 
joining  central,  spacious  apartr'it 
on  the  same  floor,  has  more  o- 
bably  been  the  place  of  the  al 
accouchement. 

Conway  Castle  is  another  of  d- 
ward  the  First's  erection,  supped 
by  the  same  architect  as  the  e- 
ceding,  and  built  in  the  year  1)4, 
A  more  beautiful  fortress,  perl  >s, 
never  arose;  certainly  England  je$ 
not  contain  its  equal ;  but  it  in 
a  ruinous  state.    The  heap  of  3- 
bish  in  the  river,  is  all  that  rems 
of  the  round  tower,  which  te  i- 
nated  a  curtain  rampart  intende  d 
prevent  the  enemy's  approach  ljm 
the  river ;  a  similar  tower  atjbe 
opposite  end  of  this  wall  is  so 
destroyed.    Part  of  a  tower  oijhe 
south  side  yet  remains,  hanjig 
over  the  foundation  rock  in  at  b> 
lique  direction.    The  form  of  lis 
castle  is  an  oblong  parallelogii, 
extending  along  the  verge  of  aie- 
cipitous  rock,  washed  on  two  iiei 
by  forked  branches  of  the  rir; 
the  other  fronts  face   the  t<|B. 
The  walls  are  of  great  thickijs, 
flanked  by  eight  vast,  circular,  > 
battled  towers,  each  with  a  sic  r 
turret,  machiolatcd,  rising  fronvie 
top,  ascended  by  a  spiral  staireje, 
and  used  as  a  watch-tower,  m 
two  principal  gates  are  admin U 
contrived  for  security:  the  grid 
entrance  was  at  the  north-west  4 
by  a  drawbridge,  over  a  fosse,  dffl 
and  wide  ;  the  other  was  from  w 
river,  through  a  small  advaiul 
postern;  the  common  entrance  s 
on  the  north-east,  by  a  steep  d 
winding  path.    Except  the  st; - 
hall,  few  of  the  apartments  are  - 


CASTLE. 


o-uiable ;  its  length  is  30  feet, 
he"  ladth  nearly  the  same,  and 
Sight  20  feet:  the  roof  was 
uj  x  ed  by  eight  arches,  only  four 
.t  h  now  remain.    It  had  two 
ire-ppcs,  and  was  lighted  by  six 
,  to  windows  toward  the  river, 
i  tee  larger  toward  the  court, 
idejeath  were  extensive  vaults, 
i  ire,  ammunition,  and  military 
tores:    Opposite   the  principal 
jiatewi'  are  two  towers,  one  called 
Wig's,  the  other  the  Queen's; 
i  hese  ^ntained  several  rooms  each  ; 
a.r  had  a  recess  in  the  wall, 
i   groined  roof,  the  ribs  of 
hdivided  the  whole  into  six 
Jtments,  with  seats,  and  lan- 
v  (lows ;   it  was  called  the 
riewr  queen's  toilet-room. 
,  i  Caolly  Castle,  in  Glamorgan- 
shire,! the  cer.ire  of  an  open  plain, 
nsrather  the  ruin  of  a  small 
, an  of  a  castle  ;  it  is  said 
l)behe  largest  ruin  in  Britain. 
'  lie  I'jh  outer  rampart,  with  its 
lassiv  abutments,  and  numerous 
)wers;  is  yet  nearly  entire,  and 
I  striking  idea  of  its  extent, 
n  surging  this  ruin,  we  pass  the 
arbic- ,  now  formed  into  habi- 
ition4  and  proceeding  between 
vo  ri  ed  towers,  enter  the  great 
reao'the  castle.    To  the  rght  is 
1  rangof  buildings  ;  the  barracks 
nd  grison,  under  the  rampart; 
del,   hall,  chapel,  state- 
B,  nd  other  apartments,  con- 
fiiutii;  what  was  properly  termed 
ie  caie.    With  difficulty  passing 
wet  tr't>aq:ments  of  another  draw- 
'"•'dgc  nd  its  auxiliary  towers,  we 
pproai,  the  first  court,  and  thence 
bioug  a  large  gateway,  with  seve- 
aj  groi  es  for  portcullises,  to  the 
fiocirJ  court  of  the  castle,  the  area 
t  whi(  is  70  yards  by  40.  On  the 
outhei  side  is  a  princely  apartment 
onsiih-d  to  have  been  the  hall; 
'y  son^  believed  to  have  been  the 
'hapel'But  whichever  it  may  have 
4G 


ie  ci 


been,  its  ruin  yet  retains  vestiges  of 
great  elegance,  in  the  outlines  of  its 
four  large  windows, the  grand  propor- 
tions of  the  chimney-piece,  and  the 
light  triplet  pillars,  with  arches  sur- 
rounding the  room.  The  outward 
staircase  entrance  to  this  splendid 
apartment,  the  vaulted  roof  of 
which  was  supported  by  29  arches, 
is  in  the  most  ruinous  state.  From 
this  place  is  seen,  to  the  east,  a 
leaning  tower,  between  70  and  80 
feet  high,  of  prodigious  thickness; 
it  hangs  nearly  11  feet  out  of  the 
perpendicular,  held  together  only 
by  the  strength  of  its  cement.  It 
has  remained  in  this  state  many 
centuries.  Near  this  part  of  the 
building,  is  a  place  called  the  Mint, 
with  furnaces  for  melting  metal. 
The  corridor  is  yet  in  a  good  state 
of  preservation,  lighted  by  small 
windows,  and,  passing  round  the 
principal  court,  it  formed  a  com- 
munication with  the  different  apart- 
ments. The  western  entrance  with 
its  ponderous  circular  towers,  vene- 
rably shaded  with  ivy,  is  remarka- 
bly striking;  and,  with  the  remains 
of  its  drawbridge  and  defensive 
outworks,  may  be  considered  the 
most  entire  part  of  the  ruin.  The 
aera  of  the  building  of  this  castle  is 
believed  to  have  been  near  the 
close  of  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
First. 

The  re-edification  of  Windsor 
castle,  about  the  year  1350,  by 
William  of  Wykeham,  led  to  the 
introduction  of  a  more  splendid 
style  of  building  among  the  nobles; 
of  which  Harewood  House  and 
Spofford  in  Yorkshire  are  instan- 
ces: also  Nay  worth  in  Cumberland, 
and  Kenilworth,  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  objects  in  the  kingdom, 
give  a  tolerable  idea  of  the  mag- 
nificence exhibited  in  the  princely 
and  noble  buildings  of  this  age. 
Sir  John  Fastolf  built  his  country 
residence  at  Caistor  in  Norfolk,  in 

601 


CAS 

1459,  which  gives  us  the  style  (f 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.,  after 
which  succeeded  houses  ornament- 
ed with  turrets  and  battlements. 
Haddon  House,  described  by  Mr. 
King,  in  his  Archaiologia,  vol.  vi. 
page  347,  is  the  best  remaining 
specimen  of  these  fantastical  build- 
ings. 

Caster,  Chester,  or  Cester, 
When  they  occur  either  as  the 
whole,  or  as  part  of  the  appella- 
tion of  places  in  Great  Britain, 
prove  them  to  have  been  fortified 
and  inhabited  by  the  Romans. 

Castra,  Castramentations, 
or  Castella.  The  Roman  forti- 
fied camps,  or  stations.  The  Ro- 
man camps  were  commonly  divided 
into  castra  hyberna,  and  castra 
cestiva,  winter  and  summer  camps. 
They  were  often  placed  on  the  site 
of  British  settlements,  and  conse- 
quently preserved  the  irregularity 
of  form  which  usually  prevailed 
amongst  the  Britons.  Instances 
may  be  observed  at  Silchester, 
Kentchester,  Bath,  Canterbury,  &c. 
The  cause  of  this  irregularity  will 
very  generally  be  found  to  be  the 
peculiar  circumstance  of  the  situa- 
tion. As  to  the  usual  situation  of 
their  camps,  "  There  is  nothing," 
Horsley  observes,  "  that  the  Romans 
seem  to  have  had  a  greater  regard 
to,  than  the  convenience  of  a  river, 
and  perhaps,  too,  the  additional 
strength  which  it  afforded.  For 
the  benefit  of  the  meridian  sun, 
which  they  must  need  who  came 
from  so  much  warmer  a  climate, 
they  usually  had  their  stations  and 
outbuildings  on  the  north  side  of 
the  rivers,  and  on  a  gentle  declivity. 
In  some  instances  they  chose  higher 
ground,  for  dryness  and  prospect. 
And,  as  often  as  they  could,  they 
seem  willing  to  have  joined  these 
together.  From  these  circumstances 
of  form  and  situation,  the  Roman 
camp  may  in  general  be  distin- 


C  AS 

guished  from  that  of  the  her 
nations  connected  in  a  ni  arv 
capacity  with  this  island."  i>5 
term  station  applies  to  such  fa 
stativa,  or  fixed  camps,  as 
used  for  the  permanent  quar  i<\ 
detachments  of  the  Roman  , . 
The  regular  and  great  stalarv 
camp  was  encompassed  bv  a  , 
and  massive  wall,  composed 
times  of  stone,  and  at  olh  of 
stone,  flint,  and  brick  mingle  and 
surrounded  by  a  deep  sins  or 
double  fosse.  At  Richbo  igfc, 
where  some  portion  of  the-aiis 
are  still  remaining,  on  the  rth- 
east  they  are  in  some  parts  arly 
30  feet  high  from  the  grouiuand 
in  many  others  about  23  the 
thickness  at  bottom  is  get allv 
from  11  to  12  feet,  and  in  we 
parts  even  13.  It  is  eonstpd 
of  regular  facings  of  alternat  ows 
of  squared  stone  and  brick  1  the 
two  outside  surfaces ;  but,  <|hin, 
between  these  two  uprightsit  is 
composed  merely  of  chalk,  ii«ble, 
and  flints,  thrown  in  care!.sly, 
with  cement,  or  mortar,  bead 
over  them  at  proper  distant!-,  so 
as  to  si;  k  into  the  whole  ass. 
The  Romans  were  quite  neglful 
of  minute  precision  in  disposi  the 
form  and  lines  of  their  camp:  the 
sides  are  often  of  an  unequal  I  gtli, 
and  not  straight,  or  set  &are. 
On  the  line  of  wall  which  erpsed 
the  camp,  are  sometimes  discpred 
the  remains  or  foundations  |  cir- 
cular towers.  These  freqlntly 
occur  at  the  angles,  or  oipach 
side  of  the  gate.  But  these  j#ers 
appear  to  have  been  adej  to 
the  walls  after  their  first  en  ion", 
as  it  is  probable  that  the  Ijmao 
stations  in  Britain  were  orijially 
constructed  without  such  m<j'$of 
defence.  The  gates  were  ge  rally 
four:  the  pratorian  gate, 
of  the  camp  ;  the  decuman'^, 
on  the  opposite  si  le,  so  called 


CAS 


CAS 


its  tng  wide  enough*to  allow  ten 
nenp  pa>s  abreast;  and  the  two 
primal  gates,  one  on  each  side 
of  tj  oblong  encampment,  at  the 
eitroities  of  the  principal  street  of 
the  dip. 

Tl  internal    arrangement  was 
madi  with  great  judgment  and 
,  ne.  When  the  outline  was  com- 
pete he  standard  was  erected  by 
rfieral  on  the  spot  chosen  for 
e  of  his  tent,  which  was 
ia    on   the    highest  ground, 
s  'as  the  point  of  admeasure- 
it. around  it  was  marked  off  a 
ij.ia  of  200,  or,  according  to  King, 
et,  for  his  occupation,  and 
le<  he  pratorium.    It  contained 
neral's  tent,  with  a  neigh- 
rr :  sacellum,  and  augurale, 
parade  or  court.     In  nu- 
lero  instances  a  Christian  church 
3  foi  1  to  have  been  erected  on  or 
t  part  of  the  Roman  castra- 
ment;jon  occupied  by  the  prceto- 
fwmlnd  probably  engrossing  more 
partidarly  the  portion  once  ap- 
proprjed  to  pagan  worship.  This 
nay  l!  instanced  in  the  cathedral 
)f  StjPaul,  at  London.     A  line 
t  n  drawn  before  the  prccto- 
"iumh  the  distance  of  50  feet, 
nnnit>  entirely  across  the  camp. 

t,  to  the  right  and  left  of 
he  Ditorium,  were    placed  the 
ents  j  the  twelve  tribunes,  six  on 
?ach  !e.     Beyond  the  tribunes, 
ind  e  ally  divided  on  each  side, 
*eie  h  tents  of  the  twelve  pre- 
ecti  ythe  allies.    About  100  feet 
K>oi   3  first  line  was  drawn  ano- 
i  dung  across  the  camp,  and 
'he  inlval  formed  the  chief  street 
lne  amp,  called  principia,  or 
orincijlis,  with  the  two  principal 
its   extremities.     In  a 
straigrf  direction  from  the  central 
point  ci  the  front  of  the  praetorium, 
anothe| street,  fifty  feet,  wide,  ran 
throut;'  the  body  of  the  camp,  on 
"  Bid  of  which  were  placed  the 


cavalry,  and  directly  behind  them 
the  foot.  Five  hundred  feet  from 
the  principia, and  parallel  to  it,  ano- 
ther street,  fifty  feet  in  width,  called 
Quintana,  stretched  across  the  whole 
encampment.  On  the  right  and 
left  of  the  Triarii,  the  veteran  foot  • 
encamped  beyond  the  cavalry  of 
their  respective  legions,  two  streets, 
each  fifty  feet  broad,  extended  from 
the  princip:a  to  the  front  of  the 
camp,  or  that  part  most  distant 
from  the  praetorium,  on  the  sides  of 
this  street  were  placed  the  principes, 
who  had  a  space  allowed  them  of 
100  feet  square.  On  the  right  and 
left  of  the  principes,  were  stationed 
the  Hastati,  who  fronted  two  other, 
and  more  outward  streets,  each  fifty 
feet  broad,  and  running  the  whole 
length  of  the  encampment.  On  the 
opposite  sides  of  these  streets  were 
quartered  the  cavalry  of  the  allies. 
Between  the  cavalry  and  the  vallum 
or  rampart  of  this  entrenchment, 
were  stationed  the  allied  foot.  Mr. 
King  supposes,  in  opposition  to  the 
opinion  of  General  Roy,  that  a 
regular  street,  50  feet  wide,  ran 
between  the  allied  cavalry  and  foot 
in  each  wing.  Behind  the  praeto- 
rium  ran  a  street  100  feet  broad 
across  the  camp,  and  parallel  with 
the  tents  of  the  tribunes.  Between 
it  and  the  tribunes'  tents,  was 
a  space  on  each  side,  of  the  same 
breadth  as  the  praetorium.  On  one 
side  an  area  formed  the  market- 
place, or  forum  ;  and  on  the  op- 
posite side  of  the  praetorium  was  a 
quarter  assigned  to  the  Quccstor, 
and  near  him  depositions  of  arms, 
clothing,  and  provisions.  Beyond 
these  were  the  ablecti,  or  select 
horse  of  the  allies,  with  the  evocati, 
and  volunteer  horse;  behind  them 
the  evocati  and  volunteer  foot,  and 
between  these  and  the  entrench- 
ment the  select  foot  of  the  allies. 
From  the  central  part  of  the  praeto- 
rium, a  street  fifty  feet  wide  ran  to 

C03 


CAS 


CAS 


the  decuman  gate.  On  both  sides 
of  this  street  were  the  extraordinary 
horse  and  foot  of  the  allies.  Be- 
tween the  tents  and  the  entrench- 
ments, on  each  side  of  the  camp  was 
left  a  space  of  200  Roman  feet. 

The  above  description  of  a  Roman 
castramentation  applies  to  the  con- 
sular camp,  for  two  legions,  with 
their  auxiliaries,  amounting  in  the 
whole  to  about  19,200,  according 
to  the  description  of  Polybius.  In 
later  periods  of  the  empire,  some 
variation  in  the  Roman  camp  took 
place,  but  it  chiefly  related  to  the 
dimensions,  and  to  the  internal  or- 
ganization of  the  temporary  camp. 

The  Roman  stations  in  Britain, 
mentioned  by  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester, are:  -Rhutupis,  now  Rich- 
borough  ;  Durovernum, Canterbury ; 
Durosevum,  Ospring  ;  Durobrivae, 
Rochester;  Londinium,  London; 
Sulomagus,  Brockiey  Hill;  Veru- 
lamium,  Verulam  ;  Forum  Dianae, 
Dunstable ;  Magiovinium,  near  Fen- 
ny Stratford;  Lactorodum,  Tow- 
cester  ;  Isanta  Varia,  Burntwalls  ; 
Tripontium,  near  Lilburn  ;  Benonis, 
High  Cross  ;  Manduessedum,  Man- 
cester ;  Eteocetum,  Wall :  Pen- 
nocrucium,  on  the  Peak  ;  Uxaco- 
nium,  Red  Hill,  Okenyate ;  Uri- 
conium,  Wroxeter ;  Banchorium, 
Bander ;  Deva,  Chester ;  Varis, 
near  Pont  Ruffin  ;  Conovium, 
Caer  Hun;  Segontium,  Caer  Se- 
gont ;  Hereri  Mons,  Tommen  y 
Mur ;  Mediolanum,  Clawdd  Goch; 
Rutunium,  Rowton ;  Durositum, 
near  Rumford;  Caesaromagus,  near 
Chelmsford ;  Canonium,  near  Kel- 
vedon  ;  Camulodunum,  Colchester  ; 
Sturius  Amnis,  on  the  Stour;  Cam- 
bretonium  ;  Sitoma^us;  Venta  Ce- 
nom,  Castor  near  Norwich;  Cam- 
boricum,  Cambridge',  Durolispons, 
Godmanchester ;  Durnomagus,  Cas- 
tor ;  Isinnis,  Ancaster;  Lindum, 
Lincoln-,  Argolicum,  Lit tleborough; 
Danum, Doncaster;  Legiolium,  Cas- 

604 


tleford ;  Eboracum,  York ;  h  m 
^/e/Wo?^/i;Cattaraeton,Ca//!C/c! 
AdTisam,  Pierce  Bridge ; Vin<Cg 
Binchester;  Epiacum,  Lander 
AdM  urum,  Halton  Chester ; ilau- 
na  Amnis,  on  the  Coquet;  eda 
Flumen,  on  the  Tweed ;  Ad  V  i!m 
the  Wall;  Curia;  Ad  Fines,  |U 
Green  ;  Bremenium,  Reicher 
Corstopitum,  Corbridge  ;  \rj0. 
mora,  Ebchester  ;  Derventio  iear 
Stamford  Bridge;  DelgcpM 
Preturium,  Flamborough  jfl 
Calcaria,  Tadcaster;  Cambot:  urn, 
Slack  ;  Mancunium,  Mancfr'er; 
Fines  Maximae  et  Flavian,  nj 
ford;  Condate,  Kinderton;  rtus 
Sistuntiorum,  Freckleton;  Figo- 
nium,  Ribchester;  Alpes  P(nos, 
Burrens;  Alicana,  Ilkley;  Luis, 
Bowes ;  Vataris,  Brough;  )v 
nacis,  Kirhy  Thur  ;Vorreda,  F  mip- 
ton  Wall;  Luguballia,  Car.le; 
Trimontium,  Birrenswork  /a'/Ga- 
danica;  Corium  ;  Alauna,  icr; 
Lindum,  Ardoch ;  Vittoria,  Dlfyw 
Ross  ;  Ad  Hiernam,  Strt  tk; 
Orrea,  on  the  Tay  above  ktk\ 
Ad  Tavum,  near  Invergowru  Ad 
iEsieam,  Brechin  on  SoutJuk; 
Ad  Tinam,  Fordun  ;  Devanaifor- 
man  Dykes ;  Ad  It.unam,  \PM- 
mailin  on  the  Ithan  ;  Ad  Mjtem 
Grampium,  near  Knockhili ''Ad 
Selinam,  on  the  Cullen,  near  pi 
ford;  Tuessis,  on  the  Spey,'.ear 
Bellic;  Ptorotone,  Burgh  lad; 
Varis,  Fores;  Ad  Tuessim, yn- 
dall  on  Spey :  Tamea,  Br\mr 
Castle ;  Barra  Castle  on  It\  In 
Medio,  Inchstut  hill;  Brocavitfis, 
Brougham  ;  Ad  Alaunam,  <a»* 
caster;  Cocci um,  Blacb'ode;^' 
olanum, Chesterton  ;  Salinse, .\oit- 
wich;  Glevum,  Gloucester;  Co  i^t 
Cirencester ;  Aquae  Solis, 
Ad  Aquas,  probably  Wells  Ad 
Uxellam,  probably  Bridgeifer- 
Isca,  Exeter  ;  Ad  Abonam,  hfon* 
Ad  Sabrinam,  Sea  Mills;  M 
Trajectus  Severn  Side ;  Vent;  >du- 


i  CAS 


CAS 


i \>m,'aerwent ;  Tsca  Colon \z,Caer- 
Wi^n'ribia  Amnis,  on  the  Taaf ; 
3o\  i  i,  Ewenny  ;  Nidum,  Neath  ; 
,  Jum,  perhaps  Lughor ;  Ad 
(,/io-eJnuiTi,  Cas//e  Flemish;  Ad 
njtam,  Sf.  David's',  Verlucio, 
field  near  Sandy  lane;  Cu- 
>  Folly  farm,   near  Marl- 
)ih;  Spina?,  Spene;  Calleba, 
il-Mciiter ;  Bibracte ;  Bultrum,  ?7s£ ; 
nMuiium,  Abergavenny ;  Magne, 
r(ent\  ester;   Branogenium,  near 
ardine  ;    Blestinm,  Mon- 
,  Sariconinm,  Berry  hill ; 
onam.  on  the  Avon  ;  Alauna, 
•r ;  Chestnton  ;  Ratis,  Lei- 
Venromentum,  Willoughby  ; 
unum,   East  Bridgeford; 
Intern,  near  Thorpe;  Croco- 
Brvgh  ;  Vindofnis,  near  St. 
'■.Bourne;  Venta  Belgarum, 
Aster;  Ad  Lapidem,  Stone- 
Clausentum,   Bittern,  near 
'hipton;  Portus  Magnus, Por/- 
/<;  Regnum,  Chichester ;  Ad 
i  m,  on  the  Arun;  Anderida 
\l  Pevensey ;  Ad  Lemanum, 
Mother;  Lemanianus  Portus, 
D ubra,  Dover;  Regulbium, 
?r;  Madus,cm  the  Medway; 
a,  Burhjields  in  South  Fleet; 
agus,  Holwood  Hill;  Brige, 
oughton;  Sorbisdunum,6/d 
/   Venta  Geladia,  Gussage 
%on;  Durnovaria,  Dorches- 
oridunum,  Seaton  ;  Durius, 
on  the  Dart;  Tamara,  on 
lair  ;Voluba,  on  the  Fowey  ; 
on  the  Fal ;  Sylva  Anderida, 
'urne;  A(\F\ues,Broughane; 
is;  Ad  Abum,  Winter  ton; 
Jariuni,  Brough  ;  Ad  Fines, 
Brough  on  the  Don ; — 
U  Hill  near  Chesterfield; — 
imkridge;  Derventio,  Little 
't ;  AdTrivonarn,  Berry  farm 
»  Brr  ston  ;Brinavis,£/</cA  Ground 
*«r  t  ipping  Norton  ;  Olia  Castra, 
ilcesc,  Oxfordshire;  Dorocina, 
«*c/j:ferf  Oxfordshire;  Tamesis, 
m  the  rhames. 


Besides  these,  there  are  other 
remains  of  Roman  stations,  not 
mentioned  in  Richard  of  Cirences- 
ter, found  at  Sandby  in  Bedford- 
shire; in  Berks,  at  Lawrence  Wal- 
tham  ;  Roundabout,  near  Bag- 
shot  ;  in  Bucks  at  Chipping  Wy- 
combe ;  at  Shelford  in  Cambridge- 
shire; in  Cornwall  at  Bossens  in 
St.  Erth,  and  near  Stratton  ;  in 
Cumberland  at  Moresby,  Ellen- 
borough,  Pap  Castle,  Old  Carlisle, 
Whitbarrow,  Bevv  Castle,  Nether- 
by,  Liddle  Mount,  Castlesteeds  in 
Castle  Sowerby,  Mawbrugh,  Pon- 
sonby,  Whitestones,  Eskmeal,  Cun- 
ingarth,  Kirkland,  Hardknot,  and 
Bainscar;  in  Derbyshire  at  Buxton, 
Brugh,  Melendra  Castle,  Parwiek, 
Chesterfield,  Pentrich,  in  Devon  at 
Countesbury  and  Hembury  Fort; 
in  Dorsetshire  at  the  Isle  of  Port- 
land, St.  Anne's  hill,  west  of  Christ- 
church,  Poundbury  ;  in  Durham 
at  South  Shields,  and  Chester  le 
Street;  in  Essex,  near  Sturmere, 
at  Dunmow,  Chesterford,  Harwich, 
and  on  the  Blaekwater;  in  Glou- 
cestershire at  Bourion  on  the  water, 
Dornton,  Lydney,  near  Crosshands 
and  near  Dowdeswell ;  in  Hamps  at 
Buckland  near  Lytnington ;  in  Here- 
fordshire at  Brandon  camp,  near 
Leintwardine;  at  Newton  in  Hunt- 
ingdonshire; in  Lancashire  at  Colne, 
at  Overbo rough,  and  near  Roch- 
dale ;  in  Leicestershire  at  Medbourn 
and  Ratby  ;  in  Lincolnshire  at  Lud- 
ford  and  Horncastle ;  in  Norfolk  at 
Taesborough,  Caistor,  Brancaster, 
and  Castle  Acre ;  in  Northampton- 
shire at  Irchester,  Wadenhoe,  Cot- 
testock,Wood ford, and  Cotton  Mill ; 
in  Northumberland  at  Southwell, 
and  Combs  ;  in  Oxfordshire  at 
Stonefield  ;  at  Brig  Casterton  in 
Rutlandshire  ;  at  Chesterton  in 
Shropshire  ;  in  Somersetshire  at  II- 
chester,  ( Ischalis,)  and  near  Bur- 
rington;  in  Staffordshire  at  Rocester ; 
in  Suffolk  at  Ixworth,  Icklingham, 

605 


CAS 


CAT 


Burgh  Castle,  Creeting,  Walton, 
and  near  Lawshall ;  in  Sussex  at 
Rowland's  Castle,  near  Pul  bo  rough, 
and  near  Port.slade;  in  Westmor- 
land, at  Watercrook,  and  Amble- 
side; in  Wiltshire  at  Woodyates 
Inn,  Wanborough  Nythe,  and  Eas- 
.on  Grey ;  in  Worcestershire  at 
Worcester  ;  in  Yorkshire  at  Addle, 
Maiden  Castle  on  Stainmore,  near 
Pickering,  Whitby,  and  Askrig.  In 
Wales  at  Holyhead,  Anglesea;  near 
Beaumaris,  Anglesea  ;  C.  Gai,  near 
Bala,  Merionethshire  ;  Penalt,  near 
Machynlleth;  Caer  Lws,  Mont- 
gomeryshire ;  Gaer,  near  Mont- 
gomery; Flint,  Caergwrle,  Flint- 
shire ;  Holt,  Denbighshire  ;  on  the 
Ythan,  Radnorshire;  Llanio-isau, 
Cardiganshire  ;  Llanvair-ar-y-brin, 
Caermarthenshire  ;  Gaer,  near  Bre- 
con ;  Cvvm  du,  Brecknockshire ; 
near  Newcastle,  Caermarthenshire. 

The  stations  and  camps  on  or 
near  the  walls  of  Antonine  and 
Severus,  were  at  Cousins  house, 
Newcastle,  Benwel-hill,  Rutchester, 
Halton  Chestcrs,  Walwick  Chesters, 
Carrowbrugh,  House-steeds,  Little 
Chester,  Great  Chester,  Caervoron, 
Burdeswold,  Cambeckfort,  Watch- 
cross, Stanvvick,  Burgh,  Drumburgh, 
and  Boulness. 

See  Hatcher  s  Richard  of  Ciren- 
cester :  Reynold's  Itinerary  of 
Antoninus:  Whitakers  History 
of  Manchester  :  Horsley's  Britan- 
nia Romana :  King's  Munimenta 
Antiqua ;  Roys  Military  Anti- 
quities :  the  Introduction  to  the 
Beauties  of  England  and  Wales,8fc. 
Castr  a  mentations.  SeeCas^ra. 
Castiium  Dolouis,  a  lofty  tomb 
of  state,  in  honour  of  some  eminent 
person,  usually  erected  over  his  grave 
in  the  church  where  he  is  interred  ; 
decorated  with  arms,  emblems,  and, 
in  catholic  countries,  with  lights. 

Cat,  a  peculiar  kind  of  ship,  of 
Norwegian  construction,  with  nar- 
row stern    projecting  quarteis.  a 

606 


deep  waist,  and  ornamented  JL 
generally  built  remarkably  st9 
and  carrying  from  400  to  600  lis 
or,  in  the  language  of  the  mari'rs' 
from  20  to  30  keels  of  coals.  1 
is  also  a  sort  of  strong  tack  lor 
combination  of  pulleys,  to  hooM 
draw  the  anchor  perpendicular;  jp 
to  the  cat-head. 

Catabasion,  (from  Kara/3  Ml 
Gr.  /  descend,)  in  the  Greek  ell 
a  place  under  the  altar  when  he 
relics  are  kept. 

Catabulum,  a  kind  of  stab  or 
beasts  of  burden,  kept  at  the  |  b- 
lie  expense.  The  ancient  Cis- 
tians,  were  sometimes  condeiied 
to  labour  in  the  Catabula. 

Catacaustic  Curve.  I 
Caustic  Curve. 

Catacombs.  (From  Kararatu, 
Gr.,  /  sleep  out,  or  away,  or  jm 
Kara  and  KvpfioQ,  Gr.  a  hollo  or 
cavity.)  Subterraneous  place  'or 
burying  the  dead  ;  named  iso 
hypogeum,  crypta,  and  camts- 
rium fornix ,  subterranea,  fyc.  <.a- 
combs  for  burying  the  dead  I 
been  used  by  various  nations;  jse 
of  Egypt  are  believed  to  bt  he 
most  ancient;  of  these,  travl 
describe  five  distinct  series;  )se 
of  Alexandria,  Saccara,  Si  is, 
Gournou,  and  the  tombs  ot  he 
kings  of  ancient  Thebes. 

The  Egyptian  catacombs  are ;  >ut 
nine  leagues  from  Grand  (ro, 
and  two  miles  from  Zaccara;  I 
extend  over  a  country  covered  ith 
fine  sand,  to  the  pyramids  of  1 
raoh,  a  distance  of  8  miles.  I 
entrances  to  these  tombs  are  c 
and  covered  over  with  sand;  i 
have  been  opened,  but  a  gr 
number  yet  remain  concealed, 
embalmed  bodies  found  in 
tombs  are  called  mummies, 
posed  from  the  Arabic  mum, 
this  substance  being  used  IM 
process  of  embalming.  A  <■ 
free-stone  is  found  under  'he  m 


:  i  the 


If  th 
Inch 
*  th 
odies 


CAT 


hole  extent  of  the  district 
Egyptian    catacombs,  in 
<cavaiions  have  been  made 
reception  of  the  embalmed 
these  are  entered  by  square 
pins  of  about  18  feet  deep; 
re  sc  etimes  40  feet  below  the 
jrfacland  called  wells;  from  the 
ottoniof  these,  passages  10  or 
i  r  e  vide  open  into  chambers  of 
5  or  '  feet  square.    Each  cata- 
Dmb  pntains    several    of  these 
partnlnts    communicating  with 
r,  the  series  under  ground 
re  ve( extensive,  and  reach  under 
«  w»le  extent  of  the  city  of 
brnris,  and  into  its  surrounding 
nit    The  walls  of  some  of  the 
its  are  covered  with  hiero- 
-::<  haracters  ;  others  contain 
but  mummies,  in  tombs 
!  out  of  the  surrounding 
.  The  Egyptians  excelled  all 
jtions  in  the  art  of  embalm- 
i$  af  the  bodies  found  in  the 
!pulclal  caves  of  their  country 
re  in  more  perfect  state  of  pre- 
ervati'i  than  those  of  any  other. 
The[Uacombs  of  Italy  are  very 
\tens!?,  those    of   Naples  and 
Kome  laving  been  formed  by  the 
ppropuion  of  the  excavations  of 
uarritj  which  have  been  formed 
ito  rnf's  of  apartments  and  nar- 
*jw  g  eries;  some  of  these  are 
0  feet  elow  the  surface,  and  from 
to  H'eet  high;  the  narrow  alley 
v  not  more  than  3  feet 
The  dead  bodies  are  laid 
or  4frows  over  each  other  in 
wal  :esses,  closed  up  with  large 
nickti!>;  or  with  marble,  on  which 
»e  naif;  of  the  deceased  is  some- 
imea  |igraved  ;  but  more  com- 
nonly  ie  cypher  X  p.  with  the 
igure    a  palm.     The  cypher  is 
•nders  jd  to  be  intended  for  the 
Had  Grist,  denoting  the  deceased 
o  hav/been  a  Christian  convert, 
iymboj  of  pagan  superstition  are 
llso  fnuently  found. 


r  pal 
:oad. 


CAT 

At  Naples,  the  catacombs  are 
nobler  and  more  spacious,  than  those 
of  Rome  :  in  these  are  found  mar- 
ble monuments,  with  inscriptions 
in  Greek  and  Latin. 

The  Syracusan  catacombs  are 
the  largest,  and  in  the  most  perfect 
state,  of  any  yet  discovered ;  their 
appearance  is  less  gloomy,  and  in 
the  ornaments  in  different  parts,  re- 
ferrble  to  the  latter  period  of  the 
Roman  empire;  these  consist  of 
Greek  paintings,  with  symbolical 
representations  of  the  martyrs, 
placed  within  many  of  the  tombs. 
In  the  island  of  Malta  catacombs 
have  been  discovered ;  they  are  not 
very  extensive,  but  in  an  excellent 
state  of  preservation. 

Cataconum,  the  want  of  height 
proportionate  to  the  breadth  of  the 
chapiter  of  a  pillar. 

Cat  a  d  rom  e,  a  machine  used  by 
builders  to  raise  and  let  down  great 
weights. 

Catafalco, an  ornamented  scaf- 
fold used  in  funeral  solemnities. 

Catagrapha,  in  ancient  orna- 
mental workmanship,  figures  of 
men's  faces  represented  as  viewed 
obliquely. 

Catania,  an  Italian  city,  not 
far  distant  from  Mount  Etna,  re- 
markable for  numerous  architectural 
remains:  particularly  an  elephant 
of  touchstone  in  the  centre  of  the 
great  square ;  with  an  obelisk  of 
Egyptian  granite  on  his  back  :  the 
ruins  of  a  theatre,  a  large  bath 
almost  entire,  an  aqueduct  eighteen 
miles  long,  and  several  temples, 
some  of  which  are  converted  into 
churches. 

Catastroma,  a  scaffold  raised 
upon  the  head  and  stern  of  ancient 
war-ships ;  on  which  the  soldiers 
were  posted. 

Catch  Drains,  the  feeders  of 
reservoirs.  In  the  constructing  of 
canals,  the  same  as  counter-drains. 

Catena  in  a,   (Catena,    lat.  a 

607 


CAT 


CAT 


chain)  a  chain,  or  other  heavy 
flexible  body  suspended  by  its  two 
extremities,  forms  the  curve  to  which 
this  appellation  is  given  ;  which 
is  considered  the  best  form  for  the 
arch  of  a  bridge. 

Catehtiiun,  or  Catterthun, 
{Gael.  Camptow?i,)  an  ancient 
military  station  in  Scotland,  a  few 
miles  N.W.  of  Brechin,  in  Angus- 
shire.  This  fortress,  or  rather 
camp,  is  supposed  of  Pictish  or 
Danish  origin,  though  afterwards 
used  by  the  Caledonians.  It  con- 
sists of  an  immense  quantity  of 
loose  stones  ranged  in  an  elliptic 
form  :  a  ravine  is  also  strongly 
marked  round  the  summit.  The 
size  of  some,  and  the  immense  mass 
of  the  whole  of  these  stones,  the 
height  to  which  they  have  been 
raised,  and  the  distance  from  which 
they  must  have  been  brought,  with 
the  rude  outlines  of  birds,  beasts, 
&c.  which  appear  on  some  of  them, 
have  much  perplexed  antiquarians. 
Mr.  Pennant  is  of  opinion  that  this 
place  was  occupied  by  the  Cale- 
donians previous  to  their  engage- 
ment with  Agricola.  The  stupen- 
dous dike  encircling  this  enclosure 
extends  122  feet  from  the  base 
within  to  that  without  :  a  deep 
ditch  surrounds  the  base,  and,  100 
yards  below,  another  ditch  has  en- 
compassed the  hill.  The  internal 
area  is  flat ;  the  axis,  or  length, 
436  feet;  the  transverse  diameter 
of  the  centre  200  feet.  Near  the 
east  side  is  the  foundation  of  a 
rectangular  building;  and  nume- 
rous others  appear  in  various  parts, 
some  circular  and  others  very  small, 
which  had  once  their  superstruc- 
tures, to  shelter  the  possessors  of 
this  post.  A  hollow  place,  filled 
with  stones,  marks  the  place  of  the 
well.  Brown  Catterthun  is  a  smal- 
ler fortification  of  the  same  kind, 
on  a  hill,  the  earth  of  which  is  of  a 
brown  colour. 

608 


Cathahin e  Wheel,  in  a  ient 
buildings,  is  an  ornamentet  ^ 
dow,  or  compartment  of  a  w  0\ 
of  a  circular  form,  with  r.  • 
or  radiating  divisions,  of  \|j0lls 
colours.  In  the  cathedral  of  Riims 
the  great  church  of  St.  Om  - 
Rouen,  in  Winchester  catljy 
the  church  at  Cheltenham,  (1  in 
each  of  the  transepts  of  St.  terJi 
at  Westminster,  are  fine  speneng 
of  ornaments  of  this  descripti 

Cathedral,  (KaOeZpa,  Gjthe 
head  church  of  a  dioctse,  .'me. 
times  called  ecclesia  matr  or 
mother  church.  In  Englani  Ger- 
many, and  other  parts  of  Hope, 
the  most  perfect  remains  of  i  ient 
Gothic,  Saxon,  and  Norman  chi- 
tecture  are  found  in  the  cat dral 
churches.  There  are  gener./  in 
buildings  of  this  denomina  n  a 
nave,  two  side  aisles,  and  nor  and 
south  transepts.  The  cross  j  the 
transepts  is  half  the  length  i  the 
whole  building  ;  each  of  the  $N 
is  one- fourth  of  the  breadtiand 
height  of  the  nave  ;  the  heiitof 
the  building  is  generally  eql  to 
the  breadth  of  the  nave  and  les; 
and  the  elevation  of  the  towjand 
spires  is  in  a  mean  proportii  be- 
tween the  length  of  the  navand 
of  the  transept.  Exceptici  to 
these  general  proportions  aij un- 
common ;  yet  in  the  church  j  St. 
Peter  at  Westminster,  and  tljcol- 
legiate  church  at  Bristol,  thf  de- 
aisles  extend  beyond  the  trarpts. 
See  Church. 

Cathetus,  a  perpendiculame, 
passing  through  a  cylindrical  »<Iv, 
as  a  baluster,  or  column,  is 
also  a  line  falling  perpendio  rly, 
and  passing  through  the  cen  ,  or 
eye,  of  the  volute  of  the  W* 
chapiter. 

C attle-Sh ed,  see  Bulloc]M 
and  Feeding- House. 

Cattus,  a  moveable  shed  su- 
ally  fixed  on  wheels. 


CAVES. 


C  asdium,  in  ancient  buildings, 
I  court,  of  which  five  sorts 
(jjcribed,  the  Tuscan,  witli  a 
on    over-head,   from  each 
i  ving  the  middle  open.  The 
nian,  with  a  similarly  pro- 
n  roof,  supported  by  columns, 
trastyle,  with   columns  at 
f  the  four  corners.  The 
I  inated,  without    any  pro- 
mroof,  and  the  Testudinated, 
;  aulted  covering  from  wall 
,     This  last  is  improperly 
ailed  Cavsedium  or  court. 

i  vZion,  or  Cavasion,  the 
I  on  plan  for  the  walls  of  a 
li  ,  which  may  be  as  deep  as 
si  h  part  of  its  height. 

(Cavum,  Lat.)   One  of 
1  st  species  of  architecture  of 
ive  have  any  remains,  are 
ex  vations  in  rocks,  &c.  They 
.  ithout  doubt,  intended  for 
o    worship,    and    not  for 
ili  places.    They  have  origi- 
en  formed  by  very  ancient 
people,  and  universally 
ry  th  them,  wherever  any  po- 
mlart  ditions  connected  with  them 
re  pnnved,  ideas  of  superstitious 
II  ul  veneration.       Caves  of 
d  cription  are    frequent  in 
■' n  it  iritain    and    Ireland,  and 
ni  n  s  preserve  evident  marks 
I  f  the1  destination.     Some  very 
eep  [d  extensive    caverns  are 
iid  the  Isle  of  Thanet.  One, 
iseov('d  in   1780,  consisted  of 
even  rge  rooms,  from  twelve  to 
h irty- 1  feet  wide,  communicating 
ith  e;  i  other  by  arched  avenues. 
>ome    ihem  have  large  conical 
lomes.  G  feet  high,  and  supported 
»v  a  ciimn  of  chalk  43  yards  in 
;ireumrence.    The  descent  is  by 
i  flighlof  steps.    The  sides  and 
oof  a  rocks  of  chalk  ;  the  bot- 
tom is   fine  dry  sand,  and  170 
ect  »"i;r  ground  is  a  well  of  very 
P  re  Vter,  27   feet  deep.  This 
well  ni  ht  be  used  for  the  lustra- 
4H 


tions  and  purifications  by  watei 
which  were  prescribed  to  the  initiat- 
ed. That  these  caves  were  hol- 
lowed for  refuge  from  the  attack  of 
an  enemy,  is  very  improbable. 
They  have  been  a  work  of  greater 
labour  and  industry,  than  would 
be  employed  by  people  under  the 
confusion  and  terror  that  such  an 
event  would  excite.  The  Druids, 
like  the  worshippers  of  Mithra,  per- 
formed their  mysterious  rites  in 
caves. 

There  is  a  remarkable  cave  in 
Cornwall,  called  Pendeen  Vau,  by 
the  Welsh  pronounced  Fau:  it  con- 
sists of  three  caves  or  galleries, 
walled  on  each  side  with  large 
stones,  and  rudely  arched  at  the 
top.  Six  steps  are  descended  at 
the  entrance,  the  floor  dipping 
NNE.  ;  this  first  cave  is  full  six 
feet  high,  and  the  floor  28  feet 
long ;  the  second  cave,  to  the  right 
as  we  proceed,  differs  from  the  first 
in  being  only  five  feet  six  inches  in 
height,  and  in  having  in  its  centre 
a  round  pit  three  feet  in  diameter, 
and  two  deep ;  at  the  end  of  this 
cave,  near  the  roof,  there  is  a 
square  passage  or  hole,  two  feet 
wide,  and  two  feet  six  inches  high, 
leading  to  a  third  cave,  six  feet 
wide  and  six  feet^high,  dug  out  of 
the  earth,  the  sides  and  roof  of 
earth,  straight  on  the  sides;  the 
roof  semicircular :  this  cave  also 
ends  in  a  semicircle,  the  length  26 
feet  six  inches.  See  Borlase's  An- 
tiquities of  Cornwall. 

There  is  a  singular  cave  at  Roys- 
ton,  on  the  extreme  border  of 
Hertfordshire,  joining  Cambridge- 
shire ;  it  is  immediately  beneath 
the  Market-place,  and  dug  out  of 
the  solid  chalk  rock  ;  its  entrance 
was  a  perpendicular  aperture  of  a 
circular  form,  two  feet  in  diameter, 
closed  by  a  millstone  when  it  was 
first  discovered  in  1742;  from  this 
opening,  steps  were  cut  in  the  chalk 


C  A 

on  each  side,  to  facilitate  the  de- 
scent to  the  bottom.  When  the 
rubbish  was  cleared  away,  a  scull 
and  other  human  bones  were  found 
much  decayed  ;  round  the  side 
were  rude  carvings  of  the  Cruci- 
fixion, St.  Christopher,  St.  Cathe- 
rine, St.  Lawrence,  and  various 
other  legends.  A  seat'  one  foot 
high  surrounds  the  bottom,  except 
a  division  at  a  hollow  place  in  the 
floor,  called  the  grave.  This  cave 
or  crypt  is  conjectured  to  have  been 
an  oratory  and  burial-chapel  of  the 
pious  lady  Roisia,  but  so  uncertain 
are  the  traditions  relating  to  this 
affair,  that  it  gave  occasion  to  a 
long-continued  controversy  between 
Dr.  Stukely  and  the  Rev.  C.  Par- 
kin, without  conviction  on  either 
side.  The  respective  pamphlets  are 
worthy  of  perusal,  containing  abun- 
dance of  curious  and  interesting 
matter.  The  diameter  of  this  cir- 
cular crypt  is  about  25  feet ;  its 
height  between  30  and  40.  Mr. 
King  thinks,  from  its  form,  that 
this  crypt  was  originally  British. 

The  ancient  caves  of  Ireland  bear 
undoubted  proofs  of  their  former 
use,  and  present  many  remains  of 
symbols  connected  with  the  wor- 
ship peculiar  to  Mithra.  "  The 
genius  of  a-ntiqui%,"  says  Maurice, 
"  delighted  in  mystery,  which  was 
exhibited  in  their  residence  in 
gloomy  vaults  and  subterranean 
caverns,  and  woody  recesses,  their 
theology  veiled  in  allegory  and 
hieroglyphics."  The  cave  of  Mithra, 
an  expressive  emblem  of  the  various 
elements  of  nature,  represented,  as 
we  learn  from  Porphyry,  (de  Antro 
Nymph  urn)  the  world.  From  the 
similarity  of  the  caves  in  Ireland  to 
those  of  India,  it  ma  y  reasonably 
be  believed  that  they  were  for  the 
same  purpose — and  the  Deasol,  or 
circular  dance  of  the  Irish,  is  no 
other  than  the  Pyhrric  dance  of  the 
East.    On  the  north  side  of  the 

610 


ES. 

left-hand  niche  of  the  Mintic 
cave  of  New  Grange  in  Irek  j( 
an  ancient  inscription  in  cbai  [m 
from  two  to  six  inches  high.  m 
characters  are  dissimilar  to 
thing  of  Northern  origin, 
Saxon,  or  Irish,  and  are  belie 
be  Phoenician.  By  comparing  ie<e 
characters  with  numerous  I  f?n  . 
cian  alphabets,  the  word  appi ;  i 
be  Mithrak,  the  Chaldean  rra  i 
Mithra.  There  is  another  ah- 
ratic  cave  or  cavern  in  Irela ,  on 
the  glebe  of  Annagh-clog-n  len, 
in  the  parish  of  Ki'leavy,  eot  j 
Armagh  ;  it  is  of  stones,  andliea- 
sures  sixty  feet  in  lengtl  iand 
twelve  in  height.  The  b»  lin^ 
consists  of  four  apartments— t  fir>: 
eight  feet  wide,  and  nine  k  six 
inches  long — the  second  s;  feet 
six  inches  wide,  and  six  feeiigh: 
inches  long — the  fourth,  tw  feet 
wide  and  six  feet  long.  Injront 
is  a  semicircular  porch  of  utie 
stones,  33  feet  in  diamete,  at 
eight  feet  distance  from  thj  en- 
trance are  two  pillars  or  alii, 
nine  feet  high.  The  chamb(  are 
arched  with  dry  corbelling  nes, 
as  at  New  Grange,  the  top  c?red 
with  a  flag,  three  feet  broad -the 
arch  springs  three  feet  fro  tHe 
ground.  See  Col.  Valiancy XW- 
lectanea  de  Rebus  Hibern. 

The  most  ancient  inhabits  of 
Greece  undoubtedly  performelheir 
religious  rites  in  caverns,  anijthey 
were  often  adopted  by  succjling; 
generations  as  the  site  of  the:  cm- 
pies,  of  which  they  formtj  the 
most  sacred  part.  And  hencj?ven 
in  after-times  the  innermost 
of  the  temple  was  denominatj  the 
Cavern,  One  of  the  most  n  ar- 
able caverns  in  Greece  was  tjt  of 
Trophonius.  See  Adytvm.  i^ar 
Nauplia  in  Argolis,  there^ere 
caverns,  which,  according  to  *jabo, 
were  called  Cyclopean.  In  ^  1 
and  India,  caves  continued  iM 


C  A  U 


GED 


a?ei  o  be  held  in  the  same  venera- 
tion md  were  ornamented  internal- 
ly win  a  profusion  of  architectural 
n  ents  and  emblematical  sculp- 
ture See  Ellora  and  Elepkanta. 
terraneous  pits  and  caverns, 
I  btedly  of  British  construction, 
and  near  Guilford,  in  Sur- 
rev,  ear  Cray  ford  in  Kent,  and 
n  other  places.    They  are  often 
:  si  tied  into  by  means  of  a  pit 
wjl,  and  are  sometimes  entered 
i level  through  the  side  of  a 
1.  Within  they  are  of  different 
i-tude  and  description,  some 
,;    only  one   spacious  apart- 
but  they  are  generally  divid- 
,n)  several  rooms.  Diodorus 
-  us  expressly  tells  us,  that  the 
tis  did  lay  up  their  corn  in 
-  tt  ranean  repositories,  and  some 
rm  may  have  been  used  for 
tbatlirpose. 
C  ea,  the  dens  or  caves,  in 
amphitheatres,  in  which 
(•easts  were  kept;  by  some 
;  applied  to  the  central  part 
he  buildings,  usually  called 
the  oma. 

C,  etto,  (diminutive  of  cavus, 
concave  ornamental  mould- 
ing,  coosed,  in  effect,  to  the  ovolo  ; 
c  icavity  of  the  one,  and  the 
\f  ty  of  the  other,  are  not  al- 
•wectto  exceed  the  quarter  of  a 
rclej  In  its  projection,  the  ca- 
to  >  equal  to  its  altitude,  and 
not  ;owed  to  be  less  than  two- 
i  >f  it.    It  is  applied  to  the 
basesrf  pedestals,  and  the  mould- 
'  cornices,  and  in  some  of  the 
t  autiful  Ionic  architraves  it 
formshe  upper  member. 

Calicoles,  slender  stems  or 
stalks-  nder  the  leaves  of  the  aba- 
the  Corinthian  capital. 
Betwn  each  pair  of  the  uppermost 
leavts  eight  stalks  branch  out  into 
l*o  I  flets,  seeming  to  support  the 
sixtee  volutes,  of  which  four  are 
°n  ea,  face  of  the  abacus. 


Caulking,  is  toe  operation  of 
filling  up  the  seams  of  planks,  on 
the  sides  or  bottoms  of  ships,  with 
untwisted  ropes  and  pitch,  to  w  hich 
the  name  of  oakum  is  given.  After 
this  operation  is  completed,  appro- 
priate iron  implements  called  caulk- 
ing ircms,  are  used,  to  cover  the 
work  wfe  a  mixture  of  pitch,  tar, 
ixnd  tallow,  as  low  as  the  ship 
draws  water. 

Caulking  or  Cocking,  the 
old  mode  of  fixing  the  binding 
joists  of  a  floor,  or  the  tie-beams 
of  a  roof,  was  by  dove-tailing  into 
the  wall-plates. 

Ca  usewa  Y,or  Causey,  (Chaus- 
sce,  Fr.)  a  raised  or  paved  way. 
A  famous  ancient  work  of  this  de- 
scription extends  over  the  county 
of  Northumberland ;  supposed  to 
be  Roman,  but  suspected  of  later 
date  by  Mr.  Horsley.  It  is  called 
the  Devil's  Causeway. 

Caustic  Curve,  formed  by  the 
collected  rays  of  light,  issuing  from 
a  curved  reflector.  Called  also, 
the  catacaustic  curve. 

Cecropium,  the  ancient  name 
of  Athens,  derived  from  Cecrops 
its  founder. 

Cedar,  (Ktdpog,  Gr.)  the  Pinus 
Cedrus  of  Linnaeus;  by  Tournefort 
ranked  under  larix  ;  it  is  a  conife- 
rous evergreen,  bearing  large  round- 
ish cones  of  smooth  scales,  stand- 
ing erect;  the  leaves  small,  narrow, 
and  thickly  set.  This  tree  is  no 
where  found  native,  but  on  Mount 
Libanus ;  and  it  is  distinguished 
by  the  appellation  of  the  cedar  oj 
Lebanon,  by  the  ancients  called 
cedrus  magna,  or  the  great  cedar. 
The  timber  of  this  tree  is  sometimes 
used  in  building:  it  is  reputed  to 
be  almost  immortal  and  incorrup- 
tible. Solomon's  temple,  as  well 
as  his  palace,  were  of  this  wood  ; 
and  king  Hiram  had  several  cities 
sr.i,ve*i  in  exchange  for  the  cedars 
fur  ii*hed  on  these  occasions.  Cor- 

611 


C  EI 


CEL 


tes  is  said  to  have  erected  a  palace 
at  Mexico  which  contained  7000 
beams  of  cedar,  most  of  them  120 
feet  long:,  and  12  in  circumference, 
as  related  by  Herrara.  A  cedar 
was  used  for  the  main-mast  of  a 
ship  belonging  to  king  Demetrius, 
which  measured  130  feet  lojjg,  and 
and  18  in  diameter.  In  We  tem- 
ple of  Apollo  at  Utica,  there  are 
cedar  trees  nearly  2000  years  old; 
and  at  Seguntium  in  Spain,  in  an 
oratory  of  Diana,  there  is  a  beam 
of  cedar,  said  to  have  been  con- 
veyed there  200  years  before  the 
destruction  of  Troy.  Pins  of  the 
same  wood  are  preferred  to  ircn 
for  fastening  planks,  on  account  of 
its  extreme  dryness. 

Ceiling,  (From  ccelum,  the  sky) 
the  inner  roof  of  a  building  ;  or  the 
lath-and-plaster  covering  of  the  top 
of  a  room  :  in  the  former  instance 
the  term  is  applicable  to  roofs  of 
temples  and  churches,  which  admit 
of  various  and  splendid  ornaments. 
Coved  ceilings  are  more  expensive 
and  beautiful  than  flat  ones ;  but 
historical  and  other  paintings  are 
often  introduced  with  good  effect 
in  the  centre  of  flat  ceilings,  or  in 
their  angular  compartments.  Ceil- 
ings are  frequently  adorned  with 
compartments,  raised  ;  or  the  pan- 
nels  are  depressed  within  mould 
ings  ;  their  figures  various,  circular, 
elliptical,  tec.  These  compartments 
are  decorated  with  roses,  foliage, 
and  other  ornaments.  The  figures 
of  the  coves  of  ceilings  are  usually 
the  quadrant  of  a  circle,  or  of  an 
ellipsis,  taking  its  rise  a  little  above 
the  cornice,  and  finishing  at  the 
border,  round  the  great  pannel  in 
the  centre.  The  border  projects  a 
little  beyond  the  coves  on  the  out- 
side; and  a  space  is  left  in  the 
side  toward  the  pannel,  to  admit  the 
ornaments  of  an  architrave.  The 
compartments  of  the  ceilings  of 
ancient  Temples  and  their  Porticos, 


were  generally  in  equilateral  f<  m 
which  generate  squares  in  theE 
rounding  spaces;  but  the  j  mi  on 
of  polygonal  pannels,  afterwart 
troduced,  varied  these  forms.  £j 
junction  of  hexagons  produce  lo- 
zenges or  triangles;  of  octa  s. 
squares  and  octagonal  spaces;  ns 
mode  of  ornamenting  is  te  c 
coffering  ;  and  the  parts  rec  e  i 
are  called  coffers.  The  meth  of 
ornamenting  vaulted  roofs  with  of- 
fers, and  encirclements  of  t* 
charged  with  foliage  or  fret  I 
derived  from  the  ancients;  as  ay 
be  seen  in  the  remains  of  the  m- 
pie  of  Balbec,  the  temple  of  1  ice 
at  Rome,  and  various  ancient  ins. 
A  roof  is  said  to  be  camp  o\°nt 
ceiled,  which  has  the  ceiling  (li- 
the rafters.  See  the  articles  hif, 
Soffit,  Intrados. 

Cella,  (Lat.)  the  sanotua  or 
interior  part  of  a  temple,  whic  vas 
called  by  the  Greeks,  vaog,  am 
ot)koq.  The  porticos  which  prim 
it  were  called  pronaos,  and  pdo- 
mos.  Behind  it  was  often  a  em- 
ber, to  contain  the  treasure  cthe 
temple,  which  was  called  opho- 
domus,  that  is,  the  hinder  pi  of 
the  cella.  The  cella  was  e>  tly 
half  as  wide  as  long;  the  Jth 
was  divided  into  four  equal  rts, 
the  length  into  eight.  Eight  ere 
occupied  by  that  to  which  the  rH 
cella  was  properly  applied,  m 
prising  the  wall  which  contied 
the  entrances,  and  separatee  the 
pronaos.  The  three  other  ins 
from  this  wall  to  the  centre  fcped 
the  pronaos.  The  antse  had  a  nys 
the  same  proportions  as  the  colnns 
of  the  portico.  When  the  flla 
was  not  sufficiently  wide,  th  en- 
tablature was  supported  b;. the 
antes  alone,  and  the  space  be  een 
them  was  left  open,  as  in  theN 
pie  on  the  Ilissus  at  Athens.  Vo 
columns  were  placed  bet  wee  the 
antae,  when  the  cella  was  more  ian 


CEL 


CEL 


t*e  v  feet  wide,  as  in  the  temple 
!  oflsseus  at  Athens,  and  the  tem- 
ple   Minerva  at  Sunium.  Balus- 
iJi,  with  doors   to    enter  the 
Jos,  enclosed  the  intercolum- 
Biatns  between  the  columns  and 
anu    Other  columns  were  placed 
in  t  interior  of  the  pronaos,  oppo- 
i  e  ie  columns  that  were  between 
Use,  when  the  cella  was  more 
forty  feet  wide.    These  are 
neral  rules  given  by  Vitruvius, 
but  iey  do  not  agree  with  all  the 
it  temples  of  which  remains 
are  ft.    A  different  distribution  is 
m  imes  given  to  the  hypgethros. 
pper  part  of  the  cella  of  the 
hros  was    not   covered,  its 
m  was  more  than  double  its 
rj  ;  and  as  each  facade  had  an 
ent  ice,  there  were  both  a  pro- 
ic  and  a  porticus.  Pausanias 
meions  a  temple  which  had  no 
j  entnce  at  all,  that  of  Jupiter  Ly- 
eeeij  in  the  public  square  of  Mega- 
>,  the  capital  of  Arcadia.  But 
f.emple    was    probably  very 
sm<)  and  was  rather  a  species  of 
motment   than   a   regular  villa. 
Thejtars,  &c.  appear  to  have  been 
m  red  at  the  sides  and  front,  and 
the  :m pie  and  consecrated  place 
\  >  r  surrounded  by  a  dwarf  wall, 
■  or  riholos.    An  interior  portico, 
n  ting  of  two  ranges  of  columns 
plad  one  above  the  other  was 
oftd  con  tinned  all  round,  to  cover 
a  p;  of  the  cella  of  the  hypsethros. 
It  h  i  two  stories  or  galleries,  one 
forr  iof  a  covered  place  in  the  cella, 
|  theiighest  serving  to  reach  the 
■PR  part  of  the  statue  of  the  divi- 
nitviat  was  placed  in  the  temple. 
The;emple  of  Jupiter  Olympiu<, 
and  pparently  also  the  great  tem- 
ple ;f  Psestum,   contained  such 
pallies.   On  this  architrave,  which 
the  wer  columns  supportrd,  large 
•'or  ,  which  united  the  walls  to  the 
^'l  formed  the  ceiling  of  the  lower 
&nd;ie  flooring  of  the  upper  gallery. 


Each  temple  had  in  general  but 
one  cella,  except  one  kind  of  Tuscan 
temple,  which  had  three,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  other.  The  cella 
of  the  Greek  temples  were,  in  some 
instances,  separated  into  several 
divisions,  but  they  were  always 
behind  one  another.  Temples  at 
Sicyon,  near  Argos,  on  the  road  to 
Mantinea;  at  Mantinea ;  the  tem- 
ple of  Ilithyia,  in  the  sacred  wood 
of  Altias  at  Olympia;  and  the 
Erechtheium  at  Athens,  had  double 
cellse  of  this  kind.  Pausanias  de- 
scribes a  singular  temple  at  Sparta, 
which  had  two  cellae,  one  below  the 
other;  in  each  there  was  a  staiue 
of  Venus,  and  that  of  the  upper 
cella  bore  the  surname  of  Morpho. 
The  cella  was  almost  always  built 
of  large  stones,  in  the  manner  called 
isidomum:  this  pavement  was  al- 
ways raised  higher  than  that  of  the 
portico,  with  steps  at  the  entrance; 
the  exterior  sides  were  very  simple, 
and  had  scarcely  any  ornament; 
the  four  corners  were  the  antae, 
which  were  evidently  first  built  for 
strength  as  counterforts.  The  wall 
between  these  antse  was  without 
ornament;  a  base  only  was  added 
to  the  lower  part:  this  upper  part 
was  ornamented  with  several  mem- 
bers, or  with  an  entablature  like 
that  of  the  portico  :  the  frieze  was 
not  so  high.  The  cella,  and  also 
the  frieze,  in  some  temples,  was 
ornamented  with  bassi  relievi.  In 
the  interior  of  the  cella  was  placed 
the  statue  of  the  god  to  whom  the 
temple  was  dedicated  :  it  was  always 
raised  upon  a  base,  against  the  rear 
wall,  opposite  the  entrance.  In  the 
hypsethros  it  was  placed  near  the 
door  of  the  rear  front,  where  the 
galleries  and  porticos  of  the  interior 
joined,  and  formed  a  canopy  over 
the  statue:  a  veil,  or  curtain,  was 
placed  before  it  when  they  were  not 
sacrificing. 

The  word  Cella  was  often  used 

613 


CEL 


CE1 


by  the  Romans  for  the  name  of 
apartments  in  their  baths,  such  as 
cello,  calidaria,  cellafrigidaria,£fc. 

Cellar,  (Cella,  Lut.)  a  place 
under  ground,  where  stores  and 
liquors  are  deposited.  Cellars,  in 
modern  buildings,  the  lowest  rooms 
of  a  house,  the  ceilings  of  which  are 
usually  level  with  the  surface  of 
the  ground  ;  or  they  are  under  the 
pavement  before  the  house.  These 
apartments  requiring  to  be  kept 
cool,  have  usually  double  walls, 
with  a  passage  between  them,  and 
sometimes  a  vaulted  roof. 

Celtic  Architecture.  The 
denomination  of  Celtse  includes 
the  original  inhabitants  of  Britain, 
Gaul,  and  Iberia,  or  Spain.  From 
the  circumscribed  knowledge  which 
we  possess  of  their  mode  of  life,  it 
is  difficult  to  ascertain  the  exact 
progress  which  they  had  made  in 
architecture;  but  their  efforts  in 
building  were  doubtless  very  rude 
and  undurable.  In  the  British 
towns  there  were  no  buildings  that 
weie  calculated  for  the  eye  of  pos- 
terity. According  to  Caesar,  they 
consisted  only  of  mean  huts  and 
cattle-sheds,  in  the  midst  of  a  thick 
wood,  and  fortified  by  a  high  bank 
and  a  ditch.  These  latter  were, 
however,  calculated  for  longer  dura- 
tion, and  many  of  them  still  remain 
as  testimonies  of  former  population. 
At  Ambresbury  Banks,  near  Copped 
Hall,  in  Essex,  there  is  a  remark- 
able specimen.  "  This  intrenchment 
was  formerly  in  the  very  heart  of 
the  forest,  and  is  of  an  irregular 
figure,  rather  longest  from  east  to 
west,  and  on  a  gentle  declivity  to 
the  south-east.  It  contains  near 
twelve  acres,,  and  is  surrounded  by 
a  ditch  and  high  bank,  much  worn 
down  by  time;  though,  where  there 
are  angles,  they  are  still  very  bold 
and  high.  There  are  no  regular 
openings,  like  gateways  or  entran- 
ces."— ( Gougfis  Camden.)  This 

614 


description  of  a  town,  howev*  vas 
peculiar  to  the  inhabitants  the 
lowlands.  In  the  more  inoun  noils 
districts,  in  several  parts  of  aies 
and  in  Cornwall,  in  Laiu 
Shropshire,  Cambridgeshire, liere- 
fordshire,  &c.  the  traces  01  hese 
fastnesses,  or  towns  of  retn 
found  on  the  summits  of  alirfn. 
pitous  hills.  They  generally  ^ 
a  considerable  area,  and  thei  bi 
is  guided  by  the  natural  sh  e  of 
the  hill  they  occupy.  Wh  th* 
sides  are  not  defended  by  reci- 
pices,  they  are  guarded  by  /era! 
ditches,  and  by  ramparts  of  anh 
or  stones.  They  have  genera  two 
entrances.  The  Herefo,  hirt 
Beacon,  on  the  summit  of  e.  of 
the  highest  of  the  Malvern  !,$  i 
without  doubt  the  remains  an 
ancient  British  town.  Its  he  ht  :s 
1444  feet  above  the  level  the 
sea.  The  area  of  the  Cast  Den- 
tation comprises  an  irreguiar  con?, 
of  175  feet  by  110  feet,  d  is 
surrounded  by  a  steep  ancHofty 
vallum  of  stones  and  earth,  J  by 
a  deep  ditch  on  the  o  side. 
Attached  to  the  principal  ar  are 
two  outworks,  of  considerab  ex- 
tent, situated  lower  on  the  si  s  of 
the  hill.  Each  of  these  coses 
a  plain,  probably  intended  f  the 
reception  of  cattle,  and  bo  are 
artificially  connected  by  a  '  row 
slip  of  land,  secured  by  a  bai  and 
ditch.  The  acclivity  of  th -bill, 
in  its  approach  towards  the  si  mit, 
is  guarded  by  several  rtul  bti 
formidable  banks  and  ditches 

Within  the  area  of  many  o  bese 
encampments,  are  remains  m 
foundations  of  numerous  ce ,  or 
places  of  habitation,  whic  are 
generally  circular  or  oval,  thesual 
form  of  the  dwellings  of  the  B  ons. 
Many  of  these  remains  are  mid 
in  Cornwall,  and  vestiges  ofl na- 
tions, supposed  to  be  British, 
in  several  recluse  parts  of  Ei 


El 

Will) 

it*  andWales. 
to'  disc'ered  on 


CEM 

Many  of  them  are 
Dartmoor  in  Devon- 


See  Polwheles  History  of 


De:n. 

(  ment.    Various  compositions 
Is  denomination  belong  more 
;  ,r  ularly  to  the  joiner;  others, 
ol  ([different  description,  are  used 
3  plasterer;  and  the  class  of 
its  purely  calcareous,  belong 
lively  to  the  mason. 
ie  is  made  from  the  sinews 
>kins  of  animals;  that  from 
kins  being  in  all  cases  pre- 
e,  and  the  glue  made  from 
tnimals  being  less  affected  by 
the  oisture  of  the  atmosphere,  is 
.  illy  to  be  preferred,  even  to 
est  isinglass.   Good  glue  is 
genially  very  transparent,  and  will 
but  not  dissolve  in  cold  water. 
Ah  he  best  glue,  when  dissolv- 
heat,  will  draw  out  in  long 
!  ■  th re  is. 

ement  for  making  up  holes 
laws  in  wainscots,  and  for 
oth(  purposes,  is  made  by  mixing 
equ  parts  of  pounded  resin  and 
es'vax,  and  adding  to  this  solu- 
s  it  melts  over  a  slow  fire, 
yellow  ochre,  or  burnt  ochre, 
hah  of  each  as  will  produce 
)lour  intended.    Or  for  the 
)urpose,  take  fine  sawdust  of 
ood  you   wish  to  imitate ; 
ate  this   in   water    two  or 
lays,  then  pour  off  a  part  of 
Ihe  ter,  and  boil  the  residue  till  it 
bt'cc'es  smooth  and  pulpy.  Keep 
this  overed  up  for  use.  When 
mix  as  much  glue  with  it  as 
the  :casion  may    require.  For 
filets  and  mouldings,  carved 
oma'ents,  and  other  similar  pur- 
pose a  very  strong  glue  or  cement 
u  m  e  by  dissolving  isinglass,  and 
glue  to  it  which  has  soaked 
•our  hours,   and  straining 
p  lole  through  a  coarse  cloth. 
/or tar  and  Stucco. 
C|i£TBai£s,  places  where  the 


addi- 
twep 


CEM 

bodies  of  the  dead  are  deposited ; 
which  were  not  allowed  to  be  buried 
in  churches,  or  within  cities,  in  an- 
cient times  ;  but  were  ordered  by  law 
to  be  without  the  walls :  yet  they  were 
held  sacred,  and  frequently  resorted 
to;  and  according  to  Eusebiusand 
Tertullian,  the  early  Christians  had 
their  assemblies  in  the  cemeteries, 
and  afterwards,  in  the  time  of  Con- 
stantine,  erected  churches  in  them, 
as  places  rendered  sacred  by  con- 
taining the  mouldering  remains  of 
the  martyrs :  and  hence  the  Catho- 
lic rule,  which  is  yet  retained  in  the 
Roman  church,  never  to  consecrate 
an  altar  without  placing  under  it 
the  relics  of  some  saint.  The  prac- 
tice of  consecrating  cemeteries  has 
the  same  origin. 

Among  the  Turks  it  is  the  uni- 
versal custom  to  place  cemeteries 
on  the  outside  of  their  towns,  and 
in  the  vicinity  of  Smyrna,  and 
various  other  places,  in  these  re- 
ceptacles of  the  dead,  abundance  of 
cypress  trees,  rosemary,  and  other 
odoriferous  shrubs  and  trees,  are 
planted,  which  exhale  a  pleasant 
and  salubrious  fragrance:  this  is 
not  only  a  very  suitable  mode  of 
ornamenting  burial  grounds,  but  is 
a  successful  method  of  purifying 
the  air. 

The  Campo-santo  of  Pisa  was 
begun  by  Archbishop  Ubalno,  in 
1200  :  the  celebrated  John  of  Pisa 
was  the  architect;  and  it  yet  re- 
mains one  of  the  most  remarkable 
and  interesting  monuments  of  anti- 
quity to  be  found  in  Europe :  it  is 
one  of  the  first  in  which  the  classi- 
cal style  of  architecture  was  re- 
vived. Its  length  is  four  hundred 
and  ninety  feet;  its  breadth,  one 
hundred  and  seventy;  and  its 
height  sixty  :  its  form  rectangular. 
The  southern  front  is  ornamented 
by  forty-four  pilasters,  supporting 
arches.  Where  the  arches  unite  at 
the  top  of  each  capital,  is  a  mask, 

615 


CEN 


of  a  form  suited  to  the  capitals, 
■which  retain  the  whimsical  and 
unclassioal  style  of  those  times. 
This  edifice  is  of  white  marble  from 
the  mountains  of  Pisa,  the  whole 
squared  and  jointed  with  great 
accuracy.  The  interior,  which  is 
entered  by  two  side-doors,  is  a  vast 
court  of  four  hundred  and  sixty 
feet  in  length,  around  which  is  an 
arcade  of  sixty-two  demi-gothic 
arches,  supported  by  columns,  to 
which  a  surbase  is  the  only  pedestal. 
Numerous  paintings  of  the  early 
masters  ornament  the  galleries, 
which  are  paved  with  the  finest 
marble.  Antique  sarcophagi,  raised 
on  consoles,  and  placed  on  a  sur- 
base, ornament  the  porticos,  under 
which  the  monuments  of  celebrated 
men  of  Pisa  are  yet  to  be  seen. 
Queen  Christina  of  Sweden,  called 
this  cemetery  "  Non  un  cimeterio 
ma  un  museo and  it  was  here 
that  the  king  of  Prussia  placed  the 
monument  of  the  celebrated  Alga- 
rotti,  and  inscribed  upon  it  — 
"  Alcjarottus  non  omnis." 

Cenotaph*  (Kerora^og,  Gr.) 
an  honorary  tomb  or  monument, 
distinguished  from  other  monuments 
in  being  empty,  tiie  individual  it  is 
to  memorrze  having  received  inter- 
ment and  funeral  honours  in  some 
distant  land,  or  having  perished  at 
sea :  these  latter  are  commonly 
distinguished  by  the  figure  of  a 
ship,  or  the  representation  of  a 
wreck  at  sea. 

Centaur,  a  poetical  imaginary 
being  of  heathen  mythology,  half 
man  and  half  horse.  The  Cen- 
taurs were  in  reality  a  tribe  of 
Lapithas,  inhabiting  the  city  of 
Pelethronium  :  these  people  are 
said  to  have  been  the  first  who 
tamed  and  managed  horses,  from 
which  circumstance  the  fable  origi- 
nated. 

Centering,  in  building.  The 
name  used  in  turning  an  arch  of 

616 


at 
r  in 
ded 


stone  or  brick.  See  Carptry 
The  centering  of  a  large  v;  t  I 
formed  with  trusses  or  ri 
equal  distances  from  each  ol 
vertical  parallel  planes,  b< 
over  so  as  to  coincide  wit  kltf 
intended  shape  of  the  arch.  The 
distance  of  the  trusses  from  arh 
other  should  be  regulated  I  the 
strength  of  the  boarding,  ai  the 
weight  of  the  arch  ;  on  very 
works  a  truss  is  laid  for  .rv 
course  of  arch  stones  In  vers 
that  are  not  navigable,  thera 
struction  of  the  truss  is  venasv, 
as  it  may  be  made  with  a  mj 
from  the  bottom.  If  the  ri  be 
navigable,  it  requires  much  dm 
skill,  an  opening  being  requir  for 
vessels  to  pass  through,  head 
of  the  horizontal  tie,  a  num  r  of 
ties  must  be  disposed  arour*  tl  ? 
polygon,  which  forms  the  it  nor 
part  of  the  centre;  and  reat 
attention  must  be  paid  to  tl  va- 
riation of  the  pressure  01  the 
various  parts,  as  the  work  prods. 
The  pieces  which  support  th<  n 
from  the  several  pressing  mm 
must  be  made  to  act  in  the  dir  ion 
of  their  lengths.  If  the  thers 
are  drawn  in  the  direction  of  ie  r 
length,  the  joints  should  be  ap- 
ped  ;  but  the  abutting  joint  wilt 
be  sufficiently  resisted  when  prW) 
if  the  shoulders  be  perpendici.no 
the  direction  of  their  force.  M 
the  openings  of  a  truss  shod  be 
triangles,  and  the  intersecti  ■ 
the  timber  should  be  as  m 
oblique  as  possible.  Thecen  uv: 
of  an  arch  may  consist  eitl  (<! 
one  centre  around  the  interi  oi 
the  entire  arch,  supported  beg 
the  piers ;  or  the  aperture  nv  be 
subdivided  by  supporters,  eachpw 
sisting  of  posts  of  wood  bp 
together.  The  bridge  of  Or  JJ 
by  M.  Husseau,  is  one  of  the  M- 
est  centres  ever  executed  in  Eii* 
It  was  constructed  by  means  I  a 


CEN 


CH  A 


latWtruss,  spanning  the  whole 
.  oper?;    its    vertex  supporting 
the  mmit  of  the  arch,  and  its 
supporting  subordinate 
ruJ   which  resisted   the  pres- 
i  )f  the  arch  at  other  inter- 
ned e  points, 
n  centering  of  the  nave  and 
r)ts  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome, 
;  ,  I\  'hael  Angelo,  and  two  centres 
lot,  were  formed  on  the  prin- 
ciplebf  two  independent  trusses, 
one  pporting  the  sides  or  haunch- 
l  othe  arch,  and  the  other  the 
w     The   centering    of  the 
,  bridt;5  of  Cravant,  Nogent,  May- 
ence'md  Neuilly,  were  constructed 
rronet,  on  the  principle  of 
c  ed  polygons;    the  exterior 
bear1,  supporting  the  curve,  were 
■  epl  lengths,  and  joined  toge- 
r  n  the  form  of  a  polygon : 
r  h  this,  another  polygon  was 
•m  ,   with   its   angles    in  the 
:   l(|  of  the  sides  of  the  former, 
and  o  on  alternately;  until  as 
man1  polygons  were  inscribed  as 
n]  make  the  centerings  suffi- 
cient strong.    The  centering  of 
the  restminster  and  Blackfriars' 
Brid  5  in  London,  was  constructed 
on    still  different  principle.  It 
cons  ed  of  a  series  of  trusses,  each 
lupp  ting  a  point  in  the  arch,  the 
prinfal  braces  having  their  lower 
itn  i ties  abutting  below,  at  each 
end  the  centering  on  the  striking 
plat(  and  at  the  upper  end  upon 
apro1  pieces,  bolted  to  the  curve 
whic  supports  bridgings  for  bind- 
ing h  pieces  which  compose  them 
toge'?r  at  their  junction.  Another 
mod  )f  centering  is  by  a  number 
of  q  drilateral  frames  abutting  on 
cach  tther,  having  their  joints  ra- 
diate to  a  centre,  like  the  wedge- 
ston.  of  an  arch.    These  frames 
shou  be  strengthened  by  one  or 
two  iagonals,    according  to  the 
•fodff  strain,  and  must  be  secured 
by  k  s  or  bolts. 
41 


In  the  figures  given  in  Plate 
Carpentry,  C  9,  Fig.  1.  is  the 
manner  of  constructing  a  centre 
with  four  polygons,  independent  of 
each  other,  as  used  by  Perronet. 
Fig.  2.  is  the  construction  of  a 
frame  by  separate  frames,  the  sides 
of  which  radiate  to  a  centre.  Fig. 
3.  is  the  celebrated  centre  used  at 
Blackfriars'  Bridge.  A  diagram  of 
the  centering  of  Waterloo  Bridge  is 
given  in  Plate  B.  18.  under  the 
article  Bridge. 

Centre,  (Kevrpov,  Gr.  Centrum, 
Lat.)  in  Geometry,  a  point  in  a 
figure  or  solid,  by  which  any 
straight  line  passing  through  it  to 
each  of  the  sides  will  be  equally 
bisected. 

Centres  of  a  Door,  the  two 
pivots  round  which  the  door  re- 
volves. 

Ceramicus,  (Repa/a^oe,  Gr.) 
the  name  given  to  that  part  of  the 
city  of  Athens  which  was  S  W. 
from  the  Acropolis,  so  denominat- 
ed, according  to  Pausanias,  from 
Ceramus,  the  son  of  Bacchus  and 
Ariadne. 

Ceroma,  (Kepofia,  Gr.)  in  the 
gymnasia,  and  in  the  baths  of  the 
Romans,  an  apartment  where  the 
bathers  and  wrestlers  were  anointed, 
as  the  name  imports,  with  oil  thick- 
ened with  wax. 

Ceroplastic,  the  art  of  model- 
ling in  wax.  The  Romans  placed 
busts  of  their  ancestors,  made  of 
wax,  in  the  vestibules  of  their 
palaces,  and  carried  them  in  pro- 
cession, on  solemn  occasions,  and 
at  funerals. 

Cesspool,  see  Sesspool. 

Cestophoiius,  sculptures  of 
females  bearing  the  cestus,  or  mar- 
riage girdles,  in  the  marriage  cere- 
monies of  the  ancients. 

Chain-Timber,  a  piece  of  tim- 
ber, in  breadth  equal  to  the  length 
and  breadth  of  a  brick,  used  for 
strengthening  brick  walls,  by  insert- 

617 


CH  A 


CH  A 


ing  in  the  middle  of  the  height 
of  the  story. 

Chair,  Curule,  the  honorary 
seat,  from  which  the  chief  public 
officers  of  Rome  took  their  deno- 
mination of  Curules ;  it  was  ge- 
nerally of  ivory,  or  other  costly 
materials,  and  highly  ornamented  ; 
not  only  used  as  honouring  dic- 
tators, praetors,  censors,  and  ediles, 
but  also  the  pontiffs  and  vestal 
virgins  claimed  their  nse.  This 
honorary  vehicle  is  often  seen  re- 
presented on  Etruscan  monuments, 
and  from  this  people  the  custom 
is  believed  to  have  been  originally 
derived  to  the  Romans. 

Cn  alcidicum,  a  large  and  mag- 
nificent apartment,  belonging  to  a 
court  of  justice.  It  is  said  to  have 
derived  its  name  from  Chalcidicus, 
a  city  of  Eubcea. 

Cu  alcicecus,  a  magnificent 
temple  of  Minerva,  built  of  brass, 

Chalk,  (Ceta,  Lat.  calck,  Sax.) 
a  well  known  white  substance, 
found  in  abundance  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, and  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 
It  is  a  carbonate  of  lime,  insoluble 
in  water,  but  decomposed  by  heat, 
and  used  in  masonry  for  the  same 
purposes  as  lime-stone,  see  Cement. 

Chamanim,  (from  Charnan, 
Heb.  to  burn,)  idols  exposed  to  the 
sun  on  the  tops  of  houses ;  by  the 
Creeks  called  Pireia.  Aben  Ezra 
says  they  were  portable  chariots,  in 
honour  of  the  sun.    See  Pireia. 

Chamber,  an  upper  apartment 
of  a  dwelling-house,  a  term  derived 
from  the  Greek  ^ctfiapa,  a  vault, 
the  word  originally  signifying  a 
vaulted  room.  With  the  exception 
of  the  term  presence  chamber,  this 
word  is  synonymous  with  bed-room; 
with  the  French  it  has  a  more 
extensive  meaning,  as  chambre  a 
coucher,  chambie  de  parade,  &c. 
Bed-rooms  are  frequently  finished 
in  a  highly  ornamental  style,  with 
a  spacious  niche  or  alcove,  for  the 

618 


bed.  The  upper  story  is  ge.  ally 
divided  into  inferior  bed-  mi 
See  Alcove. 

Chambers,  Sir  William  <; 
veyor-general  of  the  board  of  rk< 
fellow  of  the  royal  and  antiqi :ian' 
societies,  treasurer  of  the  byj 
academy,  and  knight  of  the  olar 
star  in  Sweden,  was  descende:  ron 
an  ancient  Scottish  family  his 
ancestors  were  barons  of  Ta'siu 
France.  His  grandfather,  si  re-1 
great  loss,  by  supplying  C  ries 
the  Twelfth  of  Sweden  with  \m 
sums  of  money,  which  Ins 
attempted  to  recover,  residi  in 
Sweden  for  that  purpose.  Sir 
William  was  born  in  that  cotrv, 
and  at  the  age  of  eighteei  was 
appointed  supercargo  to  the  we- 
dish  East  India  company,  lie 
some  time  afterwards  made  rov- 
age  to  China,  and  finally  slled 
in  England.  He  was  pa t r<  zed 
by  lord  Bute,  and,  throng  his 
interest,  employed  in  deco.inj 
Kevv  Gardens  with  Asiatic  ild- 
ings,  temples,  pagodas,  &c.  He 
rose  to  eminence  as  an  arcbct, 
under  royal  patronage :  anuvas 
employed  in  all  the  great  bui  n^s 
of  the  time.  His  most  celel  ted 
works  are  his  staircases,  pacu- 
larly  those  at  Lord  Besboro  h's, 
Lord  Gower's,  and  the  Royab- 
tiquarian  Society's  rooms.  H 
praise  has  been  bestowed  o  his 
architectural  works  at  Sorset 
House,  which  established  his  me 
as  an  architect.  He  published 
1757,  "  Designs  for  Chinese  Tid- 
ings, Furniture,  Dresses,  Maches, 
and  Utensils;  engraved  fronthe 
originals  drawn  in  China.—  N 
Elevations,  Sections,  and  feifa 
tive  Views  of  the  Gardens^! 
Buildings  at  Kew  in  Surrey^ 
seat  of  her  Royal  Highnes^he 
Princess  of  Wales ;"  a  very  s  n- 
did  work,  was  published  in  11 
His  dissertations  on  Oriental  CMf 


C  H  A 


C  H  A 


enimin  1774.  His  Treatise  on 
Civil  Architecture  is  a  work  of 
xreanxcellence.    He  died  in  the 

year  r96. 

i  mbranle,  an  ornamental 
xwtynsj  on  the  sides  and  tops  of 
dor!' windows,  and  fire-places; 
.    nament  is  generally  taken 
,e  architrave  of  the  order  of 
|j{  hiding :   in   window  frames, 
g  is  also  ornamented,  forming 
i  side.    The  top  of  a  three- 
cled  chambranlf  is    called  the 
rse,  and  the  sides  ascen- 

iant. 

Cl'MFER,    Or    ClIAMPIIER,  tO 

niii,  or  make    indentures  in 
pillars,  or  other  ornamented 
aarts'  a  building. 

i  MPain  Line,  in  ornamental 
t  work  formed  of  excavations, 
none  parallel  to  the  continu- 
|e,  either  ascending  or  de- 
scend; g. 

liiscEL,  that  part  of  a  church, 
hi  eastern  end,  in  which  the 
r  r  communion  table  is  pla- 
;  sually  separated  from  the 
ire  id  transept  by  cancelli  or 
Uic<vork,  from  which  it  takes 
n  ie  :   the  name    also  of  a 
)ir, :  division  of  ancient  Basi- 
• ,  itticed  off  to  separate  the 
e  ind  council  from  the  spec- 

ChUcery,  or  Chancellery, 
beredental  palace  of  the  Chan- 
llor  it  consists  of  splendid  and 
i<      apartments,  — audience 
hamlrrs,  and  council  rooms.  One 
lh(  lost  admired  works  of  Bra- 
i(  5  the  chancellery  at  Rome. 

lieu,  a  large  branched 
H<  ick,  suspended  in  the  cen- 
|  Is  of  halls,  and  spacious 
•artr-nts,   ornamental,   and  to 
i. 

Cm  idiliers,  are  wooden  pa- 
pets  nade  of  two  upright  stakes, 
Mt  >ix   feet    high,  supporting 
^  laid   across  one  another, 


used  in  fortifications,  to  defend 
workmen  from  the  attacks  of  the 
besiegers. 

Chan  dry,  in  palaces,  a  store 
room  for  the  reception  of  candles, 
torches,  and  other  lights. 

Channel,  a  part  in  the  Ionic 
capital,  somewhat  hollow,  under 
the  abacus,  after  the  listel  ;  it  lies 
upon  the  echinus,  having  its  con- 
tours, or  turnings,  upon  each,  to 
make  the  volutes.  See  Canal  of 
the  Volute. 

Channel  of  the  Larmier, 
see  Canal  of  the  Larmier  ;  and 
Beak. 

Channel  Stones,  are  stones 
prepared  for  gutters,  or  channels,  to 
carry  off'  the  water. 

Cn  an  try,  or  Cn  a  un  try,  a  little 
chapel  in  ancient  churches,  with 
an  endowment  for  one  or  more 
priests  to  say  mass,  for  the  release 
of  souls  out  of  purgatory.  In  the 
14th  year  of  Edward  the  Sixth,  all 
the  chantries  in  England  were  dis- 
solved ;  at  which  period  there  were 
no  less  than  forty-seven  of  them 
belonging  to  St.  Paul's  cathedral. 

Chapel,  (Capella,  Lat.)  a  place 
for  public  worship,  separate  from, 
or  attached  to,  a  church  :  or  this 
term  is  sometimes  applied  to  a 
species  of  mausoleum  raised  to  the 
memory  of  persons  of  celebrity. 
In  ancient  edifices  the  term  was 
properly  applicable  to  those  apart- 
ments called  Exedrce,  which  were 
detached  from  the  body  of  the 
building  for  retirement  or  conver- 
sation :  these  were  commonly  pro- 
vided in  the  gymnasise,  the  baths, 
and  the  temples.  The  Pantheon 
at  Rome  had  seven  chapels,  or 
exedrae  within  the  circumference 
of  its  walls;  these,  and  the  exedrse 
of  the  temple  of  Balbec,  are  dis- 
tinguished by  the  peculiar  elegance 
of  their  architectural  decorations. 
Our  most  ancient  ecclesiastic  edi- 
fices have  a  recess  generally  of  a 

019 


CHE 


CHE 


semicircular  form  called  a  chapel, 
as  well  as  smaller  recesses  named 
shrines  or  niches.  The  Roman 
Basilica  have  also  recesses  of  a 
similar  form,  under  the  same  de- 
nomination. 

Chapiter  (Fr.  Capitello,  Ital.) 
See  Capital. 

Chapiters  with  Mouldings, 
are  the  capitals  of  the  Tuscan  and 
Doric  orders,  which  are  without 
foliage  or  other  ornamental  embel- 
lishment, 

Chapiters  with  Sculptures 
are  the  Corinthian,  and  those  deco- 
rated with  foliage  and  other  carv- 
ings. 

Chaplet,  an  ornamental  fillet 
in  the  form  of  a  string  of  beads. 

Chapter  House,  the  place 
where  canonical  meetings  are  held, 
usually  attached  to  a  cathedral 
church,  and  sufficiently  capacious 
to  contain  all  the  clergy  belonging 
to  the  diocese :  the  ecclesiastical 
court  of  St.  Paul's  is  a  superior 
specimen  of  this  kind  of  building-. 

Ciiaptrel.    See  Impost 

Charged,  implies  thatone  mem- 
ber of  a  piece  of  architecture  is 
sustained  by  another.  A  frieze  is 
said  to  be  charged  with  the  orna- 
ment by  which  it  is  covered. 

Charnel  House,  a  place  where 
the  bones  of  the  dead  are  deposited. 

Cn artoph ylacium,  a  recess, 
or  apartment,  for  the  preservation 
of  records,  or  valuable  writings. 

Chase  Mortise,  the  mode  of 
inserting,  or  mortising,  inclined 
transverse  joists  into  parallel  tim- 
bers, in  ceilings. 

Chauntry.    See  Chantry. 

Checkered.    See  Chequers, 

Cheeks;  two  equal  and  similar 
parts  of  any  piece  of  timber-work. 

Cheese-Room,  an  apartment  in 
the  dairy,  in  which  the  cheeses  are 
kept :  the  walls  are  supplied  with 
shelves,  and  the  rooms  above  and 
below  communicate  by  trap-doors, 
620 


for  the  admission  of  a  curret  >f  air 
Ciiemise,  in  fortification  wail 
built  before  a  bastion  or  ot!  | 
wark  of  earth.  Also  apr  d  S 
the  wall  extending  from  ti  talus 
to  the  stone  row. 

Chen  iscus, (from  ^v,  a  Dose,; 
an  ornament  in  form  of  a^oose 
on  the  prows  and  sterns  of ' icient 
ships. 

Chequers,  in  the  fac^s  o( 
walls,  are  stones  of  uniforming! 
dimensions,  so  arranged  it  no 
interruption  occurs  in  the  oints, 
either  horizontally  or  vecally, 
See  Masonry  and  Reticular. 

Cherub,  an  ornament  Irodu. 
ced  by  the  Italian  artists  )f  an 
infant's  head  joined  to  tw<;in:'s, 
used,  in  ecclesiastical  edifj:s,  on 
keystones  of  arches. 

ClIESNUT,  Or  ClIESTNU':j.''RE& 

{Fay us  Castanea,  Lin.)  flijrishes 
in  a  dry  soil,  has  a  large  )ri»bt 
trunk,  usually  rising  40  or  1  feet, 
with  a  fine  spreading  he;.  It 
sometimes  attains  an  immenlsize; 
the  largest  known  are  inSjlywi 
Mount  iEtna,  which  measu;  from 
76  to  150  feet  in  circum fence. 
The  yreat  chesnut  tree  ojTort- 
worth,  in  Gloucestershire,  5  52 
feet  in  circumference,  and  1'ieved 
to  be  1000  years  old.  T|  tim- 
ber of  the  chesnut  tree  is  prrrable 
to  elm  ;  for  door  jambs,  Viidow- 
frames,  and  some  other  ptoses, 
it  nearly  equals  oak;  but  ere II 
a  deceitful  brittleness  in  ilffhty 
renders  it  unsafe  for  beams. 
Chest.  See  Caisson, 
Chevaux  de  Frieze,  Jr.  jl 
fortification,)  the  Fjiezelandjiorse, 
a  piece  of  timber,  a  foot  injiame- 
ter  and  ten  feet  long,  intVWp 
are  fixed  a  great  number  of  j>°den 
pins,  six  feet  long,  crossin  g 
ether  with  iron  pins  at  tl|r  efr 
tremities.  They  are  to  }|ce  » 
avenues,  to  oppose  the  entr  ee  ot 
an  enemy. 


i 


C  H  I 

or|  ch'RON,  an  ornament  m 
t«n?JbtH  architecture,  to  which  the 
A  ,?nu0f  zig-zag,  (i.  e.  turning  this 
.•  •  ,av  id  that,  like  the   letter  Z.) 

jahl^iven. 
Dm,,  C\  aro-oscuro,  as  pertaining  to 
forrn  lie  s^nce  of  architecture,  is  that 
^  artijlar  part  of  it  usually  called 
"  cioe iphy  5  as  an  art  dependent 
)  n  t  laws  of  perspective,  and 
i  xerr  ified  in  the  drawing  of  the 
uJH>n  of  an  edifice,  to  display 
;  he  i  ?rnal  conveniences,  the  num- 
||  er  \'\  proportions  of  the  various 
:  part  en  ts,  and  the  thickness  of 
)ni  be  vl Is. 

C  mnt fy,  the  passage  through 
the  smoke  ascends  from  the 
:  a  dwelling  house.  The 
in      chimneys    is  generally 
iuaj,  and  their  dimensions  pro- 
K>rtijed  to  those  of  the  fire-place, 
romhich  they  are  to  convey  the 
arefil  air  and  smoke,  rising  in 
ive  volumes.     In  order  to 
>revc  chimneys  from  smoking, 
re  sometimes  built  in  a  cir- 
ular'orm,  and  the  sides  covered 
ith :  aster,  made  smooth  to  pre- 
r  let  ion.    See  Fire-place,  and 
moi'  Chimney. 

Imn e y  Shaft,  a  turret  rising 
the  roof,  generally  in  the 
to  receive  and  conduct 
ne  smoke  of  all  the  chimneys 
rig  to  the  building. 
mn  f.y  Jambs, the  sides  rising 
he  top  of  the  grate  to  the 
;e  of  the  chimney,  from  the 
of  which  the  upper  part 
3  forward  under  the  mantle- 

Cj  mxey  Piecf.,  the  ornaments 
*  cHiney-pieces  consist  of  archi- 
trave friezes,  cornices,  columns, 
pfasj-s,  termini,  caryatides,  con- 
wles_  and  every  embellishment 
wnic'  the  sculptor  can  invent  or 
appr  riate. 

CI  nese  Architecture.  The 
buildgs  of  the  Chinese  are,  like 


CHI 

the  people,  very  peculiar,  and  differ 
in  many  respects  from  those  of  any 
nation  with  whom  we  are  acquaint- 
ed. Yet  nevertheless  there  is  a 
considerable  similitude  in  some 
respects  between  them  and  those 
of  the  people  of  antiquity.  The 
general  form  of  almost  all  their 
compositions  tends  to  lhat  of  a 
pyramid.  Like  the  ancients,  they 
make  their  columns  with  diminutions 
and  bases.  The  entrelas,  so  com- 
mon in  ancient  edifices,  are  often 
seen  in  those  of  the  Chinese.  The 
ting  of  the  latter  differs  little  from 
the  peripteron  of  the  Greeks.  The 
atrium,  and  the  monopterous  and 
prostyle  temples,  have  a  considera- 
ble resemblance  to  some  among 
the  Chinese  ;  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  construct  their  wails,  is 
on  the  same  principle  with  the 
revinctum  and  emplecton  described 
by  Vitruvius.  The  pagodas,  or 
temples,  of  the  Chinese  are  many 
of  them  very  small,  containing  but 
a  single  apartment.  Others,  how- 
ever, are  larger,  containing  courts, 
with  galleries,  &c,  and  tings,  where 
the  idols  are  kept.  The  large 
pagoda  of  Honang,  in  the  southern 
suburb,  occupies  a  great  extent  of 
ground,  and  contains,  besides  the 
temples  of  the  idols,  apartments  for 
two  hundred  bonzes,  hospitals  for 
many  animals,  a  large  kitchen  gar- 
den, and  a  burying  ground.  In 
plate  C.  29  (Jig.  J.)  is  «iven  a  plan 
of  this  pagoda.  The  first  object, 
on  entering,  is  an  extensive  court, 
containing  three  rows  of  trees,  which 
lead  to  an  open  vestibule  (a)  as- 
cended by  a  few  steps  (b).  From 
this  we  pass  to  a  second  vestibule 
(<?),  containing  four  colossal  sitting 
figures  in  stucco.  This  vestibule 
opens  into  another  large  court,  (d) 
surrounded  by  colonnades  (c),  and 
cells  for  the  bonzes  (f).  The 
four  pavilions  (g)  in  this  court,  on 
socles,  are  the  temples,  and  contain 

C2l 


C  H  I 

wo  stories,  filled  with  idols.  At 
lie  four  corners  of  the  court  are 
(bur  other  pavilions  (h)  where  the 
superior  bonzes  have  their  apart- 
ments, and  under  these  columns, 
between  the  cells,  are  four  halls,  ( i) 
occupied  by  idols.  On  each  side 
r\  this  great  court  are  two  other 
small  courts  (ft)  surrounded  with 
buildings ;  one  is  for  the  kitchens, 
(I)  and  for  the  refectories  (m),  the 
other  serves  for  the  hospitals  ( n ). 
The  same  plan  is  observed  in  all 
the  larger  temples,  and  by  detach- 
ing from  them  the  three  pavilions 
or  temples  in  the  great  court,  we 
may  form  an  idea  of  the  manner  in 
which  all  Chinese  edifices  of  great 
extent,  such  as  the  imperial  palace, 
those  of  the  princes  and  of  the 
mandarins,  the  Kong  Quaens,  are 
laid  out.  The  bodies  of  the  pavil- 
ions are  of  stone,  but  the  columns 
which  support  them,  as  well  as  the 
colonnades,  are  of  wood,  with  bases 
of  marble.  All  the  buildings  are 
covered  with  green,  varnished,  poree- 
lain  tiles.  The  tings,  or  temples 
of  the  idols,  differ  little  in  shape, 
being  commonly  similar  to  that 
given  on  plate  C.  29  (Jig.  2 )  which 
is  a  copy  of  the  ling  of  the  Nagada 
of  Cochin-China,  in  the  eastern 
suburb.  They  are  all  raised  on  a 
base,  ascended  by  two  or  three 
steps.  This  is  a  square,  surrounded 
by  a  colonnade  of  twenty  columns, 
wliich  support  a  roof  surrounded 
by  a  wooden  balustrade,  with  a 
gallery  surrounding  the  whole  se- 
cond story,  which  is  of  the  same 
figure  and  dimensions  as  the  first. 
The  corners  of  the  roof  are  orna- 
mented with  sculptured  dragons. 
The  proportions  of  the  Chinese 
buildings  are  quite  irregular.  In 
the  ting  represented  injfy  2.  the 
breadth  of  the  edifice  from  the 
exterior  surface  of  the  columns 
equals  the  elevation,  and  the  diame- 
ter of  the  body  of  the  building  is 

622 


C  H  I 

two-thirds  of  the  breadth.  Tlle 
height  of  the  order  is  two-th|s  0f 
the  diameter  of  the  bodv,  at  t|,e 
height  of  the  second  story  i  , 
thirds  of  that  of  the  Hist. The 
columns  contain  in  height  r 
their  diameters,  the  bases  t\\  and 
the  beams  and  brackets,  whi  , .. . 
cupy  the  place  of  capitals,  on  >  , 
The  figures  (1  and  2)  on  p 
28,  represent  two  little  baildi  s  .,■ 
wood,  in  the  courts  of  one  the 
pagodas  of    the  western  s  i 
They  are  two  pavilions,  that  ; 
two  iron  vases,  which  are  us 
the  sacrifice  of  gilt  paper  \  the 
idols  on  festival  days.    Tin  are 
both  octagons,  supported  byjiglit 
columns,  which  have  bases  ffer- 
ing  little  from  the  attic.   A  ie/.e 
charged  with  inscriptions  in  C  m 
characters,  surrounds  the  sp«ii  be- 
tween the  columns  under  the  of. 

Of  the  towers  called  7W,  lich 
are  very  common  in  every  pt  of 
China,  the  most  remarkable  i  the 
magnificent  porcelain  towel  of 
Nang-king  and  of  Tong-char  foc. 
They  are  generally  octagons,  d  ded 
into  stories,  which  diminish  ^  du- 
ally to  the  top.  Each  story  as  a 
kind  of  cornice,  supporting  ;;oof, 
which  is  surrounded  by  a  now 
gallery  and  balustrade  :  oper 
bells  are  hung  at  each  corner  the 
roof.  They  have  commonly  ^ong 
pole  at  the  top,  surrounded  bpe- 
ral  circles  of  iron,  support*  by 
eight  chains,  tied  by  one  e  to 
the  top  of  the  pole,  and  b  the 
other  to  the  angles  of  the  rl  of 
the  highest  story.  One  of  iese 
towers,  which  are  found  o  the 
banks  of  the  Ta-ho,  between  toft- 
ton  and  Hoang-pou,  is  replevied 
in  fig.  3.  (plate  C.  29).  Pom 
or  triumphal  arches,  are  alscery 
common  in  China,  but  the  are 
almost  entirely  destitute  of  ace 
or  beauty. 

The  Chinese  houses  are  per  Hly 


CHI 


GHO 


nifor1  in  the  shape  and  drraen- 
0MS  their  interior.  One  half  of 
Jtmd  they  are  built  on  is 
cpl  by  courts  and  narrow 
alks.    A    broad    walk  passes 

IBS  tne  mi(,t,le'  0,1  eacl*  sit*e 
are  the  apartments,  con- 
;tll,oof  a  saloon  for  receiving 
bedchamber,  and  some- 
study  or  closet.  Before 


,nes 


fell  it  of  apartments  is  a  court, 
ill' 


fish-pond  or  cistern  at  its 
b  y,  containing  an  artificial 
rk  i  the  middle,  on  which  bam- 
d  other  plants  grow.  The 
s    the  court  are  ornamented 
<th  !  ubs  and  flowers.    The  sa- 
p-eat chamber,  is  from  18 
0  t  long,  and  about  20  broad, 
v   which  looks  to  the  court 
:i  :ly  open,  but  a  screen  of 
hips. -t' down  at  pleasure,  keeps 
nt  tl  rain  and  the  rays  of  the 
in.   he  side  walls  arc  covered 
"  fthsbensto  the  height  of  three 
»r  foil  feet  from  the  ground,  and 
o  rc  covered  with  coloured  or 
[fill  pier.     The  bottom  of  the 
rawii  -room  is  composed  of  fold- 
ing1 d'rs,  over  which  is  a  lattice, 
tt^relwith  painted  gauze,  to  ad- 
|!#  ljit  into  the  bed-chamber. 
I  lie  cl  m  s,  which  are  of  wood,  are 
r  ieat  workmanship,  and  are 
m  ted  with  figures.    A  par- 
n    folding  doors  separates  the 
om  from  the  bedchamber, 
•hiehjin  warm  weather,  are  left 
pen  a  night  to  admit  the  cool  air. 
I  pas«!:e  leads  by  the  side  of  the 
•cdcfyiber  to  the  cabinet,  which 
scnclied  by  walls,  and  lighted  by 
vimlol.    The  other  apartments, 
acli  athc  drawing-room,  kitchen, 
*rvanj  room, bath,  counting-house, 
itid  Wards  the  street  the  shop, 
wp;  he  remainder  of  the  ground 
Wir.  The  Icon,  or  upper  story, 
'  d  into  a  number  of  halls, 
■GM'asionally  as  chambers  for 
iodgin.  strangers  :  over  the  shop 


are  the  rooms  for  the  shop-keepers. 
The  windows  in  China  are  univer- 
sally made  of  thin  transparent 
oyster  shells.  In  one  of  the  halls, 
commonly  that  next  the  door,  are 
placed  the  image  and  altar  of  the 
domestic  idol. 

The  materials  used  for  building 
are  wood;  and  bricks  which  are 
either  simply  dried  in  the  sun,  or 
baked  in  an  oven.  The  walls  are 
commonly  about  eighteen  inches 
thick.  The  tiles  are  plain,  and 
semi-cylindrical,  the  latter  being 
laid  on  the  joinings  of  the  former. 
The  wood  work  is  always  left  un- 
covered withinside  the  ceiling,  and 
is  generally  carved,  or  inlaid  with 
ivory,  copper,  and  mother-of-pearl. 
(Sir!  W.  Chambers.) 

Chip,  a  piece  cut  by  an  acute- 
angled  instrument. 

Chisel,  a  tool  for  cutting  by  the 
impulse  of  pressure,  or  by  the  blows 
of  a  mallet.  The  fanner  is  used, 
first  of  all,  after  the  work  is  scribed, 
with  a  mallet;  the  pairing  chisel, 
with  a  fine  smooth  edge,  is  used 
without  a  mallet,  to  smooth  the 
irregularities  left  by  the  former  ; 
the  skew  former,  is  used  for  clean- 
ing acute  angles  ;  the  mortise- 
chisel,  is  narrow,  but  very  thick  and 
strong,  and  is  used  to  cut  deep 
square  holes  for  mortises  ;  the 
gouge  has  a  round  or  curved  edge; 
sochct-chisc/s  have  their  shanks 
with  a  hollow  socket  at  top,  to  re- 
ceive a  strong  wooden  sprig,  fitted 
in  with  a  shoulder;  the  ripping 
chisel  is  a  socket  chisel  of  an  inch 
broad,  with  a  blunt  edge,  and  no 
basil. 

Cm  it,  an  instrument  for  cleaving 
laths. 

Choi  a,  (xopocCr.)  the  part  of  the 
church  where  the  singers  or  choiis- 
ters  are  placed.  In  the  time  of 
Constantino  the  choir  was  first  sepa- 
rated from  the  nave.  In  the  twelfth, 
century  they  began  to  enclose  it 

623 


CHO 


CHO 


with  walls,  but  the  ancient  balus- 
trades have  been  since  restored.  In 
nunneries  the  choir  was  a  large 
hall,  separated  from  the  body  of 
the  church  by  a  grate. 

Cholula,  a  town  in  Mexico, 
celebrated  for  its  remains  of  ancient 
Mexican  buildings.  To  the  east  of 
the  town  stands  the  famous  pyramid 
or  teocalli,  the  largest  and  most 
sacred  temple  in  Mexico.  At  a 
distance  it  appears  like  a  natural 
conical  hill,  wooded,  and  crowned 
with  a  small  church,  but  as  we 
approach,  its  pyramidal  form  be- 
comes distinguishable,  together  with 
the  four  stories  into  which  it  is 
shaped,  although  covered  with  vege- 
tation. It  is  compared  by  Hum- 
boldt to  a  square  four  times  the 
dimensions  of  the  Place  Vendome 
at  Paris,  covered  with  a  heap  of 
bricks,  of  twice  the  elevation  of  the 
Louvre.  The  base  is  almost  double 
that  of  the  great  pyramid  of  Cheops ; 
but  its  height  is  very  little  more 
than  that  of  the  pyramid  of  Myce- 
rinus.  It  appears  to  have  been 
constructed  exactly  in  the  direction 
of  the  four  cardinal  points.  It  is 
built  of  unburnt  bricks  and  clay, 
in  alternate  layers.  In  the  interior, 
as  in  other  teocallis,  there  are  con- 
siderable cavities  intended  for  se- 
pulchres. The  present  road  from 
Puebla  to  Mexico  was  cut  through 
one  side  of  this  pyramid,  in  doing 
which  a  square  chamber  was  dis- 
covered in  the  interior  of  the  pyra- 
mid, built  of  stones,  and  supported 
by  beams  of  cypress  wood.  It  con- 
tained two  skeletons,  some  idols  of 
basalt,  and  a  number  of  vases 
curiously  varnished  and  painted. 
Humboldt  examined  the  ruins  of 
this  chamber,  and  observed  a  parti- 
cular arrangement  of  the  bricks, 
tending  to  diminish  the  pressure  on 
the  roof.  Being  ignorant  of  the 
arch,  the  natives  placed  very  large 
bricks  horizontally,  so  that  the  up- 


per course  should  pass  beyi  I  the 
lower.    Similar  work  has  b<  0k| 
served  in  Egyptian  edifices  The 
height  of  the  pyramid  is  17  , 
the  length  of  the  base,  1,42  the 
ascent  to  the  platform  is  by 
of  120  steps.    This  elevatenrea 
comprising    about    3,500  .iiare 
yards,  was  occupied  by  the  nple 
of  Quetzalcoatl,  the  god  of  r,  m 
place  of  which  now  stands  i 
chapel  to  the  Virgin. 

In  the  construction,  forr  and 
object,  of  the  Mexican  tefUM 
there  is  a  striking  analogy  tin 
tumuli  and  pyramids  of  tl  old 
world.  The  temple  of  Bel  was 
a  pyramid,  built  of  brie  and 
asphaltum,  solid  throughou  and 
it  had  eight  stories.  A  temj  was 
erected  on  its  top,  and  ano  n  at 
its  base.  In  the  teoca Ms,  thhvm 
temple  is  clearly  distinguishe'rom 
the  temple  on  the  platform  the 
letters  of  Cortes.  The  Bab;  man 
temple  served,  as  Diodorus  'ulus 
tells  us,  as  an  observatory  the 
Chaldeans;  and  Mexican  jests, 
we  are  told  by  Humboldt,  lade 
observations  on  the  stars  fro  the 
summit  of  the  teocallis,  ai  an- 
nounced to  the  people,  by  theiund 
of  the  horn,  the  hour  of  the  -ght 
The  pyramid  of  Belus  was  ithi 
temple  and  a  tomb,  so  wj  the 
tumulus  (x^a)  of  Calisto  Ar- 
cadia, described  by  PausaniasThe 
teocallis  were  the  same,  ar  the 
plain  in  which  are  built  the  uses 
of  the  sun  and  moon,  at  Teciua- 
can,  is  called  the  path  of  the 
The  Egyptian  pyramids,  tl  tri- 
angular pyramid  of  the  Sc  Mif 
queen,  mentioned  by  DioffWf 
the  fourteen  Etruscan  pyr; .ids, 
which  are  said  to  have  bee  en- 
closed in  the  labyrinth  ofpja| 
Porsenna  at  Clusium;  the  tuW« 
of  Alyattes  at  Lydia;  the  sepiW 
of  the  Scandinavian  king  GcMi 
and  his  queen  Daneboda;  mm 


oxntj  found  in  Virginia,  Canada, 
i  ;  em,  in  which  numerous  gal- 
erieJbuilt  of  stone,  and  commu- 
te with  each  other  by  shafts, 
ill  „  he  interior  of  artificial  hills; 
ire  irnumentsof  a  similar  charac- 
t''er  it  not  surmounted  with  tem- 
ples.!  Some  of  the  pagodas  of 
I  ndi^particularly  that  of  Tanjore, 
«ar  'semblance  to  them. 
In  !e  neighbourhood  of  the  great 
■  i  1 ,  Mr.  Bullock  examined  two 
ietao'd  masses,  constructed  also 
^  if  uijurnt  bricks  and  clay.  The 
ne  tthe  north-east  had  been  cut, 
t  en  away ;   its   sides  were 
rtoVi  and  so  perpendicular  as 
p»ent  access  to  its  summit: 
he  tier  appeared  to  have  been 
s  Vfbijied  place,  with  a  ditch  and 
i   a  on  the  top,  forming  an  eu- 
losu!  nearly  resembling  the  figure 
o,  a  about  a  hundred  feet  in 
engt    He  found   here  among 
be  lc>e  earth  many  human  bones, 
lieceij  of  red   earthenware,  and 
ragrr its  of  obsidian — the  knives, 
pear  and  arrows-heads  of  the 
tncte-  Mexicans. 

Ciragic  Monuments,  (from 
(oooc  jr.)  were  erected  by  the 
Jreel  in  honour  of  those  who 
amf  ?.  prize  as   choragus,  or 
k  eadei  f  the  chorus.   See  A  thenian 
Arch!  dure. 

Chid,  {Chorda,  Lat.)  the  right 
Mne  wfch  joins  the  two  ends  of  an 

M  vOBATES,    (xopo/3arT/c,  Gr. 
r,,m  \>poQ  a  region,  and  (dcllvu)  I 
isure  for  land  twenty  feet 
leu  h,  mentioned  oy  Vitruvius. 
^lillin  npposes  it  to  be  a  species  of 
*»el,  ith  two  weights,  to  ascer- 
tl  falls  of  rivers,  aqueducts, 

Ch  :am,  see  Stucco. 
Cm  ici:,(circe, Sax.  Kvpiaicr)yGr.) 
buil^      for  the  performance  of 
P«hl Worship.    The  first  churches 
1  It  on  the  plan  of  the  ancient 
4K 


CHU 

Basilicae,  some  of  which  had  been 
granted  to  the  primitive  Christians 
by  Constantine.  See  Basilica.  This 
style  was  followed  bv  the  Gothic 
and  Saracenic.  See  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture. The  following  was  the 
form  of  the  ancient  Greek  churches. 
About  a  third  of  the  space  of  the 
church  was  occupied  by  two  por- 
ticos. The  first,  called  -npovaoc, 
was  adorned  on  the  outside  with 
columns,  and  enclosed  within  bv  a 
wall,  communicating  by  a  door 
with  the  second.  It  was  destined 
for  the  encrgumeni  and  penitents, 
in  the  first  stage  of  their  repent- 
ance. The  second  was  termed 
vap077f,  ( ferula )  because  those 
placed  in  it,  who  were  the  peni- 
tents of  the  second  class,  began 
to  be  subject  to  the  discipline  of 
the  church.  The  second  portico 
led  to  the  vaog  or  nave,  which  occu- 
pied nearly  another  third.  In  the 
ambo,  which  was  in  the  middle,  or  on 
one  side  of  the  nave,  the  deacons 
and  priests  preached  and  read. 
The  nave  was  destined  for  the 
reception  of  the  people  ;  at  its 
entrance  was  the  font:  beyond  it 
was  the  \opog  or  choir,  round,  and 
set  with  seats.  A  flight  of  steps 
led  from  the  choir  to  the  sanctuary, 
which  had  three  apsides  in  its 
length,  a  great  one  in  the  middle, 
under  which  was  the  altar,  and  two 
small  ones:  it  was  entered  by  three 
doors. 

Churches  were  first  introduced 
into  Britain  by  the  Romans.  The 
ecclesiastical  buildings  of  the  An^lo- 
Saxons,  who  succeeded  them,  were 
at  first  very  rude,  and  many  of  the 
Saxon  churches  were  built  only  of 
oaken  planks,  and  some  even  of 
wattles,  thatched  with  reeds.  Yet 
in  the  earliest  period  of  Christianity, 
amongst  the  Anglo-Saxons,  their 
better  kind  of  churches  were  con- 
structed of  more  durable  materials, 
and  in  a  more  magnificent  style. 

625 


C  H  U 


CHU 


i 

The  church  of  St.  Peter's  at  York, 
which  was  erected  shortly  after  the 
baptism  of  king  Edwin  in  627.  is 
described  by  Bede,  as  a  spacious 
and  magnificent  fabric  of  stone. 
In  the  church  of  St.  Peter,  in  the 
monastery  of  Wearmouth,  built  by 
the  famous  Benedict  Biscopius  in 
675,  glass  was  first  used  in  Eng- 
land, the  windows  of  the  most 
costly  buildings  having,  previous  to 
that  period,  been  filled  with  fine 
linen  cloth,  or  latticed  wood- work. 
The  cathedral  church  of  Hexham, 
in  Northumberland,  built  by  Wil- 
frid, bishop  of  York,  in  674,  was  a 
magnificent  specimen  of  Saxon 
building.  Richard,  prior  of  Hex- 
ham, an  Anglo-Norman  historian, 
in  whose  time  it  still  existed,  cele- 
brates its  "  crypts,  and  oratories 
subterraneous,  with  winding  pas- 
sages to  them,"  and  its  walls,  which 
"  were  of  immense  length  and 
height,  supported  on  columns  of 
squared, varied,  well-polished  stones, 
and  divided  into  three  stories." 
"The  walls  themselves,  with  the 
capitals  of  those  columns  by  which 
the  walls  were  supported,  as  also 
the  coved  ceiling  of  the  sanctuary, 
Wilfred  decorated  with  histories, 
statues,  and  various  figures,  pro- 
jecting in  sculpture  from  the  stone, 
with  the  grateful  variety  of  pictures, 
and  with  the  wonderful  beauty  of 
colours."  Some,  among  whom  we 
may  instance  Mr.  Bentham,  in  his 
History  of  Ely  Cathedral,  have  sup- 
posed that  the  early  Anglo-Saxon 
churches  were  square,  or  rather 
oblong  buildings,  without  a  tower, 
as  St.  Peter's  at  York,  begun  by 
Edwin  in  627,  is  reported  by  Bede 
to  have  been,  and  that  they  were 
generally  circular  at  the  east  end, 
resembling  almost  exactly  the  basi- 
licse  of  the  Roman  empire.  He 
supposes  the  cruciform  shape,  and 
the  towers  which  rise  above  the 
roof,  to  have  been  introduced  about 

626 


the  time  of  Edgar.  But  s  ob- 
servation cannot  be  universes  m 
plied.  The  church  of  St.  I  rv  3 
Hexham,  which  was  built |  the 
seventh  century  by  St.  WiJ^  jg 
described  by  Richard,  prior  <iHex- 
ham,  as  being  "  furnished  ith  a 
tower,  of  a  round  or  cupoljform, 
from  which  four  porticos,  oj isles, 
proceeded."  The  use  of  thjweii 
is  perhaps  as  old  as  that  of  ills  to 
churches,  which  probably,  abngsj 
the  Anglo-Saxons,  precedej  con- 
siderably this  period.  Dr.  jilner, 
in  his  Ecclesiastical  Architeiire  of 
the  Middle  Ages,  observe,  that 
"The  use  of  small  bells  (rU)  in 
this  country,  if  we  may  cret  Wil- 
liam of  Malmsbury,  may  be  aced 
as  high  as  the  fifth  century.  And 
it  is  clear  from  Bede,  th.  even 
those  of  the  larger  kind,  ( caima) 
such  as  sounded  in  the  a  and 
called  a  numerous  congreg;,on  to 
divine  service,  were  emplc|d  in 
England  as  early  as  the  ye>  680, 
being  that  in  which  thejibbot 
Hilda  died."  The  general  an  of 
the  latter  Saxon,  and  of  the  iliest 
Norman  churches,  was  as  l  ows: 
the  chief  entrance  was  at  t  west 
end  into  the  nave;  at  theipper 
end  of  the  nave  was  a  crk  ill 
arms  extending  north  andouth, 
and  its  head,  which  contaid  the 
choir,  towards  the  east,  jiding 
commonly  in  a  semicircle  :Mh* 
centre  of  the  cross,  a  tow<:  con- 
tained the  bells,  and  othe|were 
sometimes  added  for  orname'.dw 
nave,  or  often  the  whole  b  ding, 
was  encompassed  with  inn  por- 
ticos. During  the  time  tl|:  this 
country  was  subject  to  theianes, 
little  alteration  appears  tjhave 
been  made  in  its  ecclesjstical 
architecture.  Many  haveattnr 
buted  to  them  the  round  mrs 
which  are  found  in  sonri  very 
ancient  parochial  churche  ut 
the  churches  which  were  bu1  atter 


C  I  B 


C  I  R 


he  jnquest,  and  which  were  ex- 
,eec}  r\y  numerous,  the  chief  cha- 
actfjstic  difference  from  the  old 
,  v  buildings  of  the  same  kind, 
magnitude  and  grandeur  of 
limensions.    The  works  of 
rmanswere  large,  sumptuous, 
agnificent,  carried  up  to  a 
height,  with  two  and  some- 
three  ranges  of  pillars,  one 
nother,  connected  together 
les,  forming  an  upper  and 
portico,  with  a  gallery  over 
On  the  outside  were  three 
rstf  windows.     In  the  centre 
5,  as  [  lofty  strong  tower,  and  one 
more  were  often  added  at 
viit  end. 

A  urch  is  said  to  be  in  a  Greek 
-  s;  vhen  the  length  of  the  trans- 
iart  is  equal  to  that  of  the 
I  e  in  a  Latin  cross,  when  the 
ave  ;  longer  than  the  transverse 
, ,  art;.!/i  rotundo,  when  it  is  a 
m  erfe!  circle  ;   simple,   when  it 
c  v  a  nave  and  choir;  with 
w/eiwhen  it  has  a  row  of  por- 
cos,.i  form  of  vaulted  galleries, 
th  hapels    in    its  circumfe- 

Ci  rium,  (Kifiiopwv,  Gr.)  A 
jftj]  bached  building,  ccnsisting 
]  an  rched  vault,  supported  by 

m  umns.  In  Catholic  coun- 
ts, e  sculptured  tombs  of  mar- 
called  Ciboriums,  when 
pd  altars ;  the  term  is  also 
I'I'li*  to  the  coffer  or  case  in- 
losin  the  host,  and  to  any  or- 
aniei;d  tabernacle  unconnected 
"th  her  buildings.  Ciboriums 
re  dimonly  seen  in  Italian  and 
ther  .ontinental  churches,  orna- 
lentij  tombs  and  altars ;  and 
•Mtinn,  when  he  rebuilt  the 
burcbf  St.  Sophia,  in  the  twelfth 
earoiis  reign,  erected  a  ciborium 
'I  unetmpled  elegance  and  beauty, 
t*  dc|e  of  silver  was  surmounted 
•J  aplden  globe  weighing  118 
wuno.  and  was  supported  by  four 


pillars  of  red  marble:  lilies  of  gold 
weighing  1 16  pounds,  encircling  the 
dome,  fell  down  from  it  in  festoons 
on  every  side,  and  on  the  globe  was 
a  cross  of  gold,  weighing  75 
pounds,  covered  with  rare  and  pre- 
cious jewels.    See  Baldachin. 

Cilery, ornaments  of  foliage  and 
drapery  on  the  heads  of  columns. 

Cill,  see  Sill. 

Cima,  see  Cyma. 

Cimbia,  a  list,  string,  fillet,  or 
cincture. 

Cimeliarch,  a  name  given  to 
the  apartment  where  the  plate  and 
vestments  are  deposited  in  churches. 

Cincture,  the  circular  con- 
cavity near  the  head  or  base  of  a 
column. 

Cinquefoil,  a  five-Uaved  orna- 
ment, in  circular  and  other  divi- 
sions of  the  windows  of  ancient 
churches,  and  also  on  panels.  It 
is  a  rosette  of  five  equal  leaves ; 
when  in  circles,  the  leaves  not 
formed  by  the  solid  parts,  but  by 
the  open  spaces,  there  is  also  an 
open  space  in  the  middle. 

Cippus,  the  cippi  were  small 
columns  by  the  sides  of  highways, 
generally  bearing  inscriptions  sig- 
nificant of  remarkable  events,  or 
used  as  land-marks,  or  for  sepul- 
chral inscriptions.  They  were  fre- 
quently without  capital  or  base. 

Circle, ( Circulus,  Lat.) a  figure 
contained  under  one  line,  called  the 
circumference,  to  which  all  lines 
drawn  from  a  certain  point  within 
it,  called  the  centre,  are  equal.  The 
circumference  is  supposed  to  be 
divided  into  360  equal  parts,  called 
degrees,  each  degree  is  again  sub- 
divided into  60  minutes,  each 
minute  into  60  thirds,  each  third 
into  60  fourths,  &c.  ad  infinitum. 
The  circle  is  ihe  most  capacious  of 
all  plain  figures.  The  area  is  equal 
to  the  area  of  a  triangle,  the  base 
of  which  is  equal  to  the  circum- 
ference, and  the  Derpendicular  equal 

627 


C  I  R 


C  I  R 


to  the  radius,  or  to  a  rectangle, 
whose  breadth  equals  the  radius, 
and  whose  length  equals  the  half 
of  the  circumference.  The  ratio  of 
the  diameter  to  the  circumference, 
was  given  by  Archimedes,  as  7  ;  22, 
which  is  sufficiently  near  for  com- 
mon purposes,  ft  was  estimated 
by  Viera,  by  means  of  circumscribed 
and  inscribed  polygons  of  398,216 
sides,  as  10,000,000,000:  31,415, 
926,536.  M.  De  Lagny,  (Memoires 


de  1'Acad.  1719,)  carried  tl  ap. 
proximate  ratio  to  128  pla  5  of 
figures.  The  first  who  expSP(| 
the  area  of  a  circle,  in  tern^  , 
diameter,  by  an  infinite  serie  w,,* 
Dr.  Wallis,  whose  calculation;^ 
been  improved  upon  by  Sir  saac 
Newton  and  Dr.  Gregory.  iThe 
following  are  the  most  com  lent 
formulae,  for  expressing  the  c 
ference,  when  a  —  circumft  ace, 
and  1  —  diameter. 


(2)  a  -  s/  \2y(  \  _  — +  -  — -f-1  &c.  ) 

V  V       3.3^5.3*    7.3^9.3*  / 

/ON  o     /    1  1  1  1  1 


1.3.5 
1  1 

5     4  7 


1  1 

'3^577+5^8" 


7.9.11 


) 


1.3 
4.6.9" 


1.3.5 
46  8.il1 


) 


1.3  1 


(4)a=  8x( 

V  '  \     3      2      5     4.22'  7 

k     ✓  .      11      11       131      1.3.5    1  0 

(6)fl  =  4K1"rr2i-r2A6-r2i,y'9&c' 


4.6.23"  9 
1.3.5 


1.3.5  1  v 
4-6.8.2*- 1  CV 


The  following  are  a  few  of  the 
most  useful  problems  relating  to 
the  mensuration  of  the  circle,  and 
its  various  parts. 

To  find  the  radius  of  a  circle, 
when  the  chord  and  height  of  arc 
are  given,  we  must  divide  the  sum 
of  the  squares  of  the  height,  and  of 
the  half  chord,  by  twice  the  height, 
and  the  quotient  will  be  the  radius. 
Thus  in  Jig.  4,  (Geometry,  Plate 
III.)  Let  the  radius  of  a  circle  be 
required,  that  will  describe  an  arc 
MAm,  whose  chord  Mm  is  16  feet, 
and  its  height  AP,  5  feet. 

64  sq.  of  i  chord 
25  sq.  of  height 

2x5=10)89 

8.9 or  8  ft.  10|  inch.  Ans. 
If  it  be  required  to  find  the  height 
of  the  segment  of  a  circle,  when  the 
radius  and  chord  of  the  segment  are 
given,  extract  the  square  root  of  the 

628 


difference  of  the  squares 
radius  and  half  chord,  an  th 
difference  between  it  and  the  jio 
of  the  circle  is  the  height  lithe 
segment.  Let  the  radius  0th 
circle  BDFE  (fig.  5.)  be  25(jeet, 
and  the  chord  DE  of  the  seiiient 
DBE  {fig.  5)  be  12  feet,  Hired 
the  height  BC  of  the  segment] 
62500  sq.of  radius  6,24,64  (24j)27 
36sq.of  I  chor.  4 


62464 


44)224 
176 


489)  4864 
4401 
4989)46300 
44901 


250  rad. 
249,927 


49982)  139900 
99964 


.073,  Ans.  499847)39936 
34989 

4946 


C  I  R 


W>n  the  radius  and  height  of 
tne  I  of  a  segment  are  given,  to 
find  ie  cosine  of  the  half  arc. 
Subsict  the  height  of  *he  arc 
from  he  radius,  the  remainder  is 
the  swer. 

G  n  the  radius,  the  cosine  of 
the  ||f  arc,  or  the  distance  from 
ntre  to  a  chord,  and  the 
5ta  e   of  an    ordinate  of  the 
:  seemtit,  made  by  that  chord,  to 
find  e  ordinate.     Substract  the 
zosm  of  the   half  arc   of  the 
n  t,  from  the  square  root  of 
Terence  of  the  squares  of 
J  the  Jlius  and  abscissa,   the  re- 
mainjr  will  he  the  ordinate.  The 
\  truths  3f  this  rule  may  be  thus 
'  imes  ated.    Let  DBEF  (jig  6.) 
be  a:ircle,  0  its  centre,  DE  a 
chonC  the  middle  of  the  chord, 
;  \I  the  ordinate:  draw  OQ 
al  to  DE,  and  produce  PM 
fE  Q;  Let  r  -  OB  =  OM  the 
1  radiuj  d  =  OC  =  QP,  distance 
'of  cr;d  from  centre:  x  =  CP 
-  0  abscissa  of  segment  from 
r  y  —  PM  ordinate.  Then 
bi  £  lid  (1.47.)  (QM)2=(OM)« 
1 0  i  *  that  is  (d  -f  ?/)2~  r«- 
k*.  "jerefore  y  =  s/r°—  k2  —  d. 
For  a  sample  of  the  application  of 
this  fie,  it  may  be  required  to 
<t  :t  a  segment  of  a  circle  of 
whicFhe  chord  is  200  feet,  and 
the  i[lius  of  the  arc  250.  We 
must'rst  find  a  sufficient  number 
of  pots  in  the  curve,  by  means 
'of  th  •  ordinate  :   suppose  thern 
to  b<  10  feet  from   each  other, 
.and  lit  their  lengths  in  succes- 
sion l.m  the  middle  of  the  chord 
to  ea<i  extremity,  have  been  com- 
peted', be  20.87 1 ,  20.67 1 ,  20.070, 
19.06!  17.651,  15.820,  13.565, 
-I0.87j  77.26,  and  4.110.  Draw 
I  ltr|;ht  line  AC  (Jig.  8.)  and 
raise  perpend;cular  DB,  from  the 
middl  point  D  to  the  line  AC. 
On  If  perpendicular  set  off  the 
H&mf  the  segment  20.871  from 


D  to  B.  Mark  off  ten  points  on 
each  side  of  D,  at  10  feet  distance, 
and  from  them  draw  as  manv  per- 
pendiculars, on  which  set  off  20.070, 
&c.  and  their  extremities  with  the 
tenth  point,  will  be  so  many  points  in 
the  curve.  Find  the  sagitta  to  a 
chord  of  12  feet,  and  the  radius  of 
250.  Draw  a  straight  line  12  feet 
long:  from  the  middle,  raise  a  per- 
pendicular, the  length  of  the  sagitta 
thus  formed,  and  describe  a  seg- 
ment of  a  circle  to  the  chord  12 
feet,  and  to  the  height  of  the 
sagitta.  Having  described  the  arc, 
form  the  edge  of  a  board  to  the 
curve,  put  nails  in  all  the  points 
of  the  curxe,  Jig.  8,  and  apply  the 
curved  edge  successively  upon  every 
two  adjacent  nails,  so  that  the  con- 
cavity may  be  next  the  centre.  In 
each  application,  draw  a  curve  from 
one  nail  to  the  other,  and  the  seg- 
ment will  be  completed. 

A  circus  or  semicircular  crescent 
may  be  constructed  by  multiplying 
the  radius  of  the  circle  by  the  square 
root  of  s,  substracting  the  product 
from  the  radius,  the  remainder  giv- 
ing the  height  of  the  arc  of  the 
quadrant.  For  if  we  suppose 
ODBE  (Jig.  7.)  to  be  a  quadrant 
of  a  circle,  and  DE  the  chord  of 
the  segment,  let  r  —  OD  ==  OB 
=  OE,  and  s  —  CD  =  CO  =  CE, 
then,  (since,  bv  Eucl.  I.  47,  (OD)2 
=  (CD)«  +  (CO) 2  =  2  (CD2) 
$  =  r  s/%  ;  but  CO  =  s,  therefore 
CO  =  r>/i:but  CB  =  OB  —  OC 
—  r  —  rvM  =  r(l—  -707106) 
or  CD  =  -292894  x  r,  therefore 
(supposing  r  to  be  300  feet)  r  — 
•292894  x  300  =  87.8682. 

Circle,  Druidical,  see  Dru- 
idical  Architecture. 

Circular  Buildings,  when 
of  the  same  cylindrical  form  within 
as  without,  are  calh  d  Rotundas. 

Circumference,  the  boundary 
line  of  circular  bodies. 

Circumscribe,  to  draw  a  line 


C  I  R 

around,  or  to  inclose  any  thing,  so 
that  the  inclosed  shall  be  touched 
on  all  its  angles,  or  on  its  whole 
circumference,  by  the  line  or  body 
that  incloses  it. 

ClRCUM  V  ALLATION,     the  SUT- 

rounding  of  trenches,  or  fortifica- 
tions, with  a  trench  and  parapet : 
commonly  flanked  with  redoubts. 

Circumvolutions,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  spirals  of  the  volute 
of  the  Ionic  capital,  which  in  some 
instances  has  three,  but  in  the 
temple  of  Minerva  Polias  has  four 
circumvolutions.  See  Volute,  Spi- 
ral, Sfc. 

Circus,  among  the  Romans,  a 
large  ovate  building  for  the  exhibi- 
tion of  popular  games  and  shows ; 
they  were  originally  plain  open  race- 
courses, bounded  on  one  side  by 
the  Tiber,  and  on  the  other  by 
palisades  of  naked  swords  stuck  in 
the  earth  ;  this  was  also  the  mode 
adopted  by  the  Greeks  on  the 
borders  of  the  river  Alpheus. 

The  first  stone  circus  was  built 
by  Tarquinus  Priscus,  between  the 
Aventine  and  Palatine  hills.  This 
primitive  erection  occupied  a  space 
of  more  than  three  English  furlongs 
in  length,  and  960  Roman  feet  in 
breadih.  It  was  beautified  and 
enlarged  by  succeeding  emperors, 
and  in  the  reign  of  Domitian  was 
sufficiently  capacious  to  accommo- 
date 260,000  persons  ;  with  propri- 
ety retaining  its  ancient  name  of 
Circus  Maximus. 

These  buildings  were  in  the  pro- 
portion of  about  five  in  length  to 
one  in  breadth  ;  their  principal 
divisions  in  the  interior  were  the 
carceres,  or  starting  place  for  the 
horses  and  chariots,  at  one  end ; 
the  area  or  arena,  the  course  pass- 
ed over  by  the  runners ;  the  meta, 
a  column  of  a  conical  form,  at  the 
end  of  the  circus,  around  which 
the  racers  passed  as  they  returned 
toward   the    starting   post ;  the 


CIR 

stadium,  raised  above  the  irenrt 
by  which  it  was  surroundd;  the 
spina,  a  platform  divided  intto  ,Hi 
two  equal  parts,  intersect 
stadium  longitudinally,  andndin? 
at  the  meta;  in  its  whole  mrsr* 
the  spina  was  ornamente  with 
statues,  columns,  and  trophi,  and 
in  the  centre  was  a  temple  uatly 
dedicated  to  the  sun.  The 
was  the  open  space  on  eat  i 
and  in  front  of  the  orche  «,  , 
which  it  formed  the  princip  port, 
both  being  for  the  a ccom motion 
of  the  higher  orders  of  the  rela- 
tors ;  the  euripus  was  a  r  rvoir 
of  water  passing  along  the  de  of 
the  podium,  which  it  se  rated 
from  the  arena!  Over  the  or  <:stra 
was  a  gallery  for  the  inferic class 
of  citizens. 

Rome  contained  numero  cin 
euses  besides  the  ancient  o  dis- 
tinguished by  the  name  of  kxu 
mus^  of  which  the  followin  were 
the  principal. 

The  Circus  Flaminius  wjjbuilt 
by  the  consul  Flaminius,  nj*  the 
Portus  Carmentalis  ;  the  pc  it 
occupied,  now  forms  the  e  of 
the  church  and  monastery  ]'  St. 
Katherine.  The  Circus  J\xan- 
drinus,  erected  by  Alexandejieve- 
rus,  in  the  modern  era  ofj.ome 
named  Circus  Agonalis,  anfStig* 
matised  as  the  place  of  the  ijrtyr- 
dom  of  St.  Agnes:  this  biding 
was  near  the  baths  of  Seves  in 
the  place  now  called  Piazs  Na- 
vona.  The  Circus  Salt  tins, 
built  or  restored  by  the  hij>rian 
of  that  name.  The  Circus  tori- 
alis,  or  C.  Vaticanus,  beg!  by 
Caligula,  and  finished  in  a  srjndid 
style  by  Nero.  The  celcjated 
obelisk  in  the  centre  of  the  p stile 
of  St.  Peter,  was  taken  fro  the 
spina  of  this  circus.  Great  um- 
bers of  the  early  Christians  s  ered 
martyrdom  in  this  circus,  anoeio 
enjoyed  the  savage  pleasure  be- 


CIS 


C  L  A 


of 

>  Hel 
*  torn) 


j,0log  their  torments.  Nero  also 
buii another  circus  in  the  gardens 
of  >mitia  his  aunt,  called  Circus 
tia;  and  there  were  also  those 
ntoninus  and  Aurelian,  of 
rabalus,  and,  according;  to 
writers,  a  circus  near  the  gate 
t.  Sebastian,  attributed  to 
Galnus. 

1  enlarged  accounts  on  this  sub- 
L  ct  aimasius's  Observations  on  So- 
i  nu  the  ninth  volume  of  the  Tre- 

r  Gravis,  and  fifth  volume  of 
Pol  us,  may  be  consulted  with 
;  |\  tage.  The  name  of  Circus 
en,  by  modern  architects,  to 

;c  \r  ranges  of  elegant  mansions  ; 
ose  built  in  the  form  of  seg- 
men  of  circles,  are  called  Cres- 

doiD,  a  curve  line  invented  by 
|,  the  reek  geometrician  Diocles. 
([.tern,  a  reservoir  for  water, 
sunk  below  the  surface  of 
v  e  irth,  or  formed  of  planks  of 
woe    In  the  construction  of  an 
eart  n    cistern,  a  well-tempered 
•  a  m  of  clay  must  be  laid  as  a 
fouilation  for  a  brick  flooring,  the 
brief  to  be  set  in  terras-mortar ; 
des  must  be  built  with  the 
materials,  and  if  in  a  cellar 
or  (,ier  place  near  a  wall,  a  space 
be  filled  with  clay,  from  the 
fouijition  to  the  top  of  the  cistern, 
n  uous  to  the  wall,  to  preserve 
it  fm  injury. 

A  ooden  vessel  of  this  descrip- 
1  on  ;  made  of  plain  yellow  deal 
plan;  of  2  or  2\  inches,  according 
to  \  dimensions.  The  uprights 
may  e  4  inches  by  6,  and  placed 
2i  ,2t  from  each  other.  The 
plan;  must  be  jointed  with  white 
lead  .nd  strongly  secured  with  two 
woo',ri  pins,  at  each  intersection 
of  t,  uprights;  it  should  then  be 
plac  firmly  on  a  well-tempered 
bed  f  clay;  a  wall  of  stone  or 
bricl  must  inclose  this  cistern,  at 
the  istance  of  8  or  12  inches, 


and  this  space  must  be  filled  with 
clay. 

For  dry  and  elevated  sitnations, 
leaden  cisterns  are  generally  used. 

Citadel,  a  small  castle  or  for- 
tress, generally  occupying  the  high- 
est part  of  a  city,  as  its  strong  hold, 
from  whence  supplies  and  forces 
may  be  derived  till  the  last  extre- 
mity. The  most  celebrated  building 
of  this  description  was  the  Acropo- 
lis of  Athens. 

City,  generally  understood  to 
apply  to  the  capital  towns  in  a 
country,  as  Philadelphia  or  Wash- 
ington, in  America;  Edinburgh  and 
Glasgow  in  Scotland.  In  England 
a  city  is  defined  to  be  "  a  town 
corporate,  having  a  bishop,  and  a 
cathedral  church." 

Civic  Crown,  a  garland  of  oak 
leaves  and  acorns,  given  as  an 
honorary  distinction,  among  the 
Romans,  to  such  as  had  preserved 
the  life  of  a  fellow-citizen. 

Clamp,  see  Brick. 

Clamping,  the  act  of  securing 
a  board  with  cross  pieces  at  each 
end. 

Claro-Obscuro,  See  Chiaro- 
oscuro. 

Clathri,  in  Roman  architec- 
ture, bars  of  iron  or  wood,  which 
were  used  to  secure  doors  and  win- 
dows. 

Clay,  a  kind  of  earth,  to  which 
the  name  of  argilla,  or  argillaceous 
earth,  was  formerly  given,  but  which 
is  now  called,  by  the  chemists, 
alumine  ;  a  substance  forming  part 
of  the  boles,  marles,  slates,  scis- 
tuses,  and  mica.  Besides  numerous 
uses  of  clay,  as  it  is  found  variously 
compounded  with  other  substances, 
it  is  most  extensively  useful  in  brick- 
making.    See  Bricks. 

Clayes,  in  fortifications,  wattles 
made  with  stakes,  interwoven  with 
osiers,  to  cover  lodgments. 

Claying,  is  the  operation  o< 
covering  a  vessel  with  two  or  three 

631 


CLE 


C  LO 


coats  of  clay,  to  prevent  water  from 
running  out. 

Cleam,  a  term  used  in  some 
places,  with  the  same  signification  as 
to  stick,  or  to  glue. 

Clear,  the  distance  between 
any  two  bodies,  where  no  other 
intervenes,  or  between  their  nearest 
surfaces. 

Clear  Story  Windows,  such 
as  have  no  transom  intersection. 

Cleats,  small  wooden  projec- 
tions on  the  decks,  sides,  and 
shrouds  of  ships,  to  fasten  the 
ropes  to. 

Ceeeta,  the  name  of  a  Greek 
architect  and  sculptor.  He  was 
the  builder  of  the  magnificent 
Palaestra  near  Olympus,  in  which 
the  races  were  performed  at  the 
Olympic  games.  He  was  so  vain 
of  his  performance,  as  to  place 
under  one  of  his  statues  this  in- 
scription :  "  Cleeta,  the  son  of 
Aristocles,  who  invented  the  Palaes- 
tra of  Olympus,  did  this." 

Clefts,  often  appear  in  green 
timber,  which  is  very  apt  to  split 
and  cleave  in  several  places,  after 
it  is  wrought  into  form.  The  com- 
mon method  used  by  the  carpenter 
to  fill  up  these  cracks,  is  with  a 
mixture  of  gum  and  sawdust :  but 
the  neatest  way  is  to  soak  both 
sides  well  with  the  fat  of  beef 
broth,  and  then  dip  pieces  of 
sponge  into  the  broth,  and  fill  up 
all  the  cracks  with  them  ;  they 
swell  out  so  as  to  fill  the  whole 
crack,  and  so  neatly  as  to  be 
scarcely  distinguishable. 

Cleopatra's  Needles,  a  name 
commonly  given  to  two  obelisks  of 
Thebaic  stone,  on  the  east  of  the 
palace  of  Alexandria.  One  has 
been  thrown  down,  and  buried  in 
the  sand,  the  other  is  still  erect, 
and  consists  of  a  single  stone  60 
feet  high,  and  7  feet  square  at  the 
base.  They  are  covered  with  hiero- 
glyphics. 


Clepsydra,  (K\c\f/vcpa, <  ?ek 
from  k*\£7rrw,  to  conceal,  and 
water.)  A  vessel  or  buiidinlJj 
to  measure  time  by  the  ruing 
out  of  a  certain  quantity  of  Li 
or  sometimes  of  sand.  Third 
building  erected  for  the  meir* 
ment  of  time  was  the  dial,  1  y 
this  only  showed  the  hour  Inn 
the  sun  appealed,  the  clejpdn 
was  invented  to  supply  its  ace 
in  wintry  and  clcudy  wi  • 
They  were  first  used  by  the  \p. 
tians.  Tycho  Brahe  made 
one,  to  measure  the  motions  i  the 
stars,  &c,  and  Dudley  use  the 
same  contrivance  in  making  his 
maritime  observations.  Contra- 
able  improvements  have  been  ade 
in  this  instrument  by  M.  Amofai 
For  a  description  of  the  celelted 
clepsydra  of  Andronicus  Cyrrl  tes, 
see  the  article  Athenian  Arc  ec- 
ture. 

Clinching,  is  the  drivi  of 
the  point  of  a  nail  backward,  len 
it  has  penetrated  quite  thron  a 
piece  of  wood,  with  a  hammer  ;  ss- 
ed  against  its  head. 

•  Clinkers,  bricks  impreg ted 
with  nitre,  and  more  thorohly 
burnt,  by  being  placed  next  1  the 
fire  in  the  kiln. 

Cloaca,  the  common  sew  of 
ancient  Rome,  made  to  can  oil 
the  filth  of  the  city  into  the  || 
The  chief  of  these,  called  the  /o- 
aca  Maxima,  was  built  by  th<  rst 
Tarquin,  of  huge  blocks  of  >ne 
joined  together  without  cetm ', 
it  consisted  of  three  rows  of  a  ies 
one  above  another,  which  at  III 
conjoin  and  unite  together.  ■ 
measured  clear  18  palms  in  hM 
and  the  same  in  width.  Ipj 
these  arches  they  rowed  in  t|M 
and  by  them  were  ways  thraj 
which  loaded  carts  could  pass  I 
began  in  the  Forum  Roma  m, 
was  300  paces  long,  and  en  ed 
the  Tiber  between  the  tempi  of 


COF 


Vest;  and  the  Pons  Sena  tonus. 
Then  were   as    many  principal 
v  ei  as  there  were  hills  in  the 

! bister>  (claustrum,  Latin.) 
icipal    part  of  a  regular 
v,  consisting  of  a  square 
sfe  or   piazza,  between  the 
:l,unl  the  chapter-house,  and  the 
fecfy,  having  over  it  the  dor- 
ter) and  often    enclosing  the 
•  ...  v.    According  to  Peter  of 
Blois  he  monks  used  to  hold  their 
;i ;  in  them:    Lanfranc  says 
hat  eir  proper  use  was  for  the 
TionUo  meet  and  converse  in  at 
hours  of  the  day.  The 
indal  cloisters  in  England  are 
ii  Gothic  style.    In  Italy  they 
en  arcades,  supported  on 
columns  of  various  orders. 
|se  String,  in  dog-leg  stairs, 
a  ase  without  an  open  newel. 
Cher,  the  last  stone  in  the 
horiz'tai  length  of  a  wall,  which 
r  ss  dimensions  than  the  rest, 
to  fil  :p  the  row. 

;t,  a  small  apartment  com- 
muni  ting  with  a  larger  one. 

CikjGH,  a  paddle  or  sluice  in  a 
pondjr  canal. 

Crjoii  Arches,  or  Paddle- 
Hol  ,  crooked  arches  by  which 
(fee  per  is  conveyed  from  the 
uppe'pond  into  the  chamber  of 
the  hk  of  a  canal,  on  drawing  up 
tfccclugh. 

Ci  stered,  in  architecture,  the 
coaliin  of  several  members  which 
penet  te  each  other. 

Caste  red  Column,  several 
slend  pillars,  attached  to  each 
other*)  as  to  form  one.  The  term 
>8  ust  in  Roman  architecture,  to 
denottwo  or  four  columns,  which 
appe;i  to  intersect  each  other  at 
the  #rje  of  a  building  or  a  part- 
went  o  answer  to  each  return. 

Cc  ting,  the  covering  any  thing 
w»th  iveral  thicknesses. 
Cuing.    See  Cauking. 


Cockle  Stairs,  a  winding  stair- 
case. 

Ciemetery,  see  Cemetery. 

Coznaculum,  (Lat.)  properly 
the  eating  or  supper  room  of  the 
ancient  Roman*.  In  the  eariy 
periods  of  their  history,  when  their 
houses  consisted  rarely  of  more 
than  two  stories,  it  denoted  gene- 
rally the  upper  story.  It  also 
denoted  lodgings  let  out  for  hire, 
and  also  the  upper  stories  of  the 
circusses,  which  were  divided  into 
small  shops  or  rooms  that  were  let 
out  for  hire. 

Coin  a  no,  (Lat.)  an  apartment 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  Roman 
houses,  or  in  a  garden,  to  sup  or 
eat  in.  According  to  Suetonius,  it 
denoted  a  banqueting  and  summer 
house.  The  younger  Pliny  desci  ibt:s 
a  spacious  coenatio  in  his  Lauren- 
tine  villa,  in  the  superior  part  of  a 
lofty  tower. 

Coffer,  (Co/re,  Saxon,)  a  re- 
cess used  anciently  in  level  soffits, 
and  in  the  intradoses  of  cylindrical 
vaults.  They  recede  like  inverted 
steps  around  the  panel,  each  inter- 
nal angle  being  filled  with  mould- 
ings. The  panel  at  the  bottom  is 
generally  covered  in  Roman  works 
with  a  rosette.  They  are  also  u<ed 
between  the  modillions  in  the  sof- 
fits of  the  cornices  of  the  Greek 
and  Roman  orders.  In  inland 
navigation,  the  coffer  is  a  substitute 
for  a  lock. 

Coffer  Dam,  a  hollow  dam, 
formed  by  a  double  range  of  piles, 
with  clay  between,  to  protect  the 
workmen  in  digging  and  building 
foundations  in  canals,  &c. 

Coffer  Dam,  or  Battardeux,  a 
frame  used  in  the  building  of  a 
bridge  in  deep  water,  similar  to  the 
caisson.  They  are  made  either 
single  or  double.  Clay  or  chalk  is 
rammed  between  the  double  enclo- 
sure; the  enclosures  are  made  with 
piles   driven  close  together,  and 


COL 


COL 


grooved  and  tongued  :  the  piles 
are  sometimes  grooved  in  the  sides, 
and  fixed  with  boards  let  into  the 
grooves. 

Cogging,  the  same  as  cocking. 

Coin,  {coin,  Fr.  a  corner,)  in 
building,  the  angle  made  by  two 
surfaces. 

Coin,  icuneus,  Lat.  a  wedge,) 
a  block  to  support  a  column  or 
pilaster  on  an  inclined  plane,  cut 
obliquely  at  the  bottom. 

Colarino,  (colarin,  Fr.)  another 
name  for  the  astragal. 

Collar-Beam,  a  beam  above 
the  lower  ends  of  the  rafters  of  a 
roof.  They  are  formed  into  queen- 
posts  in  trussed  roofs;  but  in  com- 
mon roofs,  into  the  rafters  them- 
selves.   See  truss. 

College,  (collegium,  Lat.)  an 
edifice  endowed  with  revenues  for 
the  education  of  youth  in  the  higher 
branches  of  study.  It  generally 
consists  of  one  or  more  spacious 
courts,  encircled  by  buildings.  The 
Collegio  Romano  de  Gesuiti,  at 
Rome,  built ,  by  Bartolomeo  Am- 
manati,  is  a  very  large  and  hand- 
some structure.  The  large  quad- 
rangle has  two  stories  of  arcades, 
which  serve  as  porticoes,  and  is 
decorated  with  pedestals,  pilasters, 
and  sculptural  ornaments. 

Cologne  Earth,  a  colour  of  a 
deep  brownish  tinge.  It  contains 
more  vegetable  than  mineral  matter, 
and  originates  from  the  remains  of 
wood  long  buried  in  the  earth. 

Colon elli,  (It.)  the  posts  of  a 
truss  frame. 

Colonnade,  (colonnata,  It.)  a 
row  of  columns.  The  colonnade 
is  termed,  according  to  the  number 
of  columns  which  support  the  en- 
tablature, tetrastyle,  when  there 
are  four  ;  hexastyle,  when  six  ; 
octastyle,  when  eight,  &c.  When 
in  front  of  a  building,  they  are 
termed  porticos,  when  surrounding 
a  building  peristyle,    and  when 


double  or  more,  poly style,  rhev 
are  also  called  according  tu'e 


vhen 
sy$. 
style 
style 


intercolumniation,  pycnostyi 
it  is  oiie  diameter  and  a  ha 
tyles  when  two  diameters, 
when  two  and  a  quarter, 
when    three,  and  ar<B&tylt$\m 
four. 

The  Egyptians  made  w 
quent  use  of  colonnades,  sfjfe  r,f 
their  temples  being  literally  iirk- 
set  with  them,  both  in  the  erior 
and  exterior.  The  Greek;'mo$t 
commonly  used  colonnades  por- 
ticoes and  peristyles.  The  nple 
of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Atlis,  w 
a  magnificent  example.  W  iever 
find  columns  grouped  or  cl  ered 
in  the  works  of  the  anciei  :  in 
the  temple  of  Bacchus  at  Dme, 
are  columns  standing  as  the  h  A 
pairs,  but  each  pair  bein;oniv 
placed  in  the  thickness  of  tb  .vail, 
they  may  be  rather  said  (o  two 
more  immediately  behind  ?ach 
other.  Groined  ceilings,  suprted 
by  single  Corinthian  columij  are 
found  in  the  baths  of  Diocsian, 
and  in  the  temple  of  Pe.1  tH 
Rome.  The  magnificent  cokiade 
of  the  Piazzo  di  San  Pie  at 
Rome,  the  work  of  Bernini,  c  sists 
of  two  hundred  and  eighty  ctjmDS 
and  forty-eight  pilasters,  oilbrty 
feet  high,  raised  on  three  of ty 
steps,  and  surmounted  by  alilus- 
trade  on  which  are  eight;;  ight 
colossal  statues  of  saints,  1-  feet 
high. 

Colosseum,  or  Coliseuri  the 
name  given  to  the  immensiam- 
phitheatre  built  by  Flavius  Wt 
sian,  A.D.  72,  after  his  retur  too 
his  victories  over  the  Jews,  lirty 
thousand  of  whom  are  said  tjiave 
been  employed  five  years  in  itp*" 
struction.  It  would  contain  W 
thousand  persons  sitting,;  and 
twenty  thousand  more  stand;:,  '" 
various  places,  who  were  I 
excuneati.    See  Aniphitheat 


COL 


COL 


Clossus,  (KoXofftrog,  Gr.)  the 
nam' of  a  brazen  statue  of  Apollo 
at  jiodes,  so    large  that  ships 
rr  ill  sail  between  its  legs  •  it  was 
rk  of  Chares,  the  disciple  of 
ji|)us.    Its  height  was  105  feet. 
|  w  cast  hollow,  and  filled  with 
>tones  to  counterbalance  its 
cr  ;  a  winding  statue  led  to 
p,  where  a  vast  mirror  was 
unbound  the  neck  of  the  statue, 
\  ch  might  be  discerned  the 
it  v  of  Syria,  and  ships  en- 
tering the  ports  of  Egypt.  About 
\  ears  after  its  erection,  it  was 
ro  i  down  by  an  earthquake, 
broke  it  off  at  the  knees, 
that  state  it  remained  till 
nquest  of  the  island  by  the 
v:,  ns,  who  beat  it  to  pieces, 
ai  d  Id  it  to  a  Jew  merchant,  who 
load  above  900  camels  with  the 
From  the  name  of  this 
originated  the  Greek  proverb 
\.  \&aiov   to  peyedog,  and  the 
termias  since   been    applied  to 
p.tatue  of  more  than  ordinary 
lii  dime  ions. 

C(  um barium,  (Lat.)  a  pigeon- 
3    Columbarium  Fictile  was 
D  e  then  pot  for  birds  to  breed 
l).    ie  term  Columbaria  was  also 
apphi  to  the  apertures  that  were 
i  m.  in  the  wall  for  the  reception 
il  'cinerary  urns  in  the  ancient 
Rom  cemeteries.    See  the  plates 
'  till  A  ncient  Roman  Ornaments ; 
and  i:;  article  Urn. 
C(|lumell.>e,  another  name  for 
,  btluirs. 

C(  v  m  n ,  (columna,  Lat.)  a 
rounoillar,  the  parts  of  which  are 
the  b  e,  on  which  it  rests,  its  body 
..  callec-  the  shaft,  and  the  head 
callei  the  capital.  The  capital 
finish)  with  a  horizontal  table 
caller  the  abacus,  and  the  base 
comn  nlv  stands  on  another  called 
thepiM.  See  Base,  Capital,  £c. 

At.^hed  columns  were  very  sel- 
dom nployed  in  Greece  ;  the  only 


instances  known  are  the  monument 
of  Lysicrates,  and  the  temple  of 
Minerva  Polias ;  the  columns  of 
the  temples  atAgrigentum  in  Sicily 
are  also  attached.  Attached  co- 
lumns occur  more  frequently  in 
Roman  edifices,  as  in  the  Temple 
of  Fortune,  the  Arch  of  Titus,  the 
Colosseum,  and  the  theatre  of  Mar- 
cell  us.  Columns  are  either  plain 
or  fluted,  and  the  flutes,  and  mode 
of  dividing  them,  are  different  in 
the  Doric  and  Corinthian  orders. 
The  Ionic  and  Corinthian  flutes  are 
very  similar.  Twisted,  spiral,  and 
rusticated  columns  are  never  intro- 
duced in  works  of  good  taste. 
Cabled  or  rudented  columns  have 
the  flutings  of  the  shaft  filled  with 
astragals  to  about  one-third  of  the 
height.  Carolytic  columns  have 
foliated  shafts.  Columns  were 
often  used  for  monuments,  like  the 
Trajan  and  Antonine  columns  at 
Rome,  and  the  Monument  in  Lon- 
don. Catherine  di  Medici  erected 
an  astronomical  column  at  the 
Halle  au  Blid  in  Paris.  The 
Romans  had  a  columna  bellica  near 
the  temple  of  Janus,  from  whence 
the  consul  proclaimed  war  by 
throwing .  a  javelin  towards  the 
enemies'  country.  The  chronologi- 
cal column  bore  an  inscription  in 
remembrance  of  historical  events, 
the  cruciferal  column  bore  a  cross 
on  its  summit,  the  f  unereal  column 
an  urn ;  the  zoophoric  column, 
an  animal;  the  genealogical  column, 
an  inscription  relating  to  genealogy 
or  heraldry  ;  the  gnomic  column,  a 
dial;  the  itinerary  column  pointed 
out  the  various  roads  diverging 
from  its  site.  The  Romans  had  a 
lacteal  column  erected  in  the  vege- 
table market,  which  contained  in 
its  pedestal  a  receptacle  for  infants 
that  were  abandoned  by  their 
parents  (Juvenal.  Sat.  vi.  601), 
on  the  legal  column  the  ancients 
engraved  their  laws;  the  boundaries 

0J5 


COL 


COM 


of  a  province  were  marked  by  the 

boundary,  or  limitative  column; 
the  manubial  column  was  adorned 
with  trophies  and  spoils,  and  the 
rostral  column  with  the  prows 
(rostra)  of  captured  ships.  The 
sepulchral  column  was  erected  on 
a  tomb,  the  triumphal  column  in 
commemoration  of  a  triumph. 

The  triumphal  column  of  Anto- 
nine  was  erected  to  the  glory  of 
Marcus  Aurelius,  in  the  time  of 
Com  mod  us,  for  his  victories  over 
the  Marcomani.  He  afterwards 
dedicated  it  to  his  father-in-law, 
Antoninus  Pius.  It  was  repaired  by 
Fontana  in  1589,  under  SextHs  V. 
who  placed  on  its  summit  a  co- 
lossal statue  of  St  Paul,  with  this 
inscription  :  Sex t us  V.  Pont. 
Max.  columnam  iianc  cochli- 
cem,  Imp.  Antonino  dicatam, 
m1sere  laceuam  ruinosamque, 
primal  forme  restituit,  an. 
mdlxxxix.  Pont.  IV.  According 
to  the  admeasurement  of  M.  de  la 
Condamine,  it  measured  116  French 
feet  in  height,  and  eleven  in  diame- 
ter. It  is  entirely  of  marble,  and 
encircled  with  bassi  relievi,  which 
form  twenty  spirals  around  its 
shaft.  For  accounts  of  Pompey's 
Pillar  and  Trajan's  Column,  see 
those  articles.  The  milliary  column 
or  milliarium  aureum  of  Rome  was 
originally  a  column  of  white  marble 
erected  by  Augustus  in  the  Forum, 
near  the  temple  of  Saturn,  as  a 
centre  whence  the  calculation  of 
distance  began  from  the  city.  It 
is  still  preserved  in  the  Campidog- 
lio.  It  is  a  short  column,  with  a 
Tuscan  capital,  and  has  a  ball  of 
bronze  for  a  finial.  It  was  formerly 
gilt  over. 

According  to  Vitruvius,  columns 
at  angles  should  be  thicker  than 
the  intermediate  ones;  the  diameter 
of  columns  should  be  proportioned 
to  the  intercolumniation ;  the  higher 
they  are,  the  less  should  be  their 

630 


diminution  ;  that  those  on  the  nks 
and  angles  should  have  their  mer 
faces  towards  the  walls  perLfo 
cular;  that  the  two  middle  coWm 
opposite  the  entrance,  shoi  \» 
wider  apart  than  any  of  th  two 
others ;  that  in  theatres,  and  ^ks 
of  gaiety,  the  columns  shot  he 
differently  proportioned  frorrnose 
in  sacred  edifices.  On  the  p  )0r. 
tions  of  the  shaft,  see  Shaft. 

Column  a  rium,  a  heavy  t  ute, 
first  levied  by  Julius  Cees;  on 
every  column  of  a  house,  to  jt  a 
stop  to  the  extravagant  e|j 
laid  out  on  sumptuous  buildii  ... 

Coma,  (km  pa,  sleep,  Gr.)  i  an- 
tiquity, a  mound  of  earth  ( r  a 
grave. 

Comitium,  (Lat.)  a  build  •  in 
the  Roman  Forum,  wherein  a  2m- 
blies  of  the  people  were  heli  It 
occupied  the  entire  space  beeen 
the  Palatine  hill,  the  Capito  and 
the  Via  Sacra.  Until  the  yi  in 
which  Hannibal  first  entered  ily, 
it  was  open  to  the  air,  but  was 
afterwards  covered  with  a  100  up- 
ported  by  beautiful  fluted  Corii  ian 
columns.  Three  of  them  ar  still 
standing  near  the  church  of  nta 
Maria  Liberatrice.  Excav;ons 
have  been  made  at  their  ba  by 
order  of  Pope  Pius  VII.,  I 
have  discovered  remains  of  tl. an- 


cient buildings. 


the  .lint 


Com  mi  sure,  (Lat.) 
between  two  stones. 

Common,  a  line,  angle,  su 
&c,  which  belongs  equally  to 
ral  objects.  Common  Centeri 
a  centering  without  trusses,  h 
a  tie-beam  at  the  bottom. 
mon  joists,  are  tfte  beams  in  i<ed 
flooring,  to  which  the  joist  are 
fixed.  Common  rafters,  in  aM 
are  those  to  which  the  lath  are 
attached. 

Comparted,  (compartir,  1  t0 
divide,)  divided  into  several  pi* 
Compartition,  the  distrib^n 


CON 

of  t|  ground  plan  of  an  edifice 
into  oms  and  passages. 

C<;( PA  RTM  ENT     CEILING,  a 

r  divided    into   panels,  sur- 
round with  mouldings. 
cJipartment  Tiles,  an  ar- 
lent  of  white  and  red  tiles, 
ted,  on  a  roof. 

passes,    (compas,  Fr.)  a 
naticai  instrument,  to  draw 
i,  and  measure  distances  be- 
e  two  points.    Common  com- 
;s<>  have  two  legs,  moveable 
or  joint.    Triangular  cornpas- 
ive  two  legs  like  common 
comysses,  with  a  third  leg  fixed 
I  th bulb  by  a  projection,  with  a 
o  at  o  as  to  be  moveable  in  every 
direon.    Compasses  composed  of 
xn,  with  a  fixed  point  at  one 
i,  nd  a  moveable  one  at  the 
othe  are  called  beam  compasses. 
Proi'tional   compasses    have  a 
it  etween  the  extremities,  and 
two  urp  points  at  each  end,  form- 
ing E.ouble  compass,  so  that  the 
two  Ids  may  always  preserve  the 
>ameitio.    If  the  joint  be  move- 
able/ is  called  a  compound  pro- 
porti  al  compass. 
Ccpassing,  {compasse,  Fr.)  in 
architecture,  bringing  a  piece 
of  tirer  into  the  form  of  an  arch. 
C(  plem ent,  (complementum, 
!  Lat.Jne  number  of  degrees  which 
any  gle  wants  of  a  right  angle. 
The  'mplement  of  a  parallelogram 
is  tw  lesser  parallelograms,  made 
by  doing  two  right  lines  parallel 
to  th'jides  of  the  quarter,  through 
agivf  point  in  the  diagonal. 

Copluvium,  (Lat.)  a  void 
spact  a  the  centre  of  Roman  build- 
inps, ,  receive  the  waters  that  fell 
from  ie  roof ;  also  the  gutter  or 
eaves 

Cc  posite  Order,  see  Order 
The  omposile  arch  is  the  pointed 
or  la  et  arch. 

Ct  CAMliRATA  SUDATIO,  (Lat.) 

the  airtmenl  in  the  ancient  gym- 


CON 

nasium,  between  the  laconicum  or 
stove,  and  the  warm  bath  ;  where 
the  wrestlers  and  racers  retired,  to 
wipe  the  sweat  from  their  bodies. 

Concamerate,  (Lut.)  to  arch 
over. 

Concatenate,  (Lat.)  to  link 
together. 

Concave,  (concavus,  Lat.)  hol- 
low. 

Concavity,  of  a  curve  line,  is 
the  side  between  the  two  points  of 
the  curve,  next  to  a  straight  line. 
The  concavity  of  a  solid,  is  such  a 
curved  surface,  that  if  any  two 
points  be  taken  in  it,  the  straight 
line  between  them  is  in  a  void 
space,  or  will  coincide  in  only  one 
direction  with  the  surface. 

Concentric,  (Lat.)  having  a 
common  centre. 

Conchoid,  a  curve  line,  dis- 
covered by  Nicomedes,  which  al- 
ways approaches  a  straight  line, 
but,  though  produced  ever  so  far, 
never  meets  it. 

Conclave,  (Lat.)  the  place  in 
the  Vatican  where  the  cardinals 
meet  to  choose  a  new  pope.  It 
consists  of  a  suit  of  grand  halls  or 
corridors,  with  rows  of  cells  formed 
on  each  side,  of  equal  dimensions, 
twro  of  which  are  allotted  to  each 
cardinal,  one  for  himself,  the  other 
for  his  officer,  called  the  conclavist, 
and  his  valet  de  chambre.  The 
word  was  used  by  the  ancient 
Romans  to  denote  any  room  under 
lock  and  key. 

Concord,  Temple  of,  at  the 
foot  of  the  capitol,  built  by  Camil- 
lus.  There  still  remains  a  hexa- 
style  portico,  with  two  Ionic 
columns  at  the  back.  The  entab- 
lature, a  large  part  of  the  tympa- 
num, and  part  of  the  pediment,  are 
also  preserved.  The  columns  are 
of  granite,  each  of  one  piece,  40 
feet  high,  and  2  feet  2  in  diameter. 
The  capitals  have  the  four  faces 
alike.       The    volutes    are  very 

C37 


CO  N 


CON 


minute,  and  the  mouldings  too 
large.  The  weight  of  the  tympa- 
num is  discharged  from  the  entab- 
lature with  arches.  The  architrave 
and  frieze  make  but  one  course  in 
height,  and  the  cornice  has  both 
modillions  and  dentils.  It  is  sup- 
;  osed  to  have  been  pseudoperip- 
teral. 

Concretion,  (Lat.)  the  hard- 
ening of  soft  bodies. 

Concurring,  or  Congruent, 
such  figures  or  solids  as  till  exactly 
the  same  space. 

Conduit,  (Fr)  a  long  narrow 
passage  between  two  walls,  or  un- 
derground, for  secret  communica- 
tion between  different  apartments. 
Also  a  canal  or  pipe  for  the  con- 
veyance of  water. 

Cone,  (kiovoq,  Gr.)  a  solid  which 
is  bounded  by  two  surfaces,  of 
which  one  called  the  base  is  a 
circle,  and  the  other,  ending  in  a 
point  called  the  vertex,  a  convexity; 
so  that  a  straight  line  drawn  from 
any  point  in  the  circumference  of 
the  base  to  the  vertex  will  coincide 
with  the  convex  surface.  If  the 
axis,  or  the  straight  line  drawn 
from  the  centre  of  the  base  to  the 
vertex,  be  perpendicular  to  the  base, 
it  is  termed  a  right  cone;  if  not,  it 
is  an  oblique  cone. 

Confessional,  (Lat.)  a  cell  in 
Catholic  churches,  where  the  con- 
fessor sits  to  hear  confessions.  It 
is  generally  of  wood,  and  divided 
into  three  niches  or  cells,  the  cen- 
tral one,  which  is  for  the  priest, 
having  a  seat  in  it,  and  being 
closed  half  way  up  by  a  dwarf 
door. 

Configuration,  the  exterior 
superficies  of  a  body. 

Conge,  (Fr.)  the  same  as 
Apophyge. 

Conic  Section,  the  figure  form- 
ed by  cutting  a  cone  by  a  plane. 
They  are  five,  corresponding  to  the 
positions  of  the  plane — a  triangle, 

638 


a  circle,  an  ellipse,  a  par  jla 
and  an  hyperbola.  Only  th  |t| 
three  of  these,  however,  are  t 
peculiarly  conic  sections. 

CONISTERIUM,    (KOVlOTpa,  ir ,) 

an  apartment  in  the  gvmn  £9 
and  palaestra  of  the  ancients,  S 
the  wrestlers  sprinkled  then  , 
with  dust,  after  being  anointt  . 
oil,  that  they  might  take  the jrtr 
hold  of  each  other. 

Conjugate  Diametersuvo 
diameters  in  an  ellipsis  or  her- 
bola,  parallel  to  tangents  at ach 
other's  extremities. 

Conoid,  (icovoeidrjQ,  Gr.)  a  ure 
produced  by  the  revolution  if  a 
conic  section  round  one  of  its  ces. 

Conservatory,  (Lat.)  a  ild- 
ing  for  the  protection  of  der 
plants.  It  is  often  attached  the 
house  as"  an  apartment,  for  tl  M 
play  of  scarce  exotics,  durir  the 
time  of  their  greatest  beaut md 
perfection.  It  should  be  in  ;  erv 
dry  situation,  and,  if  there  1  no 
shed  behind,  the  walls  shou  be 
at  least  three  bricks  thick.  • 

Consistory,  (Lat.)  the  jicial 
hall  of  the  college  of  Cardin  at 
Rome. 

Console,  (Fr.)  the  same  an 
Ancone,  which  see.  In  the  [ace 
of*  Dioclesian,  at  Spalatro,  copies 
are  used  to  support  an  entire  der 
of  columns. 

Constantinople.  Thejild- 
ings  of  the  Ottoman  capital  are 
interesting  in  two  points  of  jew, 
both  as  exhibiting  specimens  the 
architecture  of  the  Western  er  ire, 
and  of  that  of  the  Turks,  li  e 
architecture  of  Pagan,  Chr  an, 
and  Moslem,  are  promiscnsly 
blended. 

At  the  top  of  the  ancient  Ban- 
tium,  and  of  an  eminencehat 
descends  gradually  down  to  tr  sea 
by  the  point  of  the  seraglio,  m 
mosque  of  St.  Sophia.  The  Ian 
of  this  fine  structure  is  aim  I 


CON 

quar    The  dome  rests  outwardly 
;  ,n  fir  prodigiously  large  towers, 
.,  .j  have  been  added  of  late 
s  The  entrance  is  by  a  por- 

0  s  toises  broad,  which  in  the 
e    the  Greek  emperors  served 

1  J/estibulum.      This  portico 
':  n  licates  with  the  church  by 
,     narble    folding  doors,  the 
eavefof  which,  being  of  brass, 

.     with   basso-relievos,  are 
: ,  lignificent.    The  vestibulum 
iii  1  to  another,  which  is  paral- 

0  .  but  has  no  more  than  five 
.  iraze;  cloors  without  bas-reliefs  ; 

k-es  were  charged  with  cross- 
n these  last  have  been  muti- 

1  v  the  Turks.  These  two 
til  es  are  only  entered  by  doors 
tl  sides,  and,  according  to  the 

f  the  Greek  church,  were 
Seceslry  for  the  placing  of  those 
bat  re  either  about  to  receive 
he  sraments,  or  to  undergo  pub- 
nce.    Parallel  to  them,  the 
'furksiave  built  a  great  cloister, 
i  ging   the   officers  of  the 
A  splendid  dome  occu- 
§  g  place  of  a  nave,  at  the 
r'oot  :  which  runs  a  colonnade, 
.vhicluears  a  gallery  of  exquisite 
'irch-nk  five  toises  broad.  By 
iomelt  is   called  Constantine's 
1    it  was  formerly  set  apart 
i or  th-ivomen.    At  the  roof,  and 
->n  thi  !ornice  of  the  dome,  runs  a 
til  illery,  or  rather  balustrade, 
iisl  1  >ad  enough  for  one  person 
0  pa.    Above  it  there  is  also 
uothl      The   columns  of  this 
I'Jomefave  scarcely  any  swelling, 
•i"!  t|r  chapiters  looked  to  be  of 
i  a  linear  order.    The  dome  is  18 
tones 'om  wall  to  wall,  and  rests 
upon  ur  huge  pillars,  about  eight 
toiies  thick:   the  arch  seems  a 
perlec  lemisphere,  illuminated  with 
twent  our  windows,  disposed  in  a 
circun  :rence.    From  the  east  part 
iOl  thi  Jome,  you  pass  straight  on 
to  th:  demi-dome,  which  termi- 


C  O  N 

nates  the  edifice.  This  was  the 
sanctuary  of  the  Christians,  and 
now  contains  the  niche  where  the 
Koran  is  kept,  and  close  by  it  is 
the  Mufti's  chair. 

This  mosque,  built  like  a  Greek 
cross,  is  in  the  clear  42  toises  long, 
38  broad,  nearly  all  of  which  is 
taken  up  by  the  dome.  Jt  is  said 
to  contain  no  fewer  than  107 
columns  of  different  marble,  of  por- 
phyry, or  Egyptian  granite.  The 
whole  dome  is  lined  with  varieties 
of  marble  :  the  incrustations  of  the 
gallery  are  mosaic,  mostly  made  of 
cubes  of  glass,  which  are  loosened 
every  day  from  their  cement,  but 
their  colour  is  unalterable.  The 
Turks  have  destroyed  the  noses  and 
eyes  of  some  figures,  as  well  as  the 
faces  of  four  cherubims  placed  in 
the  angles  of  the  dome. 

"  I  know  of  no  monument  of 
antiquity,"  observes  Mr.  Hobhouse, 
"  which  has  excited  so  much  curi- 
osity, both  amongst  the  learned 
and  the  unlearned,  as  St.  Sophia. 
For  its  dimensions  and  integrity,  it 
may  be  thought  incomparably  more 
curious  than  any  other  relic  of 
former  ages ;  but  in  every  other 
respect  it  must  disappoint  any 
sanguine  expectation.  Its  external 
appearance  is  that  of  a  vast  build- 
ing, whose  ill-sorted  construction 
requires  a  proportionate  heaviness 
of  mass  to  preserve  it  standing  and 
entire.  The  weighty  buttresses  and 
the  attached  compartments  of  the 
temple,  falling  in  a  succession  of 
penthouses,  from  the  spring  of  the 
arch  to  within  a  few  feet  of  the 
ground,  nearly  conceal,  and  totally 
ruin,  any  effect  which  might  other- 
wise be  produced  by  the  height 
and  expanse  of  its  far-famed  dome. 
The  interior,  to  which  you  descend 
by  five  steps,  seems  at  first  sight 
magnificently  spacious,  and  not 
broken  with  the  aisles  and  choirs, 
nor  deformed  by  the  railings  and 


CON 


CON 


tombs  of  modern  churches,  but 
your  admiration  diminishes  as  you 
proceed  with  your  inspection.  The 
beauty  of  the  variegated  marble 
floor  is  concealed  by  a  covering  of 
mats ;  and  the  dome,  as  well  as 
the  body  of  the  building-,  is  spoiled 
by  a  thousand  little  chords  depend- 
ing- from  the  summit,  within  four 
feet  of  the  pavement,  and  having  at 
the  end  of  them,  lamps  of  coloured 
glass,  large  ostrich-eggs,  artificial 
horse-tails,  vases  and  globes  of 
crystal,  and  other  mean  ornaments. 
The  columns  appear  too  large  for 
the  arches  which  they  support,  and 
the  carving  of  their  capitals  can 
scarcely  be  more  painful  to  the 
eyes  of  an  architect,  than  to  those 
of  a  common  observer.  Grelot 
knew  not  to  what  order  they  be- 
longed, or  by  what  name  to  de- 
scribe their  style,  unless  he  called  it 
a  sort  of  Gothicised  Greek.  -My 
general  impression  was,  that  the 
skill  of  the  one  hundred  architects, 
and  the  labour  of  the  ten  thousand 
workmen,  the  wealth  of  an  empire, 
and  the  ingenuity  of  presiding 
angels,  had  raised  a  stupendous 
monument  of  the  heavy  medio- 
crity wh'ch  distinguished  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  sixth  century  from 
the  perfect  specimens  of  a  happier 
age." 

The  other  royal  mosques  of  Con- 
stantinople may  be  considered  as  so 
many  copies  of  St.  Sophia.  They 
always  stand  by  themselves  in  an 
enclosure  planted  with  trees,  adorned 
with  fountains,  oratories,  &c.  They 
have  generally  from  two  to  six 
minarets.  At  the  ancient  Hippo- 
drome, now  called  Atmeidan,  is  a 
mosque,  each  minaret  of  which  has 
three  stone  galleries.  The  entrance 
is  through  a  peristyle,  a  kind  of 
arched  cloister,  covered  with  little 
domes,  and  supported  by  columns. 
One  of  the  most  splendid  mosques 
in  Constantinople  is  that  of  Soly- 

O-iU 


man  II.  The  outside  exce  even 
that  of  St.  Sophia;  its  viMof 
are  larger  and  better  dispc  i,  j(S 
galleries  more  regular  and  a'elv, 
It  is  an  exact  square,  wit  four 
fine  towers  at  the  angles :  ;  til 
midst  is  a  noble  cupola,  su  r  ! 
by  marble  pillars,  and  two  1  er  at 
the  ends,  supported  in  th.same 
manner.  Under  the  great  oola 
as  in  other  mosques,  thei  is  a 
fountain,  adorned  with  mar  nil. 
lars.  The  spacious  court  din? 
to  it,  which  contains  anotr ,  has 
marble  galleries,  covered  wit  wm 
ty-eight  leaded  cupolas.  This 
mosque  is  built  of  the  fines  .ones 
that  could  be  found  amo  the 
ruins  of  Chalcedon.  The  iso 
of  Valide,  the  mother  of  Momet 
IV.  is  near  the  Seraglio.  re  in- 
side is  lined  with  fine  Dutchare; 
but  its  colonnade  is  of  [irble, 
taken  chiefly  from  the  riis  of 
Troy,  with  chapiters.  The  *ches 
over  the  doors  and  windoj  are 
well  designed  ;  its  two  njarets 
have  each  three  handsome  g.^ries. 

The  Seraglio,  which  was  l  it  by 
Mahomet  II.,  is  nearly  thre miles 
in  circuit :  it  is  a  kind  of  t  ngle, 
whose  side  next  the  city  the 
largest.  The  apartments  {}  et> 
the  top  of  the  hill,  and  the  {'dens 
below  stretching  to  the  la:— 
"  Though  I  saw  only  the  oujde  of 
the  Seraglio,"  says  Tournefi;,  "I 
am  persuaded  that  its  insij  can 
show  nothing  of  what  wj  call 
stately  and  noble ;  becaii  the 
Turks  have  hardly  any  no'jn  of 
magnificence,  and  follow  ij  one 
rule  of  good  architecture.")  The 
apartments  have  been  made;:  dif- 
ferent times,  according  to  ip  cap. 
price  of  the  princes  and  sijwas, 
so  that  this  famed  palace  ij  little 
better  than  a  disorderly  hip  « 
houses  clustered  together,  jarble 
basins,  bagnios,  and  spoutimjoun- 
tains,  are  placed  on  the  ndw 


CON 


CON 


jjd  anv  fear  of  preserving  the 
pj  The  principal  entrance  is 
.avilion,  with  eight  open- 
m  o|r  the  gate,  or  porte.  This 
from  which    the  Ottoman 
n  Jook  its  name,  is  very  high, 
semicircular  in  its  arch, 
jith  aUrahic  inscription  beneath 
4  bell,  and  a  niche  on  each  side, 
more  like  a  guard-house 
e   entrance  to  a  palace, 
trance  leads  into  a  large 
-  d,  not  so  broad  as  long, 
nd  court  is  a  square  of 
)0  pies,  much  handsomer  than 
It  fit,  covered  with    turf  and 
unta';.     On  the  left  are  the 
-mior's  treasury,  and  little 
t'j  on  the  right  are  the  offices 
chens,    embellished  with 
nesput  without  chimneys.  A 
rv,  covered  with  lead,  and 
I  by  columns  of  marble, 
.  ound.    At  the  further  end 
i  this  )urt,  on  the  left,  is  the  hall 
Sere  he  divan  is  held  ;  on  the 
rht  ia  door  which  leads  into 
y  :li:t,  through  which  none 
ta  n;sueh  as  are  sent  for.  The 
I'  ll  of  he  divan  is  large,  but  low, 
i  'i  ith  lead,  wainscoted  and 
t  af;-   the    Moorish  fashion. 

f;  only  are  strangers  allowed 
ente^he  Seraglio. 
The  tasqne  of  the  Arabs,  in  the 
hurt) '  Galata,  was  a  church  of 
( 2  Dojnicans,  as  ancient  as  the 
ne  of  jt.  Hyacinth.    No  altera- 
ha  been  made  in   it ;  the 
lie  lindows   and  inscriptions 
ie  jites  still  remain,  and  the 
lich  is  a  square  tower, 
8  f,  a  minaret. 


ppodrome  of  Constanti- 
till  used  as  a  place  for 
i  riding.    It  is  called  by 


The 
pie  is 

ercise; 

*  Tu  ;  Atmeiden,  from  At,  a 
•rw,  a  meiden,  a  place.  It  is 
*>ut  23  paces  long,  and  150 
l(Je.  J, still  contains  the  obelisk 
1111  or  Thebaic  stone,  which 
IM 


is  a  four-cornered  pyramid,  of  one 
single  piece,  50  feet  high,  termi- 
nating in  a  point,  and  charged  with 
hieroglyphics.  By  the  Greek  and 
Latin  inscriptions  at  the  base,  we 
learn  that  the  emperor  Theodosius 
caused  it  to  be  set  up  again,  after 
it  had  lain  a  considerable  time  on 
the  ground.  The  machines  made 
use  of  in  rearing  it  are  rep  esented 
in  bas  relief.  Here  are  also  another 
obelisk,  which  appears  to  have  been 
covered  with  brass  plates,  with 
some  other  antiquities. 

The  Bazaars  are  large  square 
buildings,  covered  with  domes,  and 
supported  by  arches  and  pilasters. 
At  the  furthest  part  of  the  town, 
towards  the  sea  of  Marmora,  is  the 
celebrated  castle  of  the  Seven 
Towers.  "The  appearance  of  these 
walls,"  Mr.  Hobhouse  observes, 
"  (the  work  of  the  second  Theo- 
dosius,) is  more  venerable  than  that 
of  any  other  Byzantine  antiquity  ; 
their  triple  ranges,  rising  one  above 
the  other,  in  most  places  nearly 
entire,  and  still  retaining  their  an- 
cient battlements  and  towers,  are 
shaded  with  large  trees,  which 
spring  from  the  fosse,  and  through 
the  rents  of  repeated  earthquakes. 
The  intervals  between  the  triple 
walls,  which  are  eighteen  feet  wide, 
are  in  many  places  choked  up  with 
earth  and  masses  of  the  fallen 
ramparts,  and  the  fosse  of  twenty- 
five  feet  in  breadth,  is  cultivated 
and  converted  into  herb-gardens 
and  cherry  orchards,  with  here  and 
there  a  solitary  cottage.  Such  is 
the  height  of  the  walls,  that,  to 
those  following  the  road  under  them 
on  the  outside,  none  of  the  mosques 
or  other  buildings  of  the  capital, 
except  the  towers  of  Tekkuri-Serai, 
are  visible." 

Construction,  (Lat.)  the  de- 
scribing a  diagram,  &c.  from  a 
given  data.  The  art  of  building 
from  the  architect's  designs. 

641 


CON 

Constructive  Carpentry. — 
Under  the  article  Carpentry,  an 
historical  view  has  been  given  of  the 
various  improvements  which  have 
from  time  to  time  been  introduced 
into  the  practice  of  that  art.  In 
the  present  article,  we  shall  give  as 
comprehensive  a  view  as  the  nature 
of  our  work  will  allow,  of  the  mo- 
dern practice  of  Carpentry. 

We  shall  commence  with  the 
scarfing  of  timber,  or  the  joining 
of  two  separate  pieces  by  a  close 
joint,  a  portion  of  the  end  of  one 
piece  lapping  over  the  end  of  the 
other,  and  the  sides  of  both  making 
one  continued  surface.  The  per- 
fection of  this  operation  consists  in 
making  the  joint  as  nearly  equal  as 
possible  in  strength  to  either  piece 
taken  separately.  This  is  done 
sometimes  by  forming  the  ends  of 
the  two  pieces  to  fit  each  other 
closely,  and  at  others  by  the  inser- 
sertion  of  a  third  piece.  The  ends 
of  the  pieces  must  be  so  indented 
as  to  resist  a  longitudinal  strain. 
This  is  termed  tabling.  One  single 
table,  or  one  resisting  abutment,  is 
both  stronger  and  easier  to  execute, 
than  two  or  four.  It  miut  also  be 
further  observed,  that  the  least  pos- 
sible projection  should  be  given  to 
the  resisting  part,  as  the  cohesive 
force  is  diminished  by  it,  by  a 
quantity  of  timber  equal  to  the 
parts  that  abut.  A  tapering  mor- 
tise may  be  used  instead  of  the 
abutments,  the  two  pieces  being 
brought  in  close  connection  by  a 
wedge  driven  into  the  cavity.  Iron 
bolts  are  the  most  convenient  means 
of  compressing  the  joint  equally  on 
each  side,  because  they  need  to  be 
thinner,  and  consequently  require  a 
less  bore  for  their  reception,  than 
wood.  A  long  scarf  will  allow  of 
more  bolts,  and  is  consequently 
stronger,  than  a  short  one.  The 
strength  is  also  increased  by  the 
number  of  steps,  or  abutments. 


CON 

The  scarfing  of  beams  will  far. 
ther  illustrated  by  the  PlattC^** 
pentry,  C  1$.  The  prince  ol 
joining  timbers  will  be  best 
stood  by  Plate  Carpen  n; 
It  may  be  done  either  by  iku,,. 
both  planes  of  contact  either  | ri^ht 
angles,  or  parallel  with  theiibres 
or  the  joint  parallel  with  th  jibrea 
of  one  piece,  and  at  an^l  wji, 
those  of  the  other.  A  longilHnal 
joint,  is  that  in  which  the  c  inion 
seam  runs  parallel  with  thlfibrei 
of  both,  in  which  case,  bo  and 
pins  are  commonly  used,  n  u 
abutting,  or  butt-joint,  thjplane 
of  the  joint  is  at  right  anjjleothe 
fibres,  and  the  fibres  of  bot  )ieca 
in  the  same  straight  line.  IVhen 
the  joint  is  at  right  anglesp  the 
fibres  of  one  piece,  and  para |i  with 
those  of  the  other,  it  is  a  i/uare 
joint ;  when  parallel  with  trjfibres 
of  one,  and  obli  ue  to  thostif  the 
other,  a  bevel  joint ;  and  ia  at 
oblique  angles  with  the  fies  of 
both  pieces,  a  mitre  joint.  Sitting 
and  mitre  joints  are  seldor!used. 
The  most  common  form  of  fining 
is  by  notching,  in  which  |  may 
vary  the  form  of  the  joint,  cord- 
ing to  the  number  of  angles'e po» 
sition  of  the  sides  of  the  pie^and 
the  direction  or  quantity  jf  tk 
stress.  The  angles  may  l;  from 
one  to  four:  joining  by  mori1  aw 
tenon  only  admits  of  one  aj.  two, 
Dove-tail  notching  is  chiefljippli- 
cable  to  horizontal  framing.  I^hea 
binding  joints  have  a  great  sjiin  at 
their  extremities,  a  shorter  jaring 
tenon  should  be  attached  to  tj  prin- 
cipal tenon,  with  a  sloping  solder 
above,  called  a  tusk  :  this  |nd  4 
tenons  are  called  tusk  tenoi  II 
ConstructiveCarpentu^U' 
A  and  B  shows  the  best  meipdsw 
trussing  girders  :  C  the  bcfonUl 
section  of  B ;  D  the  sectiofl  the 
abutment  bv  cutting  throiTg 
in  A  ;  E  and  F  show  the  t  sides 


CON 


CON 


f  th  king-bolt  at  c  in  A,  which 
iclin  to  each  other  so  as  to  form 
wete,  and  thereby  force  the 
mssSipon  their  abutments.  Gir- 
trussed  to  counteract  the 
t  '  the  bending  to  which  they 
re  siject  when  extended  beyond 
certli  length.    The  bolts  must 
?  of  !>n,  and  the  traces  are  gene- 
1  into  the  side  of  each  flitch, 
,       a  firmer  abutment.  The 
wtnvits  should  be  of  iron,  bolted 
.routine  thickness  of  both  pieces, 
t  s  uld  have  a  broad  part  in 
e  m  lie.    Some  resemble  an  in- 
ttedl'edge  at  the  bottom,  and 
[|$e  cjndrically  to  the  top,  where 

I  ey  al  screwed  and  nutted. 

[i  ie  article  Constructive 
r  try,  plates  II.  to  XXIII., 
h  e  have  selected  from  the 

gravjgs  in  Nicholson's  valuable 
.. :  > "  New  Carpenter's  Guide," 
i  lhe best  methods  of  perform- 

II  the.rincipal  operations  of  Car- 

P/a  II.   illustrates  the  neces- 
sary litfi  of  a  roof,  and  exhibits  a 
r  t  method  for  the  bevels  of 
j]  ie.    a  6  is  the  width  of  the 
ildm  make  b  for  a  e  equal  to 
vidth,  and  c  d  =  height  of 
tin  d  e  or  d  f  will  be  the 
\gth  the  common  rafters;  draw 
apnal  be,  continue  it  to  g, 
g~  height  of  roof,  and 
1  v  owhich  is  the  length  of  the 
■  >Jr.    Let  the  purline  be  at 
pla  of  a  common  rafter,  as  at 
rom  ie  point  h,  with  any  ra- 
ribe  a  circle,  draw  g  I  and 
i  el  to/6  tangents,  to  the 
"  1  and  q,  from  s  and  r,  the 
•ints  vere  the  two  sides  of  the 
'"me  ersect  the  circle,  draw  two 
i!el  to  the  former  to  cut 
1  a?  ial  in  m  and  k,  draw  m  n 
rallel  to  ab,  and  join  ni, 
:  the  down  bevel,  F  the 
'   1*  I  of  the  purline,  and  B 
,W  C  a  bevels  of  the  ends  of  the 


purline  when  it  is  placed  level.  By 
turning  the  stock  of  the  bevel  at  F 
from  a  round  the  line  tar,  we  shall 
have  the  side  bevel  of  the  jack-raf- 
ter ;  and  the  bevel  at  A,  the  top  of 
the  common  rafter,  is  the  down 
bevel  of  the  jack  rafter.  For  more 
information  on  this  subject,  see 
Roof. 

Plates  III.  and  IV.  Construction 
of  Domes.  As  the  method  of  find- 
ing the  centres  to  cover  a  dome 
horizontal,  is  found  very  trouble- 
some in  practice,  owing  to  the  cen- 
tres running  out  to  a  great  distance, 
the  following  more  practical  method 
is  offered.  To  find  the  curve  of 
the  boards  that  are  near  the  bot- 
tom, fig.  A.  plate  III.  divide 
one  quarter  of  the  circumference  of 
the  dome  into  equal  parts,  each 
equal  to  the  width  of  a  board, 
making  proper  allowance  for  Jie 
camber,  at  the  centre  m  describe 
a  small  circle,  equal  to  one  of 
the  divisions;  from  n  with  radius 
n  m,  describe  an  arc  to  touch  the 
centre  of  the  dome  at  m  ;  and  let 
H  be  the  last  board  that  you  can 
conveniently  describe  with  a  centre, 
that  is,  the  sixth  board  from  the 
top;  continue  the  inside  curve  of 
the  board  H  round  to  /  in  the  axis 
of  the  dome,  and  draw  the  line  fn; 
also  draw  parallel  lines  from  the 
points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  &c,  to  cut 
the  axis  of  the  dome  in  2  b  d,  &c.  : 
draw  the  line  I  p  to  touch  the  small 
circle  in  the  centre;  and  divide  the 
distance  fron  p  to  2,  into  two  equal 
parts  at  q,  and  draw  q  n ;  then  di- 
vide the  arc  from  q  to  r  into  six 
equal  parts,  and  from  the  centre  at 
n,  draw  lines  to  a,  c,  e,  &c,  and 
from  these  points  draw  lines  to  2, 
3,  4,  5,  &c,  to  the  other  quarter  ; 
then  is  the  distance  from  1  to  2 
half  the  length  of  the  bottom  board 
which  may  be  seen  at  B,  (pi.  IV.) 
set  on  each  side  of  2 ;  and  the 
small  distance  from  1  to  q,  in  the 


CON 


CON 


axis,  is  its  height;  which  is  set 
from  2  to  2  for  the  height  of  B ; 
and  2  b  is  half  the  length  of  the 
board  C,  and  b  a  its  height :  also 

3  d  in  Jig.  A,  is  half  the  length  of 
the  board  D,  and  dc  its  height. 
The  distance  1  1,  or  the  length  of  B, 
may  far  exceed  the  length  of  any 
board  that  can  be  found,  take 
therefore  half  its  length,  and  i  the 
height,  for  the  length  and  height  of 
B,  so  that  the  same  sweep  may 
come  within  the  reach  of  a  board :  if 
this  be  still  too  large  for  a  board,  the 
length  and  height  must  be  again 
diminished  in  the  same  proportion. 
The  other  boards,  C,  D,  and  E,  are 
each  one  half  of  the  lengths  as 
taken  from  Jig.  A,  and  must,  by 
the  foregoing  rule,  only  raise  i  their 
weight  to  have  the  same  sweep. 

Plate  V.  How  to  cover  the 
whole  of  an  ellipsoidal  dome  with 
one  mound  only,  when  its  base  or 
plan  is  a  section,  passing  perpen- 
dicularly through  the  fixed  axis,  or 
any  other  section  parallel  to  it. 
Let  ABCD  be  a  plan  of  the  dome, 
which  is  a  section  through  the  quar- 
ter axis  of  a  spheroid  ;  let  BD  be 
the  lesser  axis ;  divide  i  of  the 
plan  BA  into  a  convenient  number 
of  equal  parts,  as  six ;  from  these 
points  draw  lines,  1  h  a,  2  i  b,  3  k  c, 

4  Id,  &c.  parallel  to  the  greater 
axis  AC,  cutting  the  lesser  BC  at 
the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  e,  from  B  make 
B/,  equal  to  half  of  any  of  the 
equal  distances,  as  between  B  and 
1  ;  draw  f  u  to  the  centre,  cutting 

1  a,  2  bt  3  c,  &c.  at  the  points  h,  i, 
k,  I,  m;  from  the  point  B,  in  the 
line  AC,  at  No.  1.  (pi.  IV.j  stretch 
out  the  arc  BA,  of  the  quadrant  at 
Jig.  1,  on  the  plan,  as  at  1,  2,  3,  4, 
&c. ;  through  these  points  draw  or- 
dinates  at  right  angles  to  AC,  from 
the  points  1,  2,  3,  &c.  in  AC, 
(No.  1.)  make  the  distances  1  h, 

2  it  3  kf  &c.  equal  to  their  corres- 
ponding distances,  Bf,  ah,  b  i,  c  k, 

644 


&c.  on  the  plan,  which  w  gjve 
points  through  which  the  cur  may 
be  completed. 

Plate  VI.    Fig.  A  is  tr  plaa 
of  an  elliptic  dome,  B  the   1 01 
in  the  length,  and  C  the  sec  n  1 
the  breadth  ;  a  a  in  B,  and  b  in 
C,  shew  how  to  square  the  p  \m 
so  that  one  side  may  be  fair  v|  the 
surface  of  the  dome.    The  jn  i 
the  purline  is  formed  by  dott  lines 
drawn  from  the  sections  of  t  ' pur- 
line.   To  proportionate  the  rb  at 
the  top  to  meet  the  surfactjf  the 
dome,  draw  the  diagonals  2  km, 
and  let  h  e  and  gf  be  the  wid  then 
g  h  or  ej  will  be  the  true 
of  the  curve.     To  find  tri  form 
of  the  gores ,  let  the  board  r  jired 
be  that  over  a  b  c  in  theiplnn, 
divide  the  quadrant  D  of 
lipse  into  3  parts,  so  that  the  lords 
ab,  bCfCd,  shall  be  equal,  d|v  tlx 
lines  c  a,  c  b,  c  c,  c  d,  to  the  ure: 
transfer  the  triangle  a  be  Ira  ft 
to  a  b  c  in  G,  and  draw  the  ae  c« 
1-1-1-1,  &c.  in  G  at  ri^ht  aijesto 
a  by  and  describe  a  rib  G  to  thtj^ht 
of  the  dome,  and  the  base  >  the 
perpendicular  of  the  triangl  fii 
divide  the  curve  into  five  equ;  tarts, 
and  extend  them  along  t  lint 
1-1-1-1,  &c.  in  H:  from  thtointi 
of  division  in  the  curve  drallinef 
perpendicular  to  the  line  ei-l-li 
&c,  to  meet  the  sides  cb  jd 
of  the  triangle,  transfer  tl|sej» 
ments  of  these  lines  to  I 
through  the  remote  extremiti|draw 
the  curves  b  b,  cd,  ef,  a-lhH 
which  will  forn>  the  edges  '  ^ 
gore  over  ab  c  on  the  plan;  The 
other  gores  are  found  in  tlpM 
manner. 

Plate  VII.  exhibits  the  j'thw 
of  executing  the  ribs  of  a  <r.e  in 
two  different  ways.  In  one  wod 
the  tilling-up  ribs  are  in  plau,  pa- 
rallel to  the  sides  of  the  p;C'pw 
ribs ;  in  the  other  they  are  ren- 
tal bars,  and  their  sides  e  w 


CON 

^(  tending  to  the  centre  of  the 
lome  Fig  1  is  the  elevation,  and 
fa  2 lie  plan.    To  find  the  centre 
!f  ttarallel  jack-ribs,  suppose  be 
t\  plan  to  be  a  jack-rib,  con- 
inue  till  it  meet  the  opposite  side 
sect  b  d,  by  a  perpendicular 
;  a,  make  ao  —  AO  on  the 
jgva^n,  with  radius  o  b  describe 
flt  iieai6e,  which  will  be  the  curve 
squill. 

p/,?  VIII.    Domes  in  Penden- 
ts, i  b  c  d,Jig.  A,  is  the  opening 
f  a  s  are  staircase,  which  is  to  be 
racked  up  into  the  circular  curb 
'  a  v  1  igrht,  which  shows  in  the 
A,  and  the  section  at  B  ; 
[oivery  acket  is  of  the  same  sweep 
I  u  out,  but  cut  shorter  off  the 
:•:  nderind.    To  find  the  curve  B 
rain  e-c|i  side  of  the  staircase,  for 
,ai;w  uuer  ends  of  the  brackets,  so 
itl  ,  shall  correspond  in  every 
eiaht o  the  brackets:  draw  the 
nesd,  11,21,31,41,  at  right 
)  I  1  1  1  1,  the  base  of  C, 
Jjti.oeofye  brackets  ;  from  e  describe 
inures  fun  these  points  to  meet  the 
op  in  the  points,  1,  1,  1,  &c. 
id  fin  these  points  draw  per- 
endk  ars  towards  o  1  2  3  4,  trans- 
thfordinates  of  C  to  those  of 
[  ;',whi.  will  give  the  curve  or  foot 
i  h(  brackets.    Fig.  D  is  the 
Ian   •  a  semicircular  domical 
nish,  id  E  the  section.    This  is 
jjjjjporalegant  form  than  the  other. 
|[fo  ge;he  curve  of  the  ribs,  from 
,ie  ceif  e  of  fig.  D,  describe  a  cir- 
iM  to  uch  the  angles  of  the  stair- 
vkabed,  which  will  be  the 
urve  '  every  rib.    To  find  the 
n  iids  of  the  ribs  on  each 
e,  d|w  the  semicircle  E,  to  the 
ptnin  of  the  staircase,  and  the 
ww  i !  give  the  bottom  of  the 
bs.   ,j  find  the  bottom  of  the 
bs  fof,  segment  finish,  let  fig  he 
1  the  rcular  arc  of  the  curve  of 
I  ib  draw  the  lines  a  b  and  d  c, 
pr  uce  them  to  cut  it  in  h  and 


CON 

t,  then  draw  t  h,  and  describe  a  seg- 
ment of  a  circle  upon  be,  to  touch 
i  h  in  k,  for  the  bottom  of  the  ribs. 

Plate  IX.  is  a  section  of  the 
dome  of  St.  Paul's  at  London.  See 
the  article  Dome. 

Plate  X.  Fg.  1„  a  design  for 
a  domical  roof,  the  bottom  of  which 
is  made  in  a  small  compass,  to  gain 
room  within  the  dome.  Fig.  2  is 
a  circular  truss  for  a  bridge,  &c. 

Plates  XI.  and  XII.  ScaflToldmg 
for  Domes,  &c.  Fig.  1.  shews  the 
method  of  building  a  stone  dome, 
No  i.  being  the -plan,  and  No.  2. 
the  elevation.  Fig  2.  the  method 
of  joining  the  stone.  Fig.  3.  (pi. 
XII.)  method  of  scaffolding  a  dome 
upon  brackets,  which  may  only  be 
hung  by  making  the  end  of  the 
horizontal  part  pass  into  a  hole  of 
a  small  depth  in  the  wall,  No.  1. 
being  the  plan,  No.  2.  the  eleva- 
tion, No.  3  a  section,  and  No.  4. 
(plate  XI.)  one  of  the  brackets  on 
a  larger  scale.  Fig.  4.  another 
method  of  scaffolding  a  dome,  with- 
out any  standards  from  below. 

Plate  XIII.  Centering  for  brick 
groins,  aaaaaa  (Fig.  A)  plan 
of  the  piers  supporting  the  vault, 
a  b  the  end  opening,  which  is  a 
given  semicircle,  in  this  b  c  is  the 
opening  of  the  side  arch,  which  is 
to  come  to  the  same  height  as  the 
end  arch  a  b,  fix  the  centres  over 
the  body  range,  as  shewn  in  the 
section  at  C,  and  board  them  over : 
in  Jig.  A  and  C  is  shewn  Nthe  man- 
ner of  fixing  the  jack-ribs  upon  the 
boarding.  To  find  the  moulds  for 
the  jack- ribs,  take  the  openings  of 
the  arches  in  Jig.  A,  that  is  a  b, 
b  c,  and  place  them  in  Jig.  D. 
making  a  b  c  a  right  angle,  divide 
one  half  of  the  given  semicircle  E 
into  5  equal  parts,  and  square  them 
across  1,  1,  1,  &c.  to  cut  d  b  and 
d  c  in  2,  2,  &c,  and  through  these 
points  draw  lines  parallel  to  1,1,  1, 
&c,  the  base  of  E  both  ways  to- 

645 


CON 


CON 


wards  F  and  G ;  stick  nails  in  the 
points  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  at  E,  and  bend 
a  thin  slip  of  wood  round  them, 
and  mark  it  opposite  to  every  nail ; 
then  stretch  the  slip  out  from  d  to 
5,  marking  the  intermediate  points 
1,2,3,4;  lines  drawn  perpendicu- 
larly from  these  points,  will  inter- 
sect the  other  lines  in  small  squares 
and  the  curve  drawn  through  the 
diagonal  will  be  the  edge  of  the 
required  mould.  To  fix  the  jack- 
ribs,  bend  the  mould  G  from  d  to 
the  crown  at  e  in  Jig.  A,  the  line 
G  d  drawn  by  the  curved  edge  will 
give  the  line  on  the  body  range, 
where  the  upper  edges  of  the  board- 
ing of  the  side  vaults  terminate; 
fix  a  temporary  slip  of  wood  in  the 
direction  f  f,  so  that  the  upper  sur- 
face may  be  level  with  the  crown 
of  the  body  range,  the  height  of  a 
jack-rib  at  any  place,  will  be  per- 
pendicular from  the  under  side  of 
the  slip  to  the  surface  of  the  board- 
ing which  covers  the  body  range. 
To  find  the  moulds  to  cut  the  ends 
of  the  boards,  the  rib  F  being  traced 
from  E,  take  the  parts  round  it, 
and  lay  them  from  the  centre  of 
the  groin  on  a  perpendicular  to  a  bf 
the  base  of  the  rib  E  from  d  to  5, 
marking  the  intermediate  points  1, 
2,  3,  4,  and  find  the  mould  H  in 
the  same  manner  as  G,  and  it  will 
be  the  mould  required.  If  both 
sides  have  the  same  opening,  as  in 
fig.  I.,  take  half  the  span  of  the 
arches  as'a  radius,  describe  a  quad- 
rantal  arc,  which  divide  into  six 
equal  parts,  stick  nails  in  the  points 
of  division,  bend  a  slip  round,  mark- 
ing it  at  every  nail,  and  extend  one 
of  thje  lines  O  6,  which  forms  the 
right  angle,  draw  perpendiculars 
through  the  points  of  division  in 
the  arc  to  the  other  side  of  the 
right  angle,  extend  the  slip,  and 
place  the  edge  marked  with  the 
divisions  upon  the  extended  line 
from  O  to  6,  mark  the  intermediate 

646 


points  1,2,3,4,5,  draw  lines  on?l, 
these  points  perpendicular  i  tne 
extended  line,  and  trace  th  i  ■ 
on  the  edge  of  the  mould  K1  Fur. 
ther  information  on  the  sul;ct  of 
groins  will  be  found  under  je  ar- 
ticle Groin. 

Plate  XIV.  and  XV.  GhLtf 
niches,  circular  work,  &c.  \ig,  1( 
the  method  of  glueing  twokirds 
together  in  one  plain,  No  ljihew. 
ing  the  section,  No.  2  theithleva- 
tion  :  in  No.  1  the  joint  i:|Dlain, 
and  in  No.  2,  tongued.  kg,  3, 
the  manner  of  joining  one  I  rd  to 
another  at  right  angles,  stiigth. 
ened  by  a  blocking.  Fig. 
boards  glued  at  an  obtuse  lgle; 
No.  1,  section,  No.  2,  eljuion. 
Fig.  5,  the  method  of  glut » 
an  architrave,  No.  1  section  nd . 
elevation  as  finished,  No.  «md  4 
before  the  mouldings  are  jmck, 
No.  5  and  6  how  they  are  t  to- 
gether when  newly  glued.  W( 
(plate  XV.)  the  method  of  jjeing 
up  niches,  and  Fig.  7,  of  Ueing 
up  circular  work  in  veneers. 

Plate  XVI.  the  plan  ancleva- 
tion  of  a  dog-legged  staircaij  con- 
sisting of  a  progressive  ancietro- 
gressive  flight  of  steps,  coveted 
by  winders. 

Plate  XVII.  plan  and  elation 
of  a  geometrical  stair,  with  half 
space  between  progressive  jd  re- 
trogressive steps. 

Plate  XVIII.  plan  and  elation 
of  an  elliptic  stair. 

Plate  XIX.  Handrailinj  the 
method  of  glueing  a  rail  injbick- 
ness.  A  b  is  the  stretch-oujf  the 
greatest  circle  in  B,  and  js  the 
height  of  steps;  de  is  the  cjipa« 
of  the  lesser  circle,  set  in  tl;  mid- 
dle between  a  b  and  df,  the|eigM 
of  the  steps,  the  same  wijaj! 
therefore  the  triangle  aScM« 
pitch-board  of  the  inside 
mould,  and  b  mo  at  the  hott(j,a,,d 
ihc  at  the  top,  are  the  pitch  w'ds 


\  CON 

of  10  common  steps,  which  lines, 
whe  intersected,  will  give  the  under 
linelf  the  inside  falling:  mould.  In 
me  manner  dfe,  with  the  two 
coJon steps  kgf  at  the  top,  and 
,    ?,  tt  the  bottom,  will  give  the 
un(j  line  of  the  outside  falling 
J  ;   the   top  lines    are  only 
.  parallel  to  the  under  lines  to 
I  e  Ickness  of  the  rail.    To  apply 
oulds  to  the  plank,  draw  a 
line  p,  touching  the  moulds  so 
laidpwn  in  two  plans^  and  as  both 
ijs  intersect  each  other  at  q, 
,;,t\M  q  perpendicular  to  the  top  of 
ii    ink,  at  the  same  distance  as 
I  q  i  'rom  the  bottom  ends  of  your 
nous,  and  this  line  being  squared 
aero  the  edge,  and  from  thence 
icra  the  under  side,  then  set  the 
:epq  on  both  sides  of  the 
n  from  the  same  edge,  and 
w  e  square  over  t  s  r,  at  the 
U  e  p  t  on  the  plank,  on  both 
les  then  set  the  distance  of  r 
Fl  ml  upon  the  upper  side  of  the 
plan  and  set  the  distance  of  s  t 
mjthe   under  side,  mark  the 
nib  upon  both  moulds,  apply 
c  side  falling  mould  to  the  top 
I  ytr  plank,  making  the  point  q 
edeide  with  the  same  point  q 
th  plank,  and  make  the  front 
i  of  tlj  falling  mould  to  come  to  r, 
th  it,  in  this  position,  draw 
>t  face  of  the  plank,  and  in 
i  nner  apply  the  inside  falling 
oaoul  the  point  q  coinciding  as 
•efor  on  the  under  side,  with  the 
"itdge  to  s  in  the  plank,  and 
drawlhe  under  side,  the  plank 
nut  out,  and  twisted  to  those 
es,  ill  be  the  true  form  of  the 
enefj;  it  must  then  be  cut  into 
'  'cc  the  other  way  in  such  thick- 
*asto  bend  easily.    Fig.  C 
v  he  method  of  laying  down 
a  stri  board  of  a  chain*. 

PI  XX.  and  XXI.    Gluing  up 
cylitici cal,  conical,  and  spherical 
ffalj.    Fig.  1,  method  of  form- 


CON 

ing  a  cylindric  surface  on  one  board, 
by  grooving  the  boards  across 
at  equal  distances  :  No.  1,  the  ele- 
vation, 2,  the  plan.  Fig.  2,  me- 
thod of  forming  a  conic  surface  by 
radial  grooves.  Fig.  3,  {PI.  XXI.) 
the  same  for  a  sector  of  a  conic 
surface  less  than  the  half  cone. 
Fig.  4,  method  of  forming  the  sur- 
face of  a  globe ;  No.  1  and  2, 
grooving  of  the  board,  1  being  the 
face,  and  2  the  edge ;  No.  3,  the 
mould  upon  which  the  spherical 
boards  are  to  be  bent;  No.  4,  two 
boards  joined  together. 

PI.  XXII.  XXIII.  Glueing  up  co- 
lumns, bases,  and  capitals.  Fig.  1. 
method  of  glueing  up  the  shaft  of  a 
column;  No.  1,  a  section  at  top, 
and  2  at  bottom;  ABC  the  mitre 
bevel,  DEI  the  trying  up  bevel. 
Fig.  2.  mode  of  glueing  up  the  base 
of  a  column;  No.  1,  the  plan,  2 
the  elevation.  Figs.  3  and  4, 
(PL  XXIII.)  Glueing  up  the  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  capitals;  No.  1, 
the  plan,  and  2,  the  elevation. 

Further  remarks  will  be  found 
under  the  different  articles,  as  Dome, 
Groin,  Hand-railing,  fyc. 

Contact,  (contactus,  Lat.)  in 
Geometry,  is  when  a  line  or  plane 
touches  a  figure,  and  may  be  pro- 
duced either  way  without  cutting  it. 

Content,  (contentus,  Lat.)  in 
geometry,  the  area,  or  quantity  of 
matter  or  space  included  in  certain 
bounds. 

Contexture,  (contextus,  Lat.) 
the  disposition  of  the  constituent 
parts  of  a  body  in  respect  to  each 
other. 

Contign  atis,  (Lat.)  in  Roman 
carpentry,  was  what  is  now  termed 
naked-flooring. 

Contiguity,  (contiguus,  Lat.) 
the  situation  in  which  two  bodies  or 
surfaces  meet. 

Continued,  a  term  applied  to 
any  thing  that  is  not  interrupted. 
An  attic  is  continued  when  it  is 

647 


COP 


COR 


not  broken  into  pilasters  ;  a  pedes- 
tal is  continued  when  its  mouldings 
and  dado,  or  die,  are  continued 
without  interruption  through  the 
column  and  intercolumniation. 

Contorted,  wreathed. 

Contour,  (Contorno,  Ital.)  the 
outline  of  a  body. 

Contra  murk,  in  Fortification, 
an  external  wall  built  to  protect 
and  strengthen  the  wall  it  faces  or 
incloses. 

Contrary  Flexure,  point 
or,  the  meeting  of  two  curves, 
which  bear  the  convexity  of  one, 
and  the  concavity  of  the  other,  on 
the  same  side  of  the  line. 

Con tr a v allation,  in  Fortifi- 
cation, a  trench  guarded  by  a  para- 
pet, beyond  musket-shot  from  a 
besieged  place,  raised  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  besiegers. 

Convent,  {conventus,  Lat.  an 
assembly,)  a  religious  house. 

Con  ventual  Church,  one  be- 
longing to  a  convent. 

Convergent  Lines,  lines  which 
would  meet  if  produced. 

Convex,  (convexus,  Lat.)  swell- 
ing externally  in  a  circular  form. 
A  convex  rectilinear  surface,  is  a 
curved  surface,  in  which  a  point 
being  taken,  a  right  line  passing 
through  it  can  be  drawn  only  in 
one  direction. 

Convolution,  (Lat.)  a  winding 
motion. 

Co-ordinate,  (from  con  with, 
and  ordinatus,  Lat.)  holding  the 
same  rank  or  proportion.  Coordi- 
nate pillars  stand  in  equal  order. 

Coping,  (from  cop,  Dutch,  the 
head,)  the  upper  tier  of  masonry 
which  covers  a  wall.  When  it 
is  of  an  equal  thickness,  which  is 
done  only  on  inclined  surfaces,  or 
on  a  wall  that  is  intended  to  be 
covered  by  a  roof,  it  is  called 
parallel  coping.  When  thinner  on 
one  edge  than  the  other,  it  is  called 
feather-edged  coping.   When  thick 


in  the  middle,  and  thin  dL* 
edge,  it  is  called  saddle  <kr4 
coping.  #  In  Gothic  arehitL* 
the  coping  is  either  inclined  pon 
the  faces  or  plumb:  in  the  mer 
case  the  sides  of  the  vert  ic<  R 
tion  are  those  of  an  equi 
triangle,  with  its  base  hori 
It  is  sometimes  in  one  ir  Bed 
plane,  terminated  at  the  top  m 
astragal,  and  at  others  it  two 
inclined  planes  parallel  to 
other;  the  upper  terminated  top 
with  an  astragal,  and  pro]  r  - 
before  the  lower,  which,  lik  hat 
on  one  inclined  plane,  ehan  fa 
direction  at  the  bottom  into  u>r. 
row  vertical  plane,  which  pjeed 
with  a  level  soffit  before  the  ua- 
pet.  Inclined  coping  is  som.T^ 
without  the  astragal.  The  set  of 
a  projecture  is  said  to  copmr 
when  it  slants  downwards  fro  the 
wall. 

Corbeils,  (cor bis,  Lat.  W 
ket,)  sculptured  baskets  of  mm 
or  fruit,  sometimes  placed  o  the 
heads  of  caryatides.  In  For  ca- 
tion, corbeils  are  little  bash  of 
earth  set  upon  the  parapets,  U  iel- 
ter  the  men  in  firing  on  th  be- 
siegers. 

Corbels,  in  castellated  ind 
Gothic  edifices,  a  row  of  stone  re- 
jecting from  the  wall  to  suiiort 
the  parapet,  serving  in  the  ph  ot 
brackets  or  modillions.  The  rm 
is  applied  also  to  a  horizont?  ow 
of  stones  and  timber  in  a  w  or 
vault,  to  sustain  the  floor  or  tfj 
to  the  vase  of  the  Corinthian  pi- 
tal,  which  in  form  reseinb  :i 
basket ;  and  by  some  to  a  nic  in 
a  wall,  to  contain  a  statue. 

Corbel-Table,  a  series  of  tii- 
circular  arches  which  cut  >ne 
another  in  a  wall,  supports  by 
timbers  with  their  ends  proje  Rg 
out,  and  carved  into  heads,  m 
lions'  heads,  &c. 

Corbettis,  a  word  which  Cm- 


COR 

cer  i  S  to  signify  stones  that  sup- 

ilt  port  pages. 

Kf;   C<  ns»   a    Spanish   term  tor 
jfchfctural  ornaments. 

i  don,  the  edge  of  a  stone  at 
*  :    (tside  of  an  edifice. 
C  .E,  the  interior  of  a  wall,  &c. 
C  until    The  city  of  Corinth 
ras  roverbial  for  its  wealth  as 
K  s  the  time  of  Homer.    It  is 
ted  in  the  history  of  archi- 
ti  ,  for  the  invention  of  one  of 
ders:  but  it  is  remarkable 
I  o  remains  can  now  be  found 
(rinth  of  any  edifice  of  the 
orifhian  order;  nor  could  Mr. 
Dod  ill  perceive,  in  any  part  of  the 
!  s,  the  acanthus  plant,  which 
forrr  its  distinctive  capital.  The 
Acrorinthus,  or  Acropolis,  is  one 
of  t  finest  objects  in  Greece,  in  a 
commanding  situation  on  a  preci- 
o  rock.   Corinth  now  preserves 
v  onuments  of  antiquity.  At 
the  uth-west  corner  of  the  town, 
\(  Doric  columns  supporting 
:  n  architraves,   were   seen  by 
1  Cha'ler;  but  when  Dr.  Clarke 
\srt\  Corinth,  only  seven  remained 
and  only  five  of  them 
iuppfted   an   entablature.  Mr. 

d  ll  observes,  that  this  temple 
"is  irobably  the  most  ancient 
n  mt  ing  in  Greece,  if  we  may 
idgby  its  massive  and  inelegant 
f  ions.  The  columns  are  each 
combed  of  one  block  of  calca- 
reouj  stone,  which  being  of  a 
poro  quality,  was  anciently  co- 
rere(fvith  stucco  of  great  hardness 
t  urability.  A  similar  expe- 
dient'as  been  practised  in  all  the 
temp?  of  Greece,  Sicily,  and 
Italy  when  the  columns  are  of 
comt'.n  stone."  Their  height,  in- 
steatSf  being  equal  to  six  diame- 
ters, he  true  proportion  of  the 
Don"  shaft  according  to  Pliny, 
does  lot  amount  to  four.  They 
are  f  ted.— Dr.  Clarke  found  the 
ruin«of  some  ancient  buildings, 


COR 

particularly  of  one  partly  hewn  in 
the  rock,  opposite  the  temple. 
The  outside  exhibited  the  marks  of 
cramps  for  sustaining  slabs  of 
marble,  once  used  in  covering  the 
walls,  a  manner  of  building  which 
does  not  appear  to  be  earlier  than 
the  time  of  the  Romans.  Close  to 
the  Bazaar  he  saw  part  of  a  very 
large  structure,  built  entirely  of 
tiles  or  thin  bricks.  The  people  of 
the  place  remembered  its  being 
more  perfect,  and  described  it  as 
full  of  seats,  ranged  one  above 
another.  Perhaps,  he  thinks,  it 
might  have  been  the  Odeon. 

Corinthian  Order.  An  ac- 
count of  the  origin  of  the  Corin- 
thian capital  has  been  given  under 
the  article  Capital.  The  earliest 
mention  of  the  Corinthian  order  is 
by  Pausanias,(lib.  viii.)  who  informs 
us,  that  it  was  used  by  Scopas  in 
rebuilding  the  temple  of  Minerva  at 
Tegaea,  in  Arcadia,  in  the  fourth 
century  before  Christ.  It  is  very 
seldom  found  in  buildings  anterior 
to  the  Roman  emperors,  when  it 
was  universally  made  use  of. 
Among  the  ruins  of  Balbec  and 
Palmyra  it  is  almost  the  only  order 
to  be  found.  The  only  difference 
in  symmetry  between  the  Corinthian 
and  Ionic  columns,  lies,  according 
to  Vitruvius,  in  the  height  of  their 
capitals,  the  latter  being  only  one- 
third,  and  the  former  the  whole  of 
a  diameter.  The  Corinthian  aba- 
cus is  in  height  one-seventh  of  a 
diameter,  and  its  diagonal  two 
diameters:  it  has  concave  faces, 
moulded  on  the  fronts.  We  are 
led  to  suppose,  from  the  silence  of 
Vitrurius  on  the  subject,  that  each 
pair  of  the  four  faces  of  the  abacus 
were  continued  till  they  met  in  an 
acute  angle  at  each  corner :  ex- 
amples are  found  in  the  temple  of 
Vesta  at  Rome,  and  in  the  Stoa  or 
Portico  at  Athens.  The  lower  part 
of  the  capital  consists  of  two  rows 

648 


COR 


COR 


of  leaves,  each  row  containing  eight 
plants.  One  of  the  upper  leaves 
fronts  each  side  of  the  abacus,  and 
the  stalk  of  each  leaf  rises  between 
each  two  lower  leaves.  The  two 
rows  of  leaves,  and  the  caulicoli 
and  volutes  are  each  two-sevenths 
of  a  diameter.  The  breadth  of  the 
bottom  of  the  capital  is  one  diame- 
ter. From  Vitruvius  (lib.  iv.  c.  1.) 
we  learn,  that  in  his  time,  the 
Corinthian  column  supported  either 
a  Doric  or  Ionic  entablature.  Ex- 
amples of  such  a  use  of  the  Ionic 
entablature  are  found  in  the  temple 
of  Vesta  near  Tivoli,  in  that  of 
Antoninus  and  Faustina,  and  in  the 
portico  of  Septimus  Severus  at 
Rome.  In  the  arch  of  Adrian  at 
Athens,  and  in  the  temple  at  Jackly, 
near  Mylassa.  Of  the  use  of  the 
Doric  entablature  with  the  Corin- 
thian column,  we  know  of  no  ex- 
ample. But  the  Corinthian  column 
is  generally  found  with  a  peculiar 
entablature  of  its  own,  in  which  are 
introduced  the  architrave,  frieze, 
cymatium,  and  denticulated  band 
of  the  Ionic,  surmounted  by  the 
mutules  of  the  Doric,  which  latter 
are  converted  into  a  console,  the 
ends  and  sides  of  each  being 
shewn,  and  the  bottom  covered 
with  a  foliated  leaf.  The  superior 
members  of  the  cornice  resemble 
the  Ionic.  In  some  examples  of 
the  Corinthian  cornice,  modillions 
of  two  plain  faces  are  used  in  the 
place  of  consoles.  In  one  example, 
the  second  cornice  of  the  Tower  of 
the  Winds,  at  Athens,  dentils  are 
used  above  the  modillions.  When 
the  entablature  is  enriched,  the 
shaft  is  generally  fluted,  its  flutes 
being  in  number  twenty-four. 

Cornice,  (coronis,  Lat.  cor- 
niche,  Fr.)  the  upper  part  of 
the  entablature.  The  richest  cor- 
nice is  the  Corinthian,  being  the 
fullest  of  members,  and  the  most 
graceful  in  its  proportions.  The 

650 


■nu- 
the 
lire 


Ionic  cornice  is  of  graver  ppor- 
tions,  and  is  destitute  of  mod  hnj 
and  often  of  dentils.  The  'one 
is  lower  in  its  proportions, 
greater  projection,  and  is 
tinguished  by  its  cymatium 
tules,  and  drops.  See  unci 
different  Orders.  When  the  c 
rests  upon  the  architrave,  as  the 
Caryatic  Portico  at  Athens  . 
termed  an  architrave  cornio  In 
a  block  cornice,  the  corona  i;  im- 
ported by  plain  rectangular  pW 
with  level  soffits  instead  of  mi  les. 
Coved  cornices,  which  are  TtM 
found  on  old  houses,  have  mm 
cove,  and  are  generally  lathe  md 
plastered  on  brackets.  In  a  ill- 
icit ed  cornice,  some  of  its  meteri 
are  interrupted  by  another  c ect. 
See  Stucco. 

Corona,  (Lat.  ^ojowvoc,  !r.) 
the  brow  of  the  cornice,  whicino- 
jects  over  the  bed  mouldin;  to 
throw  off  the  water,  form ;  a 
division  between  the  cymatiunn  i 
crown  members,  and  the  m 
division  of  the  cornice.  I  nip* 
cian  works  the  corona  is  gi 
omitted.  The  principal  exa /es 
of  its  omission  by  the  Roman  hi? 
tects  are  found  in  the  Tern  of 
Peace  at  Rome,  the  third  or|  of 
the  Colosseum,  and  the  an  of 
Lyons  at  Verona.  In  the  an  of 
Constantine,  the  corona,  m 
mounted  only  by  a  fillet,  fits* 
the  cornice. 

Corostrota,  a  name  arjied 
anciently  to  a  kind  of  inlaid  wk 
Corps,  a  French  term  app'n  to 


the  projecting  part  of  a  wall,  < 
is  intended  to  form  a  grour 
decoration. 

Corridor,  (corridor e,  It|  a 
long  gallery  or  passage  in  a 
sion,  connecting  various  apartrr 
and  sometimes  running  rou 
quadrangle. 

Corsa.    See  Platband. 

CoRTiLE,(Ital.)  thecourt-yc!  of 


COT 


CO  V 


Ita  n  dwelling-houses,  often  em- 
bel  tied  with  columns  and  statues. 
It  lswers  to  the  Roman  cavse- 

p  rtinale,  (Lat.)  among  the 
ancnts,  the  apartment  which 
conined  the  cortina,  or  three- 
stools,  from  whence  the 
ms  delivered  the  oracles  of 
Ap<o. 

ssutius,  a  Roman,  and  one 
e  architects  of  the  temple  of 
J u[er  Olympius  at  Athens. 

Stages,  (cot,  Saxon,)  small 
hous  or  habitations,  the  humble 
ngs  of  the  poor.    They  are  of 
riis  descriptions,  from  the  rude 
(hatched,  mud-walled  hovel, 
t  neat  and  comfortable  dwell- 
reoted  for  the  accommodation 
ol  i  labouring  peasantry,  near  the 
1  p!e;'ire-grounds  of  country  gen- 
tlen'i. 

T)  vicinity  of  Downton  Castle, 
rurmnded    by   every  interesting 
ol  jej  of  rural  nature,  is  enlivened 
by  imerous  cottages,  and  small 
ng-houses  of  neat  and  com- 
le  appearance;  and  its  late 
plished  proprietor  has,  in  his 
poet1  of  the  "  Landscape,"  given 
haracter   of  these  valuable 
appi'Jages  to  elegant  landscape 
■ceriy.     A   neat   garden,  well 
stood  with  fruit  trees,  should 
Mirr  nd  the  country  cottage,  which 
"ms consist  of  two  or  more  apart- 
ment according  to  the  number  of 
the  nates. 

V  Thomas  Dearn,  of  Cran- 
broc  in  Kent,  has  communicated 
sorn.'useful  hints  on  this  subject, 
>n  a  tter  inserted  in  the  24th  vol. 
ol  tl  Repertory  of  Arts  and  Manu- 
facti's.  His  objections  against 
Ihe  nerality  of  cottages  for  the 
bbo  ing  poor,  are  these  :— That 
beinl  of  either  lath-and-plaster 
*©rljor  their  walls  composed  of 
bricl  of  not  more  than  four  inches 
'a  tckness,  and  rough-cast,  or 


rendered;  in  the  first  instance, 
proving  a  weak  defence  against  the 
weather;  and  in  the  latter,  subject 
to  injury  from  the  slightest  causes, 
and  also  liable  tQ  dampness.  To 
give  stability  and  warmth,  and  at 
the  same  time  save  materials,  Mr. 
Dearn  proposes  to  lay  the  founda- 
tion course,  and  the  two  following 
courses  of  the  walls,  in  the  usual 
old  English  manner,  with  alternate 
courses  of  headers  and  stretchers; 
and  from  this  foundation  the  wall 
is  to  be  raised  to  the  required 
height  by  alternate  courses  of 
stretchers  on  edge,  on  the  back 
and  front  of  the  wall ;  and  heading 
courses  to  cover,  leaving  a  vacant 
space  between  the  stretchers  of  the 
width  of  half  a  brick.  Bond  tim- 
bers may  be  introduced  as  may  be 
deemed  necessary.  It  is  stated, 
that  by  this  mode  a  saving  of  one- 
third,  in  the  article  of  bricks,  will 
be  effected  ;  that  only  one  half 
the  quantity  of  mortar  will  be 
used  ;  that  less  labour  will  be  re- 
quired ;  and  that  the  walls  will,  by 
this  mode,  be  entirely  free  from 
damp;  and  the  expense  at  least 
less  by  one-fourth  than  the  less 
eligible  mode  of  lath-and-plaster 
building.  See  Pisay,  Villa,  and 
Rural  Architecture. 

Cove,  a  concavity.  The  term 
cove  bracketing  is  generally  applied 
to  that  of  the  quadrantal  cove. 

Coved  and  Flat  Ceiling,  a 
ceiling  in  which  the  section  is  the 
quadrant  of  a  circle,  rising  from 
the  walls,  and  intersecting  in  a  flat 
surface. 

Cover,  that  part  of  a  slate  which 
is  hidden  or  covered. 

Cover  Way,  the  recess  left  in 
brick-work  for  the  reception  of  the 
roofing. 

Covert  Way,  or  Corridor,  a 
level  space  of  about  twenty  feet 
broad,  from  the  edge  of  the  ditch, 
surrounding  half-moons,   or  other 

651 


cou 


CR  A 


fortifications :  it  has  usually  a 
parapet,  with  pallisades  down  the 
middle,  and  a  foot  bank  It  is 
also  undermined  on  all  sides,  so 
that  to  make  a  lodgment  upon  it  is 
difficult.  The  extreme  edge  toward 
the  fortress  being  the  talus  that 
supports  the  earth  of  the  covert 
way,  is  called  the  counterscarp ;  but 
when  the  enemy  is  said  to  have 
made  a  lodgment  in  the  counter- 
scarp, it  is  understood  to  include 
the.  whole  of  the  covert  way,  with 
its  parapet  and  glacis. 

Coving,  in  old  buildings,  the 
projection  of  the  upper  stories  of 
houses  over  the  lower.  The  covings 
of  a  fireplace  are  the  inclined  ver- 
tical parts  on  the  sides. 

Couch,  a  layer,  or  coating. 

Counter,  a  name  given  to  the 
superintendent  of  a  canal,  or  other 
great  work,  under  the  resident 
engineer. 

Counter  Drain,  a  channel  dug 
parallel  to  a  canal,  &-c.  for  the 
conveyance  of  the  soccage  water, 
by  means  of  drains,  into  the  lower 
grounds. 

Counter  Fort,  a  pier  or  but- 
tress to  strengthen  a  wall. 

Counter  Gauge,  a  method  of 
measuring  joints  in  carpentry,  by 
transferring. 

Counter  Lath,  one  placed 
between  every  couple  of  gauged 
ones. 

Counter  Parts,  the  similar 
equal  wings  of  a  building. 

Countersink,  to  make  a  cavity 
in  timber-work  for  the  reception  of 
a  plate  of  iron,  or  the  head  of  a 
screw  or  bolt. 

Counter-Swallow's-Tatl,  in 
Fortification,  is  an  out-work  in 
form  of  a  single  tenaille,  wider  at 
the  gorge  toward  the  place,  than  at 
the  head  toward  the  country. 

Country  House.    See  Villa. 

Coupled  Columns,  columns 
arranged  in  pairs. 

Go* 


Couples,  a  term  used  i  the 
North,  for  rafters  framed  to;  her 
in  pairs,  with  a  tie  fixed  Egj 
their  feet.  The  main  cwm 
answer  to  the  trusses. 

Course,  a  continued  laj  of 
bricks  or  stones  in  building.  The 
term  is  also  applied  to  a  r<  0f 
slates  or  tiles,  arranged  with  m 
lower  ends  level.  The  cou?  of 
the  face  of  an  arch  is  the  M 
stones,  which  have  their  m 
radiating  to  the  centre.  The  <  rse 
of  a  plinth  is  its  continuity  i  the 
face  of  the  wall.  A  bond  coie  )> 
farther  inserted  into  the  wal  M 
those  adjacent.  The  joint  be  jS 
two  courses  is  called  the  coi  inq 
joint. 

Court,  (Cour,  Fr.)  an  opet  rea 
before  or  behind  a  house,  or ,  the 
centre,  between  the  body  o  the 
building  and  the  wings,  ans«m^ 
to  the  Roman  cavadium.  Cirts 
admit  of  the  most  elegant  (la- 
ments, such  as  arcades,  &c.  'he 
courts  of  most  of  the  hour  in 
Pompeii  were  paved  in  con  rt- 
ments  with  marble,  or  in  mlfl 
See  Cavadium. 

CousiNET,orCusinoN,the  me 
which  is  placed  on  the  impost:'  a 
pier,  to  receive  the  first  stone  (  he 
arch.  The  name  is  also  giv  to 
the  part  of  the  front  of  an  Inic 
capital  between  the  abacus  nd 
echinus. 

Crab,  an  instrument  to  ise 
large  stones. 

Cradle,  the  same  as  C-.'er, 
which  see.     The  name 


is  Sj»e- 


times  given  to  a  centering  ofibs 
and  lattice,  for  turning  culvert1 

Cradling,  timberwork  foris- 
taining  the  lath-and-plastetjof 
vaulted  ceilings,  or  for  susta  ng 
the  entablature  for  a  shop  front 'C. 

Cramp, (Kramp,  Dutch,)  a)™ 
of  iron,  bronze,  or  other  metal,  jQt 
at  each  end,  and  used  to  |»W 
together  stones  in  buildings,  id 


CRO 


CRO 


mJ  of  statues.  Frequent  use 
vasTiade  of  cramps,  which  were 


gen-allv  of  bronze,  1 


n  the  buildings 


of  tj  Romans. 

Ca.mpoons,  hooked  pieces  of 
iron  >r  drawing  up  timber  or  stones. 

Cane,  (cran,  Saxon,)  a  ma- 
Lo  for  raising  heavy  weights. 
fga Machine,  as  used  by  the  Ro- 
man is  teimed  by  Vitruvius  car- 
cheym. 

Capaudine  Doors,  are  such 
Ltjn  on  pivots  at  the  top  and 
botdb. 

Cenelle,  in  Gothic  architec- 
ture he  opening  of  an  embattled 

Snk 

Cfscent,  a  building  erected  in 
the  rm  of  an  arc. 

C  est  Tile,  the  tile  on  the  ridge 
of  douse.  In  Gothic  architecture, 
Umv  running  up  the  sides  of  a 
rabl  or  ornamented  canopy. 

CteUX,  (French)  that  species  of 
scuiure,  in  which  the  lines  and 
Igm  are  cut  below  the  surface. 

Cjcket.  (croc,  French,  a  hook.) 
The  nail  buds  or  bunches  of  foli- 
age, 5ed,  in  Gothic  architecture,  to 
ornaent  spires,  canopies,  pinna- 
WBjfcc.',  the  larger  hunches  at 
He p  being  termed  Jinials.  See 
Got,:  Architecture. 

C  [ssante  Croix,  a  crescent, 
at  e^i  end. 

C  mleciis,  are  rude  erections, 
of  gat  antiquity,  found  in  many 
partiof  Britain,  particularly  in 
Corr all,  Devonshire,  and  Wales: 
thest relics  are  generally  believed 
to  b  British,  and  though  it  has 
been'ontested  that  many  circum- 
staru;  seem  to  indicate  a  Danish 
oriiji'  yet  their  being  found  in  the 
hidd  recesses  of  the  Welsh  moun- 
tain^vhere  the  Danes  never  pene- 
trate is  sufficient  to  negative  this 
"pm  i.  The  Cromlech  consists  of 
■HI  stones,  supporting  a  larger 
one,  aced  nearly  in  an  horizontal 
positi.    That  these  monuments 


of  antiquity  were  connected  with 
funeral  solemnities,  is  probable  ;  yet 
their  frequent  occurrence  near 
Druidical  remains,  gives  plausibility 
to  the  opinion,  that  they  have  been 
erected  for  sacrificial  altars,  or  for 
some  purpose  connected  with  the 
ceremonials  of  that  ancient  order  of 
priesthood. 

Cronaca,  Simone,  an  architect 
of  Florence,  born  in  1454.  After 
having  visited  the  principal  cities 
of  Italy,  for  the  purpose  of  taking 
accurate  measurements  of  their  an- 
cient buildings,  he  returned  to  his 
native  city,  and  rose  to  reputation. 
He  finished  the  Palazzo  Strozzi, 
which  had  been  be^nn  by  Bene- 
detto de  Maianof^pnd  built  the 
sacristy  of  the  church  of  Santo  Spi- 
rito,  and  the  church  of  S.  Fran- 
cesco del  Offervanza  at  S.  Miniato 
in  the  suburbs.  His  death  hap- 
pened in  1509. 

Crosettes,  the  same  as  An- 
cones. 

Cross,  (croix,  Fr.  crux,  Latin.) 
Ancient  crosses,  though  generally 
classed  among  Christian  antiquities 
are  in  some  instances  the  remnants 
of  heathen  superstition ;  and  not 
only  may  their  existence  in  the 
British  isles  be  traced  to  a  period 
considerably  antecedent  to  the  in- 
troduction of  Christianity,  but,  ac- 
cording to  Borlase,  many  persons 
"  continued  to  worship  these  stones 
as  pagan  idols  ;  to  pay  their  vows, 
and  present  their  offerings,  at  the 
places  where  they  were  erected, 
coming  thither  with  lighted  torches, 
and  praying  for  safety  and  suc- 
cour."— This  custom  we  can  trace 
through  the  fifth  and  sixth  centu- 
ries, even  into  the  seventh,  as  ap- 
pears from  the  prohibitions  of  seve- 
ral councils.  In  Ireland,  some  of 
these  stones  have  crosses  cut  on 
them,  which  are  supposed  to  have 
been  done  by  Christians,  out  of 
compliance  with  the  Druid  preju- 

653 


CRO 


C  R  O 


dices ;  that  when  Druidism  fell  be- 
fore the  Gospel,  the  common  people, 
who  were  not  easily  to  be  got  off 
from  their  superstitious  reverence  for 
these  stones,  might  pay  a  less  cen- 
surable kind  of  homage  to  them, 
when  thus  appropriated  as  Chris- 
*\an  memorials,  by  the  sign  of  the 
cross.  There  is  yet  some  remnant 
of  the  veneration  paid  to  such  stones 
in  the  British  western  isles,  even  by 
Christians.  They  call  them  bowing 
stones,  from  the  reverence  shewn 
them.  It  is  remarkable  that  Even 
Masc frith,  which  the  Jews  were  for- 
bid to  worship,  signifies  a  bowing 
stone,  and  undoubtedly  was  so  call- 
ed, because  worshipped  by  the  Ca- 
naanites.  In  the  isle  of  Barray 
there  is  a  stone,  about  seven  feet 
high  ;  and  when  the  inhabitants 
come  near  it,  they  take  a  religious 
turn  round  it,  according  to  the  an- 
cient Druid  custom. 

It  is  not  easy  to  persuade  the 
illiterate  to  relinquish  an  ancient 
religious  custom;  for  in  proportion 
as  the  mind  is  uninformed,  the  man 
is  obstinate.  Representations  of  the 
cross  were  first  cut  on  the  tops  of 
single  upright  stones;  afterwardsthe 
shaft  was  variously  ornamented  with 
carvings.  These  crosses  appear  to 
to  have  been  erected  for  various 
purposes,  as  marking  the  boundaries 
of  districts — places  of  sanctuary — 
sepulchral  mementos — memorials  of 
battles,  murders,  and  fatal  events 
— places  of  public  prayer  and  pro- 
clamation : — some  were  also  placed 
by  the  road-side,  in  church-yards, 
in  market  places,  at  the  junction  of 
three  or  four  streets  or  roads,  and 
on  the  spot  where  the  bearers  of  a 
deceased  person  of  eminence  halted 
on  the  way  to  interment.  It  was 
commonly  the  practice  of  mendi- 
cants to  place  themselves  by  the 
side  of  these,  and  beg  alms  in  the 
name  of  Jesus.  In  the  Archseologia 
there  is  an  authentic  instrument,  • 

654 


dated  the  twenty-fifth  of  Noven  3r 
1449;  wherein  it  is  stated,  tha  n 
the  church-yard  of  St.  Mary  IV 
dalen,  in  Milk-street,  London, 
the  west  side  of  that  street,  stoc 
cross  of  the  height  of  a  manU 
more ;  and  that  the  same  cross  is 
worshipped  by  the  porishcrs  the, 
as  crosses  be  commonly  worshif  d 
in  other  chirche-yardes. 

Crosses  were  erected  by  miy 
Christian  kings,  before  a  battlebr 
great  enterprise.  Oswald  causr  a 
cross  of  wood  to  be  erected,  be  e 
he  fought  with  Cadwallo,  hirr.lf 
holding  it  till  the  earth  was  ri- 
med in  round  about  it,  while  11 
his  soldiers  kneeled  down  devow. 

The  stone  at  Frisby,  called  sh  p 
cross,  is  a  boundary  stone ;  ar  a 
second  of  the  same  kind,  and.,  o 
called  the  stump  cross,  stands; n 
the  top  of  a  hill  in  the  townshipf 
Cliverger,  in  the  parish  of  Whaly, 
in  the  county  of  Lancaster;  it  m 
present  about  five  feet  high.  Se- 
rai others  of  this  kind  might  6 
mentioned. 

Magdrum  Cross,  in  Fifesh  ?, 
according  to  tradition,  was  d<i- 
cated  to  a  celebrated  saint  nard 
Magrin.  It  was  a  boundary  st  e 
and  a  sanctuary,  and  near  it  tl  e 
is  a  earn,  and  an  obelisk  of  roih 
stones ;  which  is  called  Magr 
seat. 

There  are  some  singular  and 
rious  monumental  crosses,  in  Pi 
rith  church-yard,  in  Cumberlal 
Two  circular  shafts  mortised  i 
pedestals,  are  situated  about  fift 
feet  from  each  other,  at  what 
pears  to  be  the  ends  of  a  gr 
They  are  about  eleven  feet  h 
and  have  at  the  top  of  each  a  cr 
in  relief;  the  shafts  are  also  or 
mented  with  fretwork. 

There  is  a  sculptured  cross  in 
church-yard  of  Glamis  in  Scotia 
supposed  to  have  been  erected 
memory  of  the  assassination  of  k 


C  R  O 


C  RO 


y-'colm,  and  is  called  his  grave- 
st ie  :  on  one  front  is  a  cross ;  the 
I  fi  re  of  some  wild  beast,  on  the 
u  or  part,  and  on  the  other  a  cen- 
tl;  and  beneath,  the  head  of  a 

,  denoting  the  barbarity  of  the 
aspirators. 

lie  remarkable  stone  cross  in  the 

rh-yard  of  Beaucastle,  Cum- 
fi:     b  and*  is  a  square  column,  curi- 

v  ornamented,  but  its  origin  is 
1  Jnown,  and  the  same  may  be 
3  of  numerous  similar  erections 
ii  Vales,  Scotland,  and  the  north 
o  England  :  by  some  they  are  at- 
tjuted  to  the  Danes;  others  are 

0  pinion  that  they  were  erected 
1     b'the  Britons. 

Numerous  crosses  of  a  similar 
c  meter  are  found  in  Ireland,  and 
N     a  ingular  one  at  Kilcullen  in  the 
c  nty  of  Kildare,  which  is  orna- 
ited  with  sculptured  representa- 
3  of  ecclesiastics,  with  bonnets, 
i!;     tics,  and  trowsers,  and  beards  of 
a  ingular  form.    There  is  a  very 
nt  cross  in  the  county  of  Louth 
c  ed   Sf.  Boyns  Cross ;  about 
"I     ehteen  feet  high,  on  all  sides  full 
V     c;culpture.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
1 1  from  Rome,  erected  by  order 
is     c  he  pope,  and  to  be  of  one  stone. 

1  ir  the  centre  is  a  representation 
i  hrist,  and  on  the  opposite  side 
t  figure  of  St.  Patrick,  and  at  the 
I  torn  the  representation  of  Adam 

ill     z  \  Eve. 

Vevil's  cross  near  Durham  is  a 
I  ii.orial  of  the  partial  defeat  of 
'1  Bruce  by  the  ecclesiastical 
I  iy,  under  the  command  of  two 
E'hbishops,  three  suffragans,  and 
{$    cjler  dignitaries  of  the  church.  The 
s  at  Blore  Heath  in  StafYord- 
re,  Mortimer's  Cross  in  Hereford- 
jtre,  that  called  Camus'  Cross  in 
•  rtland  near  Dundee,  and  nume- 
I  s  other  crosses,  are  to  commemo- 
ie  battles.       Crosses  are  very 
lindaitt  in  Cornwall ;    they  are 
I  lerally  formed  of  a  single  shaft 


of  granite,  or  moorstone,  little  if  at 
all  ornamented,  and  in  many  in- 
stances have  been  converted  into 
gate-posts.  At  Carnaton  Down  in 
this  county,  there  is  a  plain  cross, 
apparently  of  great  antiquity,  which 
being  only  a  short  distance  from  the 
site  of  the  Druidical  temple  called 
the  Hurlers,  is  supposed  by  Mr. 
Britton,  to  have  been  of  Druidical 
origin,  and  converted  into  a  Chris- 
tian symbol  by  the  first  missionaries 
to  this  remote  part  of  the  island. 

The  most  ancient  monumental 
erections  are  believed  to  have  been 
crosses  of  a  pyramidal  form,  and 
numerous  remains  of  these  are  yet 
found  in  various  countries,  some- 
times to  preserve  the  remembrance 
of  a  single  person,  sometimes  that 
of  many  on  some  singular  occasion. 
Malmsbury  mentions  two  in  the  ce- 
metery of  the  monastery  at  Glas- 
tonbury, in  his  time  ancient  and 
ruinous:  the  tallest  was  26  feet 
high,  and  had  five  ranges  of  statues 
of  British  and  Saxon  bishops, 
kings,  and  ecclesiastics.  The  other 
was  18  feet  high,  with  four  similar 
ranges  of  sculptures.  The  monu- 
ment of  St.  Dunstan  at  Canterbury 
was  a  tall  pyramid  ;  and  at  Ruth- 
well,  in  Scotland,  are  three  pieces 
of  an  ancient  and  curious  monu- 
ment of  this  kind,  overturned  and 
broken  by  order  of  the  General 
Assembly  in  1644.  Godric,  abbot 
of  Peterborough,  erected  a  cross  of 
stone  in  the  churchyard  where  the 
monks  were  buried,  who  fell  in  a 
conflict  with  the  Danes,  in  870, 
that  passengers  rnjght  pray  for  the 
souls  of  the  faithful  resting  there. 

Preaching  crosses,  or  stone  pul- 
pits, in  church  yards,  do  not  appear 
to  have  been  numerous  :  they  were 
sometimes  placed  contiguous  to 
monasteries;  of  which  the  cross  of 
the  black  friars,  or  friars  preachers, 
at  Hereford,  is  an  instance ;  its  form 
is  hexagonal,  open  on  each  side 

655 


CRO 


C  RO 


and  ascended  by  steps.  The  top  of 
the  pulpit  is  embattled,  and  the 
whole  finished  in  a  style  of  great 
elegance. 

The  octangular  building  at 
Shrewsbury,  near  the  abbey,  called 
St.  Winifred's  Pulpit,  is  a  hand- 
some building,  in  the  Gothic  style, 
and  esteemed  a  masterpiece  of  its 
kind ;  it  is  in  a  great  degree  similar 
to  that  at  Hereford. 

St.  Paul's  cross,  in  London, 
stood  nearly  in  the  middle  of  the 
churchyard  of  the  cathedral  church 
of  that  name,  and  was  standing 
when  Dugdale  wrote  his  history  :  it 
was  the  most  celebrated  erection  of 
this  kind  in  England ;  and  Stow 
informs  us,  that  it  was  "of  timber 
covered  with  lead,  mounted  upon 
steps  of  stone,  the  very  antiquity 
thereof  unknown ;  but,  (he  con- 
tinues) I  read,  that  in  the  year 
1259  king  Henry  III.  commanded 
a  general  assembly  to  be  made  at 
the  cross,  and  that  the  mayor  and 
aldermen  should  cause  to  be  sworn 
before  them,  every  stripling  of  twelve 
years  of  age,  or  upwards,  to  be 
true  to  the  king  and  his  heirs,  kings 
of  England.  Also  in  1262,  the 
same  king  caused  to  be  read,  at 
St.  Paul's  cross,  the  bull  of  Pope 
Urban  IV.  Also,  in  the  year  1299, 
the  dean  of  St.  Paul's  cursed,  at 
St.  Paul's  cross,  all  those  who  had 
searched  in  the  church  of  St.  Mar- 
tin's-in-the-Fields,  for  a  hoard  of 
gold." 

There  was  another  public  preach- 
ing cross  in  Spitalfields,  which  was 
destroyed  by  an  infuriated  mob  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation. 

Market  crosses  are  of  various 
forms,  and  originated  in  the  double 
purpose  of  inculcating  the  esta- 
blished religion,  and  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  commerce  of  the  town 
or  district  in  which  they  were 
placed.  These  erections  probably 
at  first  consisted  of  single  shafts, 


Surmounted  by  a  cross  :  they  m 
afterwards  made  of  greater  pro  r- 
tions,  and  arched  over  like  thos  u 
Cheddar,  Malmsbury,  and  oer 
places ;  or  "  with  intent  to  e:  te 
public  homage  to  the  religioi&f 
Christ  crucified,  and  to  inspire  m 
with  a  sense  of  morality  and  ]  < 
amidst  the  ordinary  transaction 
life they  were  raised  high,  d 
decorated  with  pinnacles,  nic  s, 
and  statues,  like  those  at  Wine  s' 
ter,  Bristol,  and  other  places. 

The  White  Friar's  cross  at  Hp- 
ford,  Coventry  cross  in  Wanvc- 
shire,  Gloucester  cross,  and  the  it 
Cheddar  in  Somersetshire,  arof 
this  description.  Also,  that  of 
Malmsbury,  described  byLelarns 
"  a  right  fair  and  costly  peacof 
worke,  made  all  of  stone,  curio  iy 
voulted  for  poore  market  folke  o 
stand  dry  when  rayne  cummi. 
There  be  8  great  pillars,  an  8 
open  arches ;  and  the  worke  8 
square.  One  great  pillar  in  :e 
middle  beareth  up  the  voulte.  e 
men  of  the  toune  made  this  pee 
of  work  in  hominum  memoi " 
But  the  most  beautiful  erectionf 
this  kind  is  that  at  Stourhead,  i- 
ginally  erected  at  the  junctionf 
four  streets  in  the  city  of  Britl, 
and  called  the  High  Cross.  It  is 
built  in  1373,  by  voluntary  cori- 
butions,  and  intended  to  perpeh  e 
the  memory  of  king  Edward  e 
Third,  who,  about  that  time,  d 
granted  the  first  charter  to  the  a. 
It^was  several  times  removed  fin 
the  place  it  originally  occupied,  d 
at  last  presented  by  Dean  Bain 
to  Mr.  Hoare,  of  Stourhead,  \o 
expended  about  £300  in  its  - 
moval,  and  re-erection  in  the  - 
lightful  gardens  at  that  place. 

The  most  beautiful  erections,  ;* 
nominated  Crosses  of  Memoii, 
are  those  built  by  king  Edward  e 
First,  at  the  places  where  the  by 
of  queen  Eleanor  rested.  Respt  - 


CRO 


CRY 


,,,  in  the  place  of  this  queen's  death, 
al  the  different  stations  at  which 
th  funeral  procession  halted,  histo- 
ric are  not  entirely  agreed  ;  but  the 
,  ral  belief  is,  that  she  died  at 

by,  in  Nottinghamshire,  in 
Member,  1290.  Of  the  memo- 
ri  crosses  that  remain,  the  most 

itiful  are,  that  at  Geddington, 
of)  triangular  form,  its  three  faces 

!ed  into  six  panels  each,  and 
pi'usely  ornamented  with  elegant 
srptures  :  the  second,  near  North- 
ai  .ton,  which  is  in  the  most  per- 

state,  is  octagonal,  approached 
DM^ht  steps,  and  placed  in  an  open 
"     cc'itrv ;   the  lowest  of  its  three 

es  has  eight  faces,  separated  by 
bi  resses,  each  face  having  a 
p<  ted  arch,  with  a  central  mul- 
li<  and  tracery,  and  crowned  with 

:fled  pediment:  and  the  third, 
,  'altham,  has  originally  been  the 
mlt  richly  ornamented,  and  of  a 
m  2   elegant   construction  than 

r  of  the  former,  but  it  is  in  a 
i  3  ruinous  condition.    It  has  six 

irmerly  crosses,  of  various 
kips,  were  very  numerous  in  this 
<  itry.  Pennant  mentions  360 
Q|ie  island  of  Iona,  all  of  which 
we  destroyed  by  the  indiscrimi- 
na  fury  of  the  religious  fanatics 
it  he  time  of  the  Reformation. 
Tl  original  purposes  of  these  erec- 
i<  i,  it  cannot  be  doubted,  were 

,  and  in  many  instances  in- 
I  teied  to  preserve  the  remem- 
br  ce  of  important  events,  and  as 
th  grateful  memorials  of  pious  and 
he  volent bequests  of  distinguished 
iiif'iduals,  who  wished  to  live  in 
th' grateful  recollections  of  suc- 
cc'ing  generations;  of  this  de- 
tection the  memorial  cross  of  the 

rated  painter  Martin  Hem- 
tkjhk,  is  a  pleasing  instance.  As 
a  i  morial  expressive  of  pious  gra- 
ht  e  to  Providence  for  ihc  riches 
wl  h  he  had  been  allowed  to 
40 


accumulate  by  his  industry,  and  to 
perpetuate  a  grateful  remembrance 
of  himself  in  the  breasts  of  poste- 
rity, he  ordered  that  a  copper  mo- 
numental cross  should  be  erected 
as  a  deed  of  settlement  of  a  certain 
sum  of  money,  to  be  paid  annually, 
as  a  marriage  dowry  to  a  young 
woman  of  the  village.  At  a  suc- 
ceeding period,  religious  feuds  arose;, 
and  all  the  crosses  of  the  district 
were  demolished,  except  this  of  the 
benevolent  painter,  where,  to  this 
day,  agreeable  to  the  express  con- 
ditions of  the  testament,  the  village 
maidens,  every  returning  year, 
dance  around  the  grave  of  Hem- 
skerck.  —  Brittoris  Architectural 
Antiquities. 

Cross-banded,  a  term  applied 
to  a  veneer  on  a  hand-rail,  the  grain 
of  which  crosses  that  of  the  rail. 

Cross-Beam,  a  large  beam  going 
from  wall  to  wall ;  or  a  girder  that 
holds  the  sides  of  the  house  to- 
gether. 

Cross-Vaulting,  a  common 
name  given  to  groins  and  cylindric 
vaults. 

Crow,  an  iron  bar  used  by  masons 
and  bricklayers. 

Crown,  {corona,  Lat.)  the  upper 
part  of  a  cornice,  including  the  co- 
rona. The  ornaments  on  the  key- 
stone of  an  arch,  called  also  a  con- 
sole. In  geometry,  the  term  crown 
is  given  to  a  plane  ring,  whose  sur- 
face is  contained  between  the  cir- 
cumferences of  two  concentric  cir- 
cles. A  crown  post,  called  also 
king  post,  or  joggle  post,  is  the  truss 
post  that  sustains  the  immediate 
bearing  of  the  principal  rafters  of  a 
roof.    See  Abacot. 

Ckypt,  (Latin,)  a  subterranean 
vault,  generally  beneath  ecclesiasti- 
cal edifices.  It  is  not  improbable 
that  crypts  originated  in  the  secret 
places  of  meeting  amongst  the  early 
Christians,  who  were  hindered  by 
their  persecutors  from  public  wor- 

G57 


C  U  N 


CUR 


ship.  It  is  remarkable  that  Rich- 
ard, prior  of  Hexham,  calls  the 
crypts  of  the  ancient  Anglo-Saxon 
churches,  "  chapels  and  oratories 
subterraneous,"  from  which  it  is 
evident  that  they  were  not  used  for 
sepulchres.  It  has  been  conjec- 
tured that  they  were  often  used 
for  sanctuaries.  They  were  often 
adorned  in  the  richest  style  of  archi- 
tecture. It  was  not  until  later 
times  that  they  were  used  for  places 
of  burial,  perhaps  in  imitation  of 
catacombs. 

Crypt  Porticus,  subterranean 
or  dark  passages  and  galleries  in 
the  Roman  villas,  often  used  as 
cool  sitting  rooms.  In  Pliny's  villa 
at  Laurentium,  the  crypt  porticus 
had  windows  on  each  side,  looking 
towards  the  sea,  and  the  gardens, 
which  misrht  be  shut  in  cold  weather. 

Cube,  (Kvfioc,  Gr.  a  die,)  a  solid 
of  six  equal  square  sides. 

Cubiculum,  (Lat.)  a  chamber. 
Pliny  makes  a  distinction  between 
the  cubiculum  and  the  dormitorium. 
The  name  was  given  also  to  the 
royal  pavilion  or  tent,  which  was 
built  in  the  circus  or  amphitheatre, 
for  the  reception  of  the  emperors. 

Cubit,  (cubitus,  Lat.)  an  an- 
cient measure,  equivalent  to  1  foot 
5.952  inch  English,  or  about  a  foot 
and  a  half.  According  to  Vitru- 
vius,  the  geometrical  cubit  equalled 
six  common  cubits. 

Cul- de-Four, a  French  term  ap- 
plied to  a  kind  of  low  spherical  vault. 

Culmen,  of  the  Romans,  was 
the  ridge-piece  of  the  roof. 

Culvert,  an  arched  drain  for 
the  conveyance  of  water  under  ca- 
nals or  roads,  or  for  discharging  the 
rain  water  from  hollows  on  the  up- 
per side  of  a  canal. 

Cunette,  or  Cuvette,  a  deep 
trench,  four  fathom  wide,  in  the 
middle  of  a  dry  moat,  to  obstruct 
the  enemy's  approach  to  a  forti- 
fied place, 

058 


Cuneus,  (Lat.  a  wedge)  \ 
part  of  the  Roman  theatre  w} 
the  spectators  sat. 

Cupola,  (It.)  a  dome.  See  Bo 

Curb,  a  noosing  of  oak  for  b 
steps,  to  prevent  the  bricks  f 
being  dislocated. 

Curb  Plate,  the  wall-plate ,f 
a  circular  or  elliptically  ribbed  d<!e 
also  the  horizontal  rib  at  top,  d 
the  circular  frame  of  a  well,  or  e 
plate  of  a  skylight,  are  thus  do- 
minated. 

Curb  Roof,  or  Mansard  m 
a  roof  formed  of  four  contigi  j 
plains,  each  two  having  an  exte  d 
inclination.  Its  principal  advance 
over  the  other  roofing,  is,  the  giyg 
more  space  to  the  upper  roorrnf 
the  house.  Curb  roofs  have  mo- 
rally dormer  windows  on  the  lo  r 
side.  The  upper  rafters  on  lh 
sides  are  called  the  curb  rafu 
and  the  horizontal  piece  of  tim 
at  the  junction  of  the  upper 
lower  rafters,  the  curb  plate. 
the  plates,  curb  roof,  Jig.  A  ia 
curb  roof  with  a  door  in  the  mite 
of  the  partition,  in  which  the  bm 
a  b  must  run  quite  across,  the  |i 
plate  must  be  tenoned  into  e 
beam  at  a  and  b,  and  the  story  \t 
ac  and  b  d  be  let  into  the  bin 
with  a  small  tenon,  as  it  shed 
project  about  an  inch  on  each  e 
of  the  beam.  Fig.  B  is  a  roof  I- 
culated  for  two  rooms  in  bread. 
The  other  plate  represents  the  c'.b 
or  mansard  roof,  as  executed  m 
Paris. 

Curator,  (Lat.)  the  name  gin 
to  the  Roman  surveyors  or  ins] 
tors  of  public  works. 

Curia,  (icvpta,  Gr.)  the  Ror 
council  house.  There  were  sev 
curise  in  the  city  and  empire. 
curia  municipalis,  or  domus  c; 
alis  appears  from  Vitruvius  to  li 
resembled  our  Guildhall.  The 
ria  dominicalis  was  a  court, 
manor  house. 


CUV 


CYC 


'ursor,  (Lat.)  the  point  of  a 
ben  compass  which  slides  up  and 
ddn;  the  part  of  a  proportional 

pass,  by  which  the  points  are 

0  any  given  ratio;  the  sliding 
n  s  of  ellipsographs,  &c. 

urtail  Step,  the  first  step  in 
a  air,  which  is  generally  finished 
inSrm  of  a  scroll. 

[jrtain,  (cortina,  Lat,)  that 
pJ  of  the  wall  of  a  fortification,  or 
ra'part,  which  lies  between  two 
b;  ions. 

crve,  (curvns,  Lat.)  a  line  that 
m  be  cut  by  a  straight  line  in 
m  e  points  than  one. 

i rvilin ear,  (curvus,  curved, 
h  a,  line,  Lat.)  bounded  by  curved 
pk 

1  sp,  (cuspis,  Lat.)  a  term  ap- 
p  J  by  Sir  James  Hall,  in  his  es- 
se on  the  origin  of  Gothic  archi- 
telure,  to  the  pendents  in  the 
G  hie  style.  Assembled,  they  form 
tr  lis,  quatrefoils,  &c. 

Custom-House,  a  public  build- 
ir  for  the  collection  of  duties  and 
ci  oms  upon  imported  or  exported 
pis.  The  finest  buildings  of  this 
k  !  are  that  of  Dublin,  designed 
b  Mr.  Gandon,  that  of  Bologna, 

Dominico  Tibaldi,  and  that  at 
L'don,  by  Mr.  Laing. 

it,  a  canal.  Brackets  are  cut 
w  ii  they  are  moulded  on  the  edge. 
A  ut  roof  is  a  truncated  one. 

i  tty  Stool,  in  the  Scottish 
k  s,  a  small  gallery  near  the  roof, 
pfited  black,  in  which  the  offend- 
tinst  chastity  are  obliged  to 
si  during  the  performance  of  the 
,  for  three  Sundays;  sub- 
je  (1  to  the  rebukes  of  the  minister, 
a:  obliged  to  profess  repentance. 

uviller,  Francois,  a  French 
an'tect,  born  at  Soissons  in  1698. 
Hdied  in  1760.  He  was  for  some 
li  ■  in  the  employ  of  the  elector  of 
ft  lich.  Many  plans  and  designs 
w  h  he  left  behind  him,  were  af- 
t<  ards  published  by  his  son,  Fran- 


cois Cuviller,  who  succeeded  his 
father  as  architect  at  Munich. 

Cycloguaph,  (jcvjc\o£,  a  circle, 
ypafpio,  I  describe,  Gr.)  an  instru- 
ment to  describe  the  arc  of  a  circle 
to  a  chord  or  versed  sine. 

Cycloid,  (kvkXoeiStiq,  Gr.)  the 
curve  formed  by  a  point  taken  in 
the  circumference  of  a  circle,  whilst 
the  circle  revolves  in  a  right  line. 

Cyclopean  Buildings  are  the 
most  ancient  specimens  of  mason- 
ry ;  the  character  of  which  is  "  im- 
mense blocks  of  stone  piled  upon 
each  other,  and  constituting  walls 
without  cement."  Mr.  Hamilton 
divides  the  specimens  of  this  mode 
of  building  into  four  aeras. 

Specimens  of  the  first  are  seen  at 
Tiryns,  and  at  Mycenae,  and  con- 
sist, of  blocks  of  various  sizes, 
which  have,  or  have  had,  smaller 
stones  in  their  interstices. 

At  Jul  is  and  Delphi,  a  second 
kind  is  seen,  distinguished  by  the 
use  of  polygonal  stones,  exactly 
fitted  into  each  other.  In  this 
mode  there  are  no  courses. 

Specimens  of  the  third  kind  are 
exhibited  in  Bceotia,  Argolis,  and 
the  Phocian  cities,  distinguished  by 
being  worked  in  courses  :  the  stones 
are  of  unequal  size,  but  all  of  the 
same  height. 

The  masonry  of  the  fourth,  and 
latest  sort,  is  of  stones  of  various 
heights,  and  always  rectangular. 
Specimens  of  this  description  are 
found  in  Attica. 

Among  learned  archaeologists  it 
is  a  prevalent  opinion,  that  the 
Titan  Celtee  were  of  the  same  race 
as  the  Cyclops,  who  built  the  cita- 
del of  Tiryns;  and  these  Celtse,  or 
Cyclops,  are  said,  by  Pliny,  to  have 
been  the  inventors  of  the  fortifica- 
tions of  towns,  the  first  improve- 
ment upon  earthworks,  in  military 
architecture ;  of  which,  according 
to  Sir  William  Gell,  and  other 
writers,  Tiryns  remains  the  oldest 


C  Y  L 


C  Y  L 


and  most  perfect  specimen.  Homer 
calls  it  Tipivda  rtv)Q.Qi.oaav. 

Towns  were  originally  fortresses, 
to  which  the  rustics  fled  for  protec- 
tion when  the  enemy  invaded  the 
country,  bringing  with  them  their 
flocks  and  herds,  which  were  either 
driven  within  the  walls,  or  occupied 
the  vallum,  which  soon  began  to 
form  an  appendage  to  these  military 
works. 

The  lions  over  the  gate  of  My- 
cenae, are  the  only  known  speci- 
mens of  the  sculpture  of  the  heroic 
ages.  The  heads  of  these  figures 
are  wanting.  They  are  placed 
in  the  rampant  position;  their 
hind  feet  on  the  architrave  of  the 
gate,  and  their  fore-paws  resting 
upon  a  short  column,  rising  from 
the  centre  of  the  architrave,  and 
supporting  another  column,  the 
shaft  of  which  tapers  from  the 
base,  which  is  a  double  torus;  the 
echinus  of  its  capital  is  ornamented 
with  three  annulets,  considerably 
distant  from  each  other.  The 
abacus  is  of  the  Doric  order,  above 
which  four  balls  or  circles  support 
a  second  abacus.  They  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  derived  from 
the  worshipof  Mithras,  the  lion  being 
the  symbol.  Balls,  and  the  spiral 
pillars,  which,  in  all  hieroglyphics, 
signify  water,  are  found  in  the  trea- 
sury of  Atreus,  at  Micenae,  and  at 
Persepolis.  The  triangular  form  of 
the  stone  above  the  doors  at  Myce- 
nse  had  a  particular  signification  :  it 
was  a  mysterious  figure  among  the 
Egyptians.  Diodorus  informs  us, 
that  Cambyses,  who  lived  in  the 
sixth  century  before  Christ,  not 
only  took  ornaments,  but  even 
artists,  from  Egypt,  to  adorn  his  pa- 
lace at  Persepolis;  and  it  is  ascer- 
tained that  these  came  from  Thebes, 
which,  by  the  Egyptians,  was  called 
the  City  of  the  Sun.  The  Cyclops 
worshipped  fire,  Vulcan,  and  the 
sun ;  and  it  is  supposed  that  the 

660 


lion  might  be  the  national  syn  >] ; 
but.  according  to  Dr.  Clarke  he 
figures  understood  to  repr 
lions,  were  in  reality  pantheior 
tigers,  which  were  the  mo;e  a|  n 
priate  emblems  of  the  mytholo!|ot 
these  people,  among  whom  j 
symbols  formed  the  hiera  a  he 
gates  of  holy  places,  before  vlch 
the  people  worshipped  :  there 
the  courts  of  justice  were  held  on 
which  account  it  was  necessar\  ;lit 
there  should  be  an  open  pUj 
court  in  front  of  the  propria. 
The  gate  at  Mycense  is  strik  iv 
illustrative  of  this  account,  ai  of 
numerous  passages  of  scrip  re. 
See  Ezek.  xlvi.  1,2,  3,  &c. 

The  markets  were  also  he  in 
those  places,  and  hence  the  vie  n 
to  each  other,  of  the  forum,  be 
senate-house,  and  the  has -a. 
Stewart  observes  of  the  temp  at 
Corinth,  that  the  shafts  ot he 
columns  are  of  one  block,  and  at 
the  diminution  begins  from  he 
bottom  :  and  this  diminution,  id 
an  abacus  of  the  Doric  order,  our- 
ring  in  this  column  between  he 
lions,  leads  to  the  belief,  that  thigh 
the  pattern  might  originate  in 
Egypt,  yet  that  the  Doric  (er 
arising  from  it  might  also  b< he 
first  advance  in  Greece  from  J  y- 
clopean  rudeness  to  ornameed 
workmanship;  this  pillar  beinshe 
first  known  Greek  Doric  patteri  to 
which,  as  far  as  is  known,  succeed 
that  at  Corinth.  It  is  not  doued 
that  the  supposed  Cyclops  m 
Celts,  and  it  is  remarkable  tha  lie 
postern  gate  of  Mycense  is  irjhe 
form  of  one  of  the  trilithor  ot 
Stonehenge  ;  that  the  Cyclops  M- 
shipped  the  sun,  whose  tempi' in 
Britain,  is  that  celebrated  renM, 
as  is  stated  by  Diodorus;  tha  us 
name  of  choir  gaur>  or  chore^n- 
gantium,  from  giants,  is  synly- 
mous  with  Cyclops;  that  an jn- 
cient  bulwark,  near  one  of  the  $M 


C  Y  L 


C  YL 


0f  e  Grecian  Thebes,  resembles 
Oldparum,  or  Sorbiodunum ;  that 
chr ilechs  have    been    found  in 
Gre'e;  and  that  the  Roman  Drui- 
diciuse  of  the  Greek  alphabet  has 
bee  confirmed  by  the  Athenian 
coirf   found    in    excavations  at 
'  Chiiam,  as  stated  in  Gosling's 
Wa  to  Canterbury.  Numerous 
nstances  occur  of  conformity 
:t\jen  the  ancient  British  or  Cel- 
d  Cvclopean,  or  most  ancient 
Greta  architecture;  but  these  are 
suffent  to  identify  their  origin. 

I  lv,  at  Ausidonia,  and  Satur- 
Diaji  the  Siamese  towns  anterior 
to  tl  founding  of  Rome,  fine  speci- 
mer  of  the  Cyclopean  style  are . 
;  and  at  the  old  Lycosures  in 
ia,  the  primary  town  and 
metpolis,  from  whence  all  the 
colces  of  Italy  were  derived. — 
Seel,cropo!is. 

□under,  (KvXivSpov,  Gr.)  a 
solu  figure  whose  base  is  a  circle, 
and  .vhose  curved    superficies  is 
•    i  where  at  an  equal  distance 
fron  he  axis,  or  line  supposed  to 
pass'Lhrough  the  middle.    It  is 
tern'' I  a  right  cylinder  when  the 
axis  at  right  angles  to  the  base  ; 
ei  but  fat  oblique  angles  a  scaline 
ll  or  cique  cylinder.    The  solidity 
of  a  cylinder  may  be  found  by 
Bulilying  the  area  of  its  end  by 
the  arallel  distance  between  the 
two  jds.    The  area  of  its  curved 
surf'i  may  be  found  bv  multiply- 
-  ?  girt  of  the  cylinder  by  the 
i  leng:  of  the  axis.    The  cylinder 
rmerly  considered  as  a  sacred 
forn  >articularly  amongst  the  east- 
lions.    The  deities  were  often 
figuil  as  cylinders  of  wrought  or 
w  ight  stone. 

C'.indric  Ceiling,  vulgarly 
a  waggon-headed  ceiling, 
a  ee'ig  vaulted  in  the  shape  of  a 

gn  it  of  a  cylinder.  They  ap- 
pear o  be  not  more  ancient  than 

:  ie  of  the  Romans,  who  used 


them  in  small  temples,  and  in  the 
side  branches  of  larger  ones.  Cy- 
lindrical ceilings  admit  of  being 
pierced  by  lunettes,  which  form 
cylindro-cylindric  arches.  They 
should  be  decorated  with  coffers, 
separated  by  soffits,  and  enriched 
with  guilloches. 

Cylindric  Dome.  The  follow- 
ing rules  will  serve  to  find  the  area 
of  cylindric  domes.  (1.)  To  find 
the  area  of  a  uniform  cylindric 
triangle,  multiply  the  radius  by  the 
length  of  the  axis.  (2.)  To  find 
the  area  of  a  surbassed  cylindric 
triangle,  multiply  the  sum  of  the 
square  of  half  the  horizontal  axis  of 
the  directing  section,  and  six  times 
the  square  of  the  height  of  the 
dome,  by  the  length  of  the  axis  of 
the  cylindric  surface,  and  divide 
the  product  by  seven  times  the 
height  of  the  dome.  (3.)  To  find 
the  area  of  a  surmounted  cylindric 
triangle,  multiply  the  sum  of  the 
square  of  half  the  horizontal  axis 
of  the  directing  section,  and  four 
times  the  square  of  the  height  of 
the  dome,  by  the  length  of  the  axis 
of  the  cylindric  surface,  and  divide 
the  product  by  five  times  the  height 
of  the  dome.  (4.)  Having  found 
the  area  of  one  of  the  two  equal 
and  opposite  cylindric  triangles  of 
each  cylindric  surface,  add  them  to- 
gether, and  double  the  sum  ;  the  pro- 
duct will  be  the  area  of  the  dome. 

For  an  example,  it  is  required  to 
find  the  area  of  a  uniform  and  sur- 
mounted cylindric  dome,  (Cylin- 
dric Dome,  Plate  I.)  the  length 
of  which  is  20  feet,  and  its  breadth 
12  feet.  In  this  dome  the  diameter 
of  the  circular  directing  section  will 
be  20  feet,  being  equal  to  the  length 
of  the  dome,  and  the  horizontal 
axis  of  the  directing  section  of  the 
surmounted  section  will  be  12  feet, 
being  equal  to  the  breadth  of  the 
dome.  But  the  height  of  the  two 
cylindric  circles  being  equal,  the 

6GI 


horizontal  axis  of  the  directing 
section  of  the  surmounted  surface 
will  be  less  than  the  diameter  of 
the  circular  directing  section.  Since 
the  height  of  the  dome  is  equal  to 
the  radius  of  the  circular  directing 
section  of  the  uniform  surface,  it 
will  be  6  feet.  Therefore,  by  (1) 
10  x  12  =  120  triangle  CEa; 
by  (3) 


6 

10 

6 

10 

36 

~ioo 

400 

4 

436 

400 

20 

5,0J872.0 


174-4  t=  triangle  cea. 
By  rule  (4)    120  x=  triangle  CEa. 

174-4  zz  triangle  cea. 


294-4 
2 


588  8  =  area  of  dome. 
Find  the  area  of  a  surbassed  cy- 
lindric  full  dome,  (Plate  II.)  the 
length  of  which  is  20  feet,  the 
breadth  12,  and  the  height  4. 
Here  both  angles  fall  under  rule  (2.) 


10 
10 

Too 

96 

196 
12 

7)2352 


4 
4 

16 

6 

96 


6 
6 

36 
96 

132 
20 

4)2640 

7)660 


CE  a. 


94-28  =  cea. 
By  rule  (4)  84       =  CEa. 

94.28  =  cea. 


178-28 
2 


356-56  —areaof  dome. 

END  OF  VOL.  I. 


Cylindroid,  a  solid  whichp. 
proaches  the  form  of  a  cyljler 
differing  from  it  in  having  the  1 
elliptical,  but  parallel  and  < 
Its  solidity  may  be  found, 
that  of  the  cylinder,  by  multip  fg 
the  area  of  one  of  the  ends,  b  he 
distance  between  the  two.  Itss^r- 
ficial  content  also  is  found  b;  he 
same  means  as  that  of  the  cyli  er. 

Cyma,  (Kvfia,  Gr.)  an  unduly 
moulding,  which  is  generally  he 
upper  one  of  a  cornice,  wher  is 
called  cymatium.  The  cyma  \:ta 
is  composed  of  a  concave  andiw- 
vex  moulding,  the  former  beinjip- 
permost.  In  the  cyma  reverse 
convex  is  uppermost.  The  rm 
gula  is  sometimes  used  for  cyt 

Cymatium,  (kv/jkitiov,  Gr.  he 
upper  moulding  of  a  cornice,  im- 
posed generally  of  a  cyma.  Che 
three  kinds  of  cymatia  mention  by 
Vitruvius,  the  Tuscan  is  suppof  to 
have  been  an  ovolo  orquarter-r  nd 
the  Doric  an  ovolo  or  cavetto  nd 
the  Lesbian  the  cyma  inversa. 
Cymbia,  a  fillet. 
Cypress,  (cupressus,  Lat.)lie 
wood  of  the  cypress  was  m 
valued  by  the  ancient  architec  for 
its  hardness  and  durability,  pi 
door-posts  of  the  temple  of  am 
laus,  as  described  in  Homer,  ere 
of  cypress. 

Cyzigenus,  (kv^ikoq,  Gj  I 
magnificent  hall  among  the  Gi  b, 
much  resembling  the  Roman  cia- 
culuw..  Vitruvius  describes  he 
cyzicenus  as  being  situated  tovrds 
the  north,  generally  having  a 
of  the  garden,  and  having  y 
windows  in  the  middle,  as  bei 
sufficient  length  and  breadt 
contain  two  triclinia,  with 
appendages,  opposite  each  opj 
their  height  being  equal  to  on<  nd 
one-half  of  their  breadth. 


662 


THE   HOME  CYCLOPEDIA. 


CYCLOPEDIA 

OF 

ARCHITECTURE, 

HISTORICAL,  DESCRIPTIVE,  TOPOGRAPHICAL,  DECORATIVE, 
THEORETICAL  AND  MECHANICAL, 

A.  2ABETI0ALLY  ARRANGED,  FAMILIARLY  EXPLAINED,  AND  ADAPTED  TO  THE 
COMPREHENSION  OF  WORKMEN,  ETC.,  ETC. 

BY 

ROBERT  STUART, 

AECHITECT    AND    CIVIL  ENGINEER. 


TWO   VOLUMES   IN   ONE.  VOL.  II. 


NEW  YORK: 
A.  S.  BARNES  &  CO.,  51  JOHN-STREET. 

CINCINNATI:  —  II.  W.  DERBY. 
1854. 


DICTIONARY  OF  ARCHITECTURE 


DAG 

IADO,(Ital.  a  die)  the  square  or 
subiform  part  of  the  pedestal  of 
a  cumn,  or  the  walls  of  an  apart- 
mei  In  Egyptian  buildings,  we 
soir  imes  find  columns  whose  capi- 
tals re  composed  entirely  of  one 
die  r  cube  of  stone.  The  die  is 
<oii  only  covered  with  ornamental 
hist  ical  sculptures,  in  monumen- 
tal, onorary,  or  commemorative 
coli  ns ;  such  as  the  London 
moment,  and  the  pillars  of  Tra- 
jan d  Antonine.    See  Attic. 

I goung,  or  Shoedagon,  tem- 
ple \  in  the  eastern  language,  the 
tcm  2  of  golden  Dagon  ;  an  edifice 
mo  two  miles  and  a  half  north  of 
Kunon,  the  moot  considerable 
sea-  rt  of  the  Birman  empire  :  it 
is  r  so  high  as  the  temple  at 
iV-r ,  or  Shoemadoe,  by  25  or  30 
betj)ut  the  terrace  on  which  it  is 
uuil  rowns  a  rocky  eminence  much 
Kn  than  any  part  of  the  sur- 
roin  ng  country,  it  is  approached 
■  fliundred  steps,  and  the  spire 
and  me  other  parts  of  it  are  richly 
gdt,  irhich  when,  illuminated  by 


DAI 

the  rays  of  the  sun,  is  seen  at  a 
great  distance,  forming  a  most  con- 
spicuous and  splendid  object.  The 
borders  of  the  terrace vare  planted 
with  rows  of  shady  trees,  and  the 
widely  extended  prospect  of  the 
surrounding  country  is  highly  in- 
teresting. 

Dairy,  (from  dey  milk,  old 
English)  apartments  fitted  up  for 
the  preservation  and  management 
of  milk,  and  the  manufacture  of 
butter  and  cheese.  The  dairy 
should  always  be  kept  in  the 
neatest  order,  and  so  situated  that 
the  windows,  or  lattices,  neither 
front  the  south,  south-east,  nor 
south-west :  lattices  are  also  to  be 
preferred  to  windows,  admitting  a 
free  current  of  air  ;  an  oiled  paper 
blind  on  a  wooden  frame  may  be 
fitted  to  the  lattice,  and  used  occa- 
sionally as  a  protection  against  ex- 
tremes of  rainy  or  windy  weather, 
or  the  heat  of  the  sun.  A  dairy 
house  cannot  be  kept  too  cool  in 
summer ;  and  on  this  account  a 
good  spring  or  current  of  water 


DAM 


DAY 


ought  to  be  near  it.  It  should 
be  neatly  paved,  with  smooth  hard 
stone,  or  good  brick ;  laid  with  a 
proper  descent,  so  that  no  water 
may  lodge.  This  pavement  should 
be  washed  every  day  in  summer, 
and  all  the  utensils  kept  quite  clean. 
The  size  of  the  dairy  will  depend 
on  the  number  of  cows  ;  a  dairy- 
house  in  Gloucester,  for  forty  cows, 
is  usually  20  by  16  feet,  and  30 
by  40  feet  for  TOO  cows.  A  well- 
constructed  cheese-dairy  should  con- 
tain four  rooms:  one  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  milk ;  another  for  the 
press  room  ;  a  third  to  salt  and 
finish  the  cheese,  and  a  fourth  on 
the  highest  part  of  the  building, 
for  a  warehouse. 

The  butter  dairy  will  require 
three  apartments :  the  milk-room ; 
the  churning-room,  with  the  ne- 
cessary apparatus ;  and  a  room  for 
the  various  utensils. 

Dam,  (Demman,  Sax).  A  mole 
or  fence  to  confine  water,  for  a 
reservoir  for  mills,  and  other  pur- 
poses ;  it  should  be  built  with 
stones  in  the  strongest  style  of 
masonry.  The  usual  mode  of  con- 
struction on  large  streams  is  a 
straight  line  passing  obliquely  a- 
cross,  from  bank  to  bank,  in  some 
degree  dividing  the  force  of  the 
current  between  the  two  sides  of  a 
triangle,  one  side  of  which  is  the 
bank  of  the  river  or  brook ;  but 
the  more  improved  method  is  to 
build  the  dam  in  two  lengths,  which 
meet  and  form  an  angle,  whose 
vertex  is  pointed  up  the  stream  ; 
and  a  yet  more  improved  construc- 
tion is  the  segment  of  a  circle,  in 
form  of  an  arched  bridge,  with  its 
head  opposed  to  the  stream,  and 
its  abutments  against  the  banks. 

Damascus,  see  Arabian  Archi- 
tecture. 

Dampness,  is  said  to  prevail 
most  in  buildings  finished  hastily ; 
because  the  materials  which  com- 

4 


pose  the  walls  having  neveriteen 
dry,  conform  themselves  to  th  hu- 
midity of  the  soil,  which  hup! 
rising,  in  a  regular  current,  '  ca- 
pillary attraction,  never  alloi  the 
possibility  of  the  walls  afteJLy 
becoming  dry.  A  complete  iver 
of  powdered  charcoal  mixeuith 
pitch,  or  rosin,  and  powdert  pit- 
coal,  laid  over  one  of  the  e  rse> 
of  the  wall  near  the  foundatic  will 
remedy  this  evil. 

Dan  kali,  see  Abyssinian  ■  ild- 
incfs. 

Danube.  If  no  other  cilum- 
stance  had  given  importar  to 
this  magnificent  river,  the  reat 
bridge,  thrown  across  it  by  1  jan, 
would  have  made  it  sufficntly 
remarkable.  "  Trajan,"  says  )ion 
Cassius,  "  built  a  bridge  ov.  the 
Danube,  which  in  truth  we  <  mot 
sufficiently  admire;  for  thou  all 
the  works  of  Trajan  are  exceetfl 
great,  yet  this  is  the  greatest.  The 
piers  were  20  in  number,  eacil50 
feet  high,  60  feet  in  breadtland 
distant  from  each  other  171'eet. 
The  expense  of  this  work  lust 
have  been  very  great,  and  tl  un- 
dertaking was  more  difficult  j  ac- 
count of  the  river  being  very  pid, 
and  its  bottom  of  moveable  Ae- 
rials ;  it  was  in  the  narrowest!] 
of  the  river?  and  on  that  ac  unt 
deeper  and  more  impetuous.  The 
arches  were  afterwards  beaten  )wn 
by  Adrian  ;  but  the  piers  y  re- 
main, as  if  to  testify  that  th|e  is 
nothing  which  human  ingemy  is 
not  able  to  effect.  The  iole 
length  of  this  bridge  was  590 
yards." 

Days,  or  Bays,  in  Gothic  pfl 
tecture,  the  compartments  fcned 
in  tall  windows  by  the  inters^'.on 
of  a  mullion,  which  of  one  km 
window  makes  two  narrow  on  ,  to 
each  of  which  the  name  of  da  has 
been  given,  and,  by  the  succpi 
introduction  of  additional  muW 


DEC 


DEC 


veryarge  windows  have  been  form 


e(j  j;o  six,  seven,  and  even  nine 
day!  See  A  ng le,  Bar,  and  Gothic 
Ardtecture, 

i  \ fen i ng  sound  boarding,  a 
met  d  of  preventing  the  passage  of 
soui  through  wooden  partitions. 

See  Utgging- 

Ials,  the  wood  of  the  fir  tree, 
t-  vich  this  name  is  given  when 
wt  o  planks,  or  thin  boards,  and 
pieC:  of  various  descriptions  for 
buil  ig  and  other  purposes  :  white 
:  Slow  are  the  two  sorts  generally 
ise<  A-hich  are  brought  to  England 
i  n  Norway,  Prussia,  and  Russia. 
D  ,\  of  various  lengths,  and  three 
inch  thick,  are  kept  on  hand  by 

t  the  London    timber  merchants, 
eadthof  which  varies, but  sel- 
don exceeds  nine  inches.  These 

lit'. tie  It  into  boards  or  leaves;  those 
diviid  into  two  are  called  whole 

i  dealnto  four  slit  deal,  and  into  five, 
S  e-  it  stuff".  Deals  are  made  harder 

mli  by  ing  thrown  into  salt  water 
as  s  n  as  they  are  sawn,  and  dry- 
ing em  in  the  air  after  they  have 
;  rem;ied  in  the  water  several  days; 
but  not  well  seasoned  they  will  be 
liabho  shrink  after  remaining  some 
time.^xposed  to  the  action  of  a 
chai  ng  atmosphere.  In  floors, 
partpns,  doors,  windows,  archi- 
trav  mouldings, cornices, columns, 
pilars,  chimney  pieces,  and  in 
piainnd  ornamental  work  of  every 
desotion,  this  kind  of  wood  is  uni- 
verse preferred.  For  inside  work, 
in  l.l-rooms,  and  for  panels,  the 
whitl  deal  is  more  particularly 
adaj  d ;  and  the  yellow,  being 
hare  ,  and  retaining  a  large  por- 
tion '  resinous  substance,  is  better 
fitte'.o  resist  the  effect  of  the  wea- 
ther,; out-door  work. 
D:agon,  (Gr.  SeKayujvog),  a 

plan  figure,  having  ten  sides  and 
angl. 

D:astyle,  (Gr.  hKa<f^v\og), 
*  po  co,  temple,  or  other  building, 


with  ten  columns  in  front,  as  in  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Olympus. 

Decempeda,  (decern,  ten,  and 
pes,  foot,  Lat.),  a  rod  of  ten  feet, 
used  by  the  ancients  in  measuring. 
It  was  subdivided  into  twelve  inches 
in  each  foot,  and  ten  digits  in  each 
inch  ;  and  is  mentioned  by  archi- 
tects in  reference  to  the  proportions 
and  dimensions  of  their  buildings. 

Decimal  (from  the  Lat.  deci- 
mus)  increasing  by  tens. 

Decimal  Scale.  Scales  of  this 
kind  are  used  by  draftsmen,  to  re- 
gulate the  dimensions  <  f  their  draw- 
ing*?; they  are  generally  of  the  de- 
nomination of  i  inch,  in  which  every 
i  of  an  inch  is  divided  into  ten  parts, 
or  of  half  inch,  &c.  so  divided.  A 
pair  of  proportional  compasses  may 
be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  and 
will  always  be  found  more  accurate 
and  expeditious. 

Declination,  of  the  Doric 
mutules.    See  Mutule. 

Decoration.  Any  thins;  that 
enriches  or  gives  beauty  to  a  church, 
triumphal  arch,  or  other  building. 
The  orders  of  architecture  con- 
tribute greatly  to  decoration,  for 
which  purpose  their  just  pro- 
portions and  characters  must  be 
strictly  preserved.  Paintings,  vases, 
festoons,  and  images,  are  used  in 
churches;  particularly  in  Italy,  on 
solemn  festivals.  Theatrical  deco- 
rations are  changeable,  and  suited 
to  the  varying  scenes;  and  the  splen- 
did embellishments  of  princely  pa- 
laces call  forth  the  exertions,  and 
preserve  the  works,  of  the  first  artists 
of  the  age  to  which  they  belong.  In 
the  decoration  of  the  walls  of  the 
apartments  of  common  dwelling- 
houses,  paper  hangings  of  various 
descriptions  have  been  chiefly  used; 
or  plain  colours  have  been  applied 
to  the  walls;  or  they  have  been  fi- 
gured with  various  devices.  A  pa- 
tent taken  out  in  1 806  by  R.  Clarke 
and  T.  Fricker  for  a  method  of  de- 

5 


DEN 


DEN 


jorating  rooms  with  flocks  of  woollen 
cloth ,  or  of  silk  or  of  cotton  cut 
short;  which  is  fastened  to  the  wall 
by  means  of  the  following  composi- 
tion, called  by  the  inventors,  a  mas- 
tic ;  one  gallon  of  linseed  oil,  one  gal- 
lon of  spirit  of  turpentine,  and  one  lb. 
jf  gum  anime,  boiled  to  the  consis- 
tence of  tar.  The  wall  is  brushed 
over  with  this  composition,  and  the 
flocks,  finely  cut,  made  to  adhere  by 
blowing  through  a  tube  with  a  pair 
of  bellows;  the  flocks  dyed  of  an 
uniform  colour,  and  a  similar  colour 
previously  put  on  the  wall ;  and  if 
the  composition  be  laid  on  the  wall 
in  the  form  of  flowers  or  foliage,  or 
other  figures,  the  flocks  will  be  made 
to  adhere  upon  these  alone. 

Decuman  Gate.    See  Castra. 

Deliqui^e,  (Lat.)  a  term  used 
by  Vitruvius,  to  designate  the  raf- 
ters which  formed  the  ridge  of  the 
roof,  and  threw  the  water  on  each 
side. 

Delos,  (Gr.)  an  island  in  the 
jEgean  sea,  celebrated  for  the  num- 
ber and  excellence  of  its  artists, 
and  its  famous  temple  dedicated  to 
Apollo,  and  its  magnificent  statue 
of  Jupiter  Tonans,  of  fine  Delian 
bronze.    See  Altar. 

Delphos,  an  ancient  city  of 
Phocis,  in  Greece,  celebrated  for 
its  temple,  in  which  was  the  Cor- 
tina, or  mystic  tripod.    See  Arch. 

Delubrium,  (Lat.)  the  most 
sacred  part  of  ancient  temples. 

Demi-Metope,  the  half  of  a 
metope,  which  is  found  at  the  re- 
tiring or  projecting  angles  of  a  Doric 
frieze. 

Dendera,  a  village  of  Egypt ; 
about  a  mile  and  a  half  to  the 
west  of  which,  and  half  an  hour's 
ride  from  the  river  Nile,  are  the 
magnificent  mins  of  the  ancient 
Tentyra,  from  which  it  takes  its 
name.  The  ruins  occupy  more  than 
a  mile  in  length,  and  in  breadth 
about  half  a  mile. 

6 


«  The  first  thing,"  says  D  Rj. 
chardson,  "  that  attracts  the  ;  0f 
the  traveller,  is  a  small  itaj 
stone  building  with  four  colpj 
constructed  of  the  same  spet ;  j 
sand-stone  as  the  temple,  an  . 
bably  connected  with  it  forfe 
gious  purposes.  Advancing  s 
hundred  yards  over  brick  ruii  v,( 
come  to  an  elegant  gatewa  or 
propylon,  also  of  sand-stone,  imi 
pletely  covered  with  hierogly  ietf 
Immediately  over  the  centre'  the 
door-way  is  the  beautiful  Esr.ian 
ornament  of  the  globe,  wit  the 
serpent  and  wings.  To  thi; 
ceed  representations  of  Osiris  sis, 
and  Orus,  with  processid  of 
priests  and  people  advanci;  to 
pay  their  homage,  and  present  leir 
offerings  on  their  knees.  A  an- 
cing  about  a  hundred  pact  m 
arrive  at  the  celebrated  and  bin 
ful  temple  of  Dendera  ;  its  fi  t  is 
covered  with  a  vast  profusi  of 
ornaments,  the  door  lofty, j/ith 
perpendicular  sides,  on  ea  1 
which  are  three  massive  col  ins, 
capitalled  with  heads  of  Isis,  ua- 
drifrons.  The  Vulture,  queen  the 
air,  (sacred  to  Isis  or  June  the 
guardian  genius  of  the  king  md 
heroes  of  Egypt,)  with  outs  M 
wings  and  a  broad  feathered  ep- 
tre,  held  by  a  ring  in  eacluot, 
begins  and  ends  the  magn  ent 
assemblage  of  sculptures, 
extend  over  the  walls  of  the 
naos.  On  each  hand  are 
rows  of  columns,  three  in  each 
in  all  eighteen  ;  of  the  form  of 
of  the  portico,  and  with  s 
capitals,  and  covered  with  hie 
phics.  Similar  columns  are  rim 
on  either  side  as  we  enter  the  *Jj 
pie,  which  is  choked  up  withpj 
and  stones  :  two  succeeding  i  m 
ments  are  without  pillars,  biw 
walls  of  all  are  profusely  decor 
and  from  the  last,  several 
sages  branch  off,  leading  to  M 


ed; 
►as- 


DEN 


DEN 


:  SOIn  side-chambers,  ornamented 
l! ' withiffures,  and  stars,  and  hiero- 

1    ,     e_  1  „    cnrt  nf  r»Vinin-wnrl< 


a,on 


cs,  and  a  sort  of  chain-work 
the  ceiling-,  which  is  blue.— 
ding  in  a  direct  line,  we 
a  spacious  chamber,  in  the 
t  of  which  is  the  sanctuary  ; 

f these  apartments  are  richly 
fated.  Returning  towards  the 
,  we  had  left  behind  us,  we 
1  an  easy  flight  of  stairs  lead- 
I  the  top  of  the  building; 
ar  ornaments,   and  a  more 
succession  of  figures,  crowd 
compartment,  and  continue 
top,  which  is  an  extensive 
i covered  with  the  remains  of 
r  numous  cottages   in  a  state  of 
ruin  beyond  which  is  the  entrance 
to  tl  upper  chamber  of  the  tem- 
.  The    figures   here    are  of 
*  enla!ed  dimensions — some  in  gor- 
:  .    apparel,  others  naked.  This 
I  mf!  is  by  far  the  finest  in  Egypt ; 
the  >vices  are  most  intellectual, 
and  he  execution    superior.  A 
hi^h  ornamented  chapel  is  seen 
»neaihe  northern  extremity;  and  a 
■  sere,  of  a  similar  description,  is 
on.  that  ilied  by  Strabo,  the  Typho- 
s or  niunt  The  distorted  head  of  the 
nglwyphon  forms  the  capitals  of 
ft  the  liars,  and  his  graceless  form 
Ik  ippls  on  its  walls. 
i;s    B':oni  inferred,  from  the  supe- 
riori  of  the  workmanship,  that 
uiti  this  i  pie  was  of  the  time  of  the 
first  tolemy  :  the  style  of  the  ar- 
chit(  ure  bears  little  resemblance 
iir  to  di  Roman  works;  but  it  ap- 
pear to  have  undergone  repairs 
and  corations  at  successive  peri- 
ods jwn  to  the  time  of  the  Anto- 
wnel  The  hieroglyphics  on  the 
tall  T  the  temple  itself,  are  found 
to  cilain  the  names  of  Tiberius 
and  ugustus  ;  and  the  Greek  in- 
ttrirhn  over  the  entrance  to  the 
Pfoi  )s,   states   it   to  have  been 
Wecjl  by  the  inhabitants  of  the 
Non  when  Publius  Avillius  Flac- 


cus  was  prefect  of  Egypt,  about 
A.  D.  34.  Another  inscription  on 
one  of  the  propylons  of  the  temple 
of  Isis,  bears  date  the  31st  year  of 
the  reign  of  Augustus,  A.  D.  23  ; 
and  Mr.  Salt  observed  in  different 
parts  of  these  temples  the  names  of 
Trajan,  Adrian,  and  the  Anto- 
nines. 

Dendrometer,  (Gr.)  an  instru- 
ment adapted  to  the  purpose  of 
measuring  trees. 

Dentels,  or  Dentils,  are  or- 
naments in  a  cornice  in  the  form  of 
indentations  or  teeth  ;  this  member 
is  called  a  denticule,  or  a  denticu- 
lated band;  which,  according  to 
Vitruvius,  is  to  equal  the  height 
of  the  middle  fascia  of  the  archi- 
trave, and  its  projection  to  be.  the 
same  as  its  height ;  of  which  the 
dentils  are  one  half,  and  the  inter- 
vals between  them  two-thirds  of  the 
height.  This  ornament  is  chiefly 
found  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 
orders,  but  it  is  not  made  confor- 
mable to  any  regular  proportions. 
They  are  exhibited  in  the  Ionic 
temples  of  Bacchus  at  Teos,  and 
Minerva  Polias  at  Priene  ;  the  tem- 
ples of  Fortune  and  Concord,  and 
the  theatre  of  Marcellus  at  Rome, 
and  the  aqueduct  of  Adrian  at 
Athens. 

Instances  of  this  ornament  in 
the  Jorinthian  order  are  found  in 
the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  the 
arch  of  Adrian,  and  the  ruins  of 
Salonica ;  the  temples  of  Peace, 
and  of  Jupiter  Stator ;  and  the 
baths  of  Dioclesian,  and  the  piazza 
of  Nerva,  at  Rome  ;  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  at  Spalatro,  and  in  the 
ruins  of  Balbec  and  Palmyra.  The 
frontispiece  to  the  Tower  of  the 
Winds ;  and  trie  portico  of  the 
temples  of  Pandrossus  at  Athens  ; 
the  Arch  of  the  Goldsmiths,  of  Sep- 
timius  Severus,  and  that  of  Titus  at 
Rome,  are  instances  of  the  Compo- 
site order  with  the  denticulated  band. 

7 


D  ES 


D  ES 


This  ornament  is  frequently  omitted 
in  all  the  orders.    See  Cartouch. 

Depot,  a  military  store-house, 
with  conveniences  for  the  reception 
and  training  of  recruits:  an  edifice 
for  this  purpose  should  be  strongly 
fortified,  and  contain  numerous  a- 
partments,  the  lowest  tier  of  which 
should  be  below  the  ground-floor, 
for  provisions  requiring  to  be  kept 
from  sun  and  air;  artillery  and 
ordnance  stores  are  on  the  ground- 
floor,  the  walls  of  which  support 
battens  of  wood,  against  which 
pikes,  halberts,  swords,  muskets, 
carbines,  pistols,  and  small  arms  of 
every  description,  are  piled  ;  camp 
equipages,  ready  prepared  car- 
tridges, and  similar  matters,  occupy 
the  second  floor ;  and  the  powder 
magazine  is  in  a  strongly  fortified 
separate  building,  bomb  proof. 

Des-aguadero.  A  most  ancient 
bridge,  built  by  Capac  Yupanqui. 
See  Bridge. 

Description  of  building-work. 
See  Building. 

Descriptive  Carpentry.  By 
this  term  is  understood  that  branch 
of  the  art  which  teaches  to  lay 
down  on  a  plane,  sections,  parts, 
&c.  of  the  different  works  required 
to  be  executed.  We  shall  introduce 
here  the  following  problems  ;  others 
will  be  found  under  different  arti- 
cles. 

To  draw  a  cylindrical  soffit,  cut- 
ting right  lines  in  a  wall,  which  does 
not  stand  perpendicular  to  the 
ground,  to  a  level  base,  pi.  I.  Jig. 
A,  let  a  e  at  D  be  the  level  of  the 
ground,  a  I  the  inclination  of  the 
wall,  (—  radius  of  cylinder)  let  fall 
the  perpendicular  from  /  to  c,  in  the 
line  a  e  make  the  semicircle  in  Jig. 
A  ;  to  the  width  of' the  cylinder,  or 
the  double  of  a  I  at  D,  take  the 
distance  a  c  at  D,  and  make  a  b 
equal  to  it  in  Jig.  A,  and  describe 
a  semi-ellipsis  to  the  length  d  d  of 
the  diameter  of  the  semicircle,  and 


to  the  width  a  b,  lay  the  eqi 
visions  round  the  semicircle  fa 
A,  along  the  line  dd  double  \  ( 
take  the  parts  e  d,  d  c,  o  b,  b  f  rom 
plan  B,  and  lay  them  at  D  r 
tively  from  e  towards  deb,  m  | 
draw  I  e  at  right  angles  witE 
from  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,  dra  per- 
pendiculars  to  cut  I  e  at/.  < 
take  the  distances  e  i,  i  h,h  g  I 
lay  them  on  the  soffit  at  C  3 
way  from  Id,  2c,  3b,  4(03 
the  straight  line  d  d,  whement 
round,  will  be  perpendiculanver 
the  elliptic  line  in  the  plan  land 
the  curve  line  d  d  c  b  a,  &c.  will 
will  fall  over  the  points  d,  c  ,  a, 
in  the  plan. 

To  draw  the  sections  of  nple 
prismatic  arches,  that  may^rm 
groins  in  vertical  planes.  I  fig. 
E,  be  a  Gothic  arch,  dra  the 
chord  a  c  for  one  half,  divi  it 
into  any  number  of  equal  p;s  as 
four;  through  the  divisions  raw 
lines  from  the  centre  e  to  ti  cir- 
cumference at  h  g  I,  draw  nes 
from  c  through  h,  g,  I,  to  ci  the 
perpendicular  a  d  at  b,  c,  ;  if 
number  2  is  required  to  be  ier, 
and  of  the  same  height,  dra  the 
two  chords  a  c  and  c  K  for  ach 
side,  divide  each  as  before,  a:  set 
the  divisions  a,  b,  c,  d,  perio- 
cular on  each  end  of  a  b ;  om 
these  divisions  draw  lines  t  the 
crown  at  c,  trace  the  curve  th  ■ 
h,  gt  I,  &c.  so  that  the  ar  at 
number  2  will  truly  mitre  intlfl 
E ;  in  the  same  manner  the mi- 
pant  curve  at  number  3  wi  be 
brought  to  correspond  with  j 
and  number  2. 

To  describe  the  ribs  for  the  ?ad 
of  a  niche,  the  curve  in  whiothe 
spherical  surface  intersects  thai 
of  the  wall  being  a  semicircle  mri 
the  plan  a  segment.  Let  BC 
(pi.  II.)  be  the  plan,  AB  or  B  the 
half  of  arc  ABC  will  be  any  M 
the  ribs,  which  are  to  be  fix  to 


.£ 


D  E  S 


D  I  A 


cum 


ont  rib  at  the  points  a,  b,  c, 
it  equal  distances  in  the  cir- 


...  rence,  to  be  mitred  together  in 
t)le  F  of  the  spherical  surface. 

T  find  the  ribs  of  a  spherical 
LJiof  which  the  plan  is  the  seg- 
Ekf  a  circle,  and  the  elevation 
a  ?c  circle,  supposing  the  ribs  to 
be  ifall  circles  mitred  together,  so 
Sttfeeir  mitres  may  terminate  in 
E  immit  of  the  back  of  the  front 
l AE,BE,CE,DE(p/.III.) 
I  t  seats  of  one  half  of  the  ribs, 
procoe  BE  to  intersect  the  cir- 
cum  rence  at  F,  make  FM  =  BE, 
and  i  BF,  as  a  diameter,  describe 
■m  a  FI,  draw  MI  perpendicular 
Bp,  intersecting  the  arc  at  I, 
Fl  vfl  be  the  under  edge  of  a  rib 
I  appendicular  plane  upon  EB. 
The  her  ribs  may  be  described  in 
ie  me  manner.  The  bevelings 
of  tl  ribs  may  be  found  by  mak- 
in^r  e  distance  of  the  wood  to  be 
v't  vav  on  the  bottom  of  each 
rib,  fccordino:  to  their  seat,  as 
shov  at  FG,  which  are  the  same 
as  the  on  B  and  C.  The  rib  on 
B£  a  great  circle,  and  wants  no 
beveiig.    See  Carpentry. 

Die. n,  ( Designo,  Lat.)  a  draw- 
\\:z<  plan  of  an  intended  building, 
projf.ed  by  the  architect,  accord- 
ing the  rules  of  art,  with  taste 
and  bdgment ;  including  plans, 
tectis,  and  elevations.  For  a 
smalerection,  a  ground-plan  and 
clevion  will  be  requisite  ;  but  for 
a  hw.  building,  elevations  of  each 
of  t  fronts  and  plans  of  every 
ston  and  transverse  and  longi- 
tudii.l  sections,  with  drawings  of 
all  t-  bases,  capitals,  friezes,  cor- 
nice., architraves,  mouldings  of 
vari(i  descriptions,  and  all  the 
imalr  parts  of  the  work,  in  geo- 
njetn.il  proportion.  A  perspective 
view  ill  also  be  necessary,  taken 
frorrn  position  where  the  erection 
will  e  seen  in  all  its  parts.  A 
mod  is  sometimes  required,  and 


found  of  great  utility  in  large  build- 
ings. See  Apartment,  Building, 
House,  Effect,  Sfc. 

Details  of  an  edifice,  drawings 
or  delineations  for  the  use  of  the 
builders,  otherwise  called  working 
drawings. 

Determining  Line,  in  conic 
sections,  a  line  parallel  to  the  plane 
of  the  base  of  the  cone.  In  the 
hyperbola  this  line  is  within  the 
base  of  the  cone  :  it  forms  a  tan- 
gent to  the  base  in  parabolic  sec- 
tions, it  falls  without  in  the  elliptic. 
In  the  intersecting  of  a  circle,  the 
determining  line  will  never  meet  the 
plane  of  the  base  to  which  it  is 
parallel. 

Di  ao  lyphice,  a  species  of  sculp- 
ture in  which  the  strokes  or  lines 
are  indented,  opposed  to  the  usual 
mode,  in  which  the  figures  are  pro- 
minent.   See  Anagiypha. 

Diagonal,  (dutyioviog,  Gr.)  a 
straight  line  from  one  angle  of  an 
angular  figuie  to  another.  Rect- 
angular figures  of  every  descrip- 
tion, may  be  divided  into  as  many 
triangles,  except  two,  as  they  have 
sides.  The  diagonal  divides  the 
parallelogram  into  equal  parts. 

Diagonal  Scale,  is  a  scale 
subdivided  into  smaller  parts  by 
secondary  intersections. 

Diameter,  the  line  in  a  circle 
passing  from  the  circumference 
through  the  centre. 

Diameter  of  a  Column,  a 
line  passing  through  its  base,  or 
thickest  part,  which  gives  the  mea- 
sure proportioning  the  intercolum- 
niation,  in  some  of  the  orders. 

Diameter  of  Diminution  ; 
the  diameter  at  the  top  of  the 
shaft  of  a  column. 

Diameters  Conjugate,  two 
diameters  of  a  circle  made  to  form 
right  angles. 

Diamond,  a  sharp  instrument 
formed  of  that  precious  stone,  and 
used  for  cutting  glass. 

9 


D  I  G 


D  I  M 


Di/tNA,  Temple  of.  See  Arch, 

and  Ephesus. 

Di  a  style,  a  term  applied  to  a 
building,  with  columns  at  the  dis- 
tance of  three  diameters  from  each 
other;  also  applied  to  the  columns 
themselves  when  so  arranged. 
8ee  Colonnade.  The  breadth  of 
the  facade  of  the  diastyle  portico 
of  a  temple  was  divided  into  28 
parts  where  it  had  four  columns, 
and  into  44  when  it  had  six.  The 
half  diameter  of  these  columns  was 
equal  to  one  of  those  parts. 

Di  a  thy  it  a,  (  Gr.  ).  The  vesti- 
bule before  the  door  of  a  Grecian 
house,  answering  to  the  Prothyra 
of  the  Romans. 

Diatoni,  or  Diatonic  Stones, 
Cubical  stones  with  two  wrought 
faces,  used  by  the  ancient  builders 
as  angle  or  corner  stones.  They 
were  as  broad  as  the  thickness  of 
the  wall,  and.  proportionally  longer 
than  wide. 

Dianton.  The  race-course,  the 
circuit  of  which  being  two  stadia, 
or  twelve  hundred  feet,  was  used 
also  to  signify  that  measure. 

Diazomata,  (Gr.)  the  passages, 
or  corridors  which  separated  the 
ranges  of  seats  in  the  theatres  ;  by 
the  Romans  called  battai,  or  belts, 
and  also  prcecinctiones. 

Dicapolis  ;  see  jEgesta. 

Dictyoth  eton  ,  (Gr.)  by  the 
Romans  called  reticulata  struc- 
tura.  A  building,  with  walls  to 
admit  light  and  air,  in  the  form  of 
lattice  or  net-work. 

Didoron,  a  brick,  one  foot  long 
and  six  inches  broad,  used  by  the 
Grecian  builders  ;  also  a  Greek 
measure  of  two  spans. 

Die,  or  Dye,  {de,  Fr.)  See 
Dado. 

Digging.  A  man  with  a  spade, 
in  a  soft  ground,  will  throw  up  a 
cubic  yard  of  27  feet  in  an  hour : 
where  a  mattock  must  be  used,  that 
quantity  will  require  two  men  ;  and 

10 


a  very  strong  gravel,  three.  fL 
work  be  of  the  first  description .L 
the  labourers'  wages  2s.  6d.  per  v 
a  yard  will  cost  3d.  digging; 
hacker  be  required,  6d. ;  and  i 
be  necessary,  the  amount  will !  & 
per  yard.    It  will  require  three  ti 
to  wheel  30  cubic  yards  of  gra\ 
a  day,  to  the  distance  of  20  ya< . 

Diglypii,  (from  Siy\v<j)0£,  c.) 
a  double  channelled  tablet 

Dimension,  (dimetior,  Lat  in 
geometry,  is  either  length,  bre;  h, 
or  thickness  :  as  a  line  has  on  li 
mension,  of  length;  a  superJ es 
has  two,  length  and  breadth;  aj| 
solid  has  the  three  dimensioiof 
length,  breadth,  and  thickness 

Diminished  bar  of  a  sas  i 
thinner  on  the  inner  edge  towar  be 
room,  than  on  that  toward  the  us 
of  the  window. 

Diminishing  of  a  column,]  he 
difference  in  the  top  and  boU 
diameters,  found  in  all  the  re;  ar 
orders.  This  diminution  prodds 
gradually  from  the  bottom  in  G  \ 
and  Roman  specimens,  yet  me 
modern  writers  direct  the  shato 
diminish  from  the  third  partohe 
height.  Gothic  pillars  are  of  t  al 
thickness  from  top  to  bottom,  he 
first  columns  were  the  trunk 
trees;  which  the  artificial  cop 
imitates,  gradually  tapering  fro  is 
base  upwards.  This  diminutijis 
regulated  by  a  scale  of  proportlis. 
The  bottom  diameter  of  a  col 


15  feet  high,  is  to  be  divided 
equal  parts,  and  each  of  these 
divided  into  10,  being  a  divisic 
the  whole  into  60  minutes, 
diminution  ought  to  be  one  s 
and  the  top  diameter  50  mines. 
The  lower  diameter  of  a  col m 
from  15  to  20  feet  in  height,  is  bi 
divided  into  6£  parts,  and  thejop 
diameter  will  be  52  of  these,  be 
lower  diameter  of  a  column  rng 
to  the  height  of  from  20  to  30jet, 
must  be  divided  into  7  parts; 


id 


D  I  N 


D  I  N 


t  upper  diameter  will  be  6  parts. 
I  the  column  be  from  30  to  40 
f<:  high,  divide  its  lower  diameter 
i,|D  7h,  and  let  the  top  be  6h  parts 
iiliameter.  If  the  column  be  from 
4  to  50  feet  high,  divide  the  lower 
d  neter  into  8  parts,  and  diminish 
a  upper  diameter  to  7  of  those 
pis.  Similar  proportions  are  given 
U  olumns  of  greater  altitude,  the 
p  portional  diminution  of  the  up- 
p  diameter  being  less  as  the 
h  :ht  increases.    See  Entasis. 

)iminished  Arches.  Arches 
le,  or  lower,  than  a  semicircle, 
dominated,  by  the  French  archi- 
te's,  voute  surbasse. 

)ining,  or  Dinner  Room,  is 
eerally  one  of  the  largest  rooms 
in  dwelling  house;  in  stately  man- 
si  s  extending  to  40  feet  in  length, 
ai  even  50,  and  the  breadth  from 
hi  to  three-fourths  of  the  length. 
T  dining  rooms  in  middle-sized 
hoes  are  from  18  to  24  feet  in 
le  th,  16  to  18  feet  wide,  and  13 
fe  high;  in  smaller  houses  the 
la  sst  room  ought  to  be  appro- 
pifted  to  this  purpose.    See  An- 

i n ocr ates,  an  architect,  who 
w;'  patronized  by  Alexander  the 
G  it:  Vitruvius  relates  his  history. 

the  time  that  Alexander  was 
coiuering  the  world,  Diocrates 
lei  Macedon,  and  repaired  to  the 
ark  He  carried  along  with  him 
letrs  of  recommendation  from  his 
fri  ds,  and  from  several  nobles  of 
th  irst  rank.  On  his  arrival  he  was 
fa^rably  received,  and  begged  to 
be  mmediately  presented  to  the 
kiii.  But  finding  himself  trifled 
wit,  and  from  time  to  time  disap- 
po  ed,  he  determined  to  depend 
u$  himself,  his  own  knowledge 
arvtrenius,  and  the  endowments  of 
Da 
m 


re.    He  was  large  of  stature, 
an  agreeable  countenance,  and 
&(;nitv  in  his  form  and  deport- 
Determined  in  his  purpose, 


mi 


he  clothed  himself  in  the  habit  of 

Hercules,  anointed  his  body  with 
oil,  and,  crowning  his  head  with 
boughs  of  poplar,  approached  the 
tribunal  where  the  king  was  admi- 
nistering justice.  The  novelty  of  his 
appearance  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  king,  who  commanded  him  to 
approach,  and  declare  who  he  was. 
I  am,  replied  D'inocrates,  a  Mace- 
donian architect,  who  come  to  thee 
with  ideas  and  designs  worthy  of 
the  greatness  of  thy  fame ;  I  have 
formed  a  design  to  cut  Mount 
Athos  into  the  statue  of  a  man,  in 
whose  left  hand  shall  be  a  large 
city,  and  in  his  right  a  bason,  which 
shall  receive  all  the  rivers  of  the 
mountain,  and  again  discharge  them 
into  the  sea."  Alexander,  delighted 
with  the  idea,  immediately  inquired, 
if  the  country  adjacent  would  pro- 
duce sufficient  food  for  the  suste- 
nance of  the  inhabitants.  When  in- 
formed that  provisions  must  be 
conveyed  thither  by  sea,  he  replied  : 
"  Dinocrates,  I  discern  the  excel- 
lence of  thy  design,  and  am  pleased 
with  it ;  but  I  consider,  that  who- 
ever should,  establish  a  colony  in 
such  a  place,  would  hereafter  be 
justly  blamed  ;  for,  as  a  new-born 
infant  cannot  be  nourished,  or  gra- 
dually reared  to  the  different  stages 
of  life,  without  the  milk  of  the 
nurse;  so  neither  can  a  city  be  peo- 
pled, nor  can  it  thrive,  without  fer- 
tile land,  and  plenty  of  provisions  : 
however,  as  I  approve  the  design, 
though  I  disapprove  the  place,  I 
will  have  thee  attend  me,  that  else- 
where I  may  find  thee  employment. " 
Alexander,  afterwards  observing  a 
spot  in  Egypt  where  nature  had 
formed  a  secure  haven,  an  excellent 
place  for  an  emporium,  the  adjacent 
country  through  all  Egypt  being 
fruitful,  and  having  the  accommo- 
dation of  the  river  Nile,  ordered  him 
to  build  the  city  now  called  Alexan- 
dria, receiving  the  name  of  the  em- 


D  I  S 


D  IS 


peror,  and  perpetuating  the  fame  of 
the  architect.  Dinocrates  also  super- 
intended the  rebuilding  of  the  cele- 
brated temple  of  Diana  of  Ephesus. 
On  the  death  of  Arsinoe,  the  queen 
of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  Dinocra- 
tes, by  order  of  the  king,  formed  the 
design  of  a  temple  to  be  erected  to 
her  memory,  in  which,  under  a  mag- 
nificent dome,  a  statue  of  the  queen 
should  be  suspended  by  a  magnet: 
but  the  king  and  the  architect  died 
before  the  accomplishment  of  this 
undertaking. 

Dipteron,  (%nrT£pog,  Gr.)  a  tem- 
ple with  a  double  row  of  columns. 
According  to  Vitruvius,  dipteral  tem- 
ples were  octostile  ;  they  could  not 
indeed  be  less,  to  leave  room  for  the 
cell,  but  they  might  also  be  decas- 
tyle.  The  dipteral  is  one  of  seven 
orders  of  sacred  architecture  of  the 
ancients,  and  the  Doric  temple  of 
Jupiter  Quirinus  was  of  this  order, 
having  eight  columns,  both  in  front 
and  rear,  with  a  double  row  of 
columns  round  the  cell.  The  Ionic 
tempel  of  Diana,  built  by  Ctesi- 
phon  at  Ephesus,  was  also  dipteral 
and  octostyle. 

Discharge,  (decharge,  F.)  the 
relief  given  to  a  beam,  or  piece  of 
timber,  overcharged  by  too  great  an 
incumbent  weight  of  building :  when 
built  under,  it  is  said  to  be  dis- 
charged. 

Discharging  arches,  are 
those  built  over  wooden  lintels,  by 
which  the  bearing  upon  them  is 
taken  off.  The  chords  of  discharg- 
ing arches  are  not  much  longer  than 
the  lintel,  being  the  segments  of 
very  large  circles.  A  temporary 
lintel  is  frequently  inserted,  which 
is  afterwards  removed  when  the 
building  is  finished,  and  sometimes 
the  arches  are  built  without  lintels. 

Discharging  struts,  synony- 
mous with  the  terms  auxiliary  raf- 
ters, or  principal  braces. 

Dishing  out,  or  cradling; 
12 


wooden  vaultings,  or  coved  rib-wc 
for  plastering  upon. 

Displuviatum,  a  kina  of  coi 
or  cavsedium,  mentioned  by  Viti 
vius,  which  was  entirely  uncoven 
and  exposed  to  the  rain. 

Disposition.  This  term  a 
plied  to  a  building  is  understood 
mean  the  proper  situation  and  ; 
rangement  of  the  apartments,  c 
trances,  and  various  parts  bel on s;i 
to  it;  and  is,  according  to  Viti 
vius,  one  of  the  essentials  of  j 
chitecture.  It  is  divided  into  tbi 
parts — Ichnography,  Orthograpl 
and  Scenography  ;  in  other  won 
plan,  elevation,  and  perspect 
view.  Disposition  embraces  eve 
particular  relating  to  the  purpose 
an  architectural  design. 

Distegia,  a  machine  used 
the  theatres  of  the  ancients,  whi 
represented  an  edifice  of  two  si 
ries,  from  the  top  of  which  might 
seen  what  was  passing  below. 

Distemper,  (Detremper,Tr. 
modify  or  assimilate,)  applied 
painting,  with  colours  mixed 
with  size,  or  some  kind  of  unctuc 
or  glutinous  substance.  All  t 
cartoons  and  pictures  of  the  a 
cient  artists,  previous  to  the  yt 
1410,  are  said  to  have  been  do 
in  distemper. 

The  size  being  first  mixed  we 
water,  each  of  the  colours  tj 
used  is  ground  up,  and  put  in  sep 
rate  pots,  to  be  diluted  with  si 
when  wanted  for  use  ;  the  pots 
be  kept  covered  with  pieces  of  bla 
der.  This  ancient  mode  of  pan 
ing  is  applicable  to  wood,  plasb 
canvass,  parchment,  or  paper. 
Egyptian  temples  and  tombs,  ai 
among  ancient  Grecian  and  Rom 
antiquities,  paintings  of  this  ku 
are  found  in  a  perfect  state  of  pi 
servation.  Distemper,  when  i 
walls,  must  be  executed  when  tin 
surface  is  dry;  in  this  respect,  d 
fering  from  fresco,  which  bei 


DOM 


DOM 


pnted  on  the  moist  plaster,  enters 
iu  its  composition.  See  Fresco. 

)isTRiBiTORiuM,thenameofan 
e  nee  at  Rome,  begun  but  left  un- 
fished  by  Marcus  Agrippa,  and 
s  ated  in  the  region  of  the  circus 
07laminius.  We  are  ignorant  of 
it  precise  destination,  but  we  know 
frn  Dion  Cassius,  that  during  the 
a  a  heat  of  summer,  it  was  used 
a|a  theatre;  it  was  of  vast  ex- 
ut. 

)itriglyph,  the  intervening 
rice  between  two  triglyphs :  in 
it  rcolumniations,  the  placing  of 
h  triglyphs  over  the  intercolumn, 
sthat  a  triglyph  being  placed  over 
e;h  of  two  outermost  columns, 
w  form  the  ditriglyph,  containing 
tie  metopes  or  spaces,  two  wh< 
tilvphs,  and  two  half  triglyphs 

)ividicula,  (Lat.)  called  al.>- 
mellein,  in  ancient  architecture, 
tl  basin  which  received  the  water 
fn  an  aqueduct,  and  from  which 
imn  to  the  different  parts  of  the 

cr 

)odecagon,  (dwdeKayovia,  Gr.) 
a  :ular  polygon,  with  twelve  equal 
sis  and  angles;  in  fortification,  a 
pie  with  twelve  bastions. 

>OGLEGGED  STAIRS.   See  Con- 

sOctive  Carpentry  and  Stairs. 

'('ME,  an  arched  or  vaulted  roof, 
ipging  from  a  polygonal,  circular, 
oi'iliptic  plan.  When  the  base  is 
a  rcular,  it  is  termed  a  cupola ; 
w  n  a  polygon,  it  is  a  polygonal 
die;  and  when  an  ellipsis,  an 
elitic  dome.  The  central  point 
in'ie  curved  surface  is  called  the 
p<\  or  centre.  The  imaginary 
st  ght  line,  descending  from  the 
p"  to  the  base,  is  the  axis.  When 
th  altitude  of  a  dome  is  greater 
thi  the  radius  of  the  base,  it  is  said 
to  e  surmounted;  when  less,  sur- 
odd.  The  sectorial  radius  of  a 
senentof  a  cylindric  polyhedion 
is  i  e  straight  line  from  the  pole  to 
th  middle  of  one  of  the  sides  of  the 


base;  or  if  the  dome  be  the  frus- 
tum of  a  cylindric  polyhedron,  it 
will  have  also  two  sectorial  radii 
extending  from  the  pole  to  the  mid- 
dle of  a  side  of  each  polygon.  The 
curved  surface  of  every  dome,  which 
is  a  segment  of  a  cylindric  poly- 
hedron, is  equal  to  a  regular  poly- 
gon, whose  apothem  is  equal  to  the 
sectorial  radius;  or  to  a  rectangle, 
whose  length  is  equal  to  the  peri- 
meter of  the  equatorial  polygon, and 
the  breadth  equal  to  the  height  of 
the  dome.  When  the  base  of  a 
circular  directing  section  of  acvlin- 
dric  dome  is  greater  than  the  base 
of  the  elliptic  directing  section,  the 
dome  is  said  to  be  uniform  and 
surmounted ;  when  less,  it  is  uni- 
form and  surbased.  When  both 
directing  sections  are  elliptic,  and 
the  base  of  the  one  upon  the  axis 
major,  and  that  of  the  other  upon 
the  axis  minor,  it  is  surmounted  and 
surbased.  In  the  plate  Dome,  I. 
Jig.  2.  is  a  dome,  in  the  form  of  a 
semicylindric  polyhedron,  seen  ex- 
ternally; '6.  a  dome,  in  the  form  of 
a  segment  of  the  same  solid,  seen 
externally ;  4.  a  dome  in  the  form 
of  a  zone,  of  a  semicylindric  poly- 
hedron, from  the  outside;  5.  a  dome 
in  the  form  of  a  hemicylindric  poly- 
hedron seen  internally;  and  6,  a 
dome  in  the  form  of  a  zone  of  a 
hemicylindric  polyhedron  seen  in- 
ternally, the  polygonal  aperture 
above  is  called  the  eye  of  the  dome. 

To  estimate  the  curved  surface  of 
a  dome,  which  is  the  segment  or 
zone  of  a  sphere,  when  a  section 
along  the  axis  of  the  zone  is  given, 
we  must,  for  the  segment,  find  the 
sectional  radius,  and  apply  it  to  the 
scale,  then  find  the  area  of  a  circle, 
whose  radius  is  equal  to  the  number 
of  feet  in  the  sectorial  radius,  as  in- 
dicated by  the  scale,  and  the  area 
of  this  circle  is  equal  to  the  curved 
surface  of  the  spheric  segment :  for 
the  zone,  we  must  complete  the 


DOM 


DOM 


entire  segment,  find  the  sectorial 
radius  of  the  part  cut  off,  and  that 
of  the  entire  segment,  and  the  mea- 
sure of  each  sectorial  radius  by  the 
scale,  the  difference  of  the  areas  of 
the  two  circles  will  be  equal  to  the 
curved  surface  of  the  zone.  For  ex- 
ample, How  many  feet  are  contained 
in  the  concave  surface  of  a  spheri- 
cal dome,  whose  segment  ABC, 
(Jig.  1.  Dome  Plate  III.)  is  a  sec- 
tion through  the  axis,  and  EF  at  the 
bottom  of  the  plate  a  scale  of  feet. 
Bisect  AC  by  a  perpendicular  BD, 
and  join  AB  :  AB  is  the  sectorial 
radius,  and  from  the  scale  will  be 
found  to  be  about  27  feet.  Since 
the  area  of  the  surface  of  a  dome  is 
equal  to  a  circle,  whose  radius 
equals  the  sectorial  radius,  the  area 
of  the  circle  is  found  by  multiplying 
the  square  of  the  radius  by  3.1416, 
or  the  square  of  the  diameter  by 
7854. 

sq.rad.  729  or,  sq.  diam.  2916 
3.1416  7854 


sq.  of  diam.  5929 
multiplied  by  7854 


=    4656.6366  arc  of  diam. 

8  incli.  [ 


282744 
62832 
219912 


11664 
14580 
23328 
20412 


2290.2264  feet. 


2290.2264  feet. 


In  like  manner  may  be  found  the 
content  in  feet  of  a  dome,  which  is 
the  segment  of  a  sphere,  of  which 
ABC,  Jig.  2,  is  a  section  along  its 
axis,  the  sectorial  radius  being  found 
to  be  41  feet.  Ans.  5281.0296  feet. 
How  many  cubic  feet  will  be  re- 
quired to  build  a  stone  dome  in  the 
form  of  a  sphere,  the  section  along 
BD,  Jig.  3,  the  axis  of  the  convex 
side  being  ABC,  and  the  thickness 
of  the  dome  8  inches?  Here  the 
sectorial  radius  AB  will  be  found  to 
measure  38  feet  6  inches:  the  dia- 
meter of  the  circle  will  be  77  feet, 
(38f.  6  in.  x  2). 

14 


12)37253.0928 


3104.4244  solid  content: 

How  many  yards  are  contained  \ 
the  concave  surface  of  a  dome,  wh 
is  the  zone  or  frustum  of  a  spht 
given  the  section  ABCDE,  (Jig. 
along  the  axis,  AB  and  DE  be 
the  two  equal  circular  arcs?  Cc 
plete  the  entire  segment  ABCL, 
let  C"  be  the  pole  of  the  spheric  s 
ment,  draw  the  sectorial  radii  < 
and  CB,  which  will  be  found 
the  scale  to  be  respectively  4& 
6in.  and  17ft.  6  in.— 91ft.(45* xjl 
is  therefore  the  diameter  of  a  cir  ■. 
equal  to  the  area  of  the  entire  si 
ment  of  the  sphere,  and  35  f 
(17^x2)  the  diameter  of  the  si 
ment  of  the  sphere  cut  off.  1 
shortest  operation  is  thus:  squ 
the  sectorial  radius  of  the  segmt 
cut  off,  and  that  of  the  entire  s» 
ment,  subtract  one  from  the  oth 
multiply  the  remainder  by  78, 
and  the  product  will  be  the  area 
the  frustum.    Thus  :- 

sq.  of  91  =  8281 
sq.  of  35    =  1225 


7056 

multiply  by  7854 


9)5541.7824  area  in  ft. 


615.7536  area  in  yards 

To  find  the  area  of  a  dome  which 
any  segment  of  a  regular  semicyli 
dric  polyhedron,  we  must  find  t 
area  of  a  regular  polygon,  which  li 
the  same  number  of  sides  as  t 
dome,  and  which  has  the  perpen. 


DOM 


DOM 


cul'  from  the  centre  to  one  of  the 
lid]  equal  to  the  sectorial  radius. 
Ha  ng  described  the  polygon  to  the 
.,'  rial  radius,  the  length  of  one  of 
its  pes  may  be  found  by  the  scale 
plate: "find  the  area  of  one  of 
tbiriangles,  multiply  it  by  the 
nuler  of  the  sides  of  the  polygon, 
thi  mswer  will  be  the  area  of  the 
p0]ron  and  of  the  dome.  The 
areof  the  polygon  will  be  found 
moi  accurately  and  more  expedi- 
.  by  means  of  the  following 
I  ib  of  the  areas  of  regular  poly- 
goi  the  radius  of  the  inscribed 
circ  being  unity. 


:  Name. 

Tetragon 

Pentagon 

Hexagon 

Heptagon 

Octason 


Area. 
4 

3.6327 
3.4641 
3.3710 
3.3137 


To  id  the  area  of  a  curved  surface 
of  lome,  which  is  the  segment  of 
a  gnicylindric  tetrahedron,  HIK, 
i  Dome  II.)  being  the  section 
aio  the  axis  perpendicular  to  the 
lid!  The  plan  of  this  dome  is  a 
e,  (ABCD)  of  which  each  side 
lal  to  the  chord  HK  of  the 
giw  section.  The  sectorial  radius 
HI  >ing  drawn,  will  be  found  to 
me;  ire  by  the  scale  24.5  feet, 
the  ore  25  feet  is  the  radius  of  the 
ins(j bed  circle  of  a  tetragon  or 
sque,  equal  in  area  to  the  curved 
sur  :e  of  the  segment  of  the  dome 
(or  1.5x2)  49  feet  is  the  side  it- 
seif  ience  49  x  49 =240 lft.  From 
tlie  :ntre  i  with  the  radius  HI  de- 
icri  the  circle  abed,  and  about  it 
ties,  be  the  square  efgh,  the  area 
of  t  j  square  is  2401  feet. 

1  find  the  area  of  the  curved 
iwlfe  of  a  dome,  which  is  the 
ieg|:nt  of  a  cylindric  polyhedron, 
Ike  umber  of  sides  and  the  secto- 
rial thus  being  given,  multiply  the 
squ  2  of  the  sectorial  radius  by  the 


area  of  a  regular  polygon  of  the 
same  number  of  sides  as  the  dome, 
having  unity  for  the  radius  of  its  in- 
scribed circle,  (see  preceding  table), 
and  the  product  will  be  the  area  of 
the  dome.  To  find  the  area  of  the 
curved  surface  of  a  truncated  sphe- 
rical dome,  when  the  chord  of  an 
arc  of  a  great  circle  and  the  versed 
sine  of  that  arc  are  given  :  (1)  Di- 
vide the  square  of  the  given  chord 
by  the  versed  sine,  and  it  will  give 
the  diameter  of  the  great  circle; 

(2)  multiply  this  diameter  by  3.1416 
and  it  will  give  the  circumference; 

(3)  multiply  the  circumference  by 
the  height  of  the  dome,  the  product 
will  be  the  curved  surface.  To  find 
the  area  of  the  curved  surface  of  a 
truncated  spherical  dome,  when  the 
diameter  of  each  of  its  circles,  and 
the  height  of  the  dome,  are  given  : 
from  the  square  of  the  semidiameter 
at  the  base,  subtract  the  sum  of  the 
squares  of  the  semidiameter  at  the 
top  and  of  the  height,  divide  the 
remainder  by  twice  the  height,  the 
quotient  is  the  distance  of  the  plane 
of  the  base,  extract  the  square  root 
of  the  sum  of  the  square  of  the  semi- 
diameter at  the  base,  and  the  dis- 
tance of  the  plane,  the  root  doubled 
is  the  diameter  of  the  great  circle, 
multiply  this  by  3.1416  and  it  will 
give  the  circumference,  which  mul- 
tiply by  the  height  of  the  dome, 
and  the  pruduct  will  be  the  an- 
swer. 

For  more  information  on  the  men- 
suration of  domes,  see  the  excellent 
work  on  practical  mensuration  by 
Peter  Nicholson.  The  following 
table  is  given  by  Dr.  Robinson,  of 
the  dimensions  of  what  he  considers 
the  best  form  of  a  dome.  The 
thickness  is  supposed  uniform.  The 
numbers  in  the  first  column  of  the 
table  express  the  portion  of  the 
axis  counted  from  the  vertex,  and 
those  of  the  second  the  length  of 
the  ordinate. 

15 


DOM 


DOM 


AD 

JJr> 

AD 

Dr> 

oX 

100 

1522 

1360 

3.4 

200 

1738 

1400 

11.4 

300 

1984 

1440 

26.6 

400 

2270 

1480 

52.4 

500 

2602 

1520 

91  4 

600 

2990 

1560 

146.8 

700 

3442 

1600 

223.4 

800 

3972 

1640 

326.6 

900 

4432 

1670 

465.4 

1000 

4952 

1700 

610.4 

1080 

5336 

1720 

744 

1140 

5756 

1740 

904 

1200 

6214 

1760 

1100 

1260 

6714 

1780 

1336 

1320 

7260 

1800 

"  The  curve  formed  according'  to 
these  dimensions  will  not  appear 
very  graceful,  because  there  is  an 
abrupt  change  in  its  curvature  at  a 
small  distance  from  the  vertex.  If, 
however,  the  middle  be  occupied  by 
a  lantern  of  equal  or  of  smaller 
weight  than  the  part  whose  place 
it  supplies,  the  whole  will  be  ele- 
gant, and  free  from  defect." 

The  strongest  form  of  a  circular 
vault,  required  to  bear  a  weight  on 
its  top,  is  considered  to  be  that  of  a 
truncated  cone,  similar  to  the  ex- 
terior dome  of  St.  Paul's,  in  Lon- 
don. The  equilibrium  and  pressure 
of  domes  differs  considerably  from 
that  of  common  arching.  In  order 
to  equilibrate  the  figure  of  a  dome, 
the  curvature  may  be  changed  into 
a  concavity,  after  the  convexity  has 
been  carried  to  its  full  extent  of 
equilibrium,  round,  and  equidistant 
from  the  summit  on  the  exterior 
side.  For,  since  the  interior  circum- 
ference of  the  curves  is  less  than 
the  exterior,  the  course  cannot  fall 
inwardly,  without  squeezing  the 
stones  into  a  less  compass.  In  dome 
vaulting,  a  certain  weight  laid  on 
the  top  must  burst  it  outwardly,  and 
this  weight  becomes  greater,  the 
more  the  contour  approaches  the 
chords  of  the  arches  of  the  two 

16 


sides.  A  certain  degree  of  cj 
ture  therefore  must  be  given,  v 
will  just  prevent  the  stones  ir 
succeeding  course  from  being  f 
out.  Circular  vaults  may  be 
at  top,  and  the  weakest  will  b 
lantern  of  equal  weight  witl  he 
part  which  would  have  compLd 
the  whole. 

The  oldest  dome  we  know  i ; 
that  of  the  Pantheon,  at  Rjne 
built  under  Augustus.  The  ime 
of  St.  Sophia,  at  Constantir(>le, 
was  built  in  the  reign  of  Justin, 
by  Anthemius  and  Isidorus,  a L  is 
nearly  113  French  feet  in  dian'er. 
The  other  most  celebrated  dies 
are  those  of  St.  Peter's  at  Ron  by 
Michael  Angelo,  of  St.  Pau  at 
London  by  Sir  Christopher  Wnj.of 
the  cathedral  of  Santa  Mar  at 
Pisa,  by  Arnolfo  Lusii  and  Br  el- 
leschi,  of  St.  Mark  at  Venice.jnd 
of  the  Pantheon  at  Paris  by  -  G. 
Soufflat.  The  wooden  dome  <  he 
Halle  du  Bled,  at  Paris,  is  20(|eet 
in  diameter,  and  a  foot  in  thick  ss. 
See  more  on  construction  of  dies 
under  the  article  Constructive  ir- 
p en  try. 

In  Constructive  Carpen  :y, 
PL  IX.  is  given  a  section  oj.he 
dome  of  St.  Paul's.  AAaajii 
a  dome  of  bricks,  two  bricks  ti:k, 
which,  as  it  rises  every  five  feetjias 
a  course  of  excellent  brick  ([18 
inches  long,  bending  througlj.he 
whole  thickness.  The  centeri]  of 
this  dome  was  contrived  to 
also  for  scaffolding:  every  stor 
circular,  and,  the  ends  of  the  le< 
meeting  as  so  many  rings,  it 
ports  itself.  The  dome  is  strc 
hooped  with  iron,  and  was  pa 
by  Sir  James Thornhill.  BB6.313 
a  cone  of  bricks,  tft.  6in.  thick H 
plastered  and  painted.  By  thisjme 
the  timber  work  is  well  suppcjB 
the  horizontal  or  hammer  tM 
CC,DD,EE,FF,  being  curill 
tied  into  the  corbels  G,H,IjK|W 


D  O  O 

iron  ramps,  which  are  well  bedded 
into  >e corbels  with  lead,  and  bolt- 
ed tithe  hammer  beam.  The  stairs 
whk  lead  to  the  Golden  Gallery, 
at  tl  top  of  the  dome,  run  between 
the  isses  of  the  roof.  The  dome 
is  becled  from  the  base  upwards, 
and  ie  scantling  of  the  curve  rib 
of  tl  truss  is  10  in.  by  11  at  bot- 
tomed 6  by  6  at  top.  On  the  top 

tl  dome  is  a  cupola  of  Portland 
st0n:  21  feet  in  diameter,  and  64 
feet  ;h.  The  diameter  of  the  dome 

i  feet  and  in  the  circumference 
are  I  trusses. 

D.iestic  Architecture,  is 
proply  that  branch  of  the  art 

lie  relates  to  private  dwellings, 
inch  :ng  cottages,  farm-houses,  &c. 

fcount  of  which,  see  Rural 
ArcSecture. 

D  ucil,  (Domicula,  Lat. )  a 
little!  ouse. 

D  i us  Aurea.  See  Banquet- 
ing  )om. 

D  joN,orDoNGEON,(Nor.Fr.) 
The  Passive  tower  in  the  interior 
of  a  ient  castles,  to  which  the 

imn  might  retreat  in  case  of 
neee  ty.    See  Keep. 
-    D  ks,  flat  pieces  of  wood  of  the 
shap  of  bricks,  about  nine  inches 
lon^.  iserted  in  the  wall  ;  so  called 

St  iand,  but  in  London  called 
plug:  or  wooden  bricks. 

D<  Chester,  Roman  Amphi- 
iheat  at.    See  Amphitheatre. 

Due  Capital.    See  Capital. 

J)<r,  {dor,  Sax.)  the  gate  or 
artrafe  of  a  house,  or  other  build- 
ing, <  of  an  apartment  in  a  house, 
i  Door  are  to  be  proportioned,  and 
wap-l  to  the  use  for  which  they 
ended.    In  correspondence 
th  human  size,  the  door  of  a 
dwell g  house  is  7  to  8  feet  in 

4  and  3  to  4  feet  in  breadth, 
the  (  ranee  doors  of  churches  and 

ibli  buildings  should  be  wide,  to 
allow  multitude  to  pass  without  dif- 
ficult anc  their  height  should  be 


D  00 

in  proportion.  The  outer  entrance 
of  stately  mansions  ought  also  to 
be  of  enlarged  dimensions,  averag- 
ing from  6  to  12  feet  in  width,  and 
of  proportionate  height ;  the  inner 
entrance  door  may  be  from  4  to  6 
feet  in  width,  and  placed  in  the 
central  part  of  the  building. 

A  door  of  the  simplest  kind,  for 
out-houses,  is  made  of  boards  re- 
bated together ;  or  ploughed  and 
tongued,  and  nailed  upon  a  cross 
piece  called  a  ledge,  from  which  it 
derives  its   name   of  ledge-door. 
Doors  intended  when  closed  to  pre- 
sent an  even  surface,  are  called  jib- 
doors,  or  flush-doors,  and  give  an 
uniform  appearance  to  rooms,  or 
save  the  expense  of  corresponding 
doors.    To  combine  durability  with 
beauty,  in  doors,  they  are  con- 
structed of  framed  work  enclosing 
panels,  which  are  fitted  into  grooves 
in  the  edges  of  the  frames,  which 
are  joined  together  by  mortise  and 
tenon.    The  three  horizontal  pieces 
mortised  into  the  upright  sides  of 
the  door,  are  called  the  top,  the 
bottom,  and  the  lock-rails :  and  if  a 
fourth  occur  under  the  top-rail,  it  is 
called  the  frieze-rail :  the  side  pieces 
are  denominated  stiles ;  the  two 
intermediate  pieces  are  called  meet- 
ing stiles;  and  additional  pieces 
between  the  stiles  are  called  yiun- 
nions.   Framed  doors  are  diversified 
by  the  number  and  different  kinds 
of  their  panels.  The  panels  of  doors, 
when  of  the  same  thickness  as  the 
frame-work,  are  generally  headed  ; 
in  which  case  they  are  fitted  into 
the  frame,  and  the  whole  smoothly 
planed;  after  which  it  is  taken  to 
pieces,  and  the  edges  of  the  frame- 
work are  worked  with  the  bead- 
plane.    In  doors  with  double  mar- 
gins representing  two  folding  doors, 
the  broad  middle  stile  extends  the 
whole  length,  and  is  inserted  into 
the  top  and  bottom  rails  by  notches 
in  the  latter  fitted  to  forked  ends  of 

17 


D  O  O 

the  double  middle  stile.  The  baize 
door  is  covered  with  that  material-, 
to  keep  the  cold  air  out  of  rooms. 
The  batten  door  is  almost  exclu- 
sively appropriated  to  the  stile  of 
architecture  called  Gothic :  boards 
grooved  and  glued  together,  form 
the  ground  on  which  stiles,  rails, 
and  munnions  made  of  battens  are 
nailed,  to  give  the  appearance  of  a 
framed  door.  If  the  battens  be  on 
one  side,  it  is  said  to  be  singly,  if 
on  both  sides  doubly  battened.  In 
these  latter,  the  stiles  on  each  side 
are  bolted  together,which  gives  great 
strength  to  the  work.  The  entrance 
gates  of  ancient  British  mansions 
were  of  this  construction. 

Those  doors  which  are  double  are 
either  folding  doors,  closing  against 
each  other,  covered  with  baize,  to 
prevent  access  of  cold  air ;  or  they 
are  double  margin  doors,  formed 
of  two  door-frames,  with  a  strong 
middle  piece  called  the  staff-stile, 
finished  with  the  appearance  of  two 
inner  stiles  of  folding  doors. 

The  doors  of  the  ancients  were 
of  stone,  marble,  wood,  brass,  or 
iron,  and  sometimes,  in  temples,  of 
gold.  They  revolved  on  pivots, 
and  were  raised  a  little  above  the 
ground.  The  Roman  doors  opened 
inwards ;  those  of  the  Greeks,  out- 
wards ;  the  form  of  both  was  nar- 
rower at  the  top  than  the  bottom, 
in  consequence  of  which  they  shut 
of  themselves.  In  his  fourth  book, 
Vitruvius  gives  rules  for  the  con- 
struction of  Attic,  Ionic,  and  Doric 
doors. 

Doors,  marble.  See  Carpen- 
try. 

Doors  to  rooms  ought  to  be  in 
the  middle,  and,  in  suits  of  rooms, 
exactly  opposite  each  other ;  in 
bed-rooms,  they  should  never  be 
beside  the  bed,  nor,  in  other  rooms, 
near  the  fire-place.  Interior  doors 
are  usually  ornamented  with  an 
architrave,  which  is  sometimes  sur- 

18 


D  O  O 

mounted  with  a  frieze  and  cc  ice 
The  ornaments  of  an  exterio:  oor 
are  generally  an  entablature  jgg 
consoles,  or  pilasters,  or  attC 
columns,  as  supporters.  It  is  im- 
portance in  the  hanging  of  in  nal 
doors,  to  clear  the  ground-Ac  or 
carpet  they  open  over.  To  e  t 
this,  either  the  door  when  Ljg 
must  project  an  eighth  of  anS 
at  the  bottom  toward  the  ror  k 
the  jamb  against  which  the  d 
hinged,  must  be  an  eighth  an 
inch  out  of  the  perpendicul;  in- 
clining toward  the  opposite  jib; 
or  the  upper  hinge  must  be  ade 
to  project  an  eighth  of  ar  j  I 
further  toward  the  door  ths  the 
lower  hinge,  if  the  jamb  be  pi  • 
dicular.  See  Hinges  and  Hiwm 
Door  Frame,  or  Case. irhe 
wooden  frame  enclosing  a  H 
which  is  joined  together,  m  -mi 
and  beaded,  or  formed  of  :hi- 
traves  and  linings,  and  call  a 
door  case.  See  Blank  Dooi  and 
Architrave. 

Door- way.    See  Atrium. 

Door  Hinge.  Door-hinge, ;;air- 
tight  door-hinge,  by  Mr.  Martijta* 
niss,  128,  Strand,  London,  is  duib- 
ed  at  large  in  the  Transactions  j  the 
Society  for  the  Encouras-em :  of 
Arts  for  1809,  and  in  theRep  oiy 
of  Arts,  volume  xiv.  for  thejitne 
year ;  and  doors  are  made  airtight 
when  shut,  and  fresh  air  acli: ted, 
as  required,  by  a  new  and  imW 
apparatus,  invented  by  ^  mm 
Robins,  of  Saffron  Walden,  to  torn 
a  patent  was  granted  in  1819.  It  is 
described  in  the  Repertory  of  iris, 
vol.  xxxv.  for  1819. 

A  double  spring,  for  raisi  the 
door  as  it  opens,  and  preventi  the 
admission  of  air  when  shir  has 
been  invented  by  Mr.  Whi  ' 
Laystall-street,  London,  and  de- 
scribed in  the  Transactions  the 
Society  for  the  Encouragem  t  of 
Arts  for  1820,  and  in  the  Reftory 


DOR 


c\  As  for  July  1820.    The  spring 
jj   ler  the  axis  of  the  door,  which 
s  as  it  opens;  and  whether 
tor  opens  inward  or  outward, 
ternate  rising  and  falling  is 
ne  ;  in  either  case,  the  great- 
rength  of  the  spring  is  ex- 
(io  close  the  door.    An  im- 
lent  has  been  made  of  this 
-ion  by  Mrs.  White,  an  ac- 
n  of  which  is  given  in  the 
i  etions  of  the  Society  for  the 
(fakement  of  Arts  for  1822, 
:  the  Repertory  of  Arts  for 
me  year,  p.  163.    The  ex- 
i  ioes  not  exceed  22s. 
Ai  :her  mode  of  rendering  doors 
tiit,  and  causing  them  to  rise 
s  th  open,  is  by  affixing  a  plinth 
;  vo  l  of  three  inches  deep  on  the 

0  of  the  door  on  the  outside, 
m  ns  of  a  pair  of  butt-hinges  ; 

1  |  ith  is  raised  by  a  semicircu- 
rtlge  or  staple  fixed  in  the 

I  '  r  iposite  the  hanging  stile,  and 
»  the  plinth  as   the  door 
nsTTie  invention  is  by  jVI.  Cau- 
is.md  is  described  in  the  Re- 
rto  of  Arts,  vol.  xxi.  p.  371. 
Anfficacious  mode  of  raising  a 
it  opens,  turning  on  pivots, 
i  ;n  invented  by  Mr.  Stone, 
>  wick-street,  Golden-square, 
•  ■»■!<.  which  is  described  in  the 
perry  of  Arts,  vol.  xxvii.  for 
15,;>.  45,  and  in  the  Transac- 
ts   the  Society  for  the  Encou- 
n  it  of  Arts  for  the  same  year  ; 
his  infected  by  means  of  a  dou- 
,  >«  sjng.    If  pivots  be  used,  the 
ower.ne  may  be  a  coarse  screw, 
h  /ill   raise   the  door   as  it 

Do*  Latch.  In  the  Transac- 
tions .  the  Society  for  the  Encou- 
rage m;  i  of  Arts  for  1806,  and  in 
theR  ertory  of  Arts,  vol.  ix.  for 
the  sa  s  year,  p.  277,  a  description 
H  piv(  of  an  improved  door-latch, 
48  Ire  aS  possible  from  friction; 
never  quiring  to  be  oiled,  moving 


smoothly,  and  of  very  simple  and 
easy  construction  ;  invented  by  Mr. 
Antis.  of  Fulneck,  near  Leeds,  in 
Yorkshire. 

Door  Spring.  A  spring  for 
closing  doors,  of  simple  construc- 
tion, easy  application,  and  not  sub- 
ject to  be  out  of  order,  by  Mr.  E. 
Parker,  of  High  Holborn,  is  de- 
scribed in  the  Transactions  of  the 
Society  for  the  Encouragement  of 
Arts,  for  1818. 

Dor  ah,  al.    See  Caaba. 

Doric  Order.  Of  the  three 
orders  of  Grecian  architecture,  this 
is  the  oldest  and  the  most  original. 
Mr.  E.  Aikin,  who  has  written  a 
learned  and  elegant  treatise  on 
the  subject,  observes,  "  In  consi- 
dering the  buildings  of  antiquity, 
and  particularly  of  Greece,  the 
first  circumstance  that  strikes  us 
is  their  extreme  simplicity,  and  even 
uniformity.  The  temples  of  Greece 
were  invariably  quadrilateral  build- 
ings, differing  only  in  size,  and  in 
the  disposition  of  the  porticos, 
which  either  ornamented  the  front 
alone,  or  surrounded  every  side  with 
their  beautiful  and  shady  avenue. 
The  system  of  Grecian  architecture 
is  founded  on  the  simple  principles 
of  wooden  construction  :  a  qua- 
drangular area  is  enclosed  with 
trunks  of  trees,  placed  perpendicu- 
larly, with  regular  intervals ;  these 
support  lintels,  upon  which  rest  the 
beams  of  the  ceiling,  and  an  en- 
closed roof  covers  the  whole.  Such 
was  the  model ;  when  touched  by 
the  hand  of  taste,  the  post  and 
the  lintel  were  transmuted  into  the 
column  and  entablature,  and  the 
wooden  hut  into  the  temple.  It 
appears  probable  that  the  earliest 
Greek  temples  were  really  of  wood, 
since  so  many  of  them  were  con- 
sumed during  the  invasion  of 
Xerxes;  and  that  large  and  magni- 
ficent edifices  were  sometimes  prin- 
cipally of  this  material,  is  rendered 


DOO 

evident  by  thf*  example  of  the  tem- 
ple of  Jerusalem,  which  was  sur- 
rounded by  columns  of  cedar.  But 
builders  soon  adopted  the  more 
noble  and  durable  material  of 
stone ;  and  though  the  general  sys- 
tem of  architecture  was  already 
established,  its  forms  received  some 
modifications  by  being  thus,  as  it 
were,  translated  into  a  new  lan- 
guage. A  wooden  lintel,  from  its 
fibrous  texture,  possessing  consider- 
able tenacity  and  strength  in  pro- 
portion to  its  weight,  it  was  practi- 
cal to  form  very  wide  intercolum- 
niations ;  thus  we  are  told  by  Vi- 
truvius,  that  the  ancient  Tuscan 
temples  were  constructed  with 
wooden  architraves.  Stone,  on  the 
other  hand,  of  a  granular  composi- 
tion, and  of  great  specific  gravity, 
would  break  by  its  own  weight,  in 
a  bearing  where  a  timber  beam 
would  be  perfectly  secure.  When, 
therefore,  porticos  were  erected  of 
stone,  it  was  necessary,  in  order  to 
secure  solidity,  to  contract  the  dis- 
tance between  the  columns  to  very 
narrow  limits.  A  wooden  eailice, 
never  secure  from  the  injuries  of 
accident  or  violence,  presented  no 
motive  for  any  great  solidity  in  its 
construction.  But  in  stone  it  is 
possible,  as  the  energetic  industry 
of  the  Egyptians  has  demonstrated, 
to  defy  the  injuries  of  time,  and 
almost  the  violence  of  rapine.  The 
architect  who  builds  in  stone,  may 
build  for  eternity ;  and  this  idea 
will  give  a  motive  for  that  grand 
and  massy  solidity  so  essential  to 
the  sublimity  of  architecture.  These 
circumstances  led  to  the  perfection 
of  the  Grecian  style ;  the  original 
model  secured  simplicity  of  form 
and  construction,  while  the  supe- 
rior material  preserved  it  from  the 
meagreness  attendant  on  wooden 
buildings.  Thus  arose  the  Doric, 
or,  as  it  might  be  emphatically 
called,  the   Grecian  order, — the 


DOO 

first-born  of  architecture,  a  c  wm 
sition  which  bears  the  am  ^ 
and  characteristic  marks  of  ii  e  i. 
timate  origin  in  wooden  cor  -uc. 
tion,  transferred  to  stone.  J  on. 
templating  a  capital  example  t|,j3 
order,  as,  for  instance,  the  F  the- 
non  at  Athens,  how  is  our  ad  (ra- 
tion excited  at  this  noblest,  uvll 
as  earliest  invention  of  the  bi  ling 
art !  What  robust  solidity  the 
column !  What  massy  grrleur 
in  the  entablature  !  Whathacny 
in  its  simplicity!  not  destit ;  of 
ornament,  but  possessing  that  ma- 
ment  alone  with  which  taste  uni- 
fies and  refines  the  concep  nof 
vigorous  genius ;  no  foliage  .  Is  a 
vain  and  meretricious  decoiion, 
but  the  frieze  bears  the  aceve- 
ments  of  heroes  ;  while  everjmrt, 
consistent  in  itself,  and  brin* 
a  just  relation  to  every  other  em- 
ber, contributed  to  that  harm  ions 
effect  which  maintains  the  po  r  of 
first  impressions,  and  excit  in. 
creasing  , ad  miration  in  the  mm 
gent  observer.  So,  in  the  im jirtal 
statue  of  Glycon,  the  form  «  he- 
roic vigour  is  crowned  with  buty, 
dignity,  and  grace.  Other  Ml 
have  elegance,  have  roagnifince, 
but  sublimity  is  the  iSiaraciistic 
of  the  Doric  alone. 

The  temple  of  Juno,  atArM 
said  to  have  been  the  first  jorie 
erection,  considered  as  a  spe  nen 
of  the  order,  built  when  Dor  the 
son  of  Deucalion,  the  first  kg  of 
the  Dorians,  reigned  in  the  elo- 
ponnesus ;  but  we  are  inf  Tied 
by  Vitruvius,  that  its  fornand 
symmetry  were  not  determin  till 
Ion,  the  nephew  of  Dorus,  1<  ^ 
Ionians  into  that  part  oKsia 
Minor,  to,  which  his  nam  |w|l 
afterwards  given.  The  rolui  s  ol 
the  temple  he  there  built,  w<  s  x 
diameters  in  height— the  proton 
the  human  foot  bears  to  the 
of  the  body;  they  were  flut ,  to 


ervtl: 
gai|t 


D  0  O 

he  purpose  of  resting  spears 
The  whole  height  of  the 
e  including  the  pedestal,  is 
m  odules,  reckoning  the  module 
M  ie  diameter.     The  pedestal 
gd  the  base,  shaft,  and  capital 
■m  the  whole  entablature  2  mo- 
Q  Dividing  the  large  diameter 
:o  0  parts,  called  minutes,  30 
I  ven  to  the  base,  30  to  the 
p|,  30  to  the  architrave,  45  to 
I  Jtope,  and  45  to  the  height  of 
I  irnice,  including  the  upper 
let  or  capital  of  the  triglyph. 
he  the  mutules  are  introduced 
tl  entablature,  one  module  is 
Bigfd  to  the  projection  of  the 
imi,  which  in  this  respect  ex- 
.diinv  of  the  other  orders.  The 
eiun  of  the  mutules  is  equal 
r  width,  being  30  minutes: 
th  of  the  triglyphs  is  exactly 
ne,  and  their  distance  from 
thcr  equal  to  the  height  of 
tope,  which  by  this  division 
perfect  square.     The  sides 
hannels  of  the  triglyphs  are 
it  angles  with  each  other, 
i  LTcolumniation  of  this  order 
uied  with  difficulty,  arising 
e  strict  regard  that  is  always 
i  the  due  width  of  the  tri- 
and  the  perfectly  square 
f  the  metopes  or  their  inter- 
Besides,  it  is  absolutely  re- 
I    that  a  triglyph  should  be 
exactly  over  the  centre  of 
fry  alumn.    For  these  reasons, 
e  iltules   and    Iriglyphs  have 
h  nitted  in  capital  works,  both 
He   and    modern,    as  in  the 
pfm  at  Rome,  and  the  Roval 
Bp  I  at  Greenwich.  Palladio 
*  gjp  an  instance  of  an  ancient 
mpli  with    angular    triglyphs  ; 
W reduces  the  intercolumni- 
,ons  •  the  two  angular  columns 
oil)  diameter  and  a  quarter, 
biclts  less  than  the  pycnostyle. 

nt  intercolumniation  is  still 
reaU  approaching  near  to  the 


D  O  O 

periostyle,  as  it  is  evidently  neces- 
sary to  bring  the  triglyph  over  the 
centre  of  the  third  column  from  the 
angle.  The  next,  which  is  the 
centre  intercolumniation,  and  faces 
the  entrance  of  the  temple,  is  rather 
more  than  eustyle,  or  two  diameters 
and  a  quarter;  and  has,  in  the 
metopes,  ditriglyph.  But  the  in- 
tervals between  the  triglyph  are 
much  too  narrow  for  their  height, 
so  as  to  produce  an  unfavourable 
effect.  The  other  spaces  are  mono- 
triglyph,  and  are  perfect.  The 
regular  intercolumniation  of  the 
Doric  order,  is  the  monolriglyph, 
or  pycnostyle,  which  admits  of  one 
between  two  columns.  The  ditri- 
glyph, or  eustyle,  admits  two  ;  and 
the  areeostyle  is  triglyph,  or  consist- 
ing of  three;  but  the  most  perfect 
of  these  is  the  ditriglyph. 

When  capitals  and  bases  of  cou- 
pled Doric  columns  have  their  pro- 
per projections,  and  are  at  any 
distance  from  each  other,  the  me- 
tope between  them  will  be  rather 
too  wide;  but  that  may  be  avoided, 
by  confining  the  projections,  or 
making  the  triglyph  one  minute 
more  than  it  should  be.  and  placing 
its  centre  a  minute  within  the  axis 
of  the  column,  which  trifling  differ- 
ence will  not  be  perceived  without 
the  nicest  examination.  In  small 
buildings,  such  as  ornamental  tem- 
ples for  gardens,  strict  regard  to 
the  rules  for  distances  need  riot  be 
attended  to;  always,  however,  ob- 
serving that  such  works  must  have 
an  interval,  that  will  admit  an  easy 
passage  between  the  pillars.  Doric 
arches, without  pedestals,  are  seven 
diameters  and  three-fourths  high ; 
and  in  width  four  diameters  and 
fifteen  minutes-  The  piers  are  two 
modules  in  front,  and  in  thickness 
one  module,  twenty-two  and  a  half 
minutes;  or  in  proportion  to  their 
distance  from  the  wall.  From  cen- 
tre to  centre  of  each  pier  is  six  dia- 

21 


DOR 


DRA 


meters  and  fifteen  minutes.  Arches 
of  this  order,  with  pedestals,  have 
their  apertures,  in  height  nine  dia- 
meters and  thirty  minutes;  and  in 
their  width  five  diameters,  fifteen 
minutes.  The  piers  are  two  dia- 
meters and  fifteen  minutes  wide  in 
front. ;  and  from  centre  to  centre  of 
each  is  seven  diameters  and  fifteen 
minutes. 

The  distinguishing  characteristic 
of  the  Doric  order  is  the  want  of 
a  base.  The  flutings  are  few,  large, 
and  very  little  concave.  (See  Flui- 
ings.)  The  capital  has  no  astragal, 
but  only  one  or  more  fillets,  which 
separate  the  flutings  from  the  torus. 
Amongst  the  finest  ancient  monu- 
ments of  the  Doric  order  may  be 
named  the  ruins  of  Paestum.  The 
temples  of  Minerva  and  of  Theseus, 
as  well  as  the  Propylaea  at  Athens ; 
those  of  Juno,  of  Hercules,  and  of 
Concord  at  Agrigentum  ;  those  at 
Segesta  and  Selinus  in  Sicily;  that 
of  Coza,  and  that  of  Minerva,  at 
Syracuse.  The  proportions  of  the 
Doric  column,  in  the  ancient  monu- 
ments which  remain,  are  much 
shorter  than  those  adopted  by  the 
moderns,  its  mean  proportion  being 
about  four  diameters  and  a  half. 
The  proportions  were  first  altered 
by  the  Romans,  amongst  whom  this 
Doric  order  lost  many  of  its  cha- 
racteristics. Amongst  the  remains 
of  Roman  Doric  buildings  may  be 
cited  the  quarters  of  the  soldiers  at 
Pompeia,  the  tomb  of  Terracina, 
the  baths  of  Diocletian,  the  theatre 
at  Vicenza,  a  triumphal  arch  at 
Verona,  the  theatre  of  Marcellus, 
&c.  Specimens  of  Doric  columns 
are  given  from  temples  of  German 
workmanship,  in  Doric  Order,  pi.  II. 
PI.  I.  exhibits  the  parts  and  pro- 
portions of  the  Doric  Capital.  See 
Capital. 

Dome  Portico.  See  Athenian 
Architecture. 

Doric  Temple.  See  JEgesta. 
22 


Dormant,  or  Dormer  ^ 
dow.  The  attic  stories  of  !iusej 
were  in  former  times,  gener;  •  0^ 
cupied  as  sleeping  rooms,  \ 
windows  opened  on  the  ii  | 
plane  of  the  roof;  on  this  ak^ 
the  rooms  were  called  Dorm  rus 
and  hence  the  appellation  ttfa 
mant,  applied  to  the  wind.s  of 
these  apartments. 

Dormitory,  a  sleeping  m, 
See  Abbey. 

Double  Vault.    Then  i 
vault  in  St.  Peters  at  Rome,  clos- 
ed by  a  duplicate  wall ;  an  i 
cellars  are  sometimes  so  forr  1,  to 
enclose  a  surrounding  body  cold 
air. 

Dove-house,  see  Cohmbium, 

Dove-tailing  ;  a  mode  fix- 
ing two  boards  together  by  den- 
tures in  the  one,  and  project  is  in 
the  other  of  the  shape  of  a  )ve's 
tail.    See  Joinery. 

Dragon  -  piece,  the  ame 
given  to  a  piece  of  timber  ined 
to  what  is  called,  in  roo  the 
diagonal  tie.    See  Angle  Bee. 

Drain,  or  Sewer.  A  t sage 
for  water  to  pass  off  from  ho  ?s  or 
towns;  formed  under-grouw  and 
sometimes  of  very  extensive  men- 
sions  in  cities;  necessary  to'ivey 
away  not  only  superfluous  iter, 
but  impurities  of  every  descr  ion, 
In  all  places  subject  to  dan  less, 
it  is  of  great  importance  K  iake 
drains  before  buildings  are  ei  too ; 
but  a  situation  in  some  cleji  eld* 
vated,  and  naturally  dry,  is  i  >J 
preferred.  See  Arch,  an( : Air- 
trap. 

Draught,  or  Drawing. 
tectural  composition  or  design lin; 
derstood  to  be  a  necessary  nle  ol 
conveying  instructions  to  th(M* 
tical  builder  and  the  workmen  v  * 
hibiting  a  comprehensive  \ 
projected   building;  drawin 
this  purpose  must  he  executt  *»u 
clearness  and  precision,  coP* 


chi 


D  R  A 


D  R  O 


tio- 
tin 

fer 
pa 
Soi 
ex 
an 
Di 


■g,  to  a  regular  scale  of  propor- 
Plans,  elevations,  and  sec- 
are  to  represent  the  internal 
ires  of  the  apartments,  halls, 
ages,  and  various  arrangements 
rnaraent  or  convenience,  and  the 
nal  facades,  porticos,  domes, 
other   outward  appendages, 
vings  of  the  smaller  parts  of 
ditice  will  be  required,  numer- 
ii)  proportion  to  the'r  extent 
m  variety  of  form.    Where  the 
fiidles  of  a  building  differ  con- 
siti  ablv,  elevations  of  each  of  them 
e  required ;  and  more  than 
[reneral  view  of  the  projected 
u  n<?  will  be  necessary,  to  give 
ete  satisfaction  to  the  pro- 
prior. 

k,  aught  Compasses,  have 
ible  points,  peculiarly  useful 
inlrming  the  fine  lines  in  archi- 
tect ral  drawings.  See  Mathema- 
tic  Instruments. 

haw  -  more  Pin,  a  joiner's 
toe  of  a  solid  piece  of  steel  taper- 
ina.rom  the  handle;  used  for  the 
pupse  of  enlarging  the  pin-holes 
wh|i  are  to  secure  a  mortise. 
Wljn  this  purpose  is  effected  by 
th&riving  in  of  the  draw-bore  pin, 
thefvooden  pins  are  immediately 
■fed. 

law-bridge,  a  bridge  made 
1  up  or  let  down,  admitting 
or  ifectinir  communication  at  plea- 
sur[  much  used  in  fortified  places. 
Thyare commonly  made  with  plyers 
twi;  the  length  of  the  gate,  and  a 
foo.n  diameter.  The  inner  square 
is  |i versed  with  a  cross,  which 
sers  as  a  counterpoise;  and  strong 
cha;sof  iron  hang  from  the  extre- 
mit;  of  the  plvers,  to  let  down  or 
lift  p  the  bridge.  In  navigable 
nvf  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
ma  the  middle  arch  of  bridges 
wit  :wo  moveable  platforms,  to  be 
Mi*  occasionally,  in  order  to  let 
tl>e|  asts  and  rigging  of  ships  pass 
■high. 


Drawing  Room,  sometimes 
with  greater  apparent  propriety, 
called  the  withdrawing  room,  in 
noblemen's  houses  and  splendid 
mansions,  is  a  large  and  elegant 
apartment  into  which  the  company 
withdraw  after  dinner. 

Dressing,  is  the  operation  of 
squaring  and  smoothing  stones  for 
building,  by  the  hammer  and  mallet, 
called  hammer-dressing;  or  further 
by  afterwards  rubbing  the  outward 
face  smooth.  See  Masonry,  and 
Stories. 

Dressing  Room,  an  apart- 
ment contiguous  to  the  sleeping- 
room,  for  the  convenience  of  dress- 
ing ;  having  usually  an  entrance 
door  from  without,  for  the  admission 
of  the  valet. 

Dressing.  Ornamental  projec- 
tions from  walls,  of  various  descrip- 
tions, receive  this  appellation  ;  as 
also  the  architraves,  borderings,  and 
facings  of  doors  and  apertures. 

Drift,  applied  to  arches,  and 
synonymous  with  the  term  or  phrase 
shoot  and  thrust,  intended  to  ex- 
press the  powerful  impetus  of  the 
arch  against  the  pier,  caused  by  the 
slanting  position  of  the  courses 
of  which  it  is  composed;  it  is  kept 
from  falling  by  the  resistance  of  the 
abutments. 

Drip,  a  name  given  to  the 
member  of  a  cornice,  which  has  a 
projection  beyond  the  other  parts, 
arid  a  form  adapted  to  the  purpose 
of  throwing  off  water  by  small  por- 
tions, or  drop  by  drop  ;  it  is  also 
called  the  Larmier. 

Dripping  Eaves  are  the  termi- 
nating projections  of  inclined  roofs 
of  houses,  to  which  there  is  no  gut- 
ters adapted  for  carrying  away  the 
water,  which,  therefore,  falls  into 
the  streets.  The  building  act  pro- 
h  bits  this  description  of  eaves  in 
London. 

Dromos.  An  enclosed  entrance 
to  ancient  buildings. 

83 


D  R  U 


D  RU 


Drops,  (guttce,  Lat.)  are  orna- 
ments of  a  conical  form,  hanging, 
drop-like,  in  the  cornice  of  the  Do- 
ric order,  below  the  mutules,  and  on 
the  architrave  under  the  triglyphs, 
six  under  each.  Drops  of  a  conical 
form  are  peculiar  to  the  Roman 
Doric ;  those  of  the  pure  Doric 
being-  more  or  less  inclined  to  the 
cylindric  form. 

The  drops  in  the  cornice  of  the 
Doric  portico  at  Athens  are  not 
much  more  than  one-fourth  of  their 
diameter  in  height ;  but  those  of  the 
epi-style  are  more  than  half  their 
diameter  in  height. 

Drovfd  Ashler,  the  coarsest 
kind  of  hewn  stone  for  building. 
See  Masonry. 

Droved  and  stripped.  A 
series  of  grooves  an  eighth  of  an 
inch  deep,  cut  with  a  three-quarter- 
inch  chisel,  leaving  a  droved  space 
between  each,  constitutes  the  hewn 
variety  of  building  stones  to  which 
this  name  is  given;  a  sort  common 
in  Scotland,  but  not  used  in  Eng- 
land. 

Druidical  Architecture. 
Some  observations  have  been  al- 
ready given,  under  Celtic  Archi- 
tecture, on  the  domestic  buildings 
of  the  ancient  Britons,  the  present 
article  will,  therefore,  be  principally 
devoted  to  their  religious  and  sacred 
edifices.  Various  remains  of  the 
ancient  Druidical  buildings  are 
found  scattered  over  different  parts 
of  England  and  Wales,  and  form 
interesting  objects  of  antiquarian 
research.  Some  of  the  most  re- 
markable monuments  of  the  Druids 
are  the  circles  of  unwrought  upright 
stones,  commonly  recognized  under 
the  name  of  Druidical  Temples. 
They  are  usually  found  in  elevated 
situations,  and  one  structure  often 
consists  of  several  circles,  either 
concentric,  lateral,  or  in  some  other 
mode  of  disposal,  indicating  an  at- 
tention to  mathematical  regularity 

24 


of  arrangement.  They  are 
in  Cornwall,  (where  the  pwL| 
are  denominated  the  Hurler}  jn 
Cumberland,  ( Long  Meg  awcLr 
Daughters,)  Derbyshire,  Dim- 
shire,  Dorsetshire,  Oxford  ri 
(Rollrich,)  Somersetshire,  (Sta 
Drew,)  Westmorland  and  Will  1P) 
(Avebury  and  Stonehe?ige.)  L« 
are  very  common  in  Wales,  an  in 
frequently  found  in  the  W«  : 
Isles.  It  is  remarkable  that 
are  also  found  in  Icela1  d,  NoiW 
Sweden,  Denmark,  and  various  rtj 
of  Germany.  Amongst  othe 
guments  for  the  great  antiqu  of 
these  monuments  in  Britain,  n 
observed,  that  in  some  inst  :es 
they  are  crossed  and  injure;  by 
Roman  ways.  Circles  of  ston  .p. 
pear  indeed  to  have  been  us*  in 
the  performance  of  religious  nd 
judicial  ceremonies,  by  the  pst 
remote  nations  of  antiquity,  jid, 
under  the  prevalence  of  that  hi- 
larity of  manners,  which  ma  be 
traced  between  nearly  all  coiniies 
in  the  infancy  of  society,  they  j?re 
probably  constructed  by  the  eaest 
ministers  of  the  Druidical  reli!>n. 
These  circles  are  frequently  find 
to  have  been  surrounded  by  a  jch 
and  a  vallum,  the  latter  formin.  he 
boundary,  or  being  on  the  i|ter 
side.  The  number  of  stones  i  ai 
from  uniform,  and  in  some  insUi'es 
it  is  not  more  than  nine.  I e| he 
circle  called  Grey  Yards,  in  ( n- 
berland,  there  are  eighty-eight,  lie 
following  sketch  of  the  plans  isl 
prevalent  among  these  circle  is 
condensed  from  Borlase.  —  i  n 
figure  is  either  simple  or  im- 
pounded. Of  the  first  kintan 
exact  circle,  elliptical  or  serrtir- 
cular.  The  construction  of  m 
is  not  always  the  same,  some  r- 
ing  their  circumference  marked  W 
large  separate  stones  only;  ojw 
have  ridges  of  small  stones  \w 
mixed,  and  sometimes  walls.  0(W 


D  R  U 

ha  their  figure  more  complex  and 
,    d,  consisting'  not  only  of  a  cir- 
iJnit  of  other  distinguishing  pro- 
,s.    In  or  near  the  centre  of 
,  ...  stands  a  stone  taller  than  the 
s  in  the  middle  of  others  is  a 
,u,;Jen,  whilst  a  cromlech  dis- 
;  nlishes  the  centre  of  some  cir- 
Some  have  only  one  line  of 
,  s  iii  their  circumference,  and 
i;  s  two;  some  circles  are  adja- 
some  contiguous,  some  in- 
lik  and   some   intersect  each 
oi   ;  urns,  skeletons,  and  other 
fuiral  deposits,  are  found  in  or 
them.     Some  are  curiously 
ereed  on  geometrical  plans,  the 
h  entrances  facing  the  cardinal 
s  of  havens.      Some  have 
ivrfues  leading  to  them,  placed 
x  :ly  north  and  south,  with  de- 
ta<  d  stones,  sometimes  in  straight 
i in  to  the  east  and  west,  some- 
niangular.  The  principal  w  orks 
n  treat  on  these  circles,  are 
Boise's  Antiquities  of  Cornwall; 
Kt  land's   Mona   Antiqua  ;  Dr. 
Streleys  Works;  King's  Muni- 
mda  Antiqua;  Sir  R.  C.  Hoare's 
Arjent Wiltshire  ;  Polwhele's  His- 
tot  of  Devonshire. 

ie  of  the  most  extraordinary 
Didical  circles  in  Britain,  is  that 
of '.'onehengc,  in  the  middle  of  a 
fla  trea,  near  the  summit  of  a  hill, 
sixniles  from  Salisbury.  It  is  en- 
ded by  a  circular  double  bank 
i     an  ditch  near  30  feet  broad,  after 
<  r(  ing  which  we  ascend  30  yards 
<*we  reach  the  woik.    It  con- 
is   sis[  of  two  circles  and  two  ovals. 
Hi  outer  circle  is  about  108  feet 
in  ameter,  consisting,  when  entire, 
1  stones,  30  uprights  and  30 
im'sts,  of  which  only  24  uprights 
retjin,  17   standing,   and  seven 
doi,  and  eij;ht  imposts.  They 
an  diree  and  a  H£jf  feet  asunder, 
kl  en  uprights  have  their  four  im- 
poi  upon  them  by  the  grand  en- 
tire.   These  stones  are  from  13 
D  . 


DRU 

to  20  feet  high.  The  lesser  circle 
is  somewhat  more  than  eight  feet 
from  the  inside  of  the  outer  one, 
and  consisted  of  40  lesser  stones, 
the  highest  being  six  feet :  19  re- 
main, of  which  11  only  are  stand- 
ing. The  Adytum  or  cell  is  an 
oval  formed  of  10  stones,  from  16 
to  22  feet  high,  in  pairs,  with  im- 
posts, which  Dr.  Stukeley  terms 
trilithons,  and  above  30  feet  high, 
rising  in  height  as  they  go  round, 
each  pair  separate,  and  not  connect- 
ed as  the  outer  pair.  Within  these 
are  19  more  smaller  single  stones, 
of  which  only  six  are  standing.  At 
the  upper  end  of  the  Adytum  is  the 
altar,  a  large  slab  of  blue  coarse 
marble,  20  inches  thick,  16  feet 
long,  and  4  broad;  pressed  down 
by  the  weight  of  the  vast  stones 
that  have  fallen  upon  it.  The  whole 
number  of  stones,  uprights,  imposts, 
and  altars,  is  140.  The  heads  of 
oxen,  deer,  and  other  animals,  have 
been  found  on  digging  in  and  about 
Stonehenge,  and  there  are  numer- 
ous barrows  in  its  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood. There  are  three  en- 
trances from  the  plain,  the  most 
considerable  of  which  is  from  the 
north-east,  and  at  each  of  them 
were  raised,  on  the  outside  of  the 
trench,  two  huge  stones,  with  two 
smaller  within,  parallel  to  them. 

Other  Druidical  monuments  are 
Logan,  or  Rocking  Stones;  these  are 
stones  generally  of  immense  bulk 
and  weight,  placed  on  so  small  a 
centre,  and  in  so  exact  an  equili- 
brium, that  it  moves  to  a  certain 
degree  with  the  application  of  a 
very  small  power,  as  the  touch  of 
the  hand,  but  which  could  not  be 
thrown  down  by  any  common  force. 
They  are  found  in  Cumberland, 
Cornwall,  &c.  Others  from  their 
form  are  denominated  Rock  Idols, 
and  Tollmen.  The  hollow  inden- 
tations often  found  on  rocks,  &c 
in  Cornwall  and  Derbyshire,  And 

25 


DRU 


DRU 


sometimes  bearing  evident  marks 
of  being;  artificial  works,  are  called 
Rock  basins,  and  are  supposed  to 
have  been  used  by  the  Druids. 
The  Cromlech  is  a  rude  monument, 
consisting:  of  several  huge  upright 
stones,  which  act  as  supporters  to 
a  stone  placed  nearly  horizontally. 
The  number  of  upright  stones  is 
sometimes  three  and  even  six,  and  in 
a  few  instances  more.  The  stone  at 
top  is  generally  of  a  swelling  form, 
approaching:  to  convexity,  and  they 
are  often  found  on  Carnedds,  or 
artificial  hillocks  of  loose  stones. 
— They  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  England.  They  are  sup- 
posed by  many  to  have  been  used 
as  altars.  On  a  subject  like  this, 
tradition  is  often  worthy  of  notice. 
A  cromlech  in  the  midst  of  a  circle 
of  stones,  in  the  isle  of  Arran  in 
Scotland,  is  asserted  by  the  thinly 
spread  and  stationary  inhabitants 
of  that  lonely  district,  to  have  been 
the  place  w  on  which  the  ancient 
inhabitants  burnt  their  sacrifices  in 
the  time  of  the  heathens."  See 
Martin's  Descriptions  of  the  West- 
ern Isles,  p.  220. 

In  many  parts  of  England  and 
Wales,  are  high  and  massy  stones, 
in  an  erect  position,  either  single 
or  two  or  three  together,  and  con- 
sidered as  monuments  erected  by  the 
ancient  Britons  in  commemoration 
of  some  great  event  which  happened 
there.  At  Rudston,  in  the  East 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  a  single 
stone  of  this  kind,  twenty-four  feet 
high,  five  feet  ten  inches  broad,  and 
two  feet  three  inches  thick.  There 
are  three  stones  near  the  village  of 
Trelech,  in  Monmouthshire,  of  which 
the  lowest  is  ten,  and  the  highest 
fifteen  feet.  They  are  called  by  the 
natives  Harold's  stones.  In  the 
same  parish  is  a  remarkable  tumu- 
lus, called  Cryg  y  Dyrn,  sixty  paces 
in  circumference,  and  six  yards  high. 
It  is  chief!  v  composed  of  small  stones 

2G 


covered  with  turf,  and  may  pro)  ) 
be  called  a  carnedd.  Upon  th|  1 
is  a  large  flat  stone  of  an  oval  I  / 
three  yards  long,  and  twelve  ir  Cs 
thick.  Under  it  was  found  a 
vaen,  or  stone  chest,  four  feet 
and  three  broad,  composed  ofsE 
stones.  It  is  supposed  to  be  he 
burial-place  of  some  British  m 
before^the  Roman  invasion,  h!^ 
same  village  are  the  remains  M 
entrenched  camp.  These  mo- 
ments appear  in  many  instanc  to 
have  been  looked  on  by  the  Br  ns 
with  superstitious  veneration.  ! 

Tumuli  or  Barrows  are  font  in 
various  parts  of  England  and  \V  i 
and  vary  much  in  shape,  size,  id 
situation.  Some  of  the  most  cu;  us 
occur  in  Cornwall,  Derbyshire,  >r- 
setshire,  Hampshire,  Lincoinse, 
Kent,  and  Wiltshire.  S:r  R.  I 
Hoare,  in  his  History  of  Andnt 
Wilts,  distinguishes  them  into  le 
following  classes.  The  most  arm 
kind  appear  from  their  conten  to 
be  those  he  terms  Long  Barrh, 
which,  he  says,  "  differ  consideijly 
in  their  structure  as  well  as  din! 
sions;  some  of  them  resembkm 
egg  cut  in  two  lengthways,  andie 
convex  side  placed  uppermost;  s le 
are  almost  of  a  triangular  foi; 
whilst  others  are  thrown  up  ;a 
long  ridge,  of  nearly  equal  bre;  h 
at  each  end ;  but  we  find  r.:e 
generally  one  end  of  these  ban  's 
broader  than  the  other,  and 
broad  end  pointing  towards 
east."  They  are  generallytfo  d 
on  elevated  spots,  and  single ; 
sometimes  one  of  them  is  foun 
the  midst  of  a  group  of  others. 
Bowl  Barrow,  is  so  called  frorrcs 
obtuse  rotundity  of  form,  ands 
sometimes  surrounded  by  a  slut 
ditch.  The  Bell  Barrow  "  f 
its  elegance  of  form  seems  to  np 
been  a  refinement  on  the  bowl 
row."  The  Druid  Barrow 
supposed,  by  Dr.  Stuksley,  to  Ire 


DUN 


DUN 


bonded  to  the  ministers  of  religion, 
bi  Sir  Richard  has  strong  reason 
supposing  that  it  was  appro- 
ved to  females.  The  outward 
v  urn,  with  the  ditch  within,  is 

:  t  beautifully  moulded:  in  the 
Ji  are  sometimes  two  or  three 
ds,  which  often  contain  small 

ik  &c.  The  Pond  Barrow,  re- 
k  bles  an  excavation  maciP  for  a 
™  1.  be:ng  circular,  and  surrounded 
\  allum,  the  area  being  perfectly 
lei.  The  Twin  Barrow,  has  two 
tiiuli  enclosed  within  the  same 
c\  te,  and  is  of  rare  occurrence. 
T  small  Cone  Barroivs,  are  gene- 
ra.- found  on  commons  and  moors, 
seotn  exceed  thirty-three  feet  in 
dineter,  and  are  raised  of  earth, 
ai  generally  surrounded  with  a 
n;  ow  trench.  The  cist  in  which 
tlr  body  was  placed  is  found  at 
uqual  depths.  The  Broad  Bar- 
rc,  is  broader  and  flatter  than  the 
be  I  barrow,  which  it  otherwise  re- 
sebles.  Of  the  tumuli  which  are 
cc posed  of  loose  stones,  and  called 
C  nedd  or  Cairns,  Silburv  Hill  is 
a  markable  specimen,  being  560 
fe  in  diameter  at  the  base,  105  at 
th  top,  and  170  in  perpendicular 
h(  ht.  The  smallest  are  not  more 
th t  13  feet  in  diameter. 

rum,  the  solid  part  of  the 
catals  of  the  Corinthian  and  Com- 
pote orders;  from  its  form  called 
thvase. 

it y ma i a.    See  Acropolis. 
'RY  Rot.    See  Air-holes  and 
T'ber. 

I'ucts  of  water.    See  Aque- 

umiiata  tombs.  See  Abys- 
man  buildings. 

i  n',  on  Burgh,  the  name 
o|n  ancient  species  of  buildings, 
of  ircular  form,  common  in  the 
0  ney  and  Shetland  Isles,  the  He- 
Nes,  and  the  northern  parts  of 
8j  land.  Borg  is  a  Swedo-Go- 
th-  word ;  and  the  Highlanders 


universally  apply  the  Celtic  name 
Dun  to  those  towers.    They  are, 
with  few  exceptions,  confined  to 
the  countries  once  subject  to  the 
crown  of  Norway,   and  generally 
built  within  sight  of  the  sea.  One  of 
the  most  perfect  of  these  erections 
is  at  Glenby,  and  is  described  by 
Mr.  Pennant,  in  his  voyage  to  the 
Hebrides — "  It  is  placed  about  two 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  valley  ; 
the  more  entire  side  is  about  thirty 
feet  six  inches  in  height,  and  was 
some    years   ago   about    ten  feet 
higher.    The  whole  structure  seems 
to  have  been  of  a  conical  form  out- 
wardly, but  internally  the  surround- 
ing wall  is  perpendicular;  so  that  it 
must  have  been  much  thicker  at 
the  bottom  than  the  top.    The  en- 
closed circular  area  is  thirty-three 
feet  and  a  half  in  diameter ;  it  is 
constructed  of  flat  stones  neatly 
placed  one  upon  another,  without 
any  cement  or  mortar;  and  at  ten 
feet  from  the  ground,  found  to  be 
seven  feet  four  inches  thick;  and 
within  this  thickness  were  two  sur- 
lounding  galleries;  one  quite  in  the 
lower  part  of  the  tower,  about  six 
feet  two  inches  high,  and  two  feet 
five  inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  but 
made  narrower  at  the  top,  and 
flagged  and   covered  with  great 
flat  stones.    The  other  gallery  is 
placed  directly  over  this,  having 
these  flag-stones  for  its  floor,  and 
being  only  five  feet  six  inches  high, 
and  only  twenty  inches  at  the  bot- 
tom, but  covered  at  top,  like  the 
other,  with  large  fl  it  stones.  This 
upper  gallery,  in  which   a  man 
could  barely  make  his  way,  went 
quite  round  the  tower,  without  any 
division  or  partition ;  but  the  lower 
gallery  underneath  this,  is  parted 
off  into  separate  spaces,  by  great 
flag- stones  placed    upright,  which 
several  spaces,  or  little  cells,  were 
in  general  accessible  only  by  means 
of  holes  in  the  floor  or  gallery 


EAR 


E  A  V 


above;  so  that  nothing  can  be  more 
obvious  than  that  these  cells  were 
intended  for  the  keeping  and  pre- 
serving of  stores.  Besides  these 
galleries,  there  were,  on  the  inside 
of  the  wall,  open  to  the  circular 
enclosed  apartments,  four  perpendi- 
cular rows  of  small  cavities,  or,  as 
they  have  been  described  by  others, 
four  stages,  or  nests,  of  small  square 
open  holes,  dividing  the  interior 
rircular  wall  into  four  parts,  and 
turning  up  from  the  lower  part  of 
the  tower  to  the  top;  each  little 
hole  or  nest  in  the  row  divided 
from  that  beneath  only  by  a  sort  of 


shelf  or  flag-stone,  and  formin<  { 
little  cupboard.  This  appeara  > 
is  similar  to  what  is  observable  I 
another  dun  in  the  same  neil 
bourhood,  and  seems  to  have  hi 
intended  to  hold  the  drinlA 
horns  and  other  utensils  for  b ! 
queting  in  these  rude  dens. 

Dwarf  walls.  The  walls  . 
closingn^ourt.s,  above  which  . 
railings  of  iron  ;  similar  walls  soi . 
times  supporting  the  ground-fl - 
of  a  building ;  and  low  walls! 
general  receive  this  name. 

Dwelling  house.  See  Bui  - 
ing,  and  House. 


E. 


Eagle,  (aigle,  Fr.  cucroc,  Gr.) 
a  term  used  by  the  Greeks  for  the 
frontispiece  or  pediment  of  their 
temples.  See  jEtos  or  JEtonia. 
In  describing  the  Propylsea  at 
Athens,  Wheler  observes,  "  The 
eagle  of  the  front  was  sustained 
by  four  pillars  of  the  Doric  order." 
In  the  Athenian  inscription, brought 
to  England  bv  Chandler,  and  now 
preserved  in  the  British  Museum, 
the  slabs  which  form  the  tympa- 
num of  the  pediment  are  called 
Auraioi  Xidoi,  which  explains  the 
expression  of  Pausanias,  that  the 
sculptures  of  the  Parthenon  were 
placed  aierois  in  the  eagles. 

Earth  Buildings.  It  appears 
from  history,  that  before  the  Ro- 
man invasion  the  natives  of  Britain 
had  no  better  habitations  than 
those  described  by  Tacitus ;  found 
also  among  the  Germans.  They 
were  dug  (he  informs  us)  in  the 
ground,  and  covered  with  earth. 
In  these  they  stored  their  provi- 
sions ;  and  into  these  they  retired 
from  the  pursuit  of  their  enemies, 
and  in  winter  for  warmth.  Some 
earth-houses  of  this  description  are 
yet  to  be  seen  in  the  Western.  Isles 


of  Scotland,  and  in  Cornwall, 
modern   times  various  modes 
building   houses,  with  baked 
dried  earth,  have  been  adept* 
and  unburnt  brick  have  also  be 
used :  in  either   case,  the  wa 
must  be  preserved  from  the  we 
ther  by  a  covering  of  waterprc 
cement.    In  February,  1 813,  a  p 
tent  was  granted  to  Joseph  Ham 
ton,  for  certain  methods  of  co 
structing  and  connecting  earthi 
building  materials.    These  the  p 
tent   describes    as  consisting 
lumps,  bricks,  or  masses,  and  beii 
perforated  with  holes  for  the  pd 
poses  of  fastening  together  by  pi 
or  bolts,  with  or  without  mortar 
cement;  the  former  tnode  beii 
always  to  be  preferred  ;  and  as ; 
improvement  peculiar  to  the  pater 
moveable  air-furnaces  are  succe 
sively  placed  in  various  parts 
the  walls,  by  which  the  most  ir 
portant  are   soldered  or  vitrifi* 
together.  —  Repertory    of  An 
1815,  vol.  xxvi. 

Eating  Room.  See  Abaci  ai 
Dining  Boom. 

Eaves,  (efese,  Sax.)  the  ove 
hanging  edges  of  a  roof.  Gutte 


ECB 

w2  generally  made  by  the  ancient 
arjUects  above  the  extremity  of 
th -saves,  in  the  tipper  part  of  the 
Jatium  :  they  were  ornamented, 
:  ]  the  Erectheium,  by  the  ends 
of  ie  joints,  which  extended  from 
thfidge  to  the  eaves.    In  the  in- 
sc  »tion  mentioned  in  the  article 
EUe,  which  relates  to  the  build- 
inlf  this  temple,  their  ornamented 
as  or  joint-stones,  are  termed 
yfroXot  \idot,  which  is  supposed 
■  -  Jr.  VVilkins  to  be  the  upright 
cinlar  pieces,  which  terminate  the 
tiles  at  the  eaves  or  gutters, 
idetimes  the  water  was  thrown 
ofl  h rough  the  mouths  of  lions' 
heps, sculptured  in  the  cymatium, 
n  sometimes  the  circular  oma- 
mit  on  the  eaves  was  formed  of 
,  rs  clay,  where  it  was  called 
ft  yvXcthiQ,  or  yoyyv\oedr}Q  ke- 
ou:c.    The  joint-tiles  are  called 
in  nother  part  of  the  inscription 
ap  i ;  the  eaves  being  first  placed, 
thi  tiles,  and  the  other  rows  in 
ii."   su  sssion  up  the  ridge,  the  apfxoi 
m  laid  in  the  same  order  of  sue- 
on  above  each  other.    The  tiles 
at 1  e  eaves  were  formed  in  the  top 
}f  the  cormce  behind  the  up- 
pe  fillet  of  the  cymnattum,  in 
bices  twice  the  length  of  ihe  other 
til 

wes  Lath,  called  also  Eaves 
ftp/,  and  Eaves  Catch,  an  arris 
(ill  or  thick  feather-edged  board, 
at  e  eaves,  to  raise  the  bottom  of 
tin  irst  course  of  slates,  above  ihe 
slung  plane  of  the  side  of  the 
ro<  that,  tlie  next  course  may  be 
pnerly  bedded. 

jbatana,  the  ancient  metro- 
pc  of  Media,  the  origin  of  which 
is  cribed  by  Diodorus  Siculus  to 

iamis.  All  we  know  of  its 
ex  it  and  buildings  is  collected 
frc  the  exaggerated  accounts  of 
an  'nt  writers,  as  there  are  no 
Ns  left  of  it,  and  its  site  is  be- 
co  i  a  subject  of  dispute.  Char- 


ECF 

din  fixes  it  at  Tauris,  others  at 
Haniedan,  and  some  at  Gasbin,  in 
the  province  of  Yerrack. 

Eccentricity,  having  a  dif- 
ferent centre  from  another  circle; 
the  distance  between  the  foci  of  an 
ellipsis. 

Ecfou,  a  considerable  village  of 
Egypt,  on  the  Nile,  in  Lat.  24°  6S' 
43"  N.;  Lon.  32°  54'  E. ;  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Apollinopolis  Mag- 
na. At  the  north-west  corner  ot 
the  village,  and  on  the  highest 
ground,  stands  a  magnificent  tem- 
ple. Numerous  brick  huts  have 
been  erected  at  the  top  of  the 
temple,  in  the  peristyle,  and  in 
front  of  the  propylon,  so  as  to  ren- 
der it  difficult  of  access.  The  pro- 
pylon  is  in  the  form  of  a  truncated 
pyramid,  and  is  at  once  the  most 
imposing,  and  one  of  the  best  pro- 
portioned in  Egypt.  From  a  base 
90  feet  in  length  by  30  feet  in 
width,  it  rises  up  on  each  side  of 
the  gateway,  like  two  square  tow- 
ers, without  embrasures,  gradually 
narrowing,  till,  at  the  height  of 
100  feet,  it  measures  on  the  flat- 
tened top  only  75  feet  by  18  feet. 
Handsome  stairs  lead  from  the 
gateway  on  either  hand  to  the  dif- 
ferent chambers,  and  to  the  sum- 
mit. Over  the  entrance  is  the 
globe  with  the  serpent  and  wings, 
and  on  each  side  is  sculptured  on 
the  wall  a  colossal  figure  of  Isis, 
attended  by  the  hawk-headed  deity, 
and  another  colossal  figure  armed 
wiih  a  hatchet.  Within  the  pro- 
pylon  is  an  open  court,  or  dromos, 
enclosed  with  high  walls  covered 
with  sculpture,  and  adorned  with  a 
peristyle  of  eleven  columns,  besides 
five  on  each  side  of  the  doorway, 
all  covered  with  sculpture.  The 
pronaos,  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
court,  hfcs  six  columns  in  front, 
with  varied  capitals,  resembling  the 
leaf  of  the  down,  or  Thebaic  palm, 
the  loaf  of  the  date-tree,  and  the 

29 


ECH 


ECH 


buddiqg  lotus.  The  winged  globe 
and  serpent  occur  again  over  the 
door,  and  are  frequently  repeated 
on  each  side,  with  other  strange 
devices  of  beetles,  long-tailed  mon- 
keys, &c.  A  moulding  passes 
down  the  corners  of  the  temple, 
*  ,e  same  as  at  Dendera  and  Esneh, 
so  as  to  include  the  whole  in  a 
frame.  Within  the  pronaos  are 
two  rows  of  columns,  three  in  each 
row,  loaded  with  hieroglyphics  and 
devices;  the  globe  with  wings  is 
painted  along  the  centre  of  the 
ceiling,  and  each  intercolumnia- 
tion  has  its  peculiar  ornament. 
On  the  walls,  Osiris,  Isis,  and 
Orus,  are  receiving  offerings.  The 
entrance  to  the  cella  is  quite 
blocked  up  with  sand  and  rubbish. 
The  exterior  of  this  beautiful  tem- 
ple is  covered  with  similar  decora- 
tions, but  the  figures  are  larger  and 
less  numerous.  The  whole  has 
been  surrounded  with  a  high  stone 
wall,  at  once  to  exclude  the  un- 
hallowed gaze,  and  to  protect  the 
sanctuary  from  violence ;  but  it  is 
now  banked  up  with  rubbish.  The 
temple  measures  about  440  feet  by 
220  feet,  and  its  largest  columns 
are  21  feet  in  girth,  and  42  in 
height.  On  a  lower  level,  a  little 
distance  to  the  south-west,  stands 
a  small  peripteral  temple,  supposed 
to  have  been  dedicated  to  Typhon, 
whose  terrible  image  occurs  above 
the  capitals  of  the  columns,  and 
on  the  walls.  The  cella  of  this 
temple  is  also  filled  up  with  sand. 

Ecu  f  a,  (rjxea,  Gr.  from  r)xto>, 
I  sound,)  sonorous  bell-shaped 
vases  of  bronze,  or  earth,  used  in 
the  construction  of  ancient  theatres, 
to  give  greater  power  to  the  voices 
of  the  actors.  They  were  arrang- 
ed between  the  seats  in  niches 
made  for  the  purpose,  their  size 
being  proportioned  to  the  magni- 
tude of  the  building,  and  their  con- 
formation such  that  they  returned 

30 


all  the  concords  from  the  fou 
and   fifth  to  the  double  octa 
Vitruvius  tells  us,  that  the  vases ' 
the  theatre  at  Corinth  were  traj 
ported    to   Rome   by  Mummi 
In  the  choir  of  the  Gothic  catl 
dral  of  Strasburgh,  formerly  1 
longing  to  a  monastery  of  Dom; 
cans,  Professor  Oberlin  discover 
similar  vases  in  various  parts  of' 
vaulted  ceilings,  which  appeared 
have  been    placed  there  for  | 
same  purpose. 

Echinus,  (tyivoQy  Gr.)  a  c< 
vex  moulding,  generally  ornamen' 
with  spheroids  or  eggs ;  the  up| 
ends  cut  off,  the  upper  part  of  l 
axis  projecting,  and  the  lower 
ceding.  Each  egg  is  surrouno 
by  a  border,  and  is  rather  m< 
than  a  semi-ellipsis.  Every  t| 
adjacent  borders  contain  a  sp; 
equalling  the  thickness  of  the b 
der  at  top,  and  gradually  rececli 
towards  the  bottom ;  and  in  ea 
recess  or  space  is  an  anchor 
tongue.  The  Roman  echin 
which  is  the  quarter  of  a  circ 
or  an  ovolo,  is  much  inferior  to  t 
echinus  of  the  Greeks.  In  a( 
lumn,  the  echinus  is  only  used 
the  entablature  or  capital;  and 
the  Doric  order  it  is  always  pla 
whilst  in  the  Ionic  and  Corinthi 
it  is  generally  carved. 

Echo,  (from  yjxoc,  Gr.  soun.! 
certain  kinds  of  vaults  and  archt 
generally  of  the  elliptic  and  pai 
boiic  figures,  used  to  redoul 
sounds,  and  produce  art-fir 
echoes.  To  an  architect  it  is  ve 
requisite  to  know  the  principles 
their  construction.  An  echo  i* 
reflection  of  sound  striking  agair 
some  object,  as  an  image  is  reflect 
in  a  glass.  Caverns,  grottos,  mou 
tains,  and  ruined  buildings,  get 
rally  return  the  image  of  sour 
At  a  ruined  fortress  near  Louva 
in  Flanders,  there  is  a  very  1 
markable  echo,  at  which  if  a  p 


ECU 

sorting1,  he  only  hears  his  own 
voic  without   repetition,  whilst 
thoi  who   stood  at  a  distance 
deal  the  echo,  but  not  the  vo:ce  ; 
the[;ho  too  is  attended  with  ex- 
1(  linarv  variations,  being  some- 
time louder,    sometimes  softer, 
lorafimes  nearer,  and  sometimes 
n  01  distant.    A  similar  echo,  near 
Roi:n,  is  described  in  the  Memoirs 
i  French  Academy.    As  every 
11  poir  against  which  the  pulses  of 
sou  i  strike  becomes  the  centre  of 
B  n  series  of  pulses,  and  sound 
bes  equal  distances  in  equal 
tim  ;  therefore,  when  any  sound 
pagated  from  a  centre,  and 
ulses   strike   against    a  va- 
rietbf  obstacles,  if  the  sum  of  the 
:1  lines,  drawn  from  that  point 
to  eh  of  the  obstacles,  and  from 
obstacle  to  a  second  point,  be 
■in,  then  will  the  latter  be  a 
poii  in  which  an  echo  will  be 
bea.    Hence  all  the   points  of 
the  obstacles  which  produce  an 
h  must  lie  in  the  surface  of  the 
oblijg  spheroid,  generated  by  the 
rev  ition  of  the  ellipse  round  its 
ma  axis.    As  there  may  be  mang- 
olds of  different  magnitudes, 
!   so  ere  may  be  several  different 
echs  of  the  same  original  sound. 
As  here  may  also  be  a  great 
nur  er  of  ieflecting  points  in  the 
o  of  an  exterior  spheroid  than 
in  at  of  an  interior,  a  second  or 
thii  echo  may  be  much  more  pow- 
Fi  than  the  first,  provided  that 
the  uperior  number  of  reflecting 
poiu,  that  is,  of  reflected  pulses 
pro- gated  to  the  ear,   be  more 
km  sufficient  to  compensate  for 
theilecay  of  sound  which  arises 
fronts  being  propagated  through 
a  e  iter  space.    In  the  celebrated 
ecWs  of  the  Lake  of  Killarney,  in 
Ke  ,  the  first  return  of  the  sound 
*    uch  inferior  in  strength  to 
tlm  which  immediately  follow. 
1  rthe  most  powerful  echo  there- 


EC  H 

fore,  the  sounding  body  should  be 
in  one  focus  of  the  ellipse,  which  is 
the  section  of  the  echoing  spheroid, 
and  the  hearer  in  the  other.  An 
echo  may  be  heard  in  other  situa- 
tions, but  not  so  favourably  as  a 
person  often  hears  the  echo  of  h  s 
own  voice,  in  which  case,  however, 
he  must  stand  at  least  sixty-three 
or  sixty-four  feet  from  the  reflect- 
ing obstacle.  We  commonly  speak 
about  three  syllables  and  a  half,  or 
seven  half  syllables,  in  a  second  : 
that  the  echo  therefore  may  return 
just  as  soon  as  these  syllables  are 
expressed,  the  distance  of  the 
speaker  from  the  reflecting  object 
must  be  half  of  1,000  feet;  for, 
as  sound  describes  1,142  feet  in  a 
second,  six-sevenths  of  that  space, 
that  is,  1,000  feet  nearly,  will  be 
described,  while  six  halfs,  or  three 
whole  syllables,  are  pronounced ; 
that  is,  the  speaker  must  stand 
nearly  500  feet  from  the  obstacle. 
In  churches  we  never  hear  a  dis- 
tinct echo  of  the  voice,  but  a  con- 
fused sound,  because  the  greatest 
difference  of  distance  between  the 
direct  reflecting  courses  of  such  a 
number  of  pulses  as  would  produce 
a  distinct  sound,  is  not  in  any 
church  equal  to  127  feet,  the  limit 
of  echoes.  But  the  reflecting  sur- 
face may  be  so  formed,  that  the 
pulses  which  come  to  the  ear  after 
two  or  more  reflections,  may,  after 
having  described  127  feet  or  more, 
arrive  at  the  ear  in  sufficient  num- 
bers, and  so  nearly  at  the  same 
instant,  as  to  produce  an  echo, 
though  the  distance  of  the  reflect- 
ing surface  from  the  ear  be  less 
than  the  limit  of  echoes.  There  is 
a  singular  example  of  this  in  a 
grotto  on  the  banks  of  the  brook 
Dinan,  two  miles  from  Castle- 
amber,  in  the  county  of  Kilkenny. 
As  you  enter  the  cave,  and  con- 
tinue speaking  loud,  no  return  of 
the  voice  <s  perceived,  but  on  ar- 


ECP 


ED  D 


riving  at  a  certain  point,  which  is 
not  above  fourteen  or  fifteen  feet 
from  the  reflecting  surface,  a  very 
distinct  echo  is  heard.  This  echo 
cannot  arise  from  the  first  course 
of  pulses  that  are  reflected  to  the 
ear,  because,  from  the  small  breadth 
of  the  cave,  they  would  return  too 
quick  to  cause  a  sensation  distinct 
from  the  sound,  it  must  therefore 
be  produced  by  those  pulses,  which, 
after  having  been  reflected  several 
times  from  one  side  of  the  grotto  to 
the  other,  and  having  run  over  a 
greater  space  than  127  feet,  ar- 
rive at  the  ear  in  considerable 
numbers,  and  not  more  distant  from 
each  other  in  point  of  time  than  the 
ninth  part  of  a  second. 

Whispering  Galleries  are  con- 
structed on  similar  principles.  The 
form  of  this  gallery  must  be  that 
of  a  concave  hemisphere,  as  ABC, 
(Plate,  Athenian  Architec- 
ture, A  4,)  and  if  a  low  sound 
or  whisper  be  uttered  at  A,  the 
vibrations  expanding  themselves 
every  way  will  impinge  on  the 
points  DDD,  &c.  and  from  thence 
be  reflected  to  EEE,  and  from 
thence  to  F  and  G,  till  they  all 
meet  in  C,  when  the  sound  will  be 
njiost  distinctly  heard.  In  the  whis- 
pering gallery  in  the  dome  of 
St.  Paul's,  the  ticking  of  a  watch 
may  be  heard  from  side  to  side, 
and  a  very  easy  whisper  be  sent 
all  round  the  dome.  The  whis- 
pering gallery  of  Gloucester  Cathe- 
dral is  a  gallery  round  the  east  end 
of  the  choir,  leading  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  consisting  of  five  an- 
gles and  six  sides,  the  most  central 
of  which  is  a  naked  window  :  two 
persons  may  hear  each  other  whis- 
per at  the  distance  of  twenty-five 
yards. 

Ecphora,  (ek,  out,  (pEpio,  I  bear, 
Gr.)  a  word  used  by  Vitruvius, 
(lib.  iii.  c.  3,)  to  signify  the  projec- 
ture  of  the  member  or  moulding  of 

32 


a  column,  that  is,  the  dis'an  rf 
its  extremity  from  the  naked  .f)0 
column,  or,  according  to  o  i 
from  the  axis. 

Ectype,  (ektvitov,  Gr.)  an  i  * 
in  relievor  or  embossed. 

Eddystone  Lighthouse. 'he 
Eddystone  rocks,  which  r<  w 
their  name  from  the  numb 
contrary  currents  which  they  (  si 
are  situated  nearly  south-sth- 
west  from  the  middle  of  Plynith 
Sound,  14  miles  from  the  por:  nd 
12|  from  Ram  Head,  the  nt 
land,  in  Lon.  4°  21'  W.  Lat. , 
N.  Lying  nearly  in  the  dirt 
of  vessels  coasting  up  and 
the  channel,  they  were  very  pe  ms 
to  ships  before  the  erection  c  he 
lighthouse.  For  some  time  he 
erection  of  such  an  edifice  on 
the  Eddystone  rocks  was  osi- 
dered  as  next  to  impossible,  m 
the  terrible  swell  that  broke Ter 
them.  In  1696  the  first  light!  ise 
was  begun  on  the  principal  ?k, 
which  is  the  only  one  above  v  er, 
by  Mr.  Henry  Winstanley,  nd 
completed  in  1700.  But  it  /as 
entirely  destroyed,  together  \vi  its 
founder,  who,  in  his  confident  of 
the  stability  of  the  buildtiigjl 
trusted  himself  in  it,  in  a  clrefui 
storm  on  the  27th  of  Noverer, 
1703.  A  wooden  lighthouse  a 
different  construction  was  eneil 
by  Mr.  John  Redyard  in  Mj 
wlvch  was  destroyed  by  fir !'n 
1755.  The  present  stone  builjng 
was  be^un  by  Mr.  John  Smron 
in  1757;  and  finished  on  the  jih 
of  August,  1759.  Thefounda  n- 
stones  are  dovetailed,  and  fij.ly 
united  by  a  strong  cement  to  he 
rock,  which  slopes  towards  he 
south-west,  and  is  cut  into 
zontal  steps.  The  external  pa  i 
the  work  is  of  granite,  and  he 
internal  of  Portland  stone;  fi 
was  found  inconvenient  to 
either  one  or  the  other  entire! 


'I  EFF 

!f  theUter  is  subject  to  thedepreda- 
lioifof  a  marme  animal,  and  the 
w  ingof  the  other  was  found  too 
Jisive.  To  the  height  of  thirty- 
gve  et  from  the  foundation,  the 
vhc  is  a  solid  mass  of  stones  en- 
H  mfd  into  each  other,  and  united 
:  ,  f  rv  kind  of  additional  strengfh. 
A  kk  are  four  rooms,  and  at  the 
m  it  a  jjallery  and  lantern.  The 
floors,  which  are  flat  above 
l  oncave  below,  are  kept  from 
jng  against  the  sides  of  the 
iling,  by  a  chain  let  into  the 
It  is  nearly  eighty  feet  high, 
s  withstood    the    most  violent 
Uors  without  injury;  and  pro- 
b  us  its  builder  asserted,  no- 
n  less  than  an  earthquake  can 
;   oveifirn  it. 

uging,  the  reducing  the  edges 
of  is  or  rafters,  that  they  may 
rani  together.    See  Backing  of  a 

l,i le,  (JSdilis,  Lat.)  a  Roman 
«  offitj,  who  was  so  named,  accord- 

gfio  Varro,  (lib.  iv.  de  Lingua 
ilitj  Lati;,)"  quod  cedes  sacras,  et  sedi- 
ficiajublica  procuraret."    His  duty 

is[o  see  that  temples,  houses, 
contjits,  streets,  and  highways, 
wercept  clear,  safe,  and  in  good 
rep-i;,  having  under  him  proper 
execive  officers,  as  qucestors,  cu- 
rato,  &c. 

Eifice,  {cedijicium,  Lat.)  is 
•ynqVmous  with  the  terms  build- 
bric,  erection  ;  but  the  word 
edifi,  is  more  strictly  applicable 
chitectural  erections  distin- 
guish for  grandeur,  dignity,  and 
implance. 

r,  considered  in  architec- 
ture:, the  result  of  the  sensations 
whi(  the  whole  and  the  parts  of 
an  ence  together  ought  to  pro- 
duonn  the  mind  and  the  eye,  is 
cl i ffi.. 1 1  to  appreciate  from  simple* 
desi;s.  Nothing  is  more  decep- 
IweUan  the  simple  delineations 

lk   architects   make  of  their 


EG  Y 

works.  An  architect  must  have 
great  experience  of  effect,  to  judge 
of  it  from  a  delineation  on  paper; 
and  even  this  experience  will  some- 
times fail.  Therefore  in  works  of 
importance,  architects  generally 
make  small  models  in  relief,  which 
give  some  idea  of  the  play  of  light, 
and  of  the  proportion  of  the  dif- 
ferent projecting  parts  to  each 
other,  and  to  the  whole  edifice. 
When  Michael  Angelo  was  com- 
missioned by  Paul  III.  to  finish  the 
Palais  Farnese,  of  which  Sangallo 
had  finished  the  exterior  as  high  as 
the  entablature,  he  was  not  content 
with  making  a  small  model  of  the 
entablature,  but  he  caused  to  be 
executed,  on  the  angle  of  the  palace 
itself,  a  model  of  the  size  which  it 
was  intended  to  be.  Doubtlessly 
we  cannot  proceed  thus  with  all 
edifices,  and  in  all  parts,  but  there 
are  some  parts,  and  the  entablature 
and  crown  are  of  this  number,  in 
which  the  proof  of  a  small  model  is 
insufficient  to  assure  a  good  and 
just  effect. 

Egg  and  Tongue  are  ornaments 
sculptured  in  the  echinus  and  Ionic 
volutes.  It  is  traced  back  by 
M.  Quatremere  de  Quincy  to  be 
the  head  of  Isis,  and  represents, 
he  thinks,  a  mystical  collar  or 
necklace  of  the  mundane  egg,  and 
the  tongue  of  the  serpent  of  immor- 
tality. The  egg  has  been  from 
time  immemorial  among  the  an- 
cients the  symbol  of  the  Bein«r  who 
created  all  things,  and  hath  all 
things  within  himself.  In  the  hie- 
roglyphics of  Egypt,  and  in  the 
mysteiious  rites  of  Mithras,  it  is  a 
symbolical  figure  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. 

Egyptian  Architecture.  In 
Egypt  we  have  decided  and  abun- 
dant specimens  of  the  earliest  style 
of  architecture,  carried  to  its  great- 
est perfection.  Its  characteristic 
feature  is  colossal  dimensions.  The 

33 


EG  Y 


EG  Y 


tremendous  size  of  the  blocks  em- 
ployed, the  great  distance  from 
which  many  of  them  are  said  to 
have  been  brought,  and  the  art 
necessary  to  raise  them  to  their 
elevations,  appear  works  of  super- 
human labour.  The  buildings  of 
the  Egyptians  are  characterised  by 
solidity  of  construction,  originality 
of  conception,  and  boldness  of 
form.  The  light  and  elegant  build- 
ings of  Greece  and  Rome  were  cal- 
culated to  enchant  and  dazzle  the 
eye,  but  the  vast  size  and  heavy 
proportions  of  the  buildings  of 
Egypt,  strike  the  mind  at  once 
with  astonishment  and  awe.  The 
characteristic  of  their  temples,  is 
the  immense  volume  of  their  mass- 
es;  their  exterior  being  usually 
composed  of  solid  walls,  which 
generally  have  an  inclination  to 
the  pyramidal  form,  enclosing  enor- 
mous columns  in  every  variety  of 
distribution.  In  the  portico  was 
introduced  the  most  elaborate  and 
magnificent  workmanship.  Two 
pyramidal  walls  rose  up  in  front, 
pierced  with  doorways,  the  ap- 
proach frequently  adorned  with 
obelisks,  colossal  statutes  of  dei- 
ties, animals,  sphynxes,  &c.  Their 
ornaments  were  entirely  influenced 
by  religion.  The  walls,  the  pillars, 
and  the  most  sacred  places  of  their 
religious  buildings,  were  ornament- 
ed with  hieroglyphics  and  symbo- 
lical figures,  whilst  the  ceilings  of 
the  porticos  exhibited  zodiacs  and 
celestial  planispheres.  The  whole 
mass  of  their  decorations  were  but 
a  series  of  mysterious  and  allego- 
rical inventions,  to  typify  all  the 
divine  attributes  and  wisdom  of  the 
Creator.  They  constitute  a  suit  of 
learning,  moral  precepts,  and  reli- 
gious rites,  embodied  in  forms  ;  the 
organs  through  which  they  commu- 
nicated all  those  sciences  more  im- 
mediately connected  with  the  crea- 
tion, and  which  developed  the 
34 


divine  greatness  and  power.  erv 
detail  was  subservient  to  someEs 
ends,  and  was  suggested  by 
urgent  reason  ;  every  object  fa 
most  intelligibly  to  the  eye.  t 
heart,  to  the  soul,  of  the  behi 
the  temples  being  the  sacred 
suries  of  science  as  well  aW 
The  priests,  the  great  deposfe 
of  knowledge,  were  the  exc  ive 
designers  of  the  religious  ed& 
they  alone  directed  the  tas 
the  architect  and  the  sculptoiLj 
they  employed  architectural 
deur,  with  all  its  accessories,  m- 
fluence  the  minds  of  the  peop 

The  earliest  civilization  am  u|. 
tivation  of  the  arts  was  in  1 M 
E^ypt;  for  the  inhabitants  of  3 
Egypt,  for  a  long  time  afte  r  \  I 
tecture  was  known  and  pra  ■ 
among  the  former,  lived  in  nil 
civesand  excavations  of  the  rH 
tains.  The  most  remarkablntid 
most  ancient  monuments  c the 
Egyptians,  with  the  except)  of 
the  pyramids,  are  nearly  a  1 
eluded  in  Upper  Egypt,  fro: the 
frontier  of  Ethiopia  or  Abvssi  to 
Manfelut  in  the  north,  in  the  is  I 
of  Philoe  and  Elephantina,  at  J I 
Ombou,Esneh,  Etfu,  Medinetbu, 
Dendera,  and  Gir^e. 

The  temples  of  Egypt  were  ne- 
rally  without  roofs;  conseqiH 
the  interior  colonnades  had  i  pe- 
diments, supporting  merely  an 
tablature,  composed  sometim 
only  architrave  and  cornice,  1 
times  architrave,  frieze,  and 
nice,  formed  of  immense  b 
united  without  cement,  and  .na- 
mented  with  hieroglyphics,  ;  lut- 
eal signs,  and  religious  prai 
sions.  The  same  kind  of  dera- 
tion also  frequently  occurs,  W| 
was  imitated  by  the  first  Gi  ji 
architects,  and  distinguished  I  the 
name  of  triglyphs  and  me 
the  chief  characteristics  o 
Doric  style.     Specimens  ra\ 


jes, 
the 
be 


EGY 


EG  Y 


see  in   the  eastern   gallery  of 
thereat  temple  of  the   isle  of 
Phhe,  in  an  architrave  fragment 
at  aum  Ombou,  and  in  the  temple 
of  ermoritis.    Some  of  the  finest 
ins  of  Egyptian  temples  are 
I  in  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
h  es,  the  city  with  a  hundred 
.    A  characteristic  of  Egyp- 
Jtrchitecture,  is  a  peculiar  nar- 
Jessof  intercolumniation,  being 
oft<  not  more  than  three  feet  and 
a  I  If  in  width.    In  the  temples 
■nqarge  edifices  of  Egypt,  there 
priirs  to  have  been  no  use  made 
of  xxJ.    Even  the  roofs,  when 
se  were  generally  of  immense 
m\is  of  stone.     Large  stones, 
resig  at  each  end,  upon  the  walls 
e  halls,  served  for  beams.— 
were  often  supported  in  va- 
u  parts  by  massive  columns. 
Oniiingle  stone,  of  enormous  size, 
imes  formed  a  complete  roof. 
:  from  ignorance  or  contempt, 
but'ost  probably  from  the  former, 
single  specimen  of  the  arch 
iind  in  the  Egyptian  works, 
thei' place  being  invariably  sup- 
;  :e  by  epistylia,  stone  beams,  or 
U .  Dr.  Pococke  imagined  that 
the  icient  Egyptians  were  not  ig- 
norat  of  the  construction  of  the 
arcl  and  Belzoni  found  specimens 
M  T:bes,  and  at  Gournon,  under 
the  'cks  which  separate  that  place 
'Von  he  valley  Babel  el  Malook. — 
But  iese  might  be  of  later  forma- 
n  A  portico  in  the  temple  of 
i  r  jpolis  is  of  the  following  di- 
ms:— height  of  portico,  60 
fi  t  height  of  pillars,  36  feet ; 
flanker  of  the  pillars,  8  feet  10 
inchi  ;  the  arc-hitrave,  as  well  as 
z  composed  only  of  five  blocks, 
N 2  feet  long;  one  stone  only 
I  t   cornice  remains,  measuring 

f  columns  of  the  Egvptian 
builcigs  vary  greatly  in  style,  di- 
nien'ais,  and    proportions.  The 


diameter  of  the  column  is  found  to 
be  generally  from  1\  to  12  feet, 
varying  according  to  their  situation, 
even  In  the  same  building.  The 
height  is  generally  found  to  be 
about  4h  diameters.  They  some- 
times represent  the  plain  trunk  of  a 
tree,  as  in  those  of  the  little  ten  pie 
adjoining  the  temple  at  Luxor, 
from  which  the  heavy  tapered  shaft 
of  the  Doric  seems  to  have  origi- 
nated. Sometimes  they  represent 
bundles  of  reeds,  or  the  whole  plant 
of  the  papyrus,  bound  together  at 
different  distances,  and  ornamented 
at  the  base  with  palm  leaves.  The 
division  between  the  reeds  appears 
to  have  given  the  idea  of  the  Gre- 
cian fluting,  and  the  bindings  to 
their  torus  and  astragals.  The 
central  swell  of  the  early  Doric 
shaft  may  be  traced  in  the  columns 
of  the  southern  temple  at  Karnac. 
Some  columns  represent  the  whole 
plant  of  the  lotus,  the  date  palm, 
or  i he  papyrus,  whose  calyx  flower, 
or  tuft  of  leaves,  bound  together  at 
the  pinnacle,  form  the  capital. — 
The  capitals  of  the  Egyptian  co- 
lumns represent  nearly  all  the 
flowers  or  leaves  peculiar  to  the 
country  ;  the  petals,  capsules,  pis- 
tils, seeds,  and  most  minute  parts, 
being  often  exhibited.  The  head 
of  Isis,  also,  with  its  attributes, 
often  forms  the  capital  in  the  larger 
temples.  The  Ionic  volute  is  dis- 
tinctly traceable  in  those  belonging 
to  Latopolis,  at  Esneh,  at  Edfu, 
and  at  Kaum  Ombou.  Capitals  are 
often  seen  resembling  a  vase,  and 
at  other  times  a  bell  reversed. 

In  the  plates  of  Egyptian  Ar- 
chitecture, fig.  H  is  the  capital  to 
the  columns  of  the  temple  of  Ty- 
phon  or  Ausiris,  the  evil  genius,  or 
god  of  the  Kamsin  or  destroying- 
wind.  Fig.  G,  the  head  of  Isis, 
with  all  the  attributes  of  that  god- 
dess, crowning  the  columns  of  the 
temple  at  Dendera.  The  rest,  from 

35 


EL  A 


ELE 


fig.  I  to  R,  are  various  specimens 
of  capitals,  t.tken  chiefly  from  the 
temples  at  Edfu,  Esneh,  &c. 

The  door-ways  of  the  temples, 
which  are  generally  the  most  orna- 
mental parts,  are  invariably  sur- 
mounted with  a  winged  globe,  a 
type  of  the  deity.  In  some  exam- 
ples, as  in  one  of  the  temples  at 
Karnac,  colossal  figures  are  used 
as  columns,  in  the  manner  of  the 
Grecian  caryatides.  Statues  of  the 
gods,  in  a  few  constrained  and  re- 
markably stiff  and  formal  attitudes, 
occupied  various  parts  of  the  tem- 
ple. 

Some  of  the  most  magnificent 
specimens  of  the  architecture  of 
Egypt  are  exhibited  in  the  sepul- 
chral monuments.  Of  the  pyramids, 
a  complete  account  will  be  found 
under  the  article  Pyramid.  And 
of  the  vast  sepulchral  excavations, 
which  were  divided  into  a  variety 
of  chambers,  branching  out  in 
different  directions,  forming  an  ex- 
tensive subterranean  labyrinth, 
richly  adorned  with  colossal  sta- 
tues, paintings,  and  hieroglyphics, 
a  succinct  account  has  been  already 
given  under  that  of  Catacomb. — 
The  obelisks,  quadrilateral  acumi- 
nated beams,  terminating  in  a  pyra- 
midal apex,  were,  like  every  thing 
else,  covered  with  significant  hiero- 
glyphics. They  were  generally 
formed  of  a  single  block  of  red  gra- 
nite. See  Obelisk.  See  also,  Ca- 
pital, Abydus,  JEgyptilia,jElurusf 
Abacus,  Adrians  Villa,  Entabla- 
ture, Labyrinth,  SfC. 

Ekkyklema,  (Gr.)  a  machine 
used  in  the  ancient  theatres,  to  re- 
present what  was  passing  in  the 
interior  of  a  house,  &c. ;  called  also 
Exostra.    See  this  word. 

El;eothesium,  (YXaiodeoiov, 
Gr.)  according  to  Vitruvius,  the 
apartment  in  the  ancient  baths, 
situated  by  the  side  of  the  frigida- 
rium,  in  which  the  bathers  used  to 

36 


anoint  their  bodies  when  the  ef\ 
the  bath.    It  was  sometimes  t6 
unctuarium. 

Elbows  of  a  window,  th( 
panelled  flanks,  one  under 
shutter. 

Elephanta,  an  island  ii 
harbour  of  Bombay,  celebrate  for 
the  extraordinary  excavations  nd 
architectural  remains  of  thea£J 
Hindus,  which  it  contains.  |,. 
following  account  is  taken  fro  hi 
Memoir  by  Mr.  Goldingham,  C 
fourth  volume  of  the  Asiatic  le- 
searches  :  — 

Near  the  landing-place  an 
elephant  of  black  stone,  as  la)  a< 
life,  from  which  the  island  pja- 
bly  took  its  name.  The  c<  is 
about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  om 
the  beach,  and  is  formed  in  a  1 1  of 
stone  along  abeautiful  valley,  a  its 
massy  roof  supported  by  rows  co- 
lumns regularly  disposed.  Git » tic 
figures  in  relief,  as  well  a  the 
equally  massy  columns,  havail 
been  formed  out  of  the  solid  ck, 
Several  of  the  columns  have  tn 
levelled,  and  the  figures  muti  m 
by  the  Portuguese,  who,  pror  red 
by  their  blind  superstition,  had  fn 
at  the  trouble  of  dragging  caion 
up  the  hill  for  its  destruction. 

The  wall,  at  the  upper  ei  of 
the  cave,  is  crowded  with  s'p- 
tures.  A  colossal  bust  reprenis 
a  being  with  three  heads  ;  the  id- 
die  face,  represented  in  full  * 
presses  a  dignified  composure  he 
head  and  neck  are  covered  m 
ornaments.  The  face  on  thnii 
is  in  profile,  with  a  rich  m* 
dress ;  in  one  hand  is  a  flower  nd 
in  the  other  a  fruit,  resemblin  be 
pomegranate  ;  on  one  of  its  \ 
is  a  ring,  like  those  at  present 
by  the  Hind  As  ;  the  expressi(  of 
the  countenance  is  not  unplea 
The  head  on  the  right  is  ditfe 
the  face  is  in  profile,  the  fort 
projects,  the  eyes  stare ;  the 


ELE 

of  h(r  is  supplied  by  snakes,  and  a 
:  hUIl  skull  is  figured  on  the  co- 
vtr;    of  the   head ;   one  hand 
J,;  a  monstrous  cobra  de  ca- 
,  ,//  the  hooded  snake,)  the  other 
Her  one.    The  height  of  this 
bustfe  about  eighteen  feet,  and  the 
breath  of  the  middle  face  about 
ir  On  each  side  of  this  niche 
I  afigantic  figure,  leaning  on  a 
a.    A  niche  of  considerable 
els  formed  on  each  side  of  the 
,r.    In  the  middle  of  that  to 
[fee  Liht  stands  a  gigantic  figure, 
pjently  a  female,  but  with  only 
east.    Of  h<  r  four  hands,  the 
»rebst  to  the  right  is  leaning  on 
•ad  of  a  bull,  the  other  grasps 
cqa  de  capella,  and  in  the  in- 
i  r  *'t  hand  is  a  circular  shield. — 
)  e  right  stands  a  male  figure 
g  a  pronged  instrument,  re- 
n  ing  a  trident ;  and  on  the  left, 
,  t(  ale  holding  a  mace  or  seep- 
Near  the  principal  is  a  beau- 
tiful outh  on  an  elephant,  above 
whi.  a  figure  with  four  heads  is 
rted  by  swans  or  geese ;  a 
al  figure   opposite,   with  four 
trm  is  mounted  on  the  shoulders 
I   other,  with  a  sceptre  in  its 
ban    Small  figures  at  the  top  of 
the  iche  appear  to  be  supported 
hkIs.    In  the  niche  to  the 
I   left  a  male  figure,  nearly  seven- 
leer  eet  high,  with  four  arms,  and 
i  f<  ale  about  fifteen  feet  h iti h,  on 
his  't.    A  figure  with  four  heads, 
sup  rted  by  birds,  and  one  with 
l<;ii  rms  on  the  shoulders  of  an- 
othi  are   observed  in  the  back 
d.    Several  small  figures  are 
in  irsndance,  one  of  which,  in  the 
»'ti  Je  of  addressing  the  principal, 
will  the  right  knee  bent  to  the 
£ro;d,  bears  a  crese,  exactly  re- 
serr  ing  those  at  present  used. 

/»mali  dark  room,  on  each  side 
of  t  se  groups,  was  held  sacred  in 
anc.it  times,  perhaps  from  all  but 
the  npollutcd  brahmin.    To  the 


E  E 

left  of  the  group  last  described, 
and  nearer  the  side  of  the  cave,  a 
male  is  leading  a  female  towards  a 
majestic  figure,  seated  in  the  corner 
of  the  niche  ;  his  head  covered  like 
our  judges  on  the  bench.  The 
countenance  and  attitude  of  the 
female  express  modesty  and  timid 
reluctance  ;  whilst  a  male  behind 
is  urging  her  forward.  Several 
smaller  figures  compose  this  group. 
Opposite  this  niche,  and  fifty  feet 
nearer  the  entrance,  is  another  of 
equal  dimensions,  enclosing  a  gi- 
gantic half-length  of  a  male  with 
eight  arms;  round  one  of  the  left 
arms  is  a  belt  of  human  heads;  a 
right  hand  grasps  a  sword  uplifted, 
to  sever  a  figure  seemingly  kneel- 
ing on  a  block,  but  much  mutilated, 
held  in  the  corresponding  left 
hand  ;  a  cobra  de  capella  rises  un- 
der one  arm  :  among  the  singular 
decorations  of  the  head  is  a  skull; 
above,  several  small  figures  are  re- 
presented as  in  distress  and  pain. 
On  the  other  side  of  the  cave,  near 
to  one  of  the  small  rooms  before- 
mentioned,  a  male  and  female  are 
represented  sitting,  with  an  attend- 
ant on  each  side,  and  a  figure  of  a 
bull  couching  at  the  feet  of  the 
male;  and  in  each  corner  of  the 
niche  stands  a  gigantic  guard.  In 
the  niche  opposite,  from  its  muti- 
lated condition,  only  a  sitting  male 
figure,  and  an  attendant  on  either 
side,  can  be  perceived.  A  niche 
filled  with  figures,  greatly  defaced, 
occupies  each  side  of  the  door.  On 
one  side  there  appears  to  have  been 
a  male  with  eight  arms,  and  in  the 
back  part  a  figure  with  four  arms, 
supported  by  birds,  and  a  figure 
with  four  heads.  In  the  opposite 
niche,  the  principal  is  a  large  sit- 
ting figure,  with  a  horse  and  rider 
in  the  back  ground. 

On  the  left  side,  half  way  up  the 
cave,  is  an  apari.nent  about  thirty 
feet  square,  enclosing  the  Ling  am  ; 


ELE 

on  each  of  the  four  sides  is  an 
entrance  supported  by  a  figure  se- 
venteen feet  high.  The  part  of  the 
cave  hitherto  described  is  called  the 
great  cave ;  it  is  about  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-five  feet  square. 
On  both  sides  are  compartments, 
separated  from  the  great  cave  by 
large  fragments  of  rock  and  loose 
earth.  That  on  the  right,  which  is 
a  spacious  building,  contains, among 
several  other  pieces  of  sculpture,  a 
large  figure,  with  a  human  body, 
and  elephant's  head:  theLingam  is 
also  enclosed  here.  The  compart- 
ment on  the  other  side  contains 
likewise  a  figure  with  an  elephant's 
head  and  human  body,  with  other 
sculptures.  A  deep  cavity  in  the 
rock  here  contains  cool  and  excel- 
lent water. 

Mr.  Goldingham  supposes  this 
cave  to  have  been  a  temple  dedi- 
cated to  Siva,  the  destroyer,  or 
changer.  The  bust  he  considers  as 
a  personification  of  the  three  grand 
Hindu  attributes  of  that  being,  for 
whom  the  ancient  Hindus  enter- 
tained the  most  profound  veneration. 
The  middle  head  represents  Brah- 
ma, or  the  creative  attribute,  that 
on  the  left,  Vishnu,  or  the  preserv- 
ing, and  that  on  the  right,  Siva, 
or  the  destructive  attribute.  The 
figure  with  one  breast  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  Siva,  exhibiting  the 
active  power  of  her  lord  ;  not  only 
as  Bawani,  or  courage,  but  as  Isani, 
or  the  goddess  of  nature  considered 
as  male  and  female,  and.  presiding 
over  generation,  and  also  as  Durga. 
We  here  find  the  bull  of  Iswara, 
fone  of  Sivas  names),  and  the 
figure  bearing  his  trisule  or  trident. 
The  beautiful  figure  on  the  elephant 
is  conceived  to  be  Cama,  or  the 
Hindu  god  of  love;  the  rigure  with 
four  heads,  supported  by  birds,  is 
Brahma,  and  that  with  four  arms, 
on  another's  shoulders,  is  Vishnu. 
The  two  principal  figures  in  the  niche 

33 


ELE 

to  the  left  appear  to  be  Siv  ^ 
his  goddess  as  Parvata:  heiah0 
are  Brahma  and    Vishnu,  tL 
back  ground.     The  terrific 
with  eight  arms,  is  the  thir(  wkI 
bute,  or  the  destroyer  in  <  Wn 
The  distant  scene,  where  thes  ||(r 
figures  appear  in  distress  ant  ;l  n, 
is,  perhaps,  the  infernal  n 
The  sitting  mule  and  female  ?i| 
the  hull,  are  Siva  and  his  goess. 
The  figure  with  the  human  y« 
and  elephant's  head,  is  Ganes  tlie 
Hindu  god  of  wisdom,  and  rst- 
born  of  Siva. 

General  Carnac,  of  Caleutt  who 
introduced  Mr.  Goldinoham  pa- 
per,  does  not  assent  to  the  Ele|  nta 
cave  being  of  Hindu  constn  ion. 
These  immense  excavations,  c  out 
of  the  solid  rock,  appeared  t inm 
to  be  operations  of  two  great  1  our 
to  have  been  executed  by  the  nds 
of  so  feeble  and  effeminate  a  11 
beings  as  the  aborigines  of  Int  are 
generally  consi  ered  to  have  en; 
the  few  figures,  he  says,  which  s  re- 
main entire,  reprc  sent  persons t  illv 
distinct  in  exterior  from  the  p  ent 
Hindus,  and  bearing  much  rim 
blance  to  the  Abvssinians.  He 
adds,  that  there  is  little  or  now 
rence  paid  to  them  by  the  n;  es, 
and  there  is,  he  says,  no  tra  ion 
of  their  ever  having  been  plajnEl 
Hindu  worship;  but  a  writ<  in 
the  Archaiologia,  (vol.  vii.  |>.  m 
who  visited  these  excavatio  II 
1782,  states,  that  he  was  aom- 
panied  by  a  learned  brahmin,  0111 
Benares,  who,  though  he  had  ver 
been  there  before,  recognize  it 
once,  all  the  figures,  and  expl  ietl 
with  fluency  the  history  of  ich 
personage,  and  the  meaning:  im 
the  various  symbols  with  whiclnty 
were  accompanied. 

Elfph/»ntina,  an  islan  _ot 
Egypt,  on  the  Nile,  covered  m 
ruins  of  temples,  fortification^'. 
There  are  no  buildings  of  c  I* 


!  ELE 


ELI 


nuce,  however,    m  any  thing 
appaching  a  perfect  state.  Six 
fi  intJiificent  columns  of  an  ancient 
|e,  covered  with  hieroglyphics, 
a  anite  statue  of  Osiris,  much 
i  ed,  a  small  peripteral  temple, 
36  ?et,  by  2°,  with  seven  square 
ol  nns  on  each  side,  which,  except 
ual  winged  globe  and  serpent 
ovithe  door,  and  the  sculptures 
aJhierogliphics  which  cover  the 
,;l  ,  has^  none  of  the  character- 
jsti|  of  an  Egyptian  temple,  and 
levated  shafts,  of  the  pvrami- 
dal  npvlon  of  a  more  magnificent 
?  tenjle,  are  the  principal  remains. 
Levation,  (elevatio,   Lat.)  a 
eeqetrical  projection  drawn  on  a 
i  plaj  perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 
.eusis,  a  town  of  Attica,  for- 
,  celebrated  for  its  temple  of 
Ce  i  and  Proserpine,  and  for  the 
Ellsinian  Mysteries  which  were 
i  I  rated  in  it.     There  was  also 
pie  of  Diana  Propylaea.  Eleu- 
now  a  miserable  village,  of 
tx  thirty  mud  houses.    It  was 
\isid,  in  1812,  by  a  mission  from 
thef)ilettanti  Society,  of  London, 
sting  of  Sir  William  Gell,  a 
e  jer  of  the  society,  and  well 
n  ii  by  his  works  on  the  Troad, 
1th  a,  Argolis,  and  Pompeii,  as- 
l  st    by  two  architects,  Messrs. 
J.  ,  Gandy,   and   F.  Bedford. 
•  i-  at  Athens,  they  employed 
e  selves  in  excavations  at  Eleu- 
hose  temples  had  never  yet 
bee,  examined,  from  the  depth  of 
mder  which  these  ruins  were 
but  i.     They  succeeded  in  dis- 
covling  the  great  mystic  temple  of 
i ,  consisting  of  a  cella,  about 
1  idred  and  eighty  feet  square, 
tkta  portico  of  twelve  magnifi- 
1  ii  )oric  columns,  of  white  marble, 
Wot  than  six   feet   in  diameter. 
Thi  temple  was  approached  from 
AtHis,  by  the  sacred  way,  over  an 
txtrsive  pavement,  supposed  by 
the  .ravellers  to  be  the  area  of 


Triptolemus ;  on  the  right-hand  of 

it  was  discovered  a  small,  but  beau- 
tiful Doric  temple  in  antis,  which 
appeared  to  correspond  with  that  of 
Diana  Propyleea.  The  Propvlaeum 
itself,  was  exactly  like  that  of  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens,  described  by 
Stuart.  Within  this  was  a  seccnd 
portal,  of  the  Corinthian  order, 
opening  immediately  into  the  peri- 
bolus  of  the  great  temple.  A 
descriptive  volume  has  been  pub- 
lished by  the  society,  entitled,  "  The 
unedited  Antiquities  of  Athens, 
comprising  the  architectural  remains 
of  Eleusis,  Rhamsius,  Sunium,  and 
Thoricus ;  by  the  Society  of  Dil- 
lettanti;  imperial  folio,  78  fine 
plates,  by  the  best  engravers,  from 
the  drawings  of  John  Peter  Gandy, 
and  Francis  Bedford." 

Eleutiierai,  see  Acropolis. 
Elgin  Marbles,  see  Acropolis. 
El  Hadda,   see  Arabian  Ar- 
chitecture 

Ellipsis,  or  Ellipse,  (e\\ei\ptc, 
Gr.)  an  oval  figure,  generated 
from  the  section  of  a  cone,  by  a 
plane  cutting  both  sides  of  the  cone, 
but  not  parallel  with  the  base.  If 
a  series  of  parallel  straight  lines, 
each  limited  at  each  extremity  by 
the  curve,  can  be  all  divided  into 
two  equal  parts  by  a  straight  line, 
each  half  of  each  of  the  parallel 
lines  is  called  an  ordinate;  the 
entire  line,  a  double  ordinate,  and 
the  dividing  line,  the  abcessa.  The 
point  in  which  the  abscessa  meets 
the  curve,  is  called  the  vertex  of 
the  ellipse.  The  whole  of  the 
straight  line  between  the  two  verti- 
ces, is  called  a  diameter  of  the 
ellipse.  The  middle  of  the  diameter, 
is  the  centre.  The  double  ordinate 
which  passes  through  the  centre, 
and  the  diameter,  are  called  conju- 
gate diameters  to  each  other.  Two 
diameters,  perpendicular  to  each 
other,  are  called  the  axes,  the 
greater,  being  the  axis  major,  the 


ELL 


ELL 


less,  the  axis  mmor.  To  find  the 
area  of  an  ellipse,  the  two  axes 
being  given,  we  must  multiply  the 
one  axis  by  the  other,  and  the  pro- 
duct by  78.54.  And  to  find  the 
area  of  an  elliptic  arch,  we  must 
multiply  the  span  by  the  height  of 
the  arch,  and  the  product  by  7854. 

Ellipsoid,  an  elliptical  sphe- 
roid, being  a  solid  generated  by 
the  revolution  of  an  ellipse  about 
either  axis. 

Ei.lora,  an  ancient  Hindu  town, 
called  also  Elloor,  and  Verrool, 
said  to  have  been  built  by,  and  to 
have  taken  its  name  from,  Elloo  ra- 
jah. It  is  in  a  fine  valley,  near 
Dowlatabad,  and  the  surrounding 
mountains  are  celebrated  for  the 
very  ancient  and  extraordinary  ex- 
cavated temples  or  pagodas,  cut 
out  of  the  rock  by  its  former  inha- 
bitants. These  wonderful  caverns 
were  visited  by  Thevenot,  (Voyages, 
part.  iii.  c.  44.)  Sir  Charles  Ware 
Malet,  who  visited  them  in  1794, 
published  an  account  of  them  in  the 
sixih  volume  of  the  Oriental  Re- 
searches, accompanied  by  a  plan. 
He  did  not  doubt  their  being  the 
works  of  a  people,  whose  religion 
and  mythology  were  purely  Hin- 
du, and  he  judges,  that  they  were 
dedicated  to  Mahdew,  or  Moliadeo. 
He  found  several  inscriptions  in  let- 
ters considerably  differing  from  the 
present  known  characters  of  India, 
and  was  of  opinion,  that  the  most 
northerly  caves  of  Lllora,  occupied 
by  the  naked,  sitting,  and  stand- 
ing figures,  are  the  works  of  the 
Sewras  or  Juttees,  who  by  the 
brahmins  are  esteemed  schismatics, 
and  whose  sect,  called  Srawuk, 
is  still  numerous  in  Guzerat.  A 
brahmin,  who  was  an  inhabitant 
of  Roza,  informed  Sir  Charles,  on 
the  authority  of  a  book  entitled 
Sewa  Lye  Mahat,  or  the  grandeur 
of  the  mansion  of  Sewa,  or  Mah- 
dew, that  these  elevated  temples 

40 


were  formed  by  Elloo  rajah,^ 

son  of  Peshpont,  of  Ellich're, 
when  3000  years  of  the  Dwq 

Yoag  were  unaccomplished,  w  h, 
added  to  4984  of  the  present  I'ai 

Yoag,  make  an  age  of  7984  yta 
to  the  year  of  Sir  Charles  M;  t's 
visit.  A  Mahomedan,  named  .  cr 
ala  Khan,  an  inhabitant  of  ib- 
mednagure,  told  him  that,  he  id 
been  informed,  by  a  person  c  c- 
knowledged  erudition,  that  |ey 
were  the  work  of  rajah  Eel,  iho 
was  contemporary  with  Shah  o- 
mim  Arif,  who  lived  ahove  !)0 
years  ago.  A  collection  of 
of  the  Ellora  excavations  has  in 
published  by  Daniell. 

Beginning  with  the  most  north  v, 
the  first  cavern  is  called  Jug\ih 
Sabba,  and  fronts  15  E.  ie 
lower  story  is  almost  choked  p. 
The  upper  story  is  ascended  a 
flight  of  steps  in  the  right  co  t. 
A  large  figure,  sitting  cross-leg  d, 
opposite  the  front  of  the  cave,  as 
called  by  the  brahmin  who  attend 
Sir  Charles,  Jugnath,  and  hisjra 
attendants,  Jay  and  Bidjee,  o, 
in  the  Hindu  mythology,  areie 
door-keepers  of  Vishnu.  Two  str- 
ing figures  on  each  side  ofie 
recess,  he  called>SW  and  Bud.  he 
whole  room  has  the  same  figunas 
that  in  the  recess,  smaller,  anqill 
apparently  naked.  This  cave 
sists  of  two  oblong  squares,  the  i  et 
one  formed  by  twelve  pillars,  of  w  h 
the  four  at  each  end  differ  m 
those  in  the  centre.  The  cepg 
has  been  handsomely  painteain 
circles,  with  figures  of  men,  worn, 
&c.  but  apparently  the  paintii  is 
much  more  modern  than  the  t. 
as  much  of  the  fine  sculpture  id 
fluting  of  the  pillars  are  co 
with  it.  The  second  excava  n, 
called  Adnaut  Sabba,  is  on 
left  of  the  first.  Its  entrance 
finished;  above  it  are  figun 
Luchmee  Narrain,  and  two  att«'i- 


ELL 

ant«  much  mutilated.    At  the  far 
ent]  f  the  cave,  is  sitting  the  idol 
Mint.    A  small  opening  on  the 
,  >.  >ads  to  another  cave,  smaller, 
nd,f  much  better  workmanship, 
C  but  o  choked  with  earth,  as  to 
i  ,\  scarcely   more    above  the 
ovd  than  the  capitals  of  pillars, 
,  are  handsomely  finished  in 
e  vie  of  the  front  ones  of  the 
il  we.    The  third,  called  Indur 
,   fronting  the  south,  is  a 
ic  ricent  assemblage  of  excava- 
tion entered  by  a  handsome  gate- 
ut  from  the  rock,  on  which 
re  o  lions  couchant.    The  door- 
,  .veads  into  an  area,  in  which 
!(;  a  pagoda,  or  temple,  of  a 
pvrJiidal  form,  containing  a  kind 
ire  altar,  wilh  figures  on  each 
xe  those  on  the  last  cave.  The 
m  2  is  elaborately  finished  with 
sculjure,  and  a  mass  of  sculptured 
\  serves  as  the  gate.    On  the 
leftjn  the  same  area,  is  a  very 
ban  ome  obelisk,  fluted,  and  orna- 
merd  with  great  taste  ;  its  capital 
ido  2d  with   a  group  of  sitting 
;us.     On  the  right  side  is  an 
elepnt  without   rider,  or  hoda, 
On  e  left  of  it  is  an  excavation, 
a  figure  like  the  preceding 
one  n  the  recess.   The  excavations 
on  e  right  are  imperfect.  The 
!  aretfeads  into  the  lower  story  of 
1  the  ibba,  which  is  unfinished,  but 
cor.  ns  a  figure  in  the  recess  op- 
pose the  entrance  like  the  former. 
A  fljht  of  steps  on  the  right,  lead 
to  t  upper  story,  fronting  the  top 
'    ich  is  a  gigantic  figure  of  In- 
rfttmvith  a  tiara  on  his  head,  a 
jina,  or  brahmin  string,  over  his 
left  oulder,  sitting  on  an  elephant 
cou  ed  ;  under  a  mango  tree  oppo- 
site m,  is  Indranee,  his  consort,  on 
a  li'  .    A  recess  at  the  end  of  this 
cav;  ontains  the  same  figure  as  the 
forri  r.  This  room  is  div:ded  into  two 
iqii pby  twelve  pillars;  an  altar  oc- 
CUp  .the  middle  of  the  inner  square. 


ELL 

The  fourth  cave,  Pursaram  Sub' 
ba>  is  entered  by  a  passage  from 
the  left  hand  side  of  the  upper  story 
of  the  last  excavation,  and  also  by 
a  passage  from  the  upper  story  of 
Jugnath  Subba.  It  is  smaller  than 
any  of  the  foregoing,  and  exactly 
like  them  in  fabric  and  preservation. 

Doomar  Leyna,  the  fifth  cave, 
fronting  W.  15  S.  is  about  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  from  the  last.  The 
entrance  is  through  a  lane  in  the 
rocky  mountain.  On  the  left  of 
this  lane  is  a  cave,  almost  choked 
up  with  earth.  The  lane  opens  into 
an  area,  at  the  end  of  which,  oppo- 
site the  entrance,  is  a  small  cave. 
The  great  excavation  on  the  right 
of  this  area,  has,  at  its  entrance,  two 
lions  couchant.  The  entrance  is  by 
a  kind  of  veranda,  on  the  left  of 
which  is  a  gigantic  sitting  figure  of 
Durma  rajah,  who  has  a  club  in 
his  hand,  and  a  jinoee  over  his 
shoulders.  On  the  right  is  Wis- 
wcyshevur  Mahdew  in  a  dancing 
attitude,  with  a  group  of  figures 
round  him,  among  which  is  the  bull 
Nundee.  The  cave  widens  con- 
siderably after  passing  the  veranda, 
and  continues  to  do  so,  particularly 
after  passing  the  next  section  of 
pillars,  till  it  reaches  the  centre  or 
fourth  section,  on  the  left,  of  which 
is  the  centre  door  of  an  elegant 
square  temple;  at  the  right  entrance 
of  this  temple  is  a  standing  figure 
of  Mun,  with  a  tiara  and*  jinoee, 
with  Bouannee  standing  by  him, 
and  two  small  figures  above.  On 
the  other  side  are  various  deities  in 
a  similar  style.  A  small  area  at 
the  end  of  this  apartment  descends 
a  great  depth  by  steps  to  a  pool  of 
water  supplied  by  a  cascade  that 
falls  during  the  rainy  season  from 
the  whole  height  of  the  mountain. 
On  entering  the  first  section  of  pil- 
lars, the  nuptials  of  Goura  Mahdew 
and  Parv;uttee,  with  a  number  of  fi- 
gures above,  occupy  the  right-hand 

41 


ELL 


ELL 


side.  Rajah  Dutz  and  Aim,  Par- 
wuttees  father  and  mother,  are  on 
one  side,  and  Brimha,  in  a  sitting 
posture,  performs  the  marriage  cere- 
mony, with  Vishnu  standing  behind 
him.  In  front  are  the  circles  cut 
in  the  floor  for  performing  the  Zw- 
dea  Home,  or  nuptial  sacrifices.  In 
a  group  on  the  left  is  Mahdew  and 
Parwutiee,  with  the  bull  Nundee. 
Remains  of  paintings  are  distin- 
guished on  the  ceiling  of  this  cave. 
The  number  of  pillars  is  forty-four. 

The  sixth  cavern,  called  Jun- 
wassa,  or  the  place  of  nuptials, 
with  an  aspect  W.N.W.  is  much 
inferior  to  the  preceding,  and  is 
entered  from  a  veranda  by  the  door. 
The  cave  has  a  veranda  with  win- 
dows, by  which  light  is  admitted 
to  the  inner  cave,  and  in  which 
there  are  figures  of  Mahdew,  Vish- 
nu, and  Brimha,  on  the  left  of  the 
door,  BhuLlel,  Lvchme,  and  Nar- 
raine,  on  the  right,  and  of  the 
Bharra  Outar,  at  the  left  extremi- 
ty, in  which  the  boar  is  represented 
as  bearing  Pritwas,  or  the  world, 
on  his  tooth,  and  having  Seys  under 
his  foot.  A  sleeping  figure  of 
Koom  Kurn,  on  the  right,  is  at- 
tended by  a  female. 

The  seventh,  Comar  Warra,  with 
an  aspect  W.N.W.  near  the  last, 
has  its  entrance  much  obstructed 
by  fallen  rock  and  accumulated 
earth.  It  is  composed  of  four 
sections,  divided  by  four  pillars; 
the  sections  decrease  gradually  in 
length,  the  last  being  a  recess,  on 
each  side  of  the  door  of  which  are 
coloured  figures,  one  with  a  drawn 
sword,  the  other  mutilated. 

The  eighth  cavern,  called  Gaana, 
or  the  oil  shop,  is  a  small  group  of 
little  rooms  a  few  yards  from  the 
last.  It  contains  a  figure  of  Gun- 
nes,  and  the  Ling  of  Mahdew. 
Very  near  it  is  another  group  of  small 
rooms,  with  two  Linys  of  Mahdew. 

The  ninth  excavation,  Neelkunt 


Mahdeiu,  with  an  aspect  W.S 
a  few  yards  from  the  last.  A  Ll| 
enclosure  at  the  entrance  coi  ms 
the  bull  of  Nundee,  with  twom 
ted  figures  on  each  side.  Arece 
posite  the  doors  contains  the/,? 
Mahdew,  made  of  fine  smooth  s 
This  cave  is  composed  of  se£ 
formed  by  rows  of  pillars  decre  ■ 
in  lateral  length  to  the  recess,  i 

The  tenth  cavern  is  ft  amis!  v\ 
aspect  W.S.W.  a  few  yards  EL 
the  last.  At  its  entrance  is  the  nil 
Nundee  couchant,  and  on  th  |t 
a  cistern  of  fine  water.  3j 
pillars  and  two  pilasters,  of  !m- 
sideraUe  beauty  and  elahne 
workmanship,  support  the.  from  nd 
at  the  extremities  on  each  sidore 
female  figures.  In  a  large  rptj 
oppose  the  centre  of  the  entice 
is  a  temple  containing  the  LiSm 
Mahdew.  The  rest  of  the  ve 
forms  a  large  hall,  at  each  er,  of 
which  are  recesses,  con  tain  in  fi- 
gures. The  extreme  wall  of* iiat 
to  the  right  is  occupied  by  thejow 
Chunda.  A  group  of  skeion 
figures  on  the  right  of  this  reces  re 
said  to  represent  a  miser,  his  fe, 
son,  and  daughter,  all  prayii  in 
vain  for  food,  while  two  thieve! re 
carrying  oft'  his  wealth.  Opp  te 
this  group  is  another  of  Kal  Beho. 
As  we  entered  the  hall  from  he 
recess,  on  the  right  hand  is  M 
dew  and  Parwutiee  play inj! at 
Chousur,  with  Narraud  sitting  e- 
tween  them  stimulating  a  ljd, 
which  is  below  represented  >as 
having  taken  place.  On  the  flit 
side  of  the  left  recess  at  the  erp 
the  hall  is  the  group  of  Bon\ee 
Mysaseer,  on  the  left  that  of  Sum- 
my  Kartick,  with  his  peacock  id 
two  mendaseers.  In  the  centjw 
the  recess,  on  the  extreme  wall | re 
the  nuptials  of  Jcnnuch  riJ'< 
Gunnest  Brimha,  &c.  affkiatitp 
the  ceremonies.  On  enterinwj 
hall  from  the  left  recess,  GouraM 


ELL 


ELL 


p,wuttee  are  represented  on  the 
lefin  heaven,  supplicated  by  Ro- 
„o    On  each  side  of  the  door  of 
the' temple  in  the  recess  are  two 
iiitic  and  two  smaller  figures, 
former  said   to   be  Apraon 
an  Mewraon,  the  latter  Keyroo, 
Bit,  and  Vishnoo.    Many  of  the 
pihs  in  this  cave  are  elaborately 
orimented.    A  smaller  cave  near 
I  ntains  the  Ling  of  Mahdew, 
an  a  little  farther  is  one  of  larger 
diipnsions,  but  plain,  and  almost 
ctved  up.     Several   other  such 
exlvations  lay  about,  them.  The 
eleinth  cave,  called  Key  las,  or  Pa- 
race,  looking  to  the  west,  has  a 
mcj?  spiendid  front  than  any  of  the 
otlh.   A  cistern  of  fine  water  is  on 
ight  of  the  entrance.    On  each 
d  of  the   gateway  a  projection 
reapes   to  the    first  story,  with 
mm  sculpture  and  handsome  bat- 
its.    The  gateway  is  spacious 
amfine,  and  has  an  apartment  on 
ea([  side.     A  balcony  over  the 
ilfvay   seems  intended   for  the 
Nat  Khannah,     The  pillars  on 
the  iside  of  the  upper  story  of  the 
gatvay  bear  a  striking  resemblance 
Grecian  style.    On  the  right 
if  the  passage  through  the 
-  i'.ay  below  is  Bonannee  Usht- 
boc-,  and   on  the  left  Gunnes. 
Th  gateway  leads  to  a  vast  area 
cuthrough  the  solid  rock,  in  which 
the  is  an  immense  pyramidal  tem- 
ple" whose  wonderful  structure, 
vaity,  profusion,  and  minuteness 
of  eiament,  beggar  all  description." 

'  is  temple,  which  is  itself  cut  out 
of  2  solid  rock,  is  connected  with 
thecateway  by  a  bridge,  also  of 
soli  rock.  Beneath  the  bridge,  at 
the>r,d  opposite  the  entrance,  is 
Bo;nnee,  sitting  on  a  lotus,  with 
twcelephants  with  their  trunks 
joit'j  over  her  head.  An  elephant 
*ta>s  on  each  side  of  the  passage 
wnrtr  the  bridge,  but  both  have 
bee  mutilated.'   Ranges  of  apart- 


ments occupy  each  side  behind  the 
elephants,  those  on  the  left  being 
much  the  finest,  and  richly  decorated 
with  figures.  Two  square  obelisks 
stand  behind  the  elephants,  hand- 
somely graduated  to  the  commence- 
ment of  the  capital,  which  appeared 
to  have  been  a  single  lion  on  each. 

The   twelfth   cave,  called  Dus 
Outar,  with  a  western  aspect,  at  a 
small  distance  from  Keylas,  is  en- 
tered by  rough  steps  in  the  rock, 
the  original  entry  being  built  up. 
The  middle  of  the  area  is  occupied 
by  what  has  been  a  verv  handsome 
square  apartment,  which  was  for- 
merly ascended  by   a  handsome 
flight  of  steps,  forming  the  portico, 
the  roof  of  which,  having  been  sup- 
ported  by   two  pillars,   and  one 
having  given  way,  has  fallen  in. 
The  front  of  the  square  has  a  stone 
lattice  in  the  centre,  with  figures  in 
the  compartments  on  both  sides. 
On  the   left  are    cells  with  fine 
water,  and  on  the  right  a  dry  water 
cistern.    The  front  of  this  area  is 
much  filled  with  earth,  washed  in 
by  the  rain  from  the  surrounding 
hills.    The  entrance  into  the  square 
apartment  is  from  the  main  struc- 
ture, which  consists  of  two  stories, 
both  having  a  front  of  six  pillars 
and  two  pilasters.    The  lower  story 
is  plain,  and  its  pillars  are  all  square 
and  massy.    The  room  above  is  of 
great    dimensions,    supported  by 
eight  rows  of  pillars  in  depth,  all 
of  which,  except  the  front  row,  are 
square  and  plain.    At  the  extremity 
of  the  centre  aisle  a  recess  contains 
the  Ling  of  Mahdew,  and  in  front 
of  it  is  the  bull  i\undee,  which  has 
lost  its  head.    The  lateral  walls  as 
well  as  that  on  each  side  of  the 
recess,  are  adorned  with  well  pre- 
served mythological  figures,  amongst 
which  the  Dus  Outar  (or  ten  incar- 
nations) is  conspicuous.      In  the 
centre  of  each  side  of  the  lateral 
walls  is  an  altar. 

4.1 


ELL 


The  thirteenth  cave,  called  Teen 
Tal,  (or  three  stories,)  looking 
W.10S.  is  a  few  yards  to  the  South 
of  Dus  Outar  and  is  entered  from  a 
level  surface  through  a  good  gate  in 
a  wall  left  as  the  rock  was  hewn. 
The  front  has  a  fine  and  simple  ap- 
pearance, being  composed  of  eight 
square  pillars  and  two  pilasters  in 
each  story,  all  of  them  ornamented, 
except  the  centre  ones  of  the  ground 
story.  The  area,  after  entering  it  a 
few  paces,  widens,  and  in  the  left 
hand  corner  is  a  reservoir  of  clear 
water,  and  opposite  it  an  inconsider- 
able raised  excavation  The  lower 
story  has  six  pillars  in  its  length  ; 
at  the  extremity  is  a  recess,  with 
a  gigantic  image  of  Seys.  As  we 
proceed  up  the  middle  aisle,  the  ex- 
cavation narrows  at  the  fourth  pil- 
lar, and  continues  so  to  the  end, 
having  a  small  room  on  each  side, 
and  in  the  next  panel  two  very 
large  sitting  figures  of  Sukur  Acha- 
ry  and  Adnaut.  The  ascent  from 
the  ground  floor  is  by  a  good  stair- 
case on  the  right ;  in  ascending,  a 
recess  fronts  you,  which  has  a  large 
sitting  figure  of  Covere,  with  several 
others.  Opposite  the  veranda  of 
the  second  story,  the  figure  of  Jam 
is  seated  in  a  recess.  A  doorway 
at  each  end  of  the  veranda  leads  to 
four  rooms.  The  wall  of  the  rock 
is  continued  from  these  doors  to  the 
third  pillar  on  each  side,  and  to  the 
second  in  depth,  to  give  space  for 
two  plain  rooms  on  each  side.  In 
a  recess  at  the  extremity  of  the 
centre  aisle  is  a  very  large  sitting 
figure  of  Luchmon,  with  two  colos- 
sal statues  on  each  side  of  the  door. 
The  greatest  depth,  of  this  fine  room 
has  six  pillars  clear  of  wall,  all  of 
which  are  square  and  plain.  A 
staircase  leads  into  the  room  above 
by  a  door,  on  the  left  of  which,  in 
the  landing  place,  is  a  small  room, 
and  opposite  the  entrance,  at  the 
end  of  the  veranda,   a  colossal 


figure  of  Sey  Dew ;  on  the 
Lukkool,  next  to  him  Bheem,  j 
then  Arjun  and  Dhurm  rajah,  e 
five  sons  of  Pundoo.  Opposite  ti  n 
are  Ooda,  Mado,  Penda,  and 
dan.  As  we  advance  through  e 
middle  aisle,  the  room  is  lessel 
at  the  six  pillars,  to  make  room  L 
each  side  of  this  great  recess  r 
fourteen  sitting  figures  with  eu  ] 
hair.  We  next  enter  a  kind  of  *  - 
tibule,  richly  decorated  with  ficrujj, 
A  door  in  the  centre  leads  int| 
tecess;  in  front  of  the  door  ii 
gigantic  figure  of  Ram,  sitting  1 
a  throne,  and  attended  by  the  us  1 
deiiies  employed  in  his  serv  . 
Seta  is  placed  on  the  wall  oppo  e 
him,  on  the  left  side  of  the  d< . 
All  the  pillars  of  this  apartment  e 
square  and  plain.  Remains  f 
painting  are  found  on  the  ceiling 

The  fourteenth  cave,  ca| 
Bhutt  Chutterghun,\\\\.\\  an  asj  t 
W.  10  S.,  is  an  excavation  of  p 
stories,  entered  by  the  wall  of  3 
veranda,  the  staircase  being  cho  ] 
up.  It  takes  its  name  from  be» 
dedicated  to  Bhurt  and  Chutte- 
hun,  two  brothers  of  Ramchuiu, 
whose  figures,  according  to  the  br  • 
mins,  were  the  principal  in  the  pin . 

The  fifteenth  cave  is  Biskurm, 
or  Viswahurma  ka  Joompree,  ( L  ■ 
karma,  the  Carpenter's  Ho>  ) 
Front  W.  5  S.  According  to  - 
legend  of  the  brahmin,  Biskiml, 
the  carpenter  of  Ramchunder,  (  J  - 
wa,  or  Wisma  Kurma,  creator  r 
maker  of  the  world,  butallegorica  , 
artificer  of  Ram)  fabricated  ! 
whole  of  the  wonderful  workst 
Ellora  in  a  night  of  six  mont, 
which  was  caused  on  purpose  I 
him;  but  the  cock  crowing  bef? 
they  were  finished,  they  remaiil 
imperfect,  and  he  '  retired,  bavf 
wounded  his  finger,  to  this  l 
hovel ;  and  they  consider  the  fig- 
in  the  front  of  the  entrance  of  ■ 
beautiful  excavation,  as  represent  J 


ELM 


|Jj  holding  nis  w°ur,ded  finder; 
bJSir  Charles,  with  more  proba- 
thinks  that  it  represents  a 
rfe  in  profound  meditation,  as 
miv  in  similar    postures  occur. 
Trfportico  of  this  cavern  is  light 
striking.    On  the  right  is  a 
cisrn  of  water.    Above  the  gate- 
is  a  balcony.     The  interior 
i|  i  appears    like   an  elegant 
chlel,  with  an  arched  roof,  re- 
leibling  in  style  a  similar  excava- 
tio  at  Kanara,  on  the  island  of 
Sabtte,  and  another  at  Ekvera, 
ne  the  top  of  Bhore  Ghaut,  first 
exbred  by  Mr.  Wales,  the  painter. 
Fri   the   ceiling   are  projected 
: f?  ribs,  following  the  curvature 
f  te  arch  to  the  capitals  of  the 
pilrs  on  each  side,  through  the 
wl  e  length   of   the  excavation. 
Tn  singular  formed  cave,  and  the 
e  before  mentioned,  represents 
nl    ihiAlmighty  meditating  the  crea- 
tioof  the  world,  under  the  arch 
or  mopy  of  unlimited  space. 

ie  sixteenth  cave,  or  rather 
srnpof  caves,  Dehr  Warra,  or  the 
HtCacorcs  Quarter,  so  named  by 
tin  atives,  on  account  of  their  infe- 
ric  v  to  the  others.  Front  bearing 
fr<  Jugnath  Subba,  from  which 
tin  are  about  a  mile  distant, 
S.  >  E.  The  large  cave  is,  how- 
ev«  a  very  fine  one,  and  affords  a 
bejjtifcl  prospect  of  the  great  tank, 
to\,  and  valley  of  Ellora.  Two 
pa > lei  stripes  of  stone  run  along 
thdoor  the  whole  length  of  the 
|  Ci*  and  seem  designed  for  seats 
cit.r  to  students,  scribes,  or  the  sel- 
lei.)f  some  commodity,  a  passage 
lea  ng  between  them  to  the  idol 
at  |e  end.    See  Adytum. 

m,  a  wood  seldom  used  in 
bu  ing;  liable  to  warp,  or  twist. 
Vo  veather-boards  on  the  sides  of 
btjji,  and  other  out-  buildings,  it  is 
foul  to  resist  the  action  of  wind 
anoveather,  especially  when  coated 
til  paint  or  other  composition. 


Embankments,  are  artificial 
mounds  of  earth,  stone,  or  other 
materials,  made  to  confine  rivers, 
canals,  and  reservoirs  of  water 
within  their  prescribed  limits ;  or 
to  withstand  the  impetuous  force  of 
the  sea  ;  to  form  approaches  across 
valleys  or  ravines  to  elevated  sta- 
tions, and  for  various  other  pur- 
poses. The  most  ancient  embank- 
ments known,  are  said  to  have  been 
those  in  the  vicinity  of  the  city  of 
Babylon,  for  the  support  of  cause- 
ways across  the  low  grounds  on 
each  side  the  Euphrates,  and  lead- 
ing to  the  celebrated  bridge  ever 
that  river.  These  are  described  by 
modern  travellers  as  of  incredible 
extent  and  magnitude.  The  Ro- 
mans have  left  large  and  extensive 
works  of  this  description  on  the 
banks  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Po ; 
and  in  Britain  the  embankments  in 
Romney  Marsh,  in  Kent,  are  be- 
lieved to  have  been  of  Roman 
origin,  as  also  the  first  embank- 
ments on  the  Thames,  which,  from 
the  nature  and  form  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  must  have  been 
originally  surrounded  by  extensive 
lakes  ;  a  supposition  confirmed  by 
the  British  name  of  the  city  of 
London,  which  was  Lyn-din,  (the 
city  of  the  Lake)  as  also  of  the 
frequent  recurrence  of  the  term 
wall,  in  the  names  of  adjacent 
places,  as  Narrow-wall,  Broad- 
wall,  Rot  her  hit  he-wall,  &c.  In 
Kent  and  Essex,  this  term  is  uni- 
versally applied  to  earthen  embank- 
ments. From  its  peculiar  original 
formation,  in  consequence  of  the 
irregular  recedence  and  encroach- 
ments of  the  ocean,  the  country 
of  Holland  is  peculiarly  subject  to 
inundations;  and,  therefore,  the  in- 
habitants are  obliged  to  raise  exten- 
sive embankments,  both  against  the 
sea,  and  upon  the  large  rivers.  The 
most  remarkable  of  these  are  on 
the  Issel,  the  Meuse,  the  Sparen- 

45 


ELM 

dam,  and  the  Medenblik  ;  and  at 
the  great  Bay  of  Dollar.  In  Eng- 
land, nearly  half  a  million  of  acres 
were  regained  from  the  overflowed 
lowlands  of  Lincolnshire,  Cam- 
bridgeshire and  Kent,  previous  to 
year  1560,  by  embankments  con- 
s  ructed  chiefly  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Vermuyden,  a  Flem- 
ish engineer;  and  the  incorporated 
company,  established  by  Charles  the 
Second,  for  upholding  and  continu- 
ing these  works,  is  yet  in  existence. 

In  the  formation  of  sea  banks, 
by  the  continued  motion  of  the 
waves,  as  it  deposits  long  ridges  of 
sand,  to  be  slowly  covered  with  the 
first  rudiments  of  vegetation,  and 
ultimately  secured  by  the  succession 
of  different  species  of  larger  vege- 
table productions,  whose  branching 
roots  embrace  the  consolidated 
mass,  nature  has  given  a  lesson 
to  art,  which  has  been  generally 
followed  in  these  works.  Wicker- 
work  has  been  used  in  Holland  ; 
and  bushwood,  to  retain  the  mud, 
and  sand,  and  sea-weeds,  which 
in  time  constituted  alluvial  soil. 
Sometimes  it  becomes  an  object 
of  importance  to  regain  a  portion 
of  land  which  has  been  a  long  time 
overflowed  by  an  insular  part  of 
the  sea ;  and  this  generally  proves 
a  work  of  great  labour,  especially 
where  the  bottom  is  sandy ;  turf  is 
of  service  in  these  cases,  particu- 
larly when  it  contains  the  roots  of 
marsh  grass.  When  the  shore  or 
bank  is  undermined  by  the  waves, 
rows  of  piles  are  driven  into  the 
ground  at  a  short  distance  from 
each  other,  and  in  a  line  with  the 
bank,  about  40  or  50  yards'  dis- 
tance from  it,  their  tops  being  left  to 
rise  above  high-water  mark.  This 
acts  as  a  break-water,  and  pre- 
serves embankments.  Large  ham- 
pers of  strong  basket-work,  filled 
with  stones,  are  sometimes  found  a 
good  preservative  of  these  works, 


EM  B 

i 

especially  those  against  the  side  )f 
rivers,  and  rapid  streams.  ThB 
ner  slope  of  an  embankment  sh^d 
not  exceed  an  angle  of  45  degi !5 
The  outer  slope  may  vary  frorifl 
to  45:  the  power  of  a  ban]  0 
resist  the  weight  of  water,  isL 
versely  as  to  its  acclivity;  the  p£ 
of  water  to  destroy  the  bank  b  g 
diminished  nearly  in  the  same  | 
portion.  In  all  embankments  ag-^t 
rapid  rivers,  or  the  waves  of  e 
sea,  the  masonry  introduced  r$t 
be  secured  by  the  strongest  Ro  n 
cement,  which  will  set  under  wt  r, 
and  become  as  hard  as  stone. 

A  German  agriculturist,  in  o  ;r 
to  complete  an  embankment  of  | 
considerable  dimensions  in  a  B 
short  time  ;  raised  two  strong  pf| 
leaving  a  sufficient  space  betv  n 
them,  with  an  inclined  cord  fa 
tened  to  each,  along  which  a  bui;t 
filled  with  earth  was  made  to  si  ; 
the  height  sufficient  to  allow  e 
bucket  to  clear  the  ground  in  s 
course.  A  muffle  with  a  dole 
hook  was  fastened  to  the  eft 
and  a  pulley,  very  deeply  gre- 
ed, within  the  muffle,  carried  e 
buckets  to  the  end  of  their  coui?, 
where  they  were  emptied,  and  - 
turned  by  a  second  cord  fixec  o 
posts,  with  an  inclination  the  - 
verse  of  the  first,  along  which  s 
own  weight,  with  a  slight  impuls  t 
starting  carried  it  to  its  destinat  . 
This  method  is  economical  and  - 
peditious;  two  men  being  sufficit 
to  unhook  and  empty  the  buckt ; 
it  is  also  preferable  to  wheelbarns 
on  soft  ground,  where  the  wins 
sink  much. — Repertory  of  Arts 

Embattled,  or  indented  ui 
notches,  in  form  of  embrasu  , 
and  on  the  top  of  a  wall,  para| , 
or  other  building.  The  heralds  - 
press  this  embattled  line,  or  ei 
brasure,  by  the  term  crenelle:  ^ 
military  architect  sometimes  qp 
them  cannonieres ;  and  meurtriei , 


EMI 

*h<  only  big  enough  for  muskets; 
anclvhen  the  parapet  is  so  low 
ti,a  annon  may  shoot  without  em- 
bra 

bar 


■res,  thev  are  said  to  shoot  en 


ftBLEMATA,  (Lat.)  a  kind  of 
n|j   woik  used  hy  the  Romans 
ibellish    panels,    floors,  &c. 
i<  were  distinguished  into  emble- 
ma\  vermiculata,  pavimenta  tes- 
po/Jb,  pavimenta  musica,  &c. 

Jibossixg,  (from  bosse,  Fr.  a 
pro  berance,)  sculpture  in  relievo, 
rures  standing-  partly  out  from 
the  lane.    See  Acrostolium. 

hBRASURE,  (Fr.)  the  enlarge- 
me:  of  the  aperture  of  a  door 
udow  towards  the  inside  of 
vail;  its  use   being  to  give 
r  r  play  for  the  opening  of 
the  oor  or  casement,  and  to  admit 
light.    Also  an  aperture  in 
the  all,  through  which  cannon  is 
poied,  the  same  as  a  battlement. 
M&Jrenelle  and  Barbican. 

iissarium,  (Lat.)  a  canal  with 
flo(kates,  sluices,  &c,  used  to  re- 
:  i!e  the  water  in  the  great  lakes 
K'ient  Italy.    The  two  prin- 
ip  were  those  of  the  Lake  Al- 
I  i:  and  of  the  Fucine  Lake.  The 
r  was  built  about  A.U.C.  355, 
dui  g  the  siege  of  Veii,  to  carry  off 
the  verflowing  waters  of  Lake  Al- 
bai     That  of  the  Fucine  Lake 
wa'nade  by  Claudius,  and  its  re- 
maps are  a  fine  example  of  the 
stnjth  and  durability  of  the  an- 
ciei  Roman  architecture. 

le  emissarium  of  the  Lake  Al 
bari  alter  a  period  of  twenty -two 
cen'ries,  now  serves  the  same  pur- 
pos  lbr  which  it  was  first  erected, 
tha  s,  to  discharge  the  waters  of 
theiake,  and  carry  them  to  the 
oth  side  of  the  mountain  into  the 
ficl<  which  they  fertilize.  This  ca- 
nal vas  cut  in  the  mountain  of 
Albio,  300  feet  above  the  village 
of  istel-Gandolfo.  to  the  length 
of  i  nile  and  a  half.    Kircher  and 


EMI 

Piranesi  have  carefully  examined 
this  emissarium.  But  the  remains 
of  another  work  of  the  same  kind, 
and  in  the  same  place,  by  the  em- 
peror Claudius,  have  thrown  more 
light  on  the  mode  employed  in 
making  this  excavacation.  In  this 
emissarium  numerous  wells  were 
sunk  perpendicularly,  and  at  in- 
tervals, from  the  surface  of  the 
mountain  to  the  level  of  the  canal, 
and  galleries  were  pierced  obliquely 
to  meet  them.  Only  one  of  these 
pits  now  remains  visible,  the  traces 
of  the  others  being  obliterated.  The 
entrance  of  the  canal  is  adorned 
by  an  edifice,  which  contributes  at 
the  same  time  to  the  solidity  ot 
the  work.  This  edifice,  although 
ruined  in  some  parts,  still  exists. 
It  is  built  of  large  square  stones, 
roughly  joined,  and  forms  an  arched 
grotto,  with  a  gate  at  the  bottom, 
which  gives  passage  to  the  water  in 
the  conduit  of  the  emissarium. 
Next  is  a  square  building,  arched 
in  four  compartments,  and  a  kind 
of  vestibule,  the  arch  of  which  has 
fallen.  The  trees  which  have  been 
permitted  to  grow  about  it,  and 
the  rustic  character  of  the  archi- 
tecture, render  it  very  picturesque, 
and  worthy  to  be  a  model  for  si- 
milar buildings.  This  canal  is  built 
and  arched  with  hewn  stone  in  its 
whole  length  of  1260  toises.  The 
emissarium  of  the  Fucine  lake,  or, 
as  it  is  now  called,  the  Lago  Ce- 
lano,  is  a  more  considerable  work 
than  that  of  the  Lake  Albano.  It 
consists  of  an  opening  twenty  feet 
deep  and  ten  broad,  which  traverses 
the  whole  width  of  a  great  moun- 
tain that  lies  between  the  Liris, 
into  which  the  conduit  was  intend- 
ed to  discharge  itself,  and  the  lake. 
Thirty  thousand  men  were  employ- 
ed, according  to  Pliny,  ten  years 
in  completing  it.  The  mountain 
is  still  pierced  on  every  side  with 
subterraneous  galleries,  and  there 


ENG 


ENT 


are  discovered  a  considerable  se- 
ries of  vertical  cavities,  in  the  form 
of  deep  pits,  to  the  bottom  of 
which  we  may  descend  by  pas- 
sages cut  in  an  inclined  plane.  A 
similar  work  appears  to  have  been 
commenced  at  the  lake  of  Avernus, 
and  the  passage,  which  is  now 
shewn  as  leading  to  the  pretended 
cave  of  the  Sibyl,  was  probably  but 
a  trench,  opened  for  a  canal  that 
was  intended  to  receive  the  waters 
of  the  Avernus.  See  Pirancsi  An- 
tichita  A  Ibane.  See  also  the  article 
Alba-Longa. 

Emplecton,  (f/i7rX?7KTov,  Gr.)  a 
mode  of  constructing  w^lls,  in  use 
among  the  Greeks,  in  which  the 
front  stones  were  wrought,  and  the 
interior  left  rough,  and  filled  in 
with  various-sized  stones,  &c.  In 
this  kind  of  works  the  Romans 
commonly  omitted  the  diatonoi,  or 
bond  stones,  wh  ch  were  constantly 
employed  by  the  Greeks. 

En  car  pus,  (EVKaf)Trog,Gv.)  a  fes- 
toon of  fruit  or  flowers,  which  some- 
times ornaments  friezes  or  capitals. 

En  decagon.  See  Hendecagon. 

Engaged  Columns,  are  those 
attached  to,  or  built  in,  walls  or 
piers,  a  portion  being  concealed. 
Engaged  columns  are  not  agreeable 
with  correct  taste.  From  the  de- 
sign which  Paoli  has  given  of  the 
little  temple  at  Psestum,  we  should 
be  led  to  believe  that  there  were 
engaged  columns  in  the  pronaos,  at 
the  extremities  of  the  lateral  walls 
of  the  cella  ;  but  the  careful  ob- 
servations of  M.  Delagardette  have 
proved  that  there  were  antse  with 
insulated  columns  before  them  on 
every  side.  Among  the  ruins  of  the 
temple  of  Apollo  Didymgeus,  near 
Miletus,  built  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great,  was  discovered 
a  Corinthian  capital,  which  made 
part  of  an  engaged  column,  but  it 
may  be  of  an  age  posterior  to  the 
erection  of  the  temple.     In  later 

48 


times,  the  use  of  engaged  col 
became  more  frequent,  and 
were  used  to  adorn  the  exteric 
evades  of  buildings,  as  may  be 
in  the  Coloseum,  the  theati 
Marcellus,  and  the  triumphal 
of  Titus  at  Rome.    The  cella 
peculiar  kind  of  temple,  to  v 
was  given  the   name  of  ps< 
peripteros,  instead  of  being 
rounded  by  insulated  colon 
had  only  one  in  front,  wbilsE 
other  sides  had  only  enga^et Co- 
lumns.    Such  are  the  tempi  of 
Fortuna  Virilis  at  Rome,  am 
Maison  Carre  at  Nismes. 

English  Architf.cturi  a 
name  given  by  some  to  the  G  lie 
style. 

English  Bond.  SeeBontd 
Bricklaying. 

Ensemble,  (Fr.)  together,  ne 
with  another.  The  ensembl\or 
tout  ensemble,  of  a  building,  n  ns 
the  whole  work  or  compos  in. 
considered  together,  and  ntfi 
parts;  and  sometimes  the  reive 
proportion  of  the  parts  to  he 
whole. 

Entablature,  (from  ta,'a- 
txim,  Lat.  entablement,  Fr.)  m 
part  of  a  column  which  include  he 
cornice,  frieze,  and  architrave  lee 
those  articles. — Amidst  the  renins 
of  the  ancient  Hindoo  architect, 
no  traces  of  the  use  of  theentft 
ture  have  been  discovered ;  I  jt 
was  not    necessary,  because  lie 
Indian  temples  were  cut  out  olJie 
rock,  and  consequently  the  coh 
had  no  roof  to  support.  Wh< 
the  Persians  employed  an  ent« 
lure  is  uncertain,  but  no  ves 
can  be  found  amongst  the  rui: 
Persepolis     The  Egyptians  an 
only  people  of  remote  antiq  y, 
whose  buildings  offer  exampl'jof 
its  use.    In  the  oldest  EgyfP 
temples  the  entablature  was  ry 
simple,  being  merely  a  single  m 
stone,  which  was  supported  bjhe 


ENT 


ENT 


cobins  in  the  whole  length  of  the 

burner. 

stail,  in  Gothic  architecture, 
deflate  carving:. 

sTams, (evTcuTig,  Gr.)  the  slight 
,Lnre  of  the  shafts  of  the  an- 
cie  Grecian  columns,  particularly 
J)oric,  which  is  scarcely  percep- 
I  |)|  and  beautifully  graceful.  Vi- 
having  obscurely  hinted  at 
-eral  of  the  modern  Italian 
artis,  intending;  to  conform  to  his 
pt,  carried  it  to  an  absurd  ex- 
ces:  making  the  middle  of  the  shaft 
thiter  than  the  foot.    The  follow- 
igiethod  of  obtaining  the  true 
is  is  given  by  Sir  William 
Chibers,  who  has  taken  it  from 
Bliclel,  a  French  architect.  • 
•To  give  an  actual  idea  of  the 
>  lion,  it.  will  be  necessary  first 
^cribe  Vig:nola's  method  of  di- 
lution, on  which  it  is  grounded. 
4  A  to  the  second  method,'  says 
Vig)la,  '  it  is  a  discovery  of  my 
owtf  and  though  it  be  less  known 
tha  the  former,  it  will  be  rea- 
dihcomprehended  by  the  figure, 
(Pi'e  A  4.)     Having  therefore 
detained  the  measures  of  your 
ihin,  (that  is  to  say,  the  height 
shaft,  and  its  inferior  and 
supior  diameters,)  draw  a  line  in- 
tely  from  C  through  D,  perpen- 
dici'tr  to  the  axis  of  the  column 
— t }s  done,  set  oflf  the  distance, 
CD  hich  is  the  inferior  semi-dhime- 
teriom  A,  the  extreme  point  of 
the  iperior  semidiameter,  to  B,  a 
pir  in  the  axis.    Then,  from  A, 
Ihrj^h  B,  draw  the   line  ABE, 
win1  wiil  cut  the  indefinite  line 
CD(i  E;  and  from  this  point  of 
ction,  E,  draw  through  the 
axijrf  the  column  any  number  of 
rayjas  E,  b,  a,  on  each  of  which, 
f™<  .he  axis  towards  the  cireum- 
frre  e,  setting  otf  the  interval  CD, 
you  ray  find  any  number  of  points, 
through  which,  if  a  curve 
rawn,  it   wiii   describe  the 
G 


swelling  and  diminution  of  the 
column.' 

"  Though  this  method  be  suffi- 
ciently accurate  for  practice,  espe- 
cially if  a  considerable  number  of 
points  be  found,  yet,  strictly  speak- 
ing, it  is  •defective;  as  the  curve 
must  either  be  drawn  by  hand,  or 
by  applying  a  flexible  rule  to  all 
the  points,  both  which  are  liable 
to  variations.  Blondel,  therefore, 
to  obviate  this  objection,  (after  hav- 
ing proved  the  curve  passing  from 
A  to  C,  through  the  points  a,  a,  to 
be  of  the  same  nature  with  the 
first  conchoid  of  the  ancients,)  em- 
ployed the  instrument  of  Nico- 
medes  to  describe  it,  the  construc- 
tion of  which  is  as  follows  : — 

"  Having  determined,  as  before, 
the  length  of  the  shaft  with  the  in- 
ferior and  superior  diameters  of  this 
column,  and  having  likewise  found 
the  length  of  the  lineCDE;  take 
thin  rulers,  either  of  wood  or  metal, 
as  FG,  ID,  AH  ;  of  which  let  FG 
and  ID  be  fastened  together  at 
right  angles  in  G.  Cut  a  dove- 
tail groove  in  the  middle  of  FG, 
from  top  to  bottom  ;  and  at  the 
point  E,  on  the  ruler  ID,  (whose 
distance  from  the  middle  of  the 
groove  in  FG  is  the  same  as  that 
of  the  point  of  intersection  from 
the  axis  of  the  column,)  fix  a  pin ; 
then,  on  the  ruler  AH,  set  off  the 
distance  AB  equal  to  CD,  the  in- 
ferior semidiameter  of  the  column, 
and  at  the  point  B  is  a  button, 
whose  head  must  be  exactly  fitted 
to  the  groove  made  in  FG,in  which 
it  is  to  slide,  and  at  the  other  ex- 
tremity of  the  ruler  AH,  cut  a  slit 
or  channel  from  H  to  K,  whose 
length  must  be  less  than  the  dif- 
ference of  length  between  EB  and 
ED,  and  whose  breadth  must  be 
sufficient  to  admit  the  pin  fixed  at 
E,  which  must  pass  through  the 
slit,  that  the  ruler  may  slide  down. 

"  The    instrument   being  thus 

40 


EP  I 


completed,  if  the  middle  of  the 

groove  in  the  ruler  FG,  be  placed 
exactly  over  the  axis  of  the  column, 
it  is  evident  that  the  ruler  AH,  in 
moving  along  the  groove,  will,  with 
its  extremity  A,  describe  the  curve 
A  a  a  C,  which  curve  is  the  same 
as  that  produced  by  Vignola's  me- 
thod of  diminution,  supposing  it 
done  with  the  utmost  accuracy,  for 
the  interval  A,  B,  a,  b,  is  aiways 
the  same ;  and  the  point  E  is  the 
origin  of  an  infinity  of  lines,  of 
which  the  parts  BA,  ba,  bay  ex- 
tending from  the  axis  to  the  cir- 
cumference, are  equal  to  each  other, 
and  to  DC.  And  if  the  rulers  be 
of  an  indefinite  size,  and  the  pins 
at  E  and  B  be  made  to  run  along 
their  respective  rulers,  so  that  the 
interval  AB  and  DE,  may  be  aug- 
mented or  diminished  at  pleasure; 
it  is  likewise  evident,  that  the  same 
instrument  may  be  thus  applied  to 
columns  of  any  size. 

Envelope,  (Fr.)  in  fortification, 
a  work  of  earth,  sometimes  in  form 
of  a  simple  parapet,  and  at  others 
like  a  small  rampart  with  a  parapet, 
raised  sometimes  on  the  ditch,  and 
sometimes  beyond  it,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  covering  weak  places  with 
single  lines. 

Epuebeium,  ( stripe  toy,  Gr.)  a 
building  among  the  ancients,  where 
youths  or  striplings  wrestled  and 
exercised. 

Epiir.sus,  a  celebrated  city  of 
Ionia,  once  the  metropolis  of  Asia 
Minor.  It  was  celebrated  princi- 
pally for  its  temple  of  Diana,  but 
that,  as  well  as  the  beautiful  Ionic 
temples  of  Apollo  and  Bacchus, 
and  all  the  grandeur  of  the  ancient 
city,  have  long  since  disappeared. 
See  Arch. 

Epicranitis,  (e7riKpavtTiQ,  Gr.) 
a  name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  the 
tiles  which  formed  the  cyma  or  top 
bed  of  the  cornice  of  the  pediments 
of  their  temples.    The  word  occurs 

50 


in  th^  celebrated  inscription  brou  t 
to  England  by  Dr.  Chandler,  i 
angular  stone  which  formed  L 
vertex  of  the  pediment,  was  tern  | 
the  angular  epicranitis. 

Epicycloid, (c7ruvn:Xo«c7?c, (  | 
a  curve  generated  by  the  revolnt  L 
of  the  periphery  of  a  circle  alijr 
the  convex  or  concave  part  of  . 
other  circle. 

Episcenium,  or  Episcf.n  , 
{iTTUTKrivtov,  Gr.)  The  upper  m 
of  the  scene  in  ancient  theatL 
which  had  sometimes  an  attic  r 
some  other  similar  fin  sh. 
Vitruvius,  lib.  vii.  c.  5,  lib.  v.  c. 

Epistyle,  {E-marvXiov,  Gr.  \ 
Grecian  term,  synonymous  via 
architrave,  being  that  member  r 
division  of  the  entablature,  v.h 
lies  immediately  upon  the  abas 
of  the  capital.  The  word  oci  s 
in  Vitruvius,  and  in  the  Atheri 
inscription  of  Dr.  Chandler. 

Equiangular,  having  eq  1 
angles. 

Equidistant,    at  equal 
tances. 

Equilateral,  having  eql 
sides. 

Eras,  or  dates  of  Buildir , 
see  Architecture. 

Erectiieium,  see  Acropo , 
and  Athenian  Architecture. 

Ergastulum,  (Lat.)  the  nsje 
given  by  ihe  Romans  to  a  pri*r , 
or  house  of  correction,  where  slav, 
by  the  private  authority  of  tlr 
masters,  were  confined  for  tlr 
offences,  and  kept  to  bard  labc . 
The  Greeks  called  similar  build!  s 
2u)(l)povi(TTripia,  Sophronisteria. 

Escurial,  a  village  in  Sp; , 
seven  leagues  from  Madrid,  c<- 
brated  for  the  magnificent  pal ! 
of  the  Escurial,  or  St.  Loren, 
begun  by  Philip  II.  in  1557,  i 
commemoration  of  the  battle  f 
St.  Quintin.  The  arrangement  f 
the  whole  building  is  in  the  (o 
of  a  gridiron,  by  which  St.  Lore;) 


ESC 


ESC 


.ffered  martyrdom.  It  has  the 
Ipearance  of  a  long  parallelogram 
a  h  four  points.  The  north  or 
jncipal  point  is  637  feet  broad, 
ap  51  high  to  the  cornice.  Each 
?Je  is  flanked  by  a  tower,  180 
ft  high.  Of  its  three  entrances, 
pi  two  hundred  windows,  the 
lrer  part  of  the  central  gate  is 
mined  with  eight  Doric  columns, 
a;  the  upper  part  with  four  of  the 
L  ie  order.  The  other  fronts  are 
equal  dimensions.  That  on  the 
wt  has  few  windows.  This  vast 
euce  forms  a  monastery,  as  well 
an  palace.  The  old  church  is  129 
fe  long,  and  33  broad.  The  re- 
feory  is  103  feet  long,  and  33 
bad.  The  ground  cloister  is  a 
scare  formed  by  a  double  row  of 
pizas  one  above  the  other,  93 
fe  long  on  each  of  the  four  sides, 
ar  17  broad,  the  walls  covered 
wi  fine  paintings.  The  double 
cllter,  built  of  granite,  is  52  feet 
hii,  has  four  grand  fronts,  open- 
in<,on  a  spacious  court  of  88 
aries,  supported  by  96  columns, 
D<;c  below,  and  Ionic  above.  A 
mv  I  octagonal  temple,  terminat- 
il  n  a  dome,  occupies  the  centre, 
u  without  of  granite,  and  within 

le  jasper  marble,  its  eight  sides 
au\iecl  alternately  with  projecting 
cotnns,  or  with   statues.  The 
Kbi-y  is  adorned  with  fluted  Doric 
ins,  and  the  roof  and  frieze 
overed  with  allegorical  paint- 

-  The  royal  apartments  are 
added  with  very  fine  paintings. 

'Campana  communicates  with 
the £tain  building  by  a  double  gal- 
lery one  above  the  other,  eighty- 
i  ;et  long,  supported  by  Ionic 
coli  ns.     We  descend  into  the 

Ujh  by  a  fine  staircase,  136 

:  *road,  and  34  long:,  leading: 
io  Spiazza,  which  forms  the  fore- 

"  l  of  the  church,  and  opens 

,;  arcades,  resting  on  pilasters, 
and  loric  semicolumns.    Above  is 


raised  a  second  body.  This  front 
is  flanked  by  two  towers,  used  as 
belfries.  The  inside  of  the  church 
is  built  in  the  Doric  style,  in  the 
form  of  a  Greek  cross,  with  a  lofty 
dome  in  the  centre,  supported  by 
eight  symmetrical  towers.  The 
body  of  the  church  is  313  feet 
long,  and  194  broad,  and  contains 
forty-eight  altars.  The  interior  of 
the  choir  is  exquisitely  finished,  the 
walls  and  ceiling  being  covered  with 
the  fine  paintings  of  Cambiaso.  The 
chancel,  which  is  raised  by  twelve 
steps,  contains  two  mausoleums, 
containing  statues  of  gilt  bronze. 
The  principal  altar  consists  of  four 
bodies  of  architecture;  in  the  first 
of  which  are  six  Doric  columns,  in 
the  second  six  fluted  Ionic  columns, 
in  the  third  four  fluted  Corinthian 
columns,  and  in  the  fourth  two 
Composite  ones.  Fifteen  beautiful 
statues,  and  several  paintings,  are 
attached.  A  Corinthian  circular 
table,  fourteen  feet  seven  inches 
high,  and  six  feet  seven  inches  in 
diameter,  adorned  with  gilt  bronze 
statues  of  the  twelve  apostles,  and 
wiih  eight  columns  of  red  jasper 
marble,  which  can  scarcely  be  dis- 
tinguished from  agates,  stands  in 
the  centre.  It  is  terminated  by  a 
cupola  of  jasper  marble,  containing 
a  statue  of  Christ,  and  adorned 
with  a  topaz  as  large  as  the  hand, 
encased  in  a  rose  of  gold.  An- 
other square  tabernacle,4  nineteen 
inches  high,  and  still  more  gor- 
geous, is  contained  within  this. 
Each  side  is  decorated  with  four 
columns,  and  four  pilasters,  their 
bases  and  capitals  of  gold  enamel, 
and  the  cornice  of  silver.  It  is 
crowned  with  pyramidal  spires,  on 
pedestals  of  vermilion  stone,  em- 
bossed with  gold.  The  two  sides 
are  formed  by  two  doors  of  rock 
crystal,  studded  with  gold,  and  the 
whole  is  surrounded  by  a  cupola, 
with  an  emerald,  attached  to  a  rose 

51 


ETR 


ETR 


of  gold  on  the  top,  and  on  the 

inside  a  topaz  enclosed  in  gold 
enamel.  The  sacristy  is  included 
in  one  beautiful  nave,  93  feet  long, 
and  80  broad.  The  treasury  con- 
tains many  articles  of  great  value. 
The  Pantheon,  or  place  of  inter- 
ment for  the  royal  family,  is  below 
the  church,  and  is,  perhaps,  the 
most  splendid  part  of  the  Escurial. 
The  first  descent  is  by  59  steps. 
The  walls  and  arches  are  encrusted 
with  fine  marble.  After  a  second 
descent,  we  discover  a  beautiful 
front,  supported  by  ten  marble 
Dorc  columns,  the  ornaments  of 
gilt  bronze.  Another  descent  leads 
to  the  place  of  interment  of  the 
royal  family.  That  of  the  kings 
and  queens  is  an  octagon,  31  feet 
in  diameter,  and  33  high,  encrusted 
with  beautiful  marble  of  different 
colours,  and  adorned  with  statues 
of  gilt  bronze,  Corinthian  pilasters, 
&c.  with  four  urns  or  tombs 
in  each  corner.  The  gardens,  in 
the  east  and  south  of  the  palace, 
are  disposed  in  the  form  of  an 
amphitheatre,  and  are  laid  out  in 
terraces,  and  surrounded  by  walls. 
Beautiful  roads,  often  ornamented 
with  elegant  architectural  objects, 
lead  to  the  village  from  almost  every 
side.  The  internal  decorations  of 
the  Escurial  were  considerably  in- 
jured by  the  French,  during  their 
occupation  of  Spain. 

Estra'de,  (Fr.)  an  even  or  level 
space,  a  public  road. 

Etruscans,  the  people  of  Etru- 
ria,  a  country  of  Italy,  now  called 
Tuscany.  The  Etruscans  were  ori- 
ginally a  colony  from  Greece,  and 
preceded  the  other  nations  in  Italy 
in  cultivating  the  arts,  having  prac- 
tised them  even  before  the  reputed 
time  of  Cadmus.  Their  aits  were 
derived  from  Greece,  by  the  migra- 
tion of  the  Pelasgi,  whose  letters 
and  dialect  they  used.  Nola  and 
Capua  were   founded  about  801 


years  before  the  vulgar  aera. 
earlier  sculpture  of  the  Roman 
reported  to  have  been  executec 
Etruscan  artists.     Under  Tar 
nius  Priscus  they  practised  fhirt 
of  modelling,  or  plastic.  Statue 
Jupiter  and  Hercules  are  mentic  d 
as  having  been  formed  by  thenf 
terra-cotta,  and  painted  red.  % 
is  alluded  to  by  Propertius,  >. 
iv.  1.  The  Etruscan  style,  a  ceo  ri  g 
to  Strabo,  resembled  the  Egypt  L, 
or  rather  the  early  Grecian.  Q  |. 
tilian  censures  it  as  dry,  and  Ci  o 
as  hard.  See  the  Works  of  Pus,  i, 
Gori,  and  Buonarotti. 

The  Etruscans  were  as  rr  h 
distinguished  in  architecture,  is 
in  the  other  arts.  Etruscan 
chitects  were  employed  by  e 
Romans  in  the  construction  of  e 
Capitol,  the  temple  of  Jupiter,  d 
other  edifices.  The  walls  of  e 
Etruscan  cities  are  generally  y 
high,  and  built  of  massy  sto;. 
Remains  are  still  left  of  thosof 
Volaterra,  Cortona,  Fsesula,  \ 
The  gates  were  very  simple,  d 
built  of  stones  of  an  oblong-sqre 
shape.  The  Gate  of  Herculeni 
Volaterra,  has  a  fine  arch,  cjfc 
posed  of  nineteen  larg:e  stones,  e 
first  temples  of  the  Etruscans  v  i 
very  small,  and  could  contain  <y 
a  statue,  with  sometimes  an  al\ 
Vitruvius  has  left  us  a  descrip  n 
of  some  ancient  Etruscan  temp, 
which  remained  at  Rome  in  s 
time.  Their  form  was  an  obi? 
square,  and  the  length  was  oc  • 
pied  by  three  chapels,  of  wl  h 
that  in  the  middle  was  the  largjt. 
In  the  temple  of  Jupiter  in  e 
Capitol,  the  middle  chapel  was  - 
dicated  to  Jupiter,  and  those  t 
each  end  to  Juno  and  Minen- 
The  two  facades  were  adorned  vjh 
a  pediment ;  the  height  of  wr  h 
was  one-third  of  its  breadth,  fl 
on  its  summit  were  ornaments'! 
bronze  or  terra-cotta.   The  g;* 


EUR 

e  often  ornamented  with  pie- 
ties.   Of  the  numerous  fine  and 


S|C10US 


theatres  of  the  Etrusrans 


tire  are  now  scarcely  any  remains: 
tlse  of  the  theatre  of  Adria,  which 
3  of  a  peculiar  form,  are  not 
c.sidered  to  be  the  work  of  that 
p  pie. 

"he  Romans  took  the  design  of 
tl  r  circuses  entirely  from  the 
Tuscans.  At  Volaterra  are  still 
stn  the  ruins  of  a  public  reser- 
ve, built  underground,  24  Roman 
fe  hiiih,  56  long,  and  39  broad. 
A  ny  Etruscan  tombs,  chiefly  sub- 
teanean,  have  been  opened,  and 
d  rr  ptions  of  them  published. 
T  interior  of  the  tomb  near  Cro- 
tu,  is  of  the  form  of  a  cross,  and 
ir  he  wall  are  many  niches,  des- 
ti  d  perhaps  for  the  reception  of 
u  s.  It  is  formed  of  twent  y-seven 
st;es  of  a  large  size,  and  joined 
w  i  irreat  exactness.  Many  others 
ai  cut  in  a  sandy  rock,  as  those 
mir  Ciusium,Corneto,  (the  ancient 
Tquinium,)  Volaterra,  and  Tala- 
ri The  roofs  of  these  latter  kind 
at  not  vaulted,  but  flat,  and  the 
in  rior  is  painted  and  adorned 
wi  figures.  Such  was  the  laby- 
rih  of  king  Porsenna,  near  Clusi- 
n  .  (See  Labyrinth.)  TheEtrus- 
Co  built  with  brick,  and  with 
htin  stone.  In  the  earliest  times 
tl  ]  gave  their  stones  an  irregular 
pi  £onal  shape,  and  disposed 
tl  n  so  as  to  touch  on  all  their 
si  s.  A  wall  of  this  kind  is  found 
aGora,  near  Velletri ;  an  oblong 
scire  shape  was  afterwards 
lOpted.  The  Etruscan  arclntec- 
ti  is  distinguished  by  the  inven- 
ti'  of  the  atria,  or  courts,  to  pri- 
v;  houses,  of  vaults,  and  of  a  pe- 
(-1  ir  order  of  column  denomi- 
d  Tuscan.  The  first  owe  their 
»' e,  according  to  the  common 
Pillion,  to  the  Etruscan  colony  of 
A  in  or  Atria.  See  Atrium.  The 
u  of  vaults  appears  to  have  been 


EWE 

very  ancient  amongst  the  Etrus- 
cans, and  that  of  the  subterranean 
reservoir  at  Volaterra  proves  their 
skill  in  the  construction.  On  the 
columns  of  the  Etruscans,  see  the 
article  Tuscan  Order. 

Etruscan  Buildings.  See 
Arch. 

Etruscan  Pyramids.  See 
Cholula. 

Evolute,  (Lat.)  a  curve  first 
proposed  by  Mr.  Huygens.  It  is 
any  curve  supposed  to  be  evolved 
by  having  a  thread  wrapped  close 
upon  it,  fastened  at  one  end,  and 
beginning  to  evolve  or  unwh.d  the 
thread  from  the  other  end,  keep- 
ing the  part  evolved  tight  str  tched  : 
this  end  of  the  thread  will  describe 
another  curve  called  the  involute. 

Evolvent,  (Lat.)  a  term  used 
in  the  higher  geometry,  by  some, 
for  the  involute,  or  curve,  resulting 
from  the  evolution  of  a  curve,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  evoiute,  or 
curve,  supposed  to  be  opened  and 
evolved. 

Euripus,  (evpnroQ,  Gr.)  the 
trench  in  the  circus,  which  sepa- 
rated the  seats  from  the  arena. 

Eurythmy,  (evptdfiia,  Gr.) 
"that  agreeable  harino  y  between 
the  breadth,  length,  and  height  of 
all  the  rooms  of  the  fabric,  which 
suddenly,  where  it  is,  taketh  every 
beholder,  by  the  secret  power  of 
proportion."  (Sir  Henry  Wotton.) 
The  six  essentials  of  architecture 
are,  according  to  Vitruvfus,  (lib.  i. 
c.  2.)  ordinatioy  dispositin,  euryth- 
mia,  symmetri  c  de  or,  distributio. 

Eustyle,  (from  ev,  beautiful, 
and  otvXoc,  column,  Gr.)  an  inter- 
columniation  of  two  diameters  and  a 
quarter,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  arrangements  that  can 
be  given  to  a  row  of  columns.  See 
Intercolumniation. 

Ewenny  Priory,  in  Glamor- 
ganshire, South  Wales,  was  a  reli- 
gious institution,  appended  to  Og- 

53 


F  A  C 

more  Castle,  built  by  Morris  de 
Londres,  or  his  descendant.  John, 
in  1141,  and  still  exhibiting;  one 
of  the  most  perfect  specimens 
of  early  Norman,  or  Saxon  ar- 
chitecture known.  The  strong 
embattled  walls  and  towers  which 
appear  among  the  ruins,  indicate 
that  it  was  not  less  a  place  of  secu- 
rity than  of  religious  rites.  The 
ball  of  the  house  is  a  gloomy  apart- 
ment, and  contains  several  racks, 
wh;ch  seem  to  have  been  the  depo- 
sitories of  arms.  The  church  is 
very  massive,  of  a  cruciform  shape, 
and  its  unornamented  heavy  arches 
rest  on  short  bulky  columns  of  rude 
workmanship.  The  columns,  plain 
capitals,  and  circular  arches,  de:  ote 
it  of  the  earliest  Norman  work. 
The  broken  pavement,  formed  of 
glazed  earthen  tiles,  marked  with 
devices,  still  to  be  seen  in  some 
places,  is  ancient  and  curious. 
"The  simple  groined  roof  of  the 
choir,"  says  Sir  Richard  Hoare, 
(Giraldus,  149,)  "  and  the  neg- 
lected tombstone  of  its  founder, 
bearing  this  inscription,  in  old 
characters,  claim  particular  at- 
tention. Id  GIST  MoiUCE  D  F. 
LUNDRES     LE    FVNDVR    DEU  LI 

ren  de  sUn  Labur.  am."  "  The 
satisfaction  with  which  I  view  this 
building,"  he  continues,  *'  as  hav- 
ing remained  untouched,  unaltered, 
since  the  days  of  Giraldus,  was 
considerably  damped  on  beholding 


F  A  C 


its  present  ruinous  and  dilapidate 
condition  :  in  many  places  unc 
vered,  and  exposed  to  the  rude  el 
ments,  its  windows  unglazed,  t| 
curious  stone-groined  roof  of  i 
choir  cracked,  its  tombstones,  an 
among  them,  that  of  its  pare 
and  founder,  carelessly  throw 
about  in  the  wildest  confusion; 
short,  this  old  and  once  respect; 
sanctuary,  after  an  existence 
nearly  700  years,  is  now  approv- 
ing most  rapidly  its  dissolution." 

Exchange,  an  edifice  whe 
merchants,  brokers,  &c.  negotia 
their  affairs.    See  Burse. 

Exedra,  (tfc6pay  Gr.)  a  sm; 
room  set  apart  for  conversation 
the   gymnasia,    baths,   &c.  S 
Chapel. 

Exostra,  (e&arpa,  Gr.)  the  a 
cient  stage  never  represented  tl 
interior  of  a  building;  when  ther 
fore  the  action  required  what  w 
going  on  in  the  inside  of  a  house 
palace,  to  be  exhibited  to  the  spe 
tators,  it  was  done  by  means  of 
machine  of  timber,  called  an  e, 
ostra  or  ekkykloma. 

Extra dos,  the  outside  of  t 
arch  of  a  bridge,  vault,  &c. 

Eye,  the  middle  of  the  Ion 
volute,  from  which  the  differe 
centres  for  drawing  it  are  foun 
Sometimes  this  term  is  applit 
to  a  small  window  in  the  centre 
a  pediment.    See  Spiral. 

Eve-Brow,  the  same  as  fillet. 


F. 


Fabric,  (Lat.)  a  term  generally 
applied  to  a  large  building,  as  a 
church,  a  palace,  or  a  college. 

Facade,  or  Face,  (Fr.)  the 
■whole  exterior  side  of  a  building, 
that  can  be  seen  at  one  view.  A 
good  facade  contributes  greatly  to 
give  an  interesting  appearance,  and 
to  exhibit  at  once  the  character  of 
the  edirice ;  it  ought  therefore  to 

54 


be  agreeable  to  the  kind  of  buildir 
to  which  it  belongs.  A  temp 
ought  to  have  a  different  facac 
from  an  arsenal,  and  the  facade  < 
an  arsenal  should  not  resemble  th; 
of  a  palace.  Every  part  slioul 
bear  a  proportionate  form  and  d 
mensions :  the  windows  should  in 
be  too  numerous  or  too  few;  tl 
columns  should  be  neither  too  ne: 


FAN 

eat  other,  nor  too  distant ;  all  the 
|jr:;  should  be  either  exactly  per- 
pelicular  or  horizontal ;  the  axes 
of  il  the  columns  which  rise  above 
eai  other  on  different  stories 
shjild  be  on  the  same  line.  When 
a  bade  is  of  a  considerable  eleva- 
tic,  it  should  be  divided  into 
e  ral  parts,  of  which  one,  as  the 
prjcipal,  should  occupy  the  middle, 
3ught  to  be  distinguished  by 
su  rior  irrandeur  and  beauty.  The 
or  ments  of  the  facade  should  be 
ig  and  conspicuous,  but  no 
m  »ber  should  be  so  distinguished  as 
to  tract  our  attention  exclusively. 

ice  Mould,  the  name  given 
b\  workmen  to  the  pattern  for 
m  k i n the  plank  or  board  out  of 
u!  h  ornamental  hand  railings  for 
st  s,  or  other  works,  are  to  be  cut. 

ace  of  a  Stone,  is  that  part 
is  made  even,  or  smooth,  to 
foi  the  face,  or  outward  part,  of  a 

ling;  stones  are  faced  in  the 
opsite  direction  of  their  splicing 
grn. 

acettes,  are  flat  projections 
beveenthe  flutings  of  columns. 

acings,  are  the  wooden  cover- 
in  of  the  sides  of  windows  and 
dr -places  in  the  insides  of  rooms, 
in  ided  to  give  them  a  smooth 
ar  finished  appearance. 

acta b li n g ,  or  Coping. 

Salse  Attic,  u\  architectural 
fiih,  bearing  some  resemblance 
to  ie  Attic  order,  but  without  pilas- 
te,  casements,  or  balustrade,  used 
to  own  a  building,  and  to  bear  a  bas 
re  f  or  inscription,  as  at  the  gates  of 
3  [)enys  and  St.  Martin,  at  Paris. 

alse  Roof,  is  the  space  be- 
tv  n  the  ceiling  of  the  highest  room 
oitory  of  a  house,  and  the  roof. 

anal,  (Fr.)  a  lighthouse. 

an e,  Phane,  or  Vane,  a  plate 
oi  letal  usually  cut  into  some  tan- 
nic form,  and  turning  on  a  pivot, 
tooint  out  the  course  of  the  wind. 

anum,  (Lat.)  originally  a  plot 


FE  A 

of  earth,  consecrated  to  some  divi- 
nity, but  afterwards  applied  to  the 
temple  that  was  erected  on  the  spot, 
It  is  often  used  indifferently  for 
cedes  or  templums. 

Fascia,  (Lat.)  a  Band;  a  flat 
member  in  the  entablatures  of 
columns,  or  on  other  parts  of 
buildings;  sometimes  it  is  written 
Facia.  The  architraves,  in  some 
of  the  orders,  are  composed  of  three 
bands,  or  fascia ;  the  Tuscan  and 
the  Doric  ought  to  have  only  one. 
Ornamental  projections  from  the 
walls  of  brick  buildings,  over  any 
of  the  windows,  except  the  upper- 
most, are  called  Fascia.  See  Band. 

Fastigium,  the  Latin  name  for 
the  Greek  iEtos.  See  JEtos  and 
Pediment. 

Fathom,  {fcedm,  Sax.)  a  mea- 
sure of  six  feet,  the  space  over 
which  a  man  may  extend  both  his 
arms ;  used  chiefly  in  measuring 
quarries,  wells,  reservoirs,  and  the 
depth  of  water. 

Fa  uces,  (Lat.)  This  term,  used 
by  Vitruvius,  meant,  probably,  the 
entrance  from  the  vestibule  into  the 
atrium,  corresponding  to  the  thvro- 
reum  of  the  Greek  house,  (see 
House,)  which  Vitruvius  calls  a 
passage  of  inconsiderable  width. 
The  word  is  used  by  Virgil  in  this 
figurative  sense — 

Augustaeque  premunt  fauces  aditusque  raaligni. 

Fauxbuiig,  (Fr.)  that  part  of  a 
city  which  is  without  the  gates  and 
the  fortifications. 

Feather-edged  Boards,  are 
narrow  boards  made  thin  on  one 
edge.  They  are  used  to  form  the 
facings  of  wooden  walls,  cottages, 
or  out-houses,  with  the  thick  edge 
uppermost,  and  the  thin  edges  pro- 
jecting over  the  courses  as  they 
descend.  They  are  also  used  in 
roofs,  and  placed  vertically  in  fence 
walls. 

Featiier-edged  Coping,  see 
Coping. 

55 


F  I  R 


FIR 


Feeding  House.  A  building 
or  shed,  for  the  feeding-  of  cattle  in 
a  dry  and  warm  situation,  with  a 
free  circulation  of  air,  and  every 
necessary  convenience  for  the  re- 
ception of  food  and  water. 

Felt-grain.  The  mode  of 
splitting  or  sawing  timber  in  a  line 
passing  across  the  centre  or  heart 
of  the  tree ;  it  is  opposed  to  the 
mode  of  cutting,  which  following,  as 
near  as  may  be  the  course  of  the  an- 
nular rings,  is  called  quarter  grain. 

Femur;  ihe  plane  space  be- 
tween the  cavities  of  a  triglyph : 
the  word  signifies  a  thigh.  The 
Greek  word  f-ivpuQ  has  the  same 
signification. 

Fence  of  a  joiner's  plane,  is 
that  part  which  regulates  in  some, 
in  others  fixes,  its  position. 

Festoon  ;  an  ornamental  carv- 
ing resembling  a  wreath  attached  at 
both  ends,  and  falling  in  the  middle. 

Fill  ft.  See  Annulet  and  Band. 

Fili.ing-in-pi  kcfs,  are  short 
pieces  of  timber  affixed  to  hips  of 
roofs,  groins,  and  other  frame  work. 

Finial,  (Jinio,  Lat.)  In  the 
Gothic  style  of  architecture,  the 
figure  of  a  lily,  trefoil,  endive, 
acorn,  or  other  flower,  foliage,  or 
fruit,  made  to  terminate  canopies, 
pinnacles,  high-pointed  pediments, 
and  other  parts  of  buildings.  See 
Crocket. 

Fi  a  ;  see  Deal. 

Fi  R-i  n-Bon  d,  is  a  name  given 
to  lintels,  bond-timbers,  wall-plates, 
and  all  timbers  built  in  walls.  See 
Bond. 

Fi re-troof  Houses.  Vaulted 
or  arched  buildings  may  be  con- 
structed entirely  of  stone  or  brick, 
and  consequently  will  be  incum- 
bustible ;  but  the  necessary  thick- 
ness of  the  walls  darkens  the  rooms ; 
and  this  mode  of  building  is  also 
too  expensive  for  dwelling-houses. 
Various  methods  have  been  adopted 
to  attain  the  intended  purpose,  and 


to  obviate  difficulties;  cast  i: 
instead  of  timber  joists  have  lx 
used,  and  plates  of  iron  for  fl0. 
and  roofs. 

In  the  "  Repertorv  of  Art 
vol.  iii.  third  series,  1826,  tin  re 
a  valuable  communicapon  hv  j 
Rev.  J.  Boswell.  Jn  this  es» 
the  author  recommends  the  meth< 
adopted  in  France,  especially 
Lyons,  where  it  has  proved  exert 
ingly  efficacious.  This  is  ehie 
dependent  on  the  mode  of  lavi 
the  floors  generally  practis 
throughout  France.  As  soon 
the  beams  and  rafters  are  hi 
coarse  rough  boards  are  Dai 
upon  them,  and  the  whole  is  cove1 
with  a  coat,  of  plaster  at  least  ei< 
inches  thick,  over  which  again  t! 
lay  tiles,  mostly  of  an  hexagoi 
form,  about  six  inches  a<  rc 
Square  tiles  are  only  used  for  \ 
chens  and  passages ;  instead 
which,  thin  flag-stones  are  son 
times  used;  even  where  I 
parquet  floors  are  used,  the  pi 
ter  is  laid  under  it,  so  that  if  one' 
the  thin  walnut  panels  (f  1 
parquet  should  be  burned,  it  ( 
neither  spread  ,  nor  penetrate 
the  joists,  for  want  of  aeommu 
cation  of  air  from  below.  In  i 
better  houses,  the  staircases 
made  of  frame- work  of  wood  inl 
mixed  w.ith  bricks  and  plaster,  a 
covered  with  tiles,  and  frequeii 
of  stone,  and  in  Lyons  stone  sta 
are  almost  universally  used ;  a 
much  ingenuity  is  displayed 
their  construction,  with  a  beauti 
simplicity  of  design,  and  the  m< 
efficient  stability.  "  After  expenY 
ring,"  says  the"  author,  "  the  gr| 
security  against  fire,  which  hou 
built  in  this  manner  afford,  a 
returning  to  our  own  deal  flo| 
and  wooden  staircases,  and  p 
titions  of  wainscot,  or  of  lath  a 
plaster,  our  houses  seem  like  I 
many  funeral  piles  of  the  anciei 


t  I  K 

onhwaiting  for  the  application  of 
the  >ich,  or  the  casual  fall  of  a 
can  e,  to  burst  into  a  flame,  and 
,  n  me  the  inhabitants." 

1  the  "  Philosophical  Transac- 
tion for  1778,  p.  884,  an  experi- 
pei  made  by  Lord  Charles  Mahon 
;  ((scribed,  of  surrounding  the 
joisi  of  a  plaster  floor  with  a  strong 
nre,ne  result  of  which  was  a  per- 
fect^nfirmation  of  the  belief  that 

<  Di.de  of  securing  buildings 
fron'fire  will  prove  effectual. 

I  (many  instances  the  French 
kpi]  rs  fill  up  the  intervals  of  the 
joist  entirely  with  plaster,  and  dis- 
SJwilh  boards  altogether;  the 
nati'of  their  plaster  enables  them 
to  (  this,  beins;  made  from  gyp- 
sum'.vhith  is  the  common  material 
of  tl  country.  It  swells  so  much 
in  ;  tinjr,  as  to  occasion  a  strong 
iate  adhesion  to  the  sides  of  the 
jgjtf  which,  with  the  addition  of 
the  Hons  nailed  below,  very  suf- 
ficie  l\  supports  the  flooring  tiles; 
besi«s,  their  dry  plaster  in  a  mass, 
as  tly  prepare  it,  is  nearly  as  firm 
and  jlid  as  our  Bath  stone,  and 
will  stain  very  heavy  weights  be- 
fore will  break.  Even  if  from 
custi  and  prejudice  the  people  of 
-is  untry  should  disapprove  of  the 
;ippc.;nce  of  tiled  floors,  yet  these 
wou,  not  appear  when  covered 
withn  carpet.  But  indeed  the 
Fren,  in  their  tiles,  frequently 
prod^e  so  exact  and  beautiful  an 
jjmionof  squares,  or  narrow  pa- 
nels, r  inlaid  work,  composed  of 
shor,  narrow  pieces  of  walnut 
1  as  to  be  with  difficulty 
disti  uished  from  floors  of  real 
I'lro  t.  It  would  indeed  be  not 
a  m«,er  of  much  difficulty  to,  give 
die  rm  and  appearance  of  deal 
Jpaij  to  those  plastered  or  tiled 
A  or  not  even  forgetting  the 
heidof  nads,  if  required.  It  is 
also  lieved,  that  floors  of  this  con- 
stru(  jn  would  prove  cheaper,  and 


FIR 

the  cold  air  in  winter  would  not 
find  its  way  through  chinks  and 
crevices,  as  in  boarded  floors  of  in- 
ferior workmanship;  they  are  found 
not  only  to  resist  the  passage  of 
cold  air  to  the  feet,  but  also  inter- 
cept the  conveyance  of  sound  from 
one  room  to  another. 

If  objections  were  made  to  stone 
staiis,  a  very  excellent  kind  of 
stairs  are  made  of  plates  of  cast 
iron,  supported  by  wrought  iron 
traverses;  a  neat  specimen  of  which 
has  existed  for  many  vears  in  front 
of  the  »ate  Duke  of  Queensberry's 
house  in  Piccadilly.  Pointed  stairs 
of  this  kind  have  an  elegant  ap- 
pearance. Excellent  stairs  might 
be  made  at  a  less  expense  by 
Cumberland  slates,  or  flag-stones, 
supported  by  wrought-iron  traverses. 
The  Cumberland  slate,  of  one  inch 
in  thickness,  will  support  as  much 
weight  as  a  Portland  stone  of  five 
inches.  In  securing  buildings 
against  fire,  the  floor  is  of  the  first 
importance,  since  the  fire  almost 
invariably  commences  there  ;  and 
next  to  these,  the  stairs;  after 
which  the  partitions  between  rooms 
demand  our  attention  ;  these  should 
never  he  entirely  of  wood,  especially 
in  rooms  where  servants  sleep  ;  a 
four-inch  wall,  commonly  called  a 
partition  of  brick  noggin,  is  always 
to  be  preferred  for  security. 

The  means  already  pointed  out, 
if  adopted,  would  diminish  the 
danger  from  fire,  in  at  least  ninety- 
nine  instances  in  a  hundred,  which 
arise  from  accidents,  and  render  it 
extremely  difficult  for  infernal  in- 
cendiaries to  put  their  diabolical 
designs  in  practice. 

Considerable  attention  has  been 
lately  bestowed  on  this  subject, 
and  provision  against  the  accident 
of  fire  has  been  made  in  buildings 
in  every  part  of  London,  particu- 
larly in  the  new  buildings  in  the 
Strand.    In  these  erections,  instead 

57 


FLO 


FLO 


of  wooden  bressummers  extend- 
ing across  the  fronts,  stron<r  cast- 
iron  ones  are  introduced,  with  sup- 
porters of  the  same  material.  This 
iron  bressummer  is  covered  with 
Yorkshire  paving;  stone  two  inches 
thick,  so  that  it  will  be  impossible 
for  fire  to  destroy  the  front,  or  dry- 
rot  to  sap  the  foundation.  On  a 
subject  of  such  general  interest, 
patent,  and  other  imentions,  are 
much  too  numerous  to  be  particu- 
larized. 

Fistuca,  a  pile-driving  instru- 
ment, with  two  handles,  raised  by 
pulleys,  and  guided,  in  its  descent, 
to  fall  on  the  head  of  a  pile. 

Flags,  are  flat  stones,  from  one 
and  a  half  to  three  inches  in  thick- 
ness, for  floors. 

Flank,  (flanc,  Fr.)  the  least 
side  of  a  pavilion,  by  which  it  is 
joined  to  the  main  building-.  In 
fortification,  it  is  that  part  of  a  bas- 
tion which  reaches  from  the  cur- 
tain to  the  face,  and  defends  the 
opposite  face,  the  flank,  and  the 
bastion. 

Flat  Roof.    See  Carpentry. 

Flat ti  n  g,  in  inside  house-paint- 
ing, is  the  mode  of  finishing  with- 
out leaving  a  gloss  on  the  surface : 
it  is  generally  sufficient  for  this 
purpose  to  use  a  greater  proportion 
of  oil  of  turpentine,  and  the  linseed 
oil  unboiled. 

Flemish  Bond.  See  Brick- 
laying. 

Flemish  Bricks  are  used  in 
paving ;  seventy-two  will  pave  a 
square  yard ;  they  are  of  a  yellow- 
ish colour,  and  harder  than  com- 
mon bricks. 

Flight  of  Steps  in  a  staircase, 
is  the  series  from  one  landing  place 
to  another. 

Flitches.    See  Carpentry. 

Floating,  is  the  spreading  of 
stucco,  or  plastering,  on  the  sur- 
face of  walls.  Called  also  render- 
ing, and  setting. 

53 


Floating  Bridges  are  i 
posed  of  boats  joined  togeth  by 
planks,  with  rails  on  each 
one  end  of  this  platform  is  s 
times  fastened  to  an  anchor  i] 
middle  of  a  river,  and  made  to  £ 
alternately  from  one  side  tc  he 
other. 

Flood-gate,  a  gate  ma( 
resist  or  admit  the  current  of  v 
in  canals;  and  on  rivers  to  nin 
the  stream  for  the  use  of  E 
docks,  and  reservoirs 

Floor,  (Sax.)  the  bottom  f , 
room.  Floors  are  commonlv  LL 
of  wood,  which  ought  to  be  d 
seasoned,  to  prevent  its  spring  W 
the  timber  and  the  boards  Co  ft] 
purpose  must  therefore  he  ■ 
planed,  and  put  out  to  dry  t  Ive 
months  previous  to  their  ■ 
used.  For  ground -floors,  H 
stones  or  bricks  are  freqr  tly 
used,  or  a  composition  of  I 
clay  and  sharp  sand,  mixe  up 
with  bullock's  blood,  which  I 
well  beaten  together,  and  skd 
out  with  a  smooth  surface,  rim 
a  beautiful  and  firm  floor.  !kt 
plaster-of-Paris,  with  other  i  re- 
dients,  finely  sifted,  makes  ors 
nearly  equal  in  appearanc  to 
marble;  and  marble  is  frequ tly 
used  for  the  floors  of  halls  nd 
splendid  apartments.  See  ir- 
pen  try  and  Stucco. 

A  lever-cramp,  for  laying  fin, 
invented  by  Mr.  Andrew  Smil  of 
Pimlico,  is  described  in  the  B  s 
ter  of  Arts,  the  third  series,  v  i 
1828  ;  the  model  of  this  inveon 
may  also  be  seen  in  the  Nat  ml 
Repository,  near  Chairing  C  ss 
By  the  usual  mode  of  uniting W 
edges  of  the  boards  together,  If 
to  make  the  joints  very  tigl  J 
considerable  degree  of  labou  nd 
difficulty  is  generally  experieugj 
and  after  all,  the  work  is  fie  ,u  tly 
very  imperfect  with  respect  t<  In- 
complete  closing  of  the  jf** 


FLO 


FLU 


Hr. Smith's  machine  completely 
abviLs  these    inconveniences  in 
the  'eediest,  most  effectual,  and 
rt!S:t  manner  possible.    By  this 
leiyjimple  and  convenient  appa- 
n  a  single  workman  may,  un- 
s  1,  lav  down  a  lar^e  floor; 
pheJhe  lever  is  pulled  down,  the 
in  holds  the  board  immoveably 
w\  |iit  is  nailed  down.    It  is  un- 
try  to  attempt  a  minute  de- 
-  .  pin"  of  this  apparatus;  the 
icjal  builder  will  know  how  to 
,r  ate  the  value  of  this  inven- 
hich  is  so  admirably  calcu- 
l^edo  give  facility  in  perfecting 
his  w  k. 

Fl  rsof  wood,  resting  on  arches 
form*  of  conical  pots  of  earthen- 
ware have   been  a  considerable 
use  in  cotton  mills;  but 
mbination  of  iron  framing 
i    hes  of  pottery,  in  the  man- 
ner  lploved   by  M.  Louis,  the 
architect,  is  not  so  generally 
Fioois  constructed  by  this 
frentl;«an,  in  the  Palais  Royal  at 
ParisSare  minutely  described  in 
llo<  -  Mechanic'sOracle.  Frames 
of  wr  j lit  iron  serve  as  support- 
:sai  to  form  girders,  with  tie- 
bars  M  abutments.    The  bearing 
edge  of  the  arched  bars, 
cfrire  bound  together  by  stir- 
rups id  cross  bars.    The  com- 
partn  its  in  this  iron  frame-work 
are  hid  up  with  earthen  pots  of  a 
conic.i  shape,  so  arranged,  as  to 
form  [series  of  arches ;  and  these 
are  b<ded  in  plaster.    The  con- 
structs of  the  frame-work  in  these 
floors i cures  from  lateral  pressure 
by  thf  cross-ties  and  the  arches 
betwe*  them,  and  their  strength 
>*  thei  ore  only  to  be  considered  as 
H  regis  vertical  pressure;  and 
they   »y  be   made  so  that  they 
W|H  bt  qually  strong  at  every  part 
of  thefngth. 
Vai.mg,  constructed  of  hollow 
pots  of  earthenware,  was 


first  known  in  France  in  1787: 
these  pots  are  either  square,  hexa- 
gonal, or  circular,  and  are  joined 
with  plaster-of-paris.  This  prac- 
tice has  also  been  introduced  into 
England :  the  pots  are  manufac- 
tured in  Derbyshire,  as  mentioned 
in  Farey's  Derbyshire  Reports.  It 
is  obvious,  that  the  circular  or 
hexagonal  pots  have  the  best,  form  ; 
and  when  joined  with  Roman  ce- 
ment, floors  of  this  kind  are  very 
strong,  secure  against  fire,  and 
excellently  adapted  for  workshops 
and  man'  factories. 

Florid  Style.    See  Gothic. 

Flue,  the  tube  from  a  fire-place. 
See  Chimney. 

Flush,  a  term  used  by  work- 
men, to  denote  the  continuity  of 
two  or  more  parts  of  joiner's  work 
to  the  same  surface. 

Flush  and  Bead.  See  Bead 
and  Flush. 

Flutings,  (slriges,  ruga>y  Lat. 
cannelures,  Fr.)  longitudinal  cavi- 
ties cut  on  the  shaft  of  a  column 
or  pilaster,  &c.  Fluting  appears 
never  to  have  been  used  in  Egyp- 
tian columns,  although  in  various 
parts  of  the  Egyptian  edifices 
has  been  traced  something  of  the 
same  principle.  The  Persian  ar- 
chitects were  excessively  fond  of  it, 
and  on  some  of  the  columns  at 
Persepolis  may  be  counted  forty 
flutes.  The  Greeks  were  more 
economical  of  this  kind  of  orna- 
ment, particularly  in  the  Doric 
order,  in  which  are  found  never 
less  than  sixteen,  or  more  than 
twenty.  The  use  of  fluting  in  the 
Doric  order  is  believed  to  be  as  old 
as  the  order  itself;  at  least  it  is 
found  in  the  most  ancitnt  remains. 
The  Doric  columns,  according  to 
Vitruvius,  ou^ht  to  bear  twenty 
flutes.  The  Greeks  made  the  flutes 
of  this  order  very  slightly  concave, 
and  cut  them  off  short.  The  flut- 
ings of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian 


FO  L 


FON 


orders  differed  from  the  Doric  in 
number,  form,  and  in  their  suscep- 
tibility of  ornament:  their  number 
is  fxed  by  Vitruvius  at  twenty-four, 
and  sometimes  thirtv-two:  their 
form  is  that  of  a  semicircle,  or  more 
commonly  of  that  segment  of  a 
circle  contained  by  a  side  of  an 
equilateral  triangle  inscribed  in  it. 
The  flutes  are  separated  in  the 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  orders  by  a 
listel,  and  not,  as  in  the  Doric,  by 
a  simple  edge.  The  most  common 
method  of  ornamenting  the  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  flutes  is,  to  fill  the 
cavities  by  a  rudenture,  which  is 
sometimes  cut  in  the  shape  of  a 
cord.  (See  Rudenture.)  The  princi- 
pal object  of  this  ornament  is  to  give 
solidity  to  the  lovver-p  trt  of  the  co- 
lumn, and  to  defend  the  sides  of 
the  flutes,  which  would  otherwise 
be  liable  to  be  broken  in  the  lower 
part  by  any  outward  accident.  It 
must  be  observed,  however,  that 
rudented  flutes  ought  only  to  be 
used  in  columns  which  rise  from 
the  ground,  and  not  in  those  whose 
elevation  on  pedestals  places  them 
out  of  r  sk  of  being-  injured,  or 
which  are  used  in  a  second  order; 
and  also  that  the  rudentures  ought 
only  to  occupy  the  lower  part  of 
the  flutes,  because  the  motive  for 
which  thev  are  used  does  not  exist 
in  the  superior  part  of  the  shaft, 
whose  elevation  places  the  edges  of 
the  flutes  out  of  danger.  These 
observations  apply  equally  to  the 
Composite  order.  In  the  Tuscan 
order,  flutes  are  seldom  used;  but 
when  they  are  employed,  the  sim- 
plicity of  this  style  allows  only 
those  of  the  Doric  order. 

Flyers,  are  steps  in  a  series, 
which  are  parallel  to  each  other. 

Flying  Buttresses.  See  Arc 
Boutaat. 

Folded  Floor,  a  floor  in  which 
the  boards  are  grooved  and  tongued, 
and  laid  down  several  at  a  time, 
go 


with  their  edges  forcibly  br^t 

together. 

Folding  Doors,  are  ma  to 
meet  each  other  from  op  iite 
jambs,  on  which  they  are  rL. 
and  when  they  are  rebated  tog.*/ 
their  edges  meet,  folding  overU 
other,  with  a  bead  at  the  j< 
give  the  appearance  of  one  \\ 
door. 

Foliage,  an  ornamental  <tri- 
bution  of  leaves  on  various  jiru 
of  buddings. 

Font,  (fons,  Lat.)  a  ves  in 
christian  churches,  of  mart  or 
stone,  to  contain  the  water  of  tap. 
tism.  Baptismal  fonts,  of  [-eat 
antiquity,  are  yet  to  be  si  in 
British  churches;  particulai h hat 
of  Bridekirk,  in  Cumberland,  ich 
is  believed  of  Danish  origin  uid 
one  of  antique  appearance,  elf 
removed  from  the  church  ((St. 
Peter  in  ihe  East,  in  Oxford. The 
date  t/1340)  is  inscribed  on  th  out 
of  St.  Mary's  Church  in  Linjin; 
and  there  is  one  covered  witian- 
cient  sculptures  in  Winchester 
t h ed r a  1 .  In  Kin g's  M u n men t  \n- 
tiqua,  and  in  the  Archaioiia, 
several  of  large  dimensions  are 
described,  and  representee  by 
figures. 

Font  an  a  Dominico,  an  mi- 
nent  architect  and  mechanic  ns 
born  at  or  near  Milan,  in  I 
Early  in  life  he  fixed  his  resi  nee 
at  Rome,  with  his  elder  brher 
John,  both  together  pursuing  the 
study  of  architecture;  he  wa.-m- 
ployed  by  Cardinal  Montalto  i  the 
great  work  of  the  chapel  c  the 
Manger  in  the  church  of  St.  a£- 
giore ;  and  on  the  Cardinal'  be- 
coming Pope,  Fontana  va:  ap- 
pointed his  architect.  '^fN 
many  other  great  works,  he  tti 
pleted  the  dome  of  St.  PW* 
and,  as  a  singular  and  splendi  em- 
bellishment, raised  up  in  front  us 
piazza,  the  obelisk,  an  entire  ock 


FOO 


DflwJite,  which  formerly  belonged 
to  thi  circus  of  Nero.    This  im- 
in,ns  none  had  been  covered  with 
h  nd  dust  for  ages,  and  though 
it8  ention  had  been  projected,  the 
,   was  deemed  impracticable. 
It!  aomplishment  was  therefore 
I  one  of  the  greatest  ex- 
sSf  the  aire,  and  its  author 
vari'd  with  honours  and  emolu- 
nt<  Fontana  made  considerable 
lit  is  to  the  Vatican,  and  built 
vary.    After  completing  his 
I  vork   of  the  aqueduct,  to 
ve  water  from  a  distance  of 
niles  to  the  city  of  Home, 
:  ensued  as  architect  to  the 
I*    Naples;  and  in  1592  re- 
rejto  that  city,  where  he  died, 
bilst?ngaged  in  making  a  new 
bcr,  in  the  year  1607,  in  the 
54th  ar  of  his  aae. 
For,  (Sax.)  a  measure  of  twelve 
vt,e  each  inch  beintr  three  bar- 
on.   The  standard  English 
authorized  in  the  31st  of 
Iwa   I.   is  12  lineal  English 
i  iche  ~  36  barlevcorns,  =z  16  di- 
bits   palms,  =  3  hands,  ~  5^- 
rwiisj:  Uj  spans,  =  1*5151  Gun- 
ler'sl|(s,  = -933306  feet  of  France, 
a  -3  7  metres  of  France. 

Thi!  French  foot  exceeds  the 
Emdi|  by  nine  lines  and  a  half. 

tish  loot  exceeds  the  Ene;- 
Mt,  185  of  the  former  to  186 
of  tWatter. 

Ifi  divide  the  English  foot  into 
one  thsand  parts,  and  the  inches 
into  1  lines,  the  proportions  of 
natior  feet  will  be  as  follows  : — 


LonHnt 
I 'at  in  f, 

Grea. 
Do.  a< 

n»rd, 
The  ■ 

Died 


PTS. 


FT.  IN.  L. 


—  1    0  9-7 


1    0  11 


eW   1000  —  0  12  0 

,  according  to 

«   .  10G8 

rding  to  Ber- 

  10GG 

t  comnionlv 
France  .  .. 1065*4 
m  Toot  ....  942 

  94fi 

  1184 

or  Leyden. .  1033 


—  1 


0 

0  11  3 

0  11  2 

1  2  2 
10  4 


9-4 


FOR 

PTS.  FT.  If*.  L. 

Lnrrain                           958  —  0  H  4 

Mechlin                            919  —  0  11  0 

IViiddleburiili                    991  —  0  11  9 

Slrasburgl.                       920  —  0  1 1  0 

Bremen                           9  )4  —  0  I  I  G 

Cologne                             954  —  0  11  4 

Frankfort  on  the  Maine    948  —  0  11  4 

Spanish                        .  1001  —  0  I  I  0 

Toledo                            899  —  0  10  7 

Roman                            9G7  —  Oil  6 

Bononia                          1204  —  1  2  4 

Mantua                           1569  —  1  G  G 

Venice                            1 1 62  —  1  1  9 

Dmtzic                           944  —  0  11  3 

Copenhagen                       96-5  —  0  11  6 

Prague                            1026  —  1  0  3 

Riga                                1831—1  9  9 

Turin                             1002  —  1  0  7 

The  Greek                       1007  —  1  0  1 

Old  Roman                      970  —  0  0  0 

Cagnazzi,  bv  a  scientific  exami- 
nation of  the  monuments  of  anti- 
quity found  in  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii,  has  ascertained  that,  the 
ancient  Roman  foot  was  0-29,624  of 
a  metre,  or  131,325  lines  French 
measure. 

Foot  Bank,  see  Banquet. 

Footing  Beam,  the  name  given 
to  the  tie-beam  of  a  roof  in  some 
parts  of  the  country. 

Footing,  of  a  wall ;  a  project- 
ing course  of  stone  at  the  base  of 
a  wall  or  buildinir,  intended  to  give 
stability  and  support. 

Foot  i  n  g  Do r  m  a  n t  ;  the  same 
as  tie-beam  of  a  roof. 

Foot-face,  a  flat  part  in  a 
stairs,  or  hand- rail  ins:,  bet  wren  the 
first  step  and  the  landing  place. 

Fores,  (Lat.)  among  the  Ro- 
mans, the  doors  wh;ch  opened  to- 
ward the  street :  when  they  had  two 
folds  they  were  termed  bifores  ; 
sometimes  each  fold  was  again  di- 
vided, so  as  to  make  four,  when 
they  were  termed  quadrifores. 

Fo it e-  s ii o rt e n ,  a  term  appli- 
cable to  drawings  or  designs,  in 
which,  from  the  obliquity  of  the 
view,  the  object  is  represented  as 
receding  from  the  opposiie  side 
and  the  plane  of  the  project  ion. 

Fori,  (Lat.)  the  seats  that  were 

61 


FOR 


FOR 


arranged  in  gradation  one  above 
the  other  in  the  Roman  circus. 

Form,  the  name  given  to  the 
long  seats  or  benches  placed  in  the 
naves  of  ancient  churches  before 
the  introduction  of  pews.  The 
name  is  supposed  to  have  been  de- 
r'  red  from  the  sculptured  or  painted 
figures,  called  formce  et  typi>  with 
which  they  were  ornamented. 

Fortiucation,  is  the  species 
of  architecture  termed  military, 
used  for  defence  against  the  attack 
of  an  enemy;  showing  how  to  for- 
tify a  place  with  ramparts,  parapets, 
moats,  and  other  bulwarks.  The 
fortifications  of  antiquity  were  con- 
structed of  trunks  of  trees  mixed 
with  earth,  and  afterwards,  when 
battering-rams,  catapults,  and  other 
instruments  of  attack  were  invented, 
thick  walls  of  stone  or  brick  were 
used. 

To  oppose  the  attacks  of  assailants 
with  fire-arms,  modern  fortification 
requires  ramparts,  towers,  and 
bastions,  with  numerous  outworks. 
They  are  in  the  form  of  regular 
polygons,  and  called  Regular  For- 
tifications ;  or,  from  peculiarity  of 
situation,  and  other  circumstances, 
their  sides  and  angles  are  not  uni- 
form, and  they  receive  the  name  of 
Irregular  Fortifications  ;  these  are 
generally  of  a  temporary  descrip- 
tion, for  the  defence  of  an  army  on 
the  field  of  action,  and  are  called 
Field  Fortifications,  constructed 
of  sand-bags,  earth,  and  fascines, 
ten  feet  long  and  one  foot  thick, 
made  of  faggots  of  wood ;  or,  in- 
stead of  these,  when  wood  cannot 
be  got,  a  wall  of  turf  raised  upon 
the  parapet  supplies  their  place. 

A  very  ingenious  mode  of  fortifi- 
cation, applicable  to  ships  as  well 
as  to  land  forts,  to  protect  them 
against  the  destructive  effects  of 
cannon-ball,  was  communicated  to 
the  Register  of  Arts  by  Lewis  Gom- 
pertz,  Esq.  of  Kensington,  and  is 

62 


fully  described  in  the  secor  vo- 
lume of  the  new  series  of  thai 
with  an  illustrative  engraving  an(j 
it  is  also  described  in  Jam  ot1's 
Dictionary  of  Science,  vol.  i.  ,a,>e 
330,  with  an  account  of  nuri 
experiments  made  by  the  inv  in 
The  chief  advantage  of  this 
tion  is  in  its  application  to  me 
vessels  and  ships  of  passage  \nu 
for  ships  of  war,  as  it  coi  he 
adopted  by  both  parties,  its  I'erts 
would  be  neutralized, — thoih  it 
seems  that  in  this  case  it  Duid 
save   the    men  from  injurv  and 
would  always  be  in  favour  the 
weak,  its  nature  being  that  de- 
fending itself,  and   returnii  the 
blows.    The  attempt  appear: wor- 
thy of  encouragement,  as  affling 
an  excellent  defence  of  the  eak 
against  the  assaults  of  the  stira 

The  fortifications  of  a  lent 
Athens,  as  well  as  all  its  jblic, 
works,  were  upon  a  splendid  ale; 
beside  the  Acropolis,  the  Citand 
the  Piraeus,  with  Munvelra,  w?  re- 
spectively fortified.  The  two  tter 
embraced  a  circumference  of'ight 
English  miles,  with  walls  sixt  Gre- 
cian feet  high ;  they  were  bit  of 
square  stone  without  cement,  ned 
together  with  iron  cramps.  The 
city  and  the  harbour  werealso 
connected  by  two  long  wall  the 
longer  of  which  was  equal  tcorty 
stadias,  or  five  English  miles! -the 
shorter,  to  thirty-five — built  u(>n  a 
marshy  ground  raised  with  sjnes. 
To  these  were  added,  in  time  civar, 
ramparts  of  earth,  trenchesand 
parapets,  for  the  strengthen  !  of 
the  works,  together  with  theirti- 
fications  of  the  smaller  pla<>  in 
Attica.    See  Acropolis. 

Fortress,  (fort) esse,  Fr.  sy- 
nonymous with  Castle,  whidjsee, 
and  also  Arabian  Architect!  . 

Forum.  By  this  name  r$l 
designated  the  public  places  here 
the  markets  were  held  at  Fjme; 


FOR 

thev<rere  also  used  for  public  as- 
semlles  of  the  people  for  public 
iHai  elections,  courts  of  justice, 
.  |   re  found  in  various  (owns  of 
npire,  as  Forum  Livii,  Fo- 
n  fulii,  Amongst  the 

0  A  the  market-place,  or  Forum, 
pa  ,  i led  Agora,  and  was  gene- 

:Vii  the  midrile  of  the  town. 
In  h  e  towns  each  quarter  had  its 

i  and  in  towns  situated  on 
st,  or  a  navigable  river,  the 
mgr  were  usually  near  the  port. 

1  e  irm  of  the  Grecian  agora 
was  enerally  square,  surrounded 
bv  titicos,  and  by  the  principal 
Mb!  edifices,  as  temples,  &c.  and 

ited  with  statues,  as  those 
!  A  hana  in  the  Corinthian  terri- 

rv.  rvtheum  in  Laconia,  Corone 
ii  ftssenia,  described  by  Pausa- 
In  the  agora  of  Sparta  was 
the  [use  in  which  the  council  of 
:be  ciers  met,  «nd  at  the  side  the 
iwel < gs  of  the  Ephori,  and  other 
nagi  ates.     The  agora  of  Elis 

■    irreat  antiquity,  and  was 
I  iistiif jished   from    those  of  the 
olherfities  of  Greece  and  Ionia,  by 
wrtieos   being   pierced  with 
e    The  forum  of  the  Romans 
ffJM  funeral iy  an  oblong  square, 
he  btadth  two-thirds  of  its  length. 
*  I  t  y  were  often  used  for  the 
:oml  s  of  gladiators,  the  porticos 
*ere|rger,  so  that  the  intercolum- 
jiatic}}  and  galleries  served  also 
.  »8sh»s  for  the  merchants,  and  as 
x>um<  ^-houses  for  the  changers 
iwl  ice i vers  of  public  moneys. 
Thercjvere  fourteen  fora  at  Rome, 
rfwrja  fourteen,  called  fora  ve- 
nalituveve  destined  for  mercantile 
p»irp<  s;  the  other  three,  termed 
fora  vilia  or  judiciaria,  being 
wed  r  public  assemblies,  and  for 
tne  aninistration  of  justice.  The 
g*at<  and  most  celebrated  forum 
»t  R<:e,  was  the  Forum  Roma- 
**m,!'hich  occupied    the  place 
k-twc.  the  Palatine  mount  and 


FO  U 

the  Capitoline,  now  called  Campo 
Vaccino,  and  which  being  the  most 
ancient,  was  sometimes  termed  Fo- 
rum Vetus  or  Latinum,  or  simply 
the  Forum.  In  it  was  situated  the 
comitium,  and  other  public  build- 
ings,and  it  was, till  the  timeof  Julius 
Csesar,  the  only  one  in  Rome. 
Many  of  the  fora  received  their 
names  from  their  builders,  as  the 
Forum  Nerva  and  the  Forum  Tra- 
jani;  others  from  the  particular 
purpose  for  which  they  were  des- 
tined, as  the  Forum  Boarium, 
which  was  a  market  for  cattle,  and 
was  adorned  bv  a  bronze  statue  of 
a  bull,  the  Forum  Piscarium,  or 
fish-market,  Forum  Pistorium,  or 
bread  market,  Forum  Suarium,  or 
swine  market.  Several  modern 
architects,  as  Perrault,  Galliani, 
Palladio,  Piranesi,  and  M.  Durand, 
have  published  conjectural  plans 
and  elevations  of  these  fora,  in 
which  they  are  probably  very  little 
exaggerated,  and  we  may  conceive 
from  them  a  tolerably  just  idea  of 
the  disposition,  size,  and  grandeur  of 
these  splendid  works,  in  which  utility 
was  blended  with  all  the  richness  and 
pomp  of  architectural  ornament. 

The  Meidan  of  Ispahan  is  a  very 
large  modern  forum,  surrounded  on 
all  sides  by  lofty  galleries,  and  on 
festal  days  is  adorned  with  richly 
coloured  tapestry.  See  Ispahan. 
On  the  remains  of  the  agora  of 
Athens.    See  Agora. 

Foundation,  (Fr.)  that  part,  of 
a  building  or  wall  which  is  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
ancients  in  the  foundations  of  their 
edifices  followed  somewhat  different 
rules  from  those  of  the  moderns. 
On  a  rock  the  foundation  was  com- 
monly not  above  two  feet  deep,  but 
in  castles  they  generally  made  the 
depth  of  the  foundation  one-sixth 
of  the  height  of  the  edifice  above 
the  ground.  The  foundation  walls 
were  on  each  side  half  a  foot  wider 

G3 


FOU 


FOU 


than  the  walls  above,  and  were 
composed  of  large  stones  strongly 
cemented.  Counter  forts  were 
raised  on  the  outside  of  them,  and 
in  the  interior  other  walls  were  con- 
structed, united  to  the  principal 
walls,  and  projecting  from  them 
like  the  teeth  of  a  saw  :  the  angles 
were  connected  by  diagonal  walls. 
In  their  foundations,  the  Romans 
somelimes  used  puzzulana  mixed 
with  lime,  and  thrown  into  the  foun- 
dation fosse.  On  this  was  placed  a 
range  of  stones;  and  alternately  a 
range  of  each  followed,  till  the  re- 
quired height  was  completed. 

If  the  ground  to  be  built  on  was 
unsound  or  marshy,  it  was  directed 
to  be  cleaned  out,  and  piles  of  al- 
der or  scorched  oak  driven  down 
very  close  together  by  powerful 
machines,  and  the  interstices  ram- 
med with  coal.  If  vaults  and 
arches  were  to  be  made  under  the 
ground- floor,  they  must  rest  upon  a 
foundation  broader  than  themselves 
and  of  a  compact  and  solid 
structure. 

The  architect,  well  aware  of  the 
great  importance  of  a  good  foun- 
dation, will  be  anxious  to  find  or 
to  make  it  such.  A  rock,  or  a  com- 
pact sandy  earth,  of  a  firm  consist- 
ence and  rocky,  make  a  natural 
foundation,  either  on  land  or  in 
water;  and  if  on  land,  and  no 
cellars  be  required,  it  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  dig  a  sixth  part  of  the 
height  of  the  building.  If  the 
building  be  in  water,  all  the  sand 
and  gravel  must  be  removed  till  a 
firm  foundation  be  found,  or  if  that 
cannot  be  done,  piles  must  be  driven 
and  an  artificial  foundation  made. 
In  soft  and  loose  ground,  the  foun- 
dation must  be  proportionally 
wider;  and  also  when  the  fabric 
to  be  erected  is  very  spacious. 
Stones  laid  level  without  mortar  a* 
the  bottom  of  the  trenches,  are  best 
for  the  first  course,  and  these  should 

64 


be  close  packed  together,  am  he 
broader  the  better.  Witfj  bn&H 
in  general,  it  is  a  rule  to  mak  he 
foundation  course  twice  thebnhh 
of  the  thickness  of  the  wall. 

In  foundations  near  the  ed  of 
waters,  or  where  trenches  hav  )( 
fore  been  made,  the  ground  ust 
be  carefully  examined  to  a  con  jj 
able  depth.  Previous  to  layin'the 
foundation,  it  will  be  necessaf  to 
make  drains  for  carrying  oiithe 
rain  or  other  water,  that  \juld 
otherw:se  collect  and  lodge  iout 
the  house.  In  forming  these,[rg? 
allowances  must  be  made  fc the 
different  quantities  that  ma  be 
collected  at  various  times,  a  it 
must  be  considered,  that  vast  un- 
titles of  sediment  will  be  rollijed, 
and  soon  choak  up  the  drain  fit 
be  of  contracted  dimensions  to  1 
prevent  this,  it  will  be  necessjj'to 
make  cavities  in  various  places nto 
which  the  sediment  will  coot; 
these  are  called  sess-pools.  'jese 
drains  ou^ht  to  be  arched  oftt 
the  top,  and  may  be  most  cjve- 
nientlv  built  of  brick;  and  accciing  11 
to  their  different  sizes,  the  folhiru: 
proportions  of  height  and  tjck- 
ness  may  be  observed.  1  the 
drain  be  eighteen  inches  vie  it 
may  be  one  foot  in  height,  a  in 
thickness  nine  inches;  the  h<om 
paved  with  bricks  laid  flat,  anithe 
arch  turned  four  inches,  lkhe 
drain  be  twenty-two  inches  ae, 
the  side  walls  are  then  to  bpne 
foot  three  inches  in  height,  anjthe  , 
rest  constructed  as  before.  A  ain 
of  a  yard  wide  should  haviHie 
same  height,  and  the  arch  tued 
over  it  ought  to  be  nine  ifcea 
thick.  Drains  of  different  dien- 
sions  may  be  constructed  bjthe 
same  proportions. 

The  sewers  and  drains  m 
finished,  the  foundations  ofthe 
walls  must  be  laid ;  great  are 
being  taken  that  the  founriion 


FOU 

floor  be  perfectly  smooth  and  level. 
The  ;aiian  builders  begin  by  lay- 
ing er  it  an  even  covering  of 
7i  oak  plank,  and  upon  that  they 
th  the  most  exact  care,  the 
urse  of  the  materials.  Whe- 
ther ,3  take  this  method,  or  begin 
ii  he  naked  floor,  all  must  be 
th  the  utmost  accuracy  by 
rule  id  line.    The  first  course  of 
mist  be  large,  and  laid  with- 
t  3rtar;  for  lime  would  make 
the  >od  decay,  which  otherwise, 
y  soil,  will  remain  entire  for 

ages] 

In  loose  soil,  and  where  there 
be  apertures  in  buildings, 
itich  s   doors,  windows,  &c.  it 
;  best  to  turn  an  inverted 
ider  each  ;  which  will  eflfec- 
!U3ll  ounteiact  the  mischief  which 
wooli  irise  from  the  stress  of  the 
incur  ent  weight — the  piers  car- 
ryinghe  arches  with  them  as  one 
!  od y,  pressing  equally  on  the 
wb-sj  of  the  foundation.  The 
ic  curve    is  recommended 
t!  form  of  these  arches;  but 
ould  never  be  less  than  a 
semiej'Ie. 

As  avails   rise    from    the  first 
-  they  are  diminished  equally 
i  side.    The  outward  and 
walls  of  a  building  must 
f  n  ihe  same  level.  Inverted 
be)  must  be  built    under  all 
ertj»s,  except  those  of  very  con- 
ictff  dimensions     The  bearings 
ymey-breasts  must  not  be 
itwji is — they  must  diminish  as 
V  e  from  the  footing  and  the 
face  t  the  outward  wall.  New- 
man h    must   not    be  laid 
.mi    new-made    walls.  Old 
!'cns  must  not  be  built  on 
witho;  careful  examination.  All 
stone:  in  building,   especially  in 
fcontfions,  must  be  laid  as  in 
'iny.    See  Bed  and  Face  of 

PoIitain,    a  building  out  of 


FR  A 

which  water  is  made  to  flow,  for 
the  supply  of  towns  and  cities  :  in 
ancient  Greece  they  were  to  be 
seen  in    almost  every  town,  and 
some  of  them  highly  ornamental. 
The  Pirene,  a  fountain  of  Corinth, 
was  enclosed  with  white  marble, 
formed  into  elegant  grottos,  from 
which  the  water  flowed  into  a  capa- 
cious basin  or  reservoir, of  the  same 
material.    A  second    fountain  at 
Corinth  was  called  Lerna,  whose 
beautiful     portico  overshadowed 
ranges  of  elegant  seats,  on  which, 
in  the  extreme  heat  of  summer, 
the  citizens  might  enjoy  the  cool 
air.    Pausanias  mentions  a  foun- 
tain in  the  sacred  wood  of  Escula- 
pius,  at  Epidaurus,  of  great  beauty. 
He   also   describes    many  others 
equally  distinguished ;  arcu  ng  which 
were    those    called   Arsinoe  and 
Clepsydra,  at  Messina.    France,  at 
Paris  boasts  of  the  fountain  of  the 
Thuilleries,  at  Versailles  of  that  of 
the  Orangery,  and  various  others, 
splendidly,  if  not  tastefully,  deco- 
rated.    At  Rome  are  the  foun- 
tains of  the  Villa  Aldobrandini  at 
Frescati,  of  the  Terminus,  of  Mount 
Janiculum,  of  the  gardens  of  the 
Belvidere  in  the  Vatican,  the  three 
Fountains  of  St.  Paul,  and  many 
others  of  great,  celebrity.    See  Ba- 
sin and  Cantharus. 

Fountain  eers.  See  Aqueduct. 
Fou  rciiou  Fou.  See  Bridge. 
Fox-tail  Wedging,  is  a  pecu- 
liar mode  of  mortising,  in  which  the 
end  of  the  tenon  is  notched  beyond 
the  mortise,  and  is  split,  and  a 
wedge  inserted,  which  being  driven 
forcibly  in,  enlarges  the  tenon,  and 
renders  the  joint  firm  and  im- 
moveable. 

Frame,  the  name  given  to  the 
woodwork  of  windows,  enclosing 
glass  ;  the  outward  work  cf  doors 
or  window-shutters,  enclosing  pa- 
nels; and  in  carpentry,  to  the  tim- 
ber works  supporting  floors,  roofs, 

65 


FRE 


FRE 


ceilings;  or  to  the  intersecting 
pieces  of  timber  forming  partitions. 

Franking,  a  term  used  by  the 
makers  of  window  sashes,  and  ap- 
plied to  the  mode  of  forming  the 
joint  where  the  cross-pieces  of  the 
frame  intersect  each  other. 

French  Architecture.  The 
works  built  under  the  direction  of 
Charles  V.  prepared  the  regenera- 
tion of  architectural  taste  in  France. 
Of  this  age,  may  be  instanced  the 
castle  of  St.  Germain-en-Laye,  and 
those  of  Montargis  and  De  Creil. 
The  church  of  St.  Urbain  at  Troyes, 
built  towards  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  is  distinguished  by 
its  delicacy  and  solidity.  From 
Charles  XII.  to  Louis  XII.  little 
progress  was  made  in  the  improve- 
ment of  this  art.  Under  the  latter 
prince  were  erected  the  eastern  and 
southern  fronts  of  the  castle  of 
Blois,  with  the  Palais  de  Justice, 
the  castle  of  Gaillon,  &c.  In  the 
reign  of  Francis  I.  architecture  had 
still  made  very  slow  progress ;  he 
erected  parts  of  the  castles  of  Fon- 
tainbleau  and  St.  Germain-en-Laye, 
and,  on  his  return  from  Spain  in 
1526,  Chamboid.  It  was  during 
the  reign  of  this  prince  that  the 
taste  for  the  Gothic  styie  began  to 
yield  to  the  style  which  was  intro- 
duced by  the  Italian  artists  whom 
his  liberality  encouraged.  This  is 
considered  as  the  true  epoch  of  the 
regeneration  of  pure  architecture 
in  France.  The  Italian  and  French 
artists  emulated  each  other  in  fur- 
nishing the  most  magnificent  de- 
signs for  the  erection  of  the  Louvre, 
which  was  continued  by  his  suc- 
cessor, Henry  II.  by  whose  orders 
considerable  additions  were  also 
made  to  Chamboid,  Fontainbleau, 
and  St.  Germain-en-Laye.  From 
this  period  the  architecture  of 
France  lias  proceeded  through  a 
regular  train  of  progressive  im- 
nrovements,  till  it  arrived  at  its 

66 


present  state.  In  the  Plat  0f 
French  Buildings,  are  exh  ted 
the  general  style  of  French  „ . 
sions  in  the  metropolis.  For  ore 
observations  on  the  early  an 
ture  of  France,  see  Gothic  A 
lecture. 

French  Bridges.  See£;,, 
Frkncii  Casements,  areli 
dow  frames  made  to  form  two  s  - 
ments,  one  of  which  is  fixed  i 
the  other  moveable,  wrapping  v  r 
each  other,  and  forming  a  trajoni 
at  their  junction.    The  lower 
which  hinges  on  the  jambs,  hn 
a  munion  where  the  two  sides  eet 
in    the   middle.     A  patenttgi 
granted  in  1825  to  J.  L.  Bo|  of 
Newman-street,  and  J.  Turin  of 
Well-street,  London,  for  ai  im- 
proved sash  of  this  construct! . 
Fresco,  (Ital.)  the  most  merit 


by 


method  of  ornamenting  hous< 
painting  on  stucco  whilst  tha  u!> 
stance  remains  soft  and  fresh  this 
method  of  decoration  is  pecurlv 
applicable  to  great  public  |>rks 
and  splendid  edifices,  bein|th 
most  durable  ;  it  is  also  the^L 
expeditious  y  performed,  an|9J 
requires  the  greatest  skill  its 
execution.     The  Egyptians  "«\ 
tised  stucco  painting  from  a  rlnj 
and  unknown  antiquity ;  ana 
also  found  among  the  most  a 
relics  of  Grecian  art.    Two  <  - 
torsare  engaged,  the  pai  I  r 
the  plasterer  in  constant  a  wl- 
ance.    To  prepore  the  work  f  the 
painter,  a  rendering  and  a  finmj 
coat  are  required,  and  the  e 
are  prepared  only  with  water 


)iirs 
No 


alteration  or  amendment  cai»ki 
place,  and  the  artist  must  pWSl 
great  ability  and  judgment  Jvi 
quickness  of  execution.  Th  &fl 
has  been  lately  revived  a  m 
French,  with  considerable  sres 
an  example  of  which  is  rcfnjl 
finished  in  the  chapel  of  SW'fi 
cent  de  Paule,  in  the  chu  i  « 


FR  I 


FRO 


Stifulpice  at  Paris,  by  a  native 
«rtf:  of  the  name  of  Guillemot ; 
it  i  lie  third  chapel  in  that  church 
wh|i  has  been  so  embellished,  and 
thctfect  is  very  beautiful. 

JiET,a  kind  of  ornamental  work, 
v,  h  i  presents  a  rough  or  uneven 
ranee,  formed  by  rectangulars 
nnelled  work.    The  labyrinth 

;  s  formed  from  winding  chan- 
nel whose  sides  are  parallel  to 

\c  ether,  with  right  angles. 

J  ieze,  (Fr.)  that  part  of  the 
■  it  lature  comprised  between  the 
arc  rave  and  the  cornice,  sup- 
posi  to  have  originated  from  the 
pro-ting  ends  of  the  transverse 
beas  resting  on  and  fixed  to  the 
rc  rave.  Amongst  the  ancients, 
iscan  order  had  no  frieze,  be- 
cau  the  beams  which  rest  on  the 
arclrave,  and  which  in  the  other 
ord('  do  not  go  beyond  it,  have 
so  ;?at  a  projection  in  this,  that 

i\  form  the  cornice.  When 
er  the  beams  give  place  to  a 
frie?  they  are  cut  level  with  the 

i  ave.  In  the  Doric  order  the 
/  was  ornamented  with  tri- 
.  v|  ,  which  doubtlessly  owed 
t  iei;  rigin  to  the  same  extremities 
i  ll  beams  resting  on  the  archi- 
■P  They  were  placed  at  equal 
jfptyes  above  the  middle  of  the 
pups,  and  that  of  the  interco- 

:ni  lions.  Thus  there  remained 
bettt  n  the  two  triglvphs  a  square 
uac  called  the  Metope.  In  the 
Ipte  orders  the  frieze  was  orna- 
jpi  I  with  garlands  of  flowers 
ftd  'tits,  with  figures  of  animals, 

'  e  Vitruvius  names  it  zopho- 

\)  en,  of  arms,  of  allegorical 
nts,  &c.  On  the  frieze  of 
■ !  t  > pie  of  Jupiter  at  Elis,  ap- 
pwio  have  been  sculptured  the 
r.ice  f  Pelops    and  (Enomaus, 

Hlj  some  suppose  it  to  have 
been  i  the  fronton.  On  the  frieze 
^  th'.emple  of  Apollo  at  Delphos 
wefe  spended  the  golden  bucklers 


that  were  taken  at  the  battle  of 
Marathon.  Stuart,  in  his  Antiqui- 
ties of  Athens,  has  given  a  repre- 
sentation of  a  Doric  frieze,  supposed 
to  have  belonged  to  a  temple  of 
Ceres  at  Athens,  whose  two  tri- 
glvphs are  ornamented  with  the 
heads  of  poppies,  with  a  torch  and 
a  thyrsus  placed  across.  Winckle- 
man  has  shown,  in  his  treatise  on 
the  architecture  of  the  ancients, 
that  no  member  allows  so  great  a 
variety  of  ornament  as  the  frieze; 
it  was  often  appropriated  to  an 
inscription,  as  in  the  Rotunda  at 
Rome ;  and  in  some  instances,  small 
oval  apertures  to  admit  light  are 
introduced  on  the  frieze.  On  this 
subject,  amongst  other  works,  may 
be  consulted  P.  Columbani,  a  va- 
riety of  capitals,  friezes,  and  cornices, 
and  "  Frises  et  Ornaments  moderne, 
par  J.  Le  Pautrc" 

Frieze-Panel,  the  upper  pa- 
nel of  a  door  of  six  panels. 

Frieze-Rail,  the  rail  next  to 
the  top  rail  of  a  door  of  six  panels. 

Frigidarium,  (Lat.)  an  apart- 
ment in  the  Roman  bath,  supplied 
with  cold  water. 

Frigiratory,  an  apartment, 
generally  on  the  ground  floor,  or 
in  the  cellar,  under-ground, well  ven- 
tilated, and  fitted  for  the  preserva- 
tion of  animal  and  vegetable  articles 
of  food. 

Front,  (frons,  Lat.)  the  name 
given  to  the  principal  anterior  fa- 
cade of  a  building:  by  the  Romans 
peculiarly  applied  to  temples,  as 
was  also  the  word  Anticum. 

Frontispiece,  an  ornamented 
front  of  a  building. 

Fronton.    See  Tympanum. 

Frosted,  a  kind  of  ornamental 
work,  having  an  appearance  like 
that  of  hoar  frost  upon  plants. 

Frustum,  (Lat.)  a  piece  cut  off 
from  a  regular  figure :  the  frustum 
of  a  cone  is  the  part  that  re- 
mains  when   the  top  is  cut  off 

67 


G  A  I 


G  AN 


by  an  intersection  parallel  to  its 

base ;  it  is  also  called  a  truncated 
cone.  The  frustum  of  a  globe  or 
sphere,  is  any  part  of  it  cut  off  by 
a  plane;  the  solid  contents  of  which 
may  be  found  by  adding  three 
times  the  square  of  the  semidiame- 
ter  of  its  base  to  the  square  of  its 
height,  and  then  multiplying  that 
sum  by  the  height  and  this  again 
by  15236,  which  gives  the  solidity 
of  the  frustum. 

Funnel,  the  inside  of  the  shaft 
of  a  chimney. 

Furniture,  the  name  given  to 
ornamental  plates  of  brass,  or  other 


metals  attached  to  the  fastenin  0f 
doors,  windows,  and  on  other  rti 
of  the  wood-work  of  houses. 

Furrings,  are  flat  piece  of 
timber  used  by  carpenters  to  (L 
dislocated  work  to  a  regulator- 
rangement,  by  drawing  the  fof 
parts  of  it  to  one  regular  surW, 

Fusuuole,  a  small  memb  in 
form  of  a  collar,  with  somelat 
long  beads  under  the  echinu  or 
quarter-round,  of  pillars  of  the  »0- 
ric,  Ionic,  and  Composite  order 

Fut,  (Fr.)  the  shaft  of  a  co- 
lumn ;  applied  also  to  the  ink 
of  a  pilaster. 


G. 


Gable,  (gaval,  Welsh,)  the  up- 
right triangular  end  of  a  building; 
in  classical  architecture,  called  a 
pediment.    See  Carpentry. 

Gage,  (Fr.)  in  carpentry,  an 
instrument  made  to  strike  a  line 
trujy  parallel  to  the  straight  side  of 
any  board  or  piece  of  stuff.  Its 
chief  use  is  for  the  gaging  of  tenons 
true,  to  fit  into  mortises;  and  for 
gaging  stuff  of  an  equal  thickness. 
It  is  made  of  an  oval  piece  of 
wood,  fitted  up  on  a  square  stick, 
on  which  it  slides  up  and  down,  and 
on  which  there  is  a  tooth,  to  strike 
a  line  at  the  distance  required. 

Gaieta,  or  Gaeta,  the  ancient 
Cajeta,  a  seaport  town  of  Naples, 
40  miles  north-west  from  the  capi- 
tal. At  the  front  of  the  cathedral  is 
a  fine  antique  white  marble  vase,  of 
Athenian  sculpture,  with  bassi  re- 
litviy  representing  Athamas,  Ino 
with  a  child  in  her  arms,  and  a 
group  of  Bacchantes.  An  ancient 
column,  opposite  the  great  portal, 
is  marked  with  the  names  of  the 
winds  in  Greek  and  Latin.  The 
tomb  of  Munatius  Planens,  which 
stands  on  a  bold  eminence  on  the 
neck  of  land  which  joins  the  pen- 
insula to  the  continent,  is  round, 


but  stripped  of  its  marble  caigt 
and  converted  into  a  tower  ith 
battlements.  See  Eustace 's  'a- 
vels,  vol.  i.  p.  475. 

Gain,  the  bevelled  shouldeif  a 
binding  joist. 

Galilee,  a  name  given  t<  lie 
porch  which  was  built  at  or?ar 
the  west  end  of  great  abbey  chi.'h- 
es,  where  the  monks  collecte  on 
their  return  from  any  proce;on, 
and  where  corpses  were  dept  ed 
previous  to  their  interment. 

Gallery,  (Fr.)  an  apart mt 
of  much  greater  length  than  bre  th, 
often  used  as  a  connecting  paf  ge 
with  which  the  various  rooms 
building  communicate.  PalJio 
gives  the  proper  length  of  a  g^ry 
at  from  eight  to  ten  time  its 
breadth.  In  modern  palaces  nd 
mansions,  the  gallery,  like  theor- 
tico  of  the  ancients,  is  apprcpr  ed 
to  the  reception  of  pictures  nd 
sculptures.  The  name  is  also  ;'en 
to  long  porticos,  with  rang*  of 
columns  on  one  side. 

Gang-Ladder,  a  name  us  m 
canal-making,  for  the  same  im- 
pose as  a  horsing  block. 

Gang-Way,  a  temporary  tail 
of  planks. 


GAT 


GAT 


Uol,  (Brit,  geol,)  a  prison,  or 
pla  of  confinement.  It  is  always 
prounced,  and  sometimes  erro- 
t,e(;lv  written,  jail.  In  England, 
eve  county  has  two  gaols  ;  one 
v  he  peace,  and  the  affairs  of 
therown,  and  this  is  properly  the 

ty  gaol,  the  other  for  debtors. 

t/un,  Pont  du.  See  Aqueduct. 

urdfns,  Hanging.  See  Arch. 

(ilRLand,  (Gardcl  Handa,  in 
t, iforthern  languages,  a  nosegay 
art;lhj  wrought  with  the  hand.) 

word  cenotes  ornaments  of 
flovrs,  fruit  and  leaves,  intermix- 
ed jnciently  much  used  at  the 
fat  of  temples,  where  feasts  and 
lol  iu  rejoicings  were  held,  and  as 
an  rchitectural  ornament,  is  fre- 
i    qu't  on  triumphal  arches,  &c. 

u  nf.ts,  Cross,  a  kind  of 
hini,  in  the  shape  of  H  . 

|»ret,  (Fr.)  the  upper  story 
of  mouse. 

i.tr,  (geat,Szx.)  the  door  of  a 
cit- castle,  or  other  large  building. 
Th  city  of  Rome  had  originally 
but  iree  gates,  but  after  the  ad- 
m'uon  of  the  Sabines  as  citizens, 
a  firth  was  added  on  the  side  of 
the  :apitol.  The  first  gate  was 
ter  d  Porta  Muiionis,  from  the 
rag  of  the  herds  which  entered 
bv  •;  the  second,  Romanula,  from 
tlieuame  of  the  city ;  the  third, 
} mills,  from  the  temple  of  Janus 
K<  t;  the  fourth,  Porta  Carmen- 
t&u  from  Carmenta,  the  Arca- 
dia prophetess,  the  mother  of 
Evjcler,  who  resided  near  it. 
Oljr  gates  were  afterwards,  at 
wr|  is  periods,  added.  Leo  Bat- 
Alberti,  (de  re  edificatoria, 
Kb;iii.  c.  6.)  observes  the  simila- 
ritjjietween  the  names  and  use  of 
ate  (porta)  and  ports  or  har- 
bot  (portus)  :  viarum  quidem,  et 
ear  1,  qu-ae  extra  urbem  sunt,  et 
'"nn,  quae  intra  ur'nem  sunt,  ca- 
t.  quasi  terminus  quidam,  est 
ter  >tribus  porta:  maritimis  nisi 


fallimus  portus.  The  gates  of  an- 
cient cities  were  formed  with  an 
opening  in  the  middle  for  carriages, 
&c.,  and  one  smaller  on  each  side 
for  foot  passengers,  as  may  be 
observed  at  Pompeii.  In  temples, 
the  lintel,  or  architrave  of  the  gate, 
was  always  the  same  height  as  the 
capitals  of  the  columns  of  the  por- 
tico. The  gateways  were  some- 
times wider  at  the  bottom  than  the 
top,  as  in  the  circular  temples  of 
Vesta  atTivoli,and  the  Doric  tem- 
ple at  Cora.  Vitruvius  denomi- 
nates gates,  according  as  they  be- 
longed to  the  Doric,  Ionic,  or  Corin- 
thian orders,  Doric, Ionic, and  Attic. 

The  gates  of  Arabian  cities  are 
generally  of  vast  height,  plated 
with  brass  on  both  sides.  See  Ara- 
bian Architecture. 

In  rural  economy,  the  Gate  is  a 
frame  of  wood,  constructed  of  bars, 
and  turning  upon  hinges.  Their 
width  should  be  generally  from 
8|  to  9  feet,  and  the  height  five  to 
six,  the  bars  five  or  six  in  number, 
each  four  or  five  inches  broad. 
Oak,  on  account  of  its  durability, 
is  the  best  wood  for  gates;  but 
deal,  willow,  and  alder,  are  often 
used,  and  are  durable  from  their 
lightness.  Where  horses,  &c.  are 
kept,  the  upper  bars  are  required 
to  be  strongest.  * 

Gates,  in  engineering,  are  the 
doors  of  locks  or  sluices,  on  ca- 
nals, &c. 

A  Gate,  on  the  construction,  hang- 
ing, and  fastening  of  a  turnpike-gate, 
has  been  invented  by  T.  N.  Parker, 
Esq. ;  a  full  account  and  descrip- 
tion of  which  may  be  procured  at 
Taylor's  Architectural  Library,  Hol- 
born.  In  this  improved  gate,  an 
extraordinary  degree  of  strength 
has  been  obtained  with  a  moderate 
quantity  of  materials,  and  those 
materials  so  advantageously  dis- 
posed, that  the  weight  of  the  gate 
is  thrown  as  near  to  the  hinges  as 


GEN 

possible.  The  force  required  to 
open  or  shut  this  gate  is  equal  to 
about  eleven  pounds ;  and  when 
opened  at  right  angles  to  the  road, 
it  presents  no  projecting  obstruc- 
tion of  any  description,  and  has 
no  tendency  to  recoil,  nor  to  rest 
in  one  part  more  than  in  another. 
The  materials  of  this  gate  are  oak 
and  iron,  and  though  the  principle 
is  not  new,  yet  the  manner  of  its 
application  is  peculiar,  as  respects 
both  the  upper  and  lower  hinge  ; 
the  weight  on  the  lower  is  supported 
without  either  wheels  or  rollers, 
and  yet  it  may  be  opened  by  a 
child  of  three  years  old ;  and  the 
upper  hinge  may  be  extended  or 
shortened  by  a  screw-nut,  to  adjust  it 
with  t  he  lower.  The  expense  of  this 
gate  will  be  from  about  £1'2  to  £20. 

Gate,  the  Sympathetic  Park 
Gate,  is  made  to  open  on  the  ap- 
proach of  a  carriage  or  horse,  and 
to  shut  of  itself  when  the  carriage 
has  passed  through.  This  inven- 
tion is  by  Mr.  John  Parker,  of 
Knightsbridge,  and  is  described  in 
the  London  Journal  of  Arts,  vol. 
xiv.  1827.  The  lever  is  the  prin- 
ciple of  action,  and  the  weight  of 
the  horse  or  carriage  is  the  pro- 
pelling power,  in  the  opening  and 
closing  of  the  gate. 

Gathering  of  the  Wings,  is 
a  name  given  by  workmen  to  that 
part  of  a  chimney  which  connects 
the  breast  with  the  flue. 

Genesis,  (yeveaig,  Gr.)  the  for- 
mation of  a  line,  plane,  or  solid,  in 
geometry,  by  the  motion  of  another. 

Glneva,  a  city  of  Switzerland. 
The  houses  are  lofty,  consisting  fre- 
quently of  four  or  five  stories;  and 
in  the  commercial  part  of  the  town, 
particularly  in  the  Rue  Basse, 
gloomy  arcades  of  wood  are  sup- 
ported by  large  wooden  pillars, 
which  rise  to  the  very  top  of  the 
house,  and  protect  the  foot  pas- 
sengers from  the  sun  and  rain.  In 


GEO 

this  street  there  are  two  rou  0f 

low  wooden  shops  in  front  oL 
houses,  separating  the  street  !,m 
the  foot  pavements.  The  cjL 
dral,  which  is  a  fine  bttilL' 
occupies  the  place  of  an  an. J 
temple  consecrated  to  the  sun. 

Geometrical  Stair,  a  fL 
of  stairs,  supported  only  by  the  ill 
at  one  end  of  the  steps. 

Geometry,  (ye^erpm,  Gift 
from  yrj,  the  earth,  and  jkrp(  j 
measure,)  the  science  of  extenL 
quantity, or  magnitude, abstract  ly 
considered.  The  oldest  geom-j. 
cians  we  read  of  in  history  re 
the  Egyptians,  to  whom  ancnt 
writers  attribute  the  invenfio  of 
the  science.  One  of  its  oldest  d- 
tivators  in  Greece  was  ThaleJbf 
Miletus.  Among  his  followers  re 
Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  An  L 
goras,  and  Pythagoras.  It  L 
tinued  to  flourish  amongst  thet 
cian  sages,  and,  amongst  its  ? st 
distinguished  disciples  in  later  n  s, 
are  numbered  the  celebrated  naj;s 
of  Euclid  and  Archimedes.  Amost 
the  best  works  on  geometry,  e, 
Euclid's  Elements  by  Simpson,  j- 
gendre's  Geometrie,  and  the  wii 
of  Playfair  and  Leslie.  The  I- 
lowing  are  a  few  of  the  most  usjal 
practical  problems : — 

1.  Given  three  straight  lis, 
A,B,C,  to  find  a  fourth  proport  i- 
al.  (Plate  GI,  Jig.  1.)  Make* 
angle  def  at  pleasure,  apply  ie 
line  A  on  the  side  of  the  angle  fp 
e  to  d,  and  the  line  B  on  the  o  r 
side  from  e  to  f,  join  df;  apply  e 
line  C  on  the  iine  e  d,  from  e  t/, 
draw  gh  parallel  to  df,  mee  g 
the  side  ef'mh;  eh  will  be  16 
fourth  proportional. 

2.  To  find  a  mean  proportion 
between  two  given  lines.  Dra> 
straight  line  AC,  (fig.  2,)  and  m  e 
AB  and  BC  equal  to  die  g|n 
lines;  draw  BD  perpendicular;© 
AC  from  point  B,  or  AC,  a  a 


GEO 


GEO 


dmeter,  describe  the  semicircumfe- 
q  ce  ADO,  cutting  BD  in  D  :  BD 
v!  be  the  proportional  required. 
I.  To  find  in  lines  the  square 
rlt  of  any  proposed  number, 
I;w  the  straight  line  AC  (Jig.  3,) 
J;al  to  the  proposed  number, 
Jeh  may  be  supposed  to  be  35, 
w  h  is  the  product  of  35  x  1,  or 
7  5.  Make  AB  equal  to  35 
pi  s  of  a  scale,  and  BC  equal  to 
l.nd  find  the  mean  proportional 
B  to  AB,  and  BC,  by  the  last 
pnlem;  or  find  bd  (Jig.  A,)  a 
m-n  proportional  between  the  lines 
a, and  6c,  which  are  equal  to  7 
ar  5 ;  (he  line  BDor  bd  will  be  found 
ec,d  to  5  9 16,  the  square  root. 

,  To  reduce  a  given  rectangle 
tonother,  which  shall  have  one  of 
itsides  given.  Let  ABCD  (Jig.  5,) 
b(  he  given  rectangle  :  make  the 
ii  I  = AD,  and  K '  =  AB,  which 
be*  considered  as  the  two  middle 
teis,  make  H,  as  the  first  term, 
eq.l  to  the  given  line  EP,  and 
fin  a  fourth  proportion  by  prob.  1, 
wl  h  may  be  done  on  the  angle 
DA,  and  Ag  will  be  the  other 
sic  of  the  rectangle  to  be  erected 
on  F,  and  equal  to  ABCD.  (The 
Ki  at  the  bottom  of  the  plates  is 
mi,  to  apply  the  lines  of  the 
fig  =s  to  numbers.) 

|  To  reduce  a  given  triangle  to 
1 1  tangle  of  the  same  area.  Let 
the  iven  triangle  be  ABC,  (Jig.  1, 
PleG.  II.)  take  the  side  AB  for 
the  ength  of  one  of  the  sides  of 
the  ectangle,  and  draw  the  line 
1  i  from  C  perpendicular  to  AB, 
sect  CD  into  equal  parts,  in 
"if ■  oint  i:  draw  EH  zr  AB,  and 
bF  :  Di  perpendicular  to  EH,  and 
cor  lete  the  rectangle  EFGH, 
h  ;  will  contain  the  same  area 
as  f;  triangle  ABC. 

<  To  reduce  a  triangle  to  a 
rec  igle  of  the  same  area,  of 
wh  one  of  me  sides  is  given. 
Let  he  given  triangle  be  ABC, 


(Jig.  2,)  and  F  the  given  side  of  the 
rectangle;  G,  H,  I,  are  the  three 
first  terms  of  the  four  proportionals, 
H  —  AC  base  of  triangle,  and  I  bz 
de,  half  the  perpendicular  Bd,  and 
a  fourth  term  ko  may  be  found  by 
the  triangle  I  km:  construct  the 
rectangle  p  qr  s,  of  which  the  side 
p  s  =  F,  and  p  q  =  ko,  and  it  will 
be  equivalent  to  the  triangle  ABC. 

7.  To  reduce  a  polygon  to  an 
equivalent  rectangle,  of  which  a 
side  is  given.  Let  it  be  required 
to  reduce  a  pentagon  ABCDE, 
(Jig.  3,  No.  1 J  to  a  rectangle, 
whose  given  side  is  I.  (No.  2.)  As 
the  figure  consists  of  five  sides,  it 
may  be  divided  into  three  triangles 
by  the  diagonals  AC,  AD:  in  the 
first  triangle,  V,  draw  the  perpen- 
dicular Bf;  transfer  AC  and  the 
half  of  B/ to  K  and  L,  (No.  2,)  for 
the  two  middle  terms  of  which  the 
first  is  I :  find  the  fourth  propor- 
tional mq  by  No.  3 :  the  lines  I 
(No.  2,)  and  mq,  (No.  3,)  are  the 
sides  of  a  rectangle  equivalent  to 
the  triangle  ABC:  this  rectangle 
will  be  rswv,  (No.  8.)  In  the 
same  manner  the  rectangle  s  t  xw, 
may  be  found,  equal  to  triangle  W, 
by  Nos.  4  and  5,  and  the  whole  fi- 
gure will  be  completed  by  tuyx  — 
X,  by  Nos.  6  and  7,  the  rectangle 
ruyv  being  equal  to  the  pentagon 
ABCDE.  If  the  polygon  be  regu- 
lar, a  rectangle  must  be  described 
equal  to  one  of  the  triangles,  and 
repeated  as  often  as  the  number  of 
triangles.  In  Jig.  1,  (Plate  G.  III.) 
the  rectangle  r  sg  z,  No.  3,  is  made 
equal  to  the  triangle  FIE,  (No.  1,) 
and  the  whole  rectangular  r  xy  z 
is  the  rectangle  multiple  of  the 
partial  rectangle  rsgz. 

8.  To  describe  a  square  that  shall 
be  any  multiple  of  a  given  square. 
Let  ABCD,  (Jig.  2,)  be  the  given 
square,  it  is  required  to  make  one 
four  times  as  large;  draw  tne  dia- 
gonal BD,  and  produce  the  sidea 


G  I  L 


GLA 


AB  and  AD  to  G  and  K,  make 
AE  and  AH  equal  to  DB,  and 
complete  the  square  AELH  :  next 
draw  a  line  from  D  to  E,  make  AF 
and  AI  each  equal  to  DE,  and 
complete  the  square  AFMI:  the 
square  AELH  =:  twice  the  square  of 
AB,  for  the  square  of  DB,  which  is 
equal  to  the  square  AELH,  is  equal 
to  the  squares  of  AB  and  AD,  that 
is,  twice  ihe  square  ABCD ;  in  like 
manner  the  square  AFMI, being  the 
square  of  DE,  equals  the  squares 
of  AE  and  AD,  and  the  square  of 
AE  is  twice  the  square  of  AD, 
therefore  the  squares  of  AE  and 
AD,  or  the  square  AFMI  equals  the 
square  of  AD,  or  the  square  ABCD. 
For  the  same  reason,  the  square 
AGNK,  made  in  the  same  manner, 
is  four  times  the  square  ABCD. 

9.  To  describe  a  square  nearly 
equivalent  to  a  given  circle.  Let 
the  given  circle  be  ABCD,  (Jig.  3,; 
draw  the  two  diameters  AC,  BD, 
at  right  angles  to  each  other,  bisect 
either  of  the  four  radii,  as  ED  in  f9 
and  from  A,  the  extremity  of  the 
radius  perpendicular  to  FD,  draw 
the  straight  line  Ag  through  f, 
meeting  the  circumference  in  g : 
Ag  will  be  the  side  of  a  square, 
whose  area  is  very  nearly  equal  to 
the  circle  ABCD. 

Geranos,  (Greek,)  a  machine 
placed  behind  the  scenes  of  the 
ancient  theatres,  by  means  of  which 
the  actors  might  be  raised  into  the 
air.  The  name  signifies  a  crane, 
and  it  perhaps  resembled  in  some 
measure  the  machine  which  still 
goes  under  that  name. 

Giant's  Arch,  a  remarkable 
arch  of  the  horse-shoe  form,  at 
Alora  in  Spain.  See  Arabian 
Architecture. 

Giblea  Cheque,  a  term  used 
in  Scotland  for  a  recess  made  in  a 
stone  doorcase,  by  cutting  away  the 
right  angle  formed  by  the  front  and 
returns  of  the  aperture. 
72 


ivo,  (gildan,  Sax.)  ftL 
of  gilding  and  silvering 


Gildi 

tracings 

to  be  found  on  the  earliest  rn<  ,. 
ments  of  Egyptian  art.  Vesi>s 
of  it,  as  used  by  the  ancient  \i 
sians,  are  found  among  the  ruiL 
Persepolis.  It  was  practised  C 
great  extent  among  the  Grjcs 
and  Romans,  but  not  in  m 
architectural  works. 

Gimlet, (Fr.)  an  instrument  d 
by  carpenters,  &c.  for  boring  h<  s. 

Giocondo,  an  architect  oft 
rona,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  p 
visited  France,  built  two  brim 
over  the  Seine,  and  obtained  ie 
title  of  architect-royal  to  the  Fr<  ;h 
king.  He  was  first  a  teaeheot 
languages.  He  was  employed  th 
Raphael  and  San  Gallo,  in  sur- 
in  tending  the  erection  of  St.  Pet  s. 
He  edited  Pliny's  Epistles,  and  i- 
truvius,  and  published  severalr- 
chiteetural  dissertations. 

Girder,  (Saxon,)  a  lareebcn, 
to  shorten  the  joists  of  a  floor,  id 
thus  lessen  their  bearing.  It  is 
also  termed  the  girding  beam,  lie 
Carpentry. 

Girdle,  (Saxon,)  the  cireir 
band  round  a  column. 

Girgenti.    See  Agrigenh 

Glacis,  (Fr.)  an  easy  slop^r 
declivity.  In  fortification,  a  slu- 
ing bank,  more  particularly  it 
which  ranges  from  the  patapew 
the  covered  way  to  the  level  onie 
side  of  the  field. 

Glass,  {glees,  Saxon,)atran 
rent   substance,  made  by  fu 
various  salts  and  metallic  ox  M 
with  siliceous  earths.    The  rmi- 
facture  of  glass  was  well  know 
Aristotle's  time,  about  350  y  rs 
before  Christ,  and  Pliny  gives  ie 
following  account  of  its  discovy. 
A  merchant  vessel,  laden  with  r  e 
or  fossil  alkali,  being  driven  bug 
coast  of  Palestine,  near  the  W 
Belus,  the  crew  accidentally  fj 
ported  the  kettles  on  which  t  y 


GOL 

dril  their  provisions  on  pieces  of 
thifossil  alkali.  The  sand  about 
jt  L  vitrified  by  its  union  with 
the  alkali,  and  produced  glass. 
Tlvhint  thus  accidentally  obtained 
wa  improved  upon.  The  glass  of 
E2)tian  manufacture  was  long 
pr<  rred  to  all  other :  it  was  often 
staed  of  various  colours.  In  the 
tin  of  Augustus  it  was  used  by 
theRoman  architects  in  mosaic 
wo,  several  specimens  of  which 
ha'  been  found  in  the  villa  of 
Til  ins,  in  the  island  of  Capri, 
cor  sting  of  red,  green,  and  blue. 
Frji  Lactantius  it  appears,  that 
!)  t  the  end  of  the  third  century, 
i,  was  used  for  windows,  (de 
Opc.  Dei,  c.  5,)  and  from  the 
gl;;  plates  found  at  Herculaneum, 
v  t  ave  reason  to  suppose  that  this 
prdre  was  introduced  much  ear- 
lie  The  use  of  glass  in  windows 
■  ntioned  by  St.  Jerome  in  422, 
Pi  us  Silenliarus  in  534,  Gregory 
of  "ours  in  671,  and  Johannes 
Pb)ponus  in  630.  Artificers  skilled 
in  ikincr  crlass,  according  to  Bede, 
we  brought  into  England  in  674. 
Gljs  windows  were  not  generally 
us<  in  England  till  1180,  and  for 
a  Misiderable  time  they  vvere 
cstrned  marks  of  great  magnifi- 
es. 

.t'F„    See  Cement. 
i  kixg  up  various  kinds  of 
,  is  treated  of  in  the  article 
Co  tructive  Carpentry. 

LVPii,  (y\v<pi£,  Gr.)  an  orna- 
meal  cavity  or  incision.  See  Di- 
ffip,  Trig'lyph. 

I^omomc  Projection  of  the 
Sp  re,  when  the  eye  is  in  the  cen- 
tre,' the  sphere,  and  projects  all 
the  ircles  on  a  plane  which  touches 
it* .  rface. 

d koon,  (Fr)  a  kind  of  in- 
ver.J  fluting  or  beading. 

'r)LA,  or  Gu la,  (Lat.)  a  mould- 
ing, nore  usually  denominated  cy- 
nta  eversa. 
K 


GOT 

Goldman,  a  German  architec- 
tural writer,  born  at  Breslau,  in 
1623,  and  d'ed  at  Leyden  in  1665. 

Goniometer,  (Gr.  from  yojvia, 
an  angle,  and  ^erpow,  to  measure,) 
an  instrument  for  measuring  solid 
angles. 

Gon iometric a l  Lines,  lines 
of  sines,  tangents,  secants,  or  any 
other  used  to  measure  angles. 

Gorge,  (Fr.)  another  name  for 
the  moulding  termed  cy ma-recta, 

Gorgon ei a,  (yopyoitta,  Gr.) 
key-stones  carved  in  the  shape  of 
Gorgr  ns'  heads. 

Gothic  Architecture.  The 
origin  of  that  kind  of  architecture 
which  is  commonly  denominated 
Gothic,  is  hid  in  the  mysterious 
darkness  of  a  barbarous  age.  Of 
late  times  even  the  propriety  of  the 
name  has  been  a  subject  of  dis- 
pute. Some  have  considered  it  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Italy  by 
the  Goths,  under  Theodoric  :  others 
imagine  it  to  be  a  corrupt  devia- 
tion from  the  Grecian  and  Roman  ; 
and  others  conceive,  from  the  simi- 
larity of  the  nave  of  a  Gothic 
cathedra],  to  the  interior  of  a  grove 
of  trees,  with  its  interlacing  boughs, 
that  the  style  was  formed  originally 
in  imitation  of  such  a  grove,  from 
which  all  its  ornaments  originated. 
But  all  these  theories  are  liable 
to  important  objections.  As  to  the 
latter,  it  is  evident  that  all  archi- 
tectural ornaments  have  originated 
from  vegetable  forms.  Not  a  single 
instance  of  the  pointed  arch,  or 
pinnacle,  have  yet  been  discovered 
in  the  ancient  styles  peculiar  to 
Europe;  and  if  we  would  pitch  on 
any  country  as  the  original  seat  of 
Gothic  architecture,  we  are  induced, 
by  many  arguments,  to  look  to  In- 
dia and  Persia.  Dr.  Milner,  and 
others,  have  suggested  that  the 
buildings  which  exhibit  the  Gothic 
arch  in  the  East,  are  generally  of  an 
age  posterior  to  its  use  in  the  West; 


GOT 


GOT 


but  this  argument  is  neither  true, 

nor  of  any  weight.  For  supposing 
these  Oriental  buildings  to  be  com- 
paratively modern,  yet  it  only  proves 
that  they  were  built  in  imitation  of 
some  ancient  buildings,  and  it  is 
very  improbable  that  their  builders 
would  imitate  the  style  of  the  Chris- 
tians of  Europe.  In  India,  the 
pure  Gothic  arch  is  frequently 
found  in  buildings  of  undoubted 
antiquity.  On  the  Plate  (Athe- 
nian Architecture,  A.  11.)  Jig. 
a,  is  a  sketch  of  a  fragment  of  the 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Govvr, 
on  the  Ganges,  170  miles  north  of 
Calcutta,  which  was  built  some 
centuries  before  the  christian  aera. 
It  is  supposed  by  Daniell,  fiom 
whose  views  it  is  taken,  to  be  a 
gate  that  has  belonged  to  the  fort. 
Fig.  b  and  c  are  windows  from  the 
remains  of  a  very  ancient  building, 
near  Firoz  Shah's  Cotilla,at  Delhi. 
The  buildings  of  the  emperor  Ak- 
bar,  from  their  general  style,  their 
arches,  and  their  pinnacles,  may  be 
termed  purely  Gothic.  The  same 
forms  are  conspicuous  in  the  an- 
cient pagodas  at  Talicut.  Speci- 
mens of  the  Gothic  arch  are  fre- 
quent in  various  parts  of  Persia,  at 
Cabul,  and  in  the  old  palaces  at 
Ispahan.  They  are  even  to  be 
traced  as  far  as  China.  In  Arabia 
there  are  few  antiquities,  but  in  the 
modern  buildings  at  Mocha,  and 
other  places,  pointed  arches  are  not 
uncommon,  and  they  are  frequently 
seen  in  the  remains  of  Saracenic 
buildings  described  by  Bucking- 
ham, in  various  parts  of  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia.  Mr.  Haggitt  states 
the  occurrence  of  pointed  arches, 
accompanied  with  inscriptions  in 
the  Cuphic  characters,  which  were 
not  used  after  the  tenth  century. 
It  is  highly  probable,  therefore,  that 
N  the  first  principles  of  the  pointed 
style  were  brought  by  the  Arabs 
fiom  lnd:a  and  Persia,  and  being 


by  them  carried  into  Spain,  s 
afterwards  adopted  by  the  Spa  h 
Goths,  and,  being  mixed  with 
old  style  of  the  Romans  and  [ 
mans,  formed  at  last  that  sL 
which  has  since  gained  the  uni  ■'. 
sal  term  of  Gothic,  which  ma  e 
called,  in  the  words  of  Mr.  KniV 
a  corruption  of  the  sacred  arch:  . 
ture  of  the  Greeks  and  Rom; 
by  a  mixture  of  the  Moorish  r 
Saracenesque,  which  is  formed  t 
of  a  combination  of  Egyptian,  I . 
sian,  and   Hindu.    Mr.  Bent!  i 
thought  that  the  Gothic  arch  - 
ginated  from  the    intersection  f 
arcades  of  circular  arches,  oh 
found  in  Saxon  and  earlv  Norn 
buildings.    Mr.  Murphy,  in  his  - 
troduction   to   his  history  of  e 
church  of  Batalha,  considers  e 
whole  system  of  pointed  archi;- 
ture  as  founded  on  the  form  01 
pyramid,  to  which  the  whole  d 
every  component  part  appears) 
bear  a  direct  tendency.    It  njj 
be  mentioned   in  support  of  I 
idea,  that  in  the  pyramidal  pagn 
at  Conjeveram,  an  exact  res(- 
blance  of  the  Gothic  arch  is  - 
served  in  all  its  ornaments.  Tl 
building  is  of  great  antiquity,  d 
its  general  architecture  reseml; 
that  of  the  Seven  Pagodas. 
Pagoda.)    The  pointed  arch  n 
also  be  traced  in  the  Mahomect 
monuments  of  the  tenth  century^ 
Cairo,  at  Girge  in  Egypt,  and 
the  Arabian  tombs  of  Negaddi  a 
Zaoge.     The  open  fretwork  a 
the  corbelling  of  the  Arabian  arc 
tecture,  are  acknowledged  to  h: 
been  borrowed  from  Persia  a 
India.    The  remains  of  one  or  t> 
Arabian  buildings  of  the  tenth  c( 
tury   in    Sicily,   particularly  o 
called  Ziza,  prove  the  existence 
the  pointed  arch  in  early  Mahon 
dan  architecture. 

In  many  very  ancient  Engl 
buildings,  prior  to  the  introducti 


GOT 


GOT 


ofne  pointed  style,  solitary  ex- 
antes  are  found  of  arches  which 
a  p  oach  in  shape  to  the  Gothic, 
imthev  appear  generally  to  have 
oorred  fortuitously.  Fig.  14,  (in 
pie  Gothic  Architecture,) 
S  is  very  remarkable  and  ancient 
-.. :i3\v  from  Brunless  Castle.  The 
hoi -shoe  arch  is  also  found  in 
ild buildings,  as^.  6,  {Plate 
Ca'LE,  C,  65.)  from  the  very  an- 
cie  castle  of  Connisborough. 

1  e  will  now  proceed  to  describe 
dreading  principles  of  the  Gothic 
sty  Of  Gothic  or  pointed  arch- 
ere  are  three  principal  kinds: 
the  m pie  pointed  arch,  which  is 
striA  from  two  centres  on  the  line 
of  3  impost ;  the  tudor  arch,  with 
fou  centres,  of  which  two  are  on 
thene  of  the  impost  line;  agee, 
wit  four  centres,  two  on  the  im- 
pos  line,  and  two  on  aline  with 
thepex,  the  segments  struck  from 
the'atter  being  reversed.  The 
latt  form  is  used  principally  in 
trat  y  and  small  work,  and  as  a 
canHy  or  dripstone  over  doors  and 
rin|»ws.  The  soffit  is  occupied 
»  ouldings  of  various  projec- 
tiorj  The  columns  are  never  di- 
mir,  ied,  and  are  generally  large, 
anchurrounded  by  a  number  of 
slen  r  shafts.  The  walls  were  at 
first nade  of  an  unwieldy  thick- 
nes.'  to  support  the  press  of  the 
arcH  roof;  but  their  thickness 
was  fterwarcls  diminished,  and  the 
defi  mcy  supplied  by  the  use  of 
butlsses.  These  are  often  divided 
into  ages,  diminishing  in  projec- 
tion^ they  rise,  and  ending  in  a 
pinr  ;le.  From  the  upper  part  of 
ther  pring  insulated  arches,  serving 
as  a;  rotection  for  the  clere-story. 
The;teeple  is  generally  a  tower, 
sqUv'-topped,  and  crowned  by  a 
spin  At  the  angles  are  slender  lofty 
turn,  containing  the  staircases. 
Tur  s  are  also  sometimes  added 
to  ti  corners  of  the  building.  The 


turrets  are  often  crowned  by  spires. 
The  exquisitely  beautiful  turret  at 
the  north  west  angle  of  Peterbo- 
rough cathedral  is  square,  and  de- 
corated at  the  angles  with  boltels, 
which  are  carried  up  beyond  it, 
and  furnished  by  a  triangular  pin- 
nacle. The  spire  in  the  centre  is 
octagonal,  and  rectangularly  placed 
within  the  square,  four  of  its  sides 
thus  forming  triangles  with  the  bol- 
tels at  the  angles  of  the  turret, 
which  being  arched  over,  form 
grounds  for  pinnacles  of  the  same 
form,  which  are  carried  up  to  about 
half  the  height  of  the  spire  itself. 
Two  of  the  Gothic  mouldings  re- 
semble the  cyma-recta  and  the  cy- 
mareversa  of  the  ancients.  But 
the  most  peculiar  moulding  is  the 
boltel,  or  cylindrical  and  nearly 
detached  moulding,  often  answered 
by  a  corresponding  hollow.  Fig. 
10  and  11,  {Plate  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture,) are  two  forms  of  exte- 
rior drip-stones. 

The  principles  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, as  has  been  already  ob- 
served, appears  to  have  been 
brought  out  of  Spain,  but  it  owes 
much  of  the  beauties  of  its  com- 
ponent parts,  and  the  richness  of 
its  ornaments,  to  the  Normans, 
amongst  whom  it  was  first  intro- 
duced into  the  cathedrals  of  Seez, 
Coutances,  and  Mortain,  in  Nor- 
mandy ;  then  in  the  cathedral  of 
Chartres,  which  was  under  Nor- 
man governance;  and  afterwards, 
on  a  more  splendid  scale,  in  the 
monastery  of  Clugnes,  which  was 
entirely  rebuilt  in  1093.  No  de- 
cided specimen  of  the  pointed  arch 
can  be  found  in  Normandy  prior  to 
1080,  about  which  time  the  cathe- 
dral of  Seez  was  commenced,  and 
partially  built.  The  best  preserved 
examp'e  of  this  early  period  is  the 
collegiate  church  of  Mortain,  which 
was  founded  by  Robert,  Count  of 
Mortain,  brother-in-law  of  William 

75 


GOT 


GOT 


the  Conqueror,  in  1082.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, the  adoption  of  this  style  of 
architecture  became  common,  and, 
towards  the  middle,  was  used,  to  the 
total  exclusion  of  the  Norman,  and 
its  accessaries.  The  styles  of  Go- 
thic arch  teeture  in  France  and 
Normandy  are  distinguished  gene- 
rally into  three  periods. 

The  first  style  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, from  1150  to  1240,  is 
principally  distinguished  by  its  very 
pointed  arches,  and  by  its  not  hav- 
ing; attait  ed  the  bold  elevation  or 
lightness  which  subsequently  cha- 
racterized it.  The  doors  are  deeply 
reces-ed,  with  a  succession  of  co- 
lumns supporting  an  archivault 
formed  of  plain  mouldings,  some- 
times with  grimacing  heads  round 
the  top.  In  this  age  was  intro- 
duced a  small  door  on  each  side  of 
the  large  western  one.  The  doors 
of  country  churches  were  all  small, 
with  merely  a  plain  pointed  arch. 
Windows,  during  the  period  of 
transition,  were  plain,  pointed,  and 
narrow,  from  whence  they  gained 
the  name  of  lancets.  Towards  the 
end  of  the  twelfth  century,  the 
windows  began  to  be  ornamented 
with  a  moulding  round  the  outside  ; 
and  at  the  beginning  of  the  thir- 
teenth, the  idea  was  conceived  of 
uniting  these  lancets,  which  gave 
rise  to  the  construction  of  larger 
windows,  containing  two  lancets 
within  one  main  arch,  the  vacant 
space  at  the  head  being  rilled  up 
with  circles,  trefoils,  and  quatre- 
foils.  The  columns  during  the  first 
period  began  to  be  lengthened, 
clustered,  and  frequently  encircled 
with  fasces  or  bands,  the  capitals 
formed  of  flowers  or  foliage.  The 
nave  and  aisles  were  narrow,  sepa- 
rated by  arcades  of  arches  less 
acute  than  those  of  the  windows, 
and  covered  with  a  vaulting  in 
the  form  of  an  X,  with  a  rose  at 


the  point  of  intersection,  t- 
tresses  were  slender,  and  proje  ^ 
more  than  in  the  Norman  s  e, 
In  the  latter  part  of  this  p(  ,! 
they  were  divided  into  part:3r 
stages,  the  highest  of  which  « 
surmounted  with  a  little  pinn;e 
whilst  the  front  of  the  lowest  is 
pierced  with  a  niche,  to  contain  ie 
statues  of  saints.  At  the  sL 
time  were  introduced  flying  > 
tresses,  and  spires,  which  went 
first  plain,  and  of  an  octaeil 
form.  The  best  specimens  of  \% 
style  in  Normandy  and  France  e 
the  naves  of  the  church  of  Eu  d 
abbey  of  Fecamp,  the  cathec  Is 
of  Bayeux,  Evreux,  and  the  t  y 
part  of  that  of  Amiens,  St.  G> 
vieve,  and  the  Saints'  Chapcllut 
Paris,  the  churches  of  . St.  Drs, 
and  St.  Nicasius,  and  the  catheil 
of  Rheims. 

The  second  style  of  Gothic r- 
chitecture,  from  1240  to  138(is 
particularly  distinguished  by  e 
rectangular  form  of  all  its  arc>, 
and  embraces  the  most  brill  it 
epoch  of  its  history.  The  sty  is 
in  general  appearance  chaste  d 
harmonious,  all  its  forms  are  Hi- 
lar, its  members  uniform,  and  ji i 
ciously  proportioned.  The  d< 
rations  are  tasty  and  elegant; 
though  they  are  numerous, 
arrangement  is  regulated  with  e 
regard  to  use,  and  the  colloca  n 
appropriate.  The  walls  being  a 
massy  during  this  period,  the  d<  s 
are  less  deeply  recessed,  but  lar  r, 
more  highly  finished,  and  formeof 
more  graceful  arches,  surmourd 
with  triangular  pediments,  wl  e 
tympanums,  as  well  as  the  fp 
below,  are  headed  with  a  variet  >f 
little  figures.  The  windows  J 
wider,  and  additional  lancets  t 
introduced;  the  interior  divisi«s 
called  mullions,  assume  a  m 
slender  appearance,  and  are  sor 
times  delicately  fluted,  in  the  fp 


GOT 

5f  i-ouped  pillars,  with  the  heads 
v    )rrTiented  with  flowers.  About 
beginning  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
;r  trilobed,  rose,  and,  in  private 
noi's,  bow  windows,  made  their 
i  appearance.     Rose  windows 
irelat  first  simple,  ornamented 
Ait  tiefoils  and  quatrefoils,  united 
v  lowing    tracery ;  afterwards 
e  were  formed  of  an  elegant 
ass  iblage  of  branch  tracery,  ra- 
:  jg  from  the  centre.    The  co- 
iuns  are  more  delicate  and  ele- 
il    than   before,   the  capitals 
she  er,  but  richer  in  foliage.  Clus- 
ter pillars  are  sometimes  found 
umr  a  single,  plain,  round  capital. 
A  pecies  of   ornament,  called 
;n'.et,  was  popular  during  this 
pe  d,  composed  of  a  curled  piece 
of  liage,  placed  at  the  angles  of 
spi 5,  canopies,  turrets,  buttresses, 
&c  The  buttresses  are  more  pro- 
jecig,  ornamented  with  tablets, 
wit  richer  niches,  and  crowned 
wit  crocketed  pinnacles.  Taher- 
naos  are  very  peculiar  to  this 
pei d,  and  at  the  commencement 
of  le  fourteenth  century  became 
r    mc  gorgeous  Gothic  appendages. 
Th  ribs,  in  the  vaulting  of  the 
na  >  and  aisles,  are  multiplied, and 
bn:h  out  into  a  great  variety  of 
tra  ry.    Spires  are  richly  crock- 
cte  longer  and  more  delicate,  ter- 
mi  ting  frequently  with  a  bunch 
df  iage,  or  a  flame,  called  Jinials. 
iJa  pets  are  considerably  richer  and 
nic  open,  formed  of  panels  and 
ros1,  enclosing  trefoils,  quatrefoils, 
&c  'he  tracery  is  frequently  mingled 
wit  oak  leaves,  which  now  begin 
to   used.    The  most  remarkable 
mens  of  the  second  style  are 
th(  ate  parts  of  the  cathedral  of 
An;  ns  and  St.  Denis,  the  church 
of  t.  Ouen  at  Rouen,  St.  Sepul- 
ch  at  Paris,  and  St.  Stephen  at 

je  third,  or  florid  style  of  Go- 
thi  architecture,  lasted  from  1380 


GOT 

to  about  1500.  During  this  period, 
Gothic  architecture  by  degrees 
degenerating  into  fantastical  re- 
finement, unmeaning  and  useless 
ornament,  arches  suffered  a  ge- 
neral depression,  until  at  hist  they 
almost  entirely  lost  their  pointed 
character.  The  most  remarkable 
characteristic  is  a  gorgeous  exube- 
rance of  decoration.  The  great 
source  of  ornament  is  pierced  pa- 
neling, which  is  richly  traced  with 
foliage,  and  exhibits  more  gaudiness 
than  elegance.  Every  variation  of 
parapet,  pinnacle,  and  buttress,  are 
now  in  use,  the  latter  very  project- 
ing, and  loaded  with  statuary, 
heraldic  insignia,  &c.  Various 
parts  of  the  summits,  particularly 
the  angles,  are  ornamented  with 
round  cupolas.  A  remarkable  cha- 
racter of  the  latest  productions  of 
this  style,  is  the  extreme  depth  and 
delicacy  with  which  all  ornaments 
are  wrought  on  the  stone.  Win- 
dows begin  to  lose  the  elegance  of 
their  form  and  proportions ;  they 
are  multiplied  considerably  along 
the  lateral  walls,  and  widened,  for 
the  introduction  of  additional  lan- 
cets, with  a  very  obtuse  arch.  The 
divisions  in  the  head  display,  instead 
of  roses  and  trefoils,  a  variety  of 
undulating  forms,  and  the  mould- 
ings of  the  arches  are  sometimes 
festooned  with  foliage,  particularly 
the  leaves  of  endive,  vine,  thistles, 
and  broccoli.  Portals  too  mark 
this  style.  They  are  invariably 
surmounted  with  a  square  head,  or 
pediment,  whose  spandriis  are  orna- 
mented with  foliage  or  sculpture. 

In  porches,  a  drip-stone  and  rich 
battlement  parapet  crown  the  whole, 
with  richly  canopied  lateral  niches, 
flanked  with  buttresses,  and  termi- 
nated with  a  group  of  four  pinnacles. 
Arcades  are  of  a  very  compressed 
form,  and  the  imposts  of  the  arches 
often  repose  only  on  consoles, 
covered  with  richly  grouped  foliage 


GOT 


GOT 


The  ornaments  of  the  vaulting  con- 
stitute a  series  of  intricate  panel 
tracery,  and  richly  frosted  fretwork 
introduced  between  the  groinings. 
Sometimes  a  radiating  cluster  of 
ribs  or  nervings  springs  from  the 
summit  of  the  columns,  branching 
*v  t  on  the  roof  in  the  form  of  a 
fan.  This  style  of  decoration  was 
multiplied  by  degrees  to  great  ex- 
cess, and  at  the  central  points 
of  union,  are  displayed  immense 
masses  of  richly  ornamented  stone- 
work, called  pendentives,  which 
descend  frequently  to  a  considerable 
depth.  The  first  period  of  this 
style  may  be  seen  in  the  churches 
of  Alengon,  Argentan,  Le  Treport, 
and  Harfleur;  and  the  chapels, 
porches,  &c.  of  many  other  chur- 
ches. Of  the  second  period,  are 
part  of  Notre  Dame,  of  St.  Stephen, 
and  St.  John,  at  Caen,  the  hall  of 
justice  at  Bayeux,  and  parts  of 
many  churches  and  buildings  at 
Rouen.  The  most  elaborate  and 
delicate  workmanship  is  exhibited  in 
the  mortuary  chapels,  monumental 
screens,  and  canopied  tombs. 

The  pointed  arch  was  first  used 
in  the  ecclesiastical  buildings  in 
England,  towards  the  close  of  the 
reign  of  Henry  I ;  during  those  of 
Stephen,  and  Henry  II.  its  use  be- 
came more  frequent.  Parts  of  the 
following  structures  are  character- 
istic of  the  style  practised  at  this 
early  period.  Buildwas  Abbey, 
Shropshire,  begun  about  113.0;  re- 
mains of  the  priory  church  at 
Dunstable,  reign  of  Stephen  ;  abbey 
church  at  Romsey,  Hants,  Lanthony 
abbey,  Monmouthshire,  founded  in 
1136;  and  the  north  side  of  the 
nave  and  choir  of  St.  David's 
Cathedral,  S.  Wales.  The  intro- 
duction of  this  style  into  England 
was  very  gradual,  and  in  some 
instances  pointed  arches  are  found 
mixed  in  the  same  building  with 
those  of  the  Saxon  and  early  Nor- 

78 


man.  The  Gothic  architect 
in  England,  as  on  the  Contir  t, 
has  been  divided  into  three  distU 
styles.  The  first  style*  genei  j 
denominated  the  Early  Engt 
commenced  with  the  reisrn 
Richard,  in  1189,  and  eontird 
till  about  1 300,  including  the  re  n 
of  Richard  I.  John,  Henry  III.  | 
Edward  I.  The  second,  or  0): 
merited  English,  from  1300  o 
1460,  beginning  near  the  enof 
the  reign  of  Edward  I.  and  in  - 
ding,  Edward  II.  and  III.  Richarc  [. 
Henry  IV.  V.  and  VI.  The  Fhd 
English,  from  1460  to  1637,  e 
time  of  the  dissolution  of  religi  s 
houses,  including  Edward  IV.  1 
V.  Richard  III.  and  Henry  v, 
and  VIII. 

The  Early   English  style,  s 
chiefly  distinguished  by  its  Ig 
narrow  windows  and  bold  or- 
ments  and  mouldings.     The  h  i 
of  the  window  is   generally  2 
lancet   arch,   and  sometimes  2 
trefoil.     In  large  buildings,  t) 
or  more  are  generally  found  cc- 
bin«d,  with  their  drip-stones  unit. 
When  combined,  a  quatrefoil  3 
commonly    inserted   between  Is 
heads,  and  when  many,  the  wh; 
is  sometimes  covered  by  a  segm 
tal  pointed  drip-stone.     In  la 
buildings,   the  windows  are  f 
quently   decorated    with  slen 
shafts,  which  are  usually  insulat 
and  connected  by  bands  with 
wall.    The  circular,  rose,  or  cat| 
rine  window,  is  frequently  foul 
in  large  buildings  of  this  sti 
worked  with  great  care.  Do' 
are  distinguished  by  their  rcce, 
being  usually  placed  in  a  do 
hollow,  with  a  simple  pointed  an, 
the  columns  insulated  in  a  (Id 
hollow.    They  are  sometimes 
vided  by  one  or  more  clustei 
shafts  in  the  centre,  with  a  kind 
four-leaved  flower  as  an  ornamt 
above.    The  steeples  were  oft 


GOT 


GOT 


ll 


|!  ado  ed  with  finely  proportioned 
gpjl   They  have  usually  ribs  at 
the  ngles,  "which  are  sometiines 
ered.     In  some  instances  the 
s mu  is  surrounded  with  bands  of 
K  efoik.  Buttresses  are  common 
:(  ons  at  the  angle*  of  the  tower, 
tho'ch  octagonal  turrets,  with  pin- 
■  -ic5,  are  sometimes  met  with. 
Tht'slope  of  the  spire  in  some 
hes  projects  over  the  wall  of 
the  ower,  which  is  finished  by  a 
cor  ^e.    The  piers  are  surrounded 
wit  bands,  sometimes  confined  to 
the  hafts,  and  sometimes  continued 
I  pier,  the  capital  being  usually 
con'osed  of  plain  bold  mouldings. 
In  'are Gothic  Architecture, 
y  2  is  a  capital  of  this  style, 
anina.  13,  a  base.    The  plan  of 
ers  is  generally  a  circle,  sur- 
rou'led  by  small  shafts.     Fig.  6 
beautiful  variation  from  Salis- 
buij  Cathedral.     The  buttresses 
■    areimple,  have  few  sets  off,  and 
raM'any  ornament  in  their  fasces. 
Thriving  buttresses  were  not  used 
till  te.    The  ornamental  works  of 
tlmperiod  are  distinguished  for 
the  boldness,  and  contempt  of 
ment.    The  most  peculiar  or- 
ii  nt  is  that  denominated  the 
tooied  ornament,  which  resembles 
a  1(  pyramid,  of  which  the  sides 
;  re  >ierced  in  the  form  of  curvi- 
Jiwj  triangles  bending  inwards; 
It    usually  placed  on  a  hollow 
moding,  and  is  sometimes  entirely 
det  hed,  except  the  angles.  The 
Di  li  pal  specimens  of  this  style  are, 
dui|g  the  reign  of  Richard  I.  the 
for  side  of  the  west  transept  of 
Roaster  Cathedral,  the  chapel  of 
the  oly  Trinity  at  Canterbury,  the 
"PI1,  transept  and  choir  of  Lincoln 
catidral,  and  part  of  the  nave  and 
aisI'  of  that  of  Peterborough. 
Du<,g  the  reign  of  John,  the  Ga- 
I'leof  Ely  cathedral,  part  of  the 
eas  ndof  that  of  Winchester,  the 
ren  us  of  Beaulieu  priory,  Hants, 


the  choir  and  transept  of  the  ca 
thedral  of  Rochester,  and  the  nave 
and  central  tower  of  that  of  Lincoln. 
During  the  rei^n  of  Henry  III.  the 
pusbytery  of  Ely  cathedral,  West- 
minster Abbey  church,  the  tower 
and  western  front  of  Wells  cathe- 
dral, the  whole  of  Salisbury  cathe- 
dral, the  transept  of  Worcester 
cathedral,  and  the  transepts  of 
York  cathedral. 

The  windows  of  the  ornamented 
style  of  English  Architecture  are 
distinguished  from  those  of  the  pre- 
ceding period  by  being  larger,  and 
divided  into  lights  by  slender  up- 
right stones,  called  mullions.  In 
some  cases,  the  mullions  branch 
out  into  geometrical  figures,  and 
are  all  of  equal  size  and  shape;  in 
others  they  are  dispersed  through 
the  head  in  curves  of  various  de- 
scriptions, which  is  called  flowing 
tracery.    In  windows  of  more  than 
three  lights,  the  principal  mullions 
form  simple  figures,  subdivided  by 
inferior  ones.    The  principal  mul- 
lions are  faced  by  slender  shafts, 
with  bases  and  capitals.    The  flow- 
ing tracery  will  be  understood  by 
the  sketch,  Jig.  9,  of  a  window 
from  the  nave  of  York  cathedral. 
The  architraves    are  enriched  by 
mouldings,  which  sometimes  resem- 
ble columns,  and  the  windows  often 
reach  from  pier  to  pier.    The  arch 
is  generally  either  the  equilateral 
triangle,   or   more   obtuse.  The 
dripstone  is  improved  into  an  ele- 
gant canopy,  in  form  either  pedi- 
mental,  or  an  ogee  arch,  and  is 
decorated  with  crockets  and  a  finial, 
and  the  space  enclosed  between  it 
and  the  exterior  contour  of  the 
arch  filled  up  with  tracery.  The 
circular  window  was  also  brought 
to  perfection  in  this  style.  The 
doors  differ  less  from  the  last  pe- 
riod ;  they  are  not  so  frequently 
double,  and  the  shafts   are  not 
detached ;    in   smUl    doors,  the 

79 


GOT 


GOT 


mouldings  of  the  arch  are  carried 
down  the  side,  instead  of  co- 
lumns. There  is  frequently  no  base 
moulding.  The  steeples  differ  little 
from  the  preceding  style.  In  the 
groining  of  the  roofs,  the  merely 
decorative  ribs  are  not  often  used, 
that  from  pier  to  pier,  with  lon- 
gitudinal and  transverse  ribs,  being 
most  frequently  used  alone.  At 
their  intersections  are  placed  bosses 
or  sculptured  ribs.  The  lancet 
arch  is  rarely  met  with  ;  the  tudor 
but  in  one  instance,  the  nave  of 
"Winchester  cathedral.  The  mould- 
ings are  less  numerous,  but  bolder. 
In  small  works,  the  ogee  arch  is 
frequently  formed,  decorated  with 
crockets,  and  a  finial,  as  in  jig.  3, 
which  represents  the  top  of  one. 
The  piers  are  square  in  their  gene- 
ral form,  and  placed  diagonally. 
Two  variations  are  shown  in  jig.  4, 
from  Exeter  cathedral,  and  Jig.  5, 
from  the  nave  at  Yoik.  The  shafts 
are  sometimes  filleted.  The  capi- 
tals are  frequently  enriched  with 
foliage,  as  in  Jig.  11  and  12,  from 
Westminster  Abbey  and  Hall.  The 
bases  consist  often  of  reversed  ogees. 
Buttresses  are  richer  in  the  building, 
and  are  usually  finished  by  pinnacles. 
The  flying  buttress  is  most  common. 
The  parapets  are  sometimes  horizon- 
tal and  sometimes  embattled,  each  of 
which  are  frequently  pierced  in  the 
form  of  cinquefoil-headed  arches, 
quatrefoils,  and  triangles.  Sunk 
panels  are  more  common.  Crockets 
and  other  ornaments  were  brought  to 
perfection  during  this  period.  Fig. 
2,  represents  the  upper  part  of  an 
ogee  canopy,  with  crockets,  or 
small  bunches  of  foliage,  running 
up  the  side,  and  a  combination  of 
two  or  more,  calied  a  finial,  sepa- 
rated from  the  others  by  a  moulding 
at  the  top.  The  best  specimens  of  this 
style  are  in  the  reign  of  Edward  I. 
and  II.  several  parts  of  Exeter  cathe- 
dral, St.  Ethelbert's  gatehouse  and 


the  cloister,  in  that  of  Norv  \ 
the  Lady  chapel,  of  Litch  j 
cathedral,  and  the  nave  of  a| 
minuter.  Under  Edward  HI.L 
octagon  and  lantern  of  Ely,  L 
choir  of  Carlisle,  and  part  of  , 
transepts,  choir,  and  cloister^ 
Gloucester  cathedral,  St.  Alb  8 
abbey  church,  part  of  St.  Mm 
Redcliflfe,  Bristol,  the  choir  >f 
St.  Mary's  at  Warwick,  and 
Stephen's  chapel,  Westminster,  w 
the  House  of  Commons.  Uw 
Richard  II.  and  Henry  IV.  am/, 
great  part  of  the  nave  and  e 
college,  at  Winchester;  the  n^, 
chapter  house,  and  part  of  e 
cloisters,  at  Canterbury  ;  some 
mains  at  New  College,  Oxford;  d 
the  tower  and  spire  of  St.  Mich's 
at  Coventry.  Under  Henry  [, 
King's  College'chapel,  Cambrid  ; 
Beaufort's  chancery,  in  Wincher 
cathedral ;  the  chrpel  of  the  Vir  i, 
in  that  of  Canterbury;  the  Divi  y 
school,  Oxford ;  and  Beauchep 
chapel,  Warwick. 

The  last  style  of  gothic  archi  - 
ture,  the  Florid  English,  or 
pendicular,  is  distinguished  by s 
superfluity  of  decoration,  and  - 
compromising  minuteness.  lis 
marked  most  strikingly  by  s 
windows,  the  mullions  of  which  e 
carried  perp  ndicularlyto  the  he, 
instead  of  finishing  in  flowing  liiji. 
They  are  also  distinguished  bla 
transom  or  cross  muilion,  tobri 
the  height,  under  which  is  usu;j)f 
a  feathered  arch.  The  architrje 
has  seldom  shafts  or  moulding,  t 
is  worked  plain.  The  arch  of  e 
door  is  frequently  finished  b>  a 
horizontal  moulding,  continued o 
the  springing  of  the  arch,  and  tm 
turned  shortly  ;  it  is  called  a  lap 
and  the  space  enclosed  betweeijit 
and  the  exterior  line  of  the  an, 
the  spandrel.  The  steeple  is  j> 
tremely  rich ;  spires  are  seld  i, 
but  lanterns  frequently,  used.  P 


GOT 


G  O  U 


e*t(or  angles  are  usually  con- 
ceal by  octagonal  turrets,  but 
„  scmimes  supported  by  buttresses. 
In  t  groining,  a  number  of  small 
ribs 'verging  from  a  centre,  are 
can  I  up  in  the  form  of  one  side 
of  a  ointed  arch,  and  terminated 
at  elal  distances  from  the  cenlre 
semicircle;   as  they  recede 
jrorr'he  pomt,  they  are  divided  by 
i  r  ribs,  and  these  again  sub- 
I  so  as  to  make  all  the  panels 
•  nrly  equal  size,   which  are 
lented  with  feathered  arches; 
the  terval  between  these  semi- 
|  are  filled  with  tracery  of  the 
description.    This  exquisitely 
beav'ul  kind  of  roof  is  called  fan 
th.     Arches  in  general  are 
verySund,  and  the  Tudor  arch  is 
ost  common  in  late  works. 
The  iers  are  much  deeper  than 
broa'and  a  shaft  runs  up  the  front 
to  s  port  the  gro;ning.    The  ca- 
pital are  generally  composed  of 
plain  io-  Idings,  with  sometimes  a 
four- wed  flower  in  the  hollow. 
Para  ts  are  generally  embattled 
!  and  |  reed.  The  general  ornaments 
of  th  jerpendieular  style  is  nothing 
but  series  of  vertical  panelling. 
A  be  tiful  small  ornament,  often 
isedjs  called  the  Tudor  flower, 
nd   a  series  of  square  flowers, 
ice  diagonally,  and  frequently 
acM,  connected  at  the  bottom 
le  circles.    The  best  examples 
I  thr,ityle  are  under  Edward  IV. 
'I  1  and  Richard  III. ;  George's 
ipe'at  Windsor;  the  Honiton 
bap<  Devon;  part  of  Charing 
rc   Kent ;  St.  Lawrence's,  at 
tw  i  ;  and  the  chapel  on  the 
.  it  Wakefield.  Under  Henry 
I.  shop  Alcock's  chapel,  Ely, 
kJ  i'l  church,  the  Lady  chapel,  in 
Glow  ter  cathedral,  part  of  Ciren- 
'sterhurch,  Bishop  Waynflete's 
1  >'c   in  Winchester  cathedral, 
^  -y's,  Oxford,  and  the  chur- 
so>,inster  and  Great  Malvern. 


In  plate  Athenian  Architect 
turf,,  A.  10,  we  have  given  a 
sketch  of  the  form  of  the  Gothic 
arch  as  observed  at  various  periods. 
Fig.  1,  from  Ely  cathedral,  is  of 
the  eleventh  century.  Figs.  2,  3, 
4,  5,  6,  from  Ely,  are  of  the  twelfth. 
7,  8,  from  Ely,  9,  from  Durham 
cathedral;  and  10,  a  lancet  arch 
from  Merton  church,  Cambridge, 
are  of  the  thirteenth.  II,  12,  and 
14,  from  Ely,  and  13,  an  arch  of 
Edward  III.  are  the  14th;  to  is  an 
arch  ofHen.VL;  17,oneof  Hen.VII. 
and  16,  one  from  Ely;  all  of  the 
fifteenth.  6,  is  a  horse-shoe  arch, 
from  Canterbury.  In  the  twenty- 
seventh  plate  to  the  article  Carpen- 
try are  given  plans,  sections,  and 
bases  of  window  mouldings  from 
Westminster  Abbey ;  on  plate  C, 
XV.  Jig.  4,  crockets  and  finial 
from  John  of  Gaunt's  Palace,  Lin- 
coln ;  and  on  the  plate  Gothic 
Architecture,  fig.  1,  ornament 
of  a  buttress  from  Lincoln  ca- 
thedral. 

Mr.Willis,  in  his  History  of  Mitred 
Abbeys,  gives  the  following:  relative 
proportions  of  Gothic  buildings : 

"In  most  of  the  stately  abbeys, 
the  height  was  equal  to  the  breadth 
of  the  body  and  side  aisle. 

"  The  steeple  and  towers  were 
frequently  built  equal  in  height  to 
the  length  of  the  whole  fragment, 
or  rather  the  cross-aisle  from  north 
to  south,  as  is  the  case  in  Bristol, 
Chester,  and  St  David's  ; 

"  The  cross-aisles  often  extend 
half  the  length  of  the  whole  fabric, 
as  did  the  nave  or  western  part, 
viz.  from  the  great  door  at  tht 
west  end,  to  the  lower  great  pillars 
that  supported  the  steeple ; 

"  And  the  side  aisles  were  just 
half  the  breadth  and  height  of  the 
nave,  insomuch  that  both  added 
together  exactly  answered  it." 

Goufing  Foundations,  a  term 
used  in  Scotland  for  the  mode  of 

81 


GRA 


GR  A 


securing  unsound  walls,  by  driving 
wedges  or  pins  under  their  founda- 
tions. The  term  is  taken  from  a 
Scottish  game  called  Golfing,  in 
which  a  ball  is  driven  with  clubs, 
through  two  distant  holes. 

Gouge,  a  chisel  of  a  semicir- 
cular form. 

Gradetto,  Gradetti,  see  An- 
nulets. 

Grain,  in  wood  or  stone,  is  the 
line  of  direction  in  which  they  may 
be  most  easily  split  transversely. 
Miners  in  reference  to  stone  use 
various  terms  to  signify  the  grain, 
or  splitting  direction  of  stones,  as 
beat,  lamella,  stratula,  sheet,  dec. 

Granada  ;  for  a  description  of 
its  architectural  peculiarities,  see 
A  lhamra. 

Granary,  a  building  to  pre- 
serve grain,  &c.  Vitruvius  terms 
buildings  for  the  preservation  of 
grain,  granaria,  those  for  hay, 
fcenilia,  and  those  for  straw,  far- 
raria.  Amongst  the  Romans,  the 
granary  made  part  of  the  villa 
fructuaria,  (see  Villa.)  It  always 
occupied  the  higher  rooms,  and 
had  a  northern  aspect.  Its  roof 
was  sometimes  vaulted.  The  floors 
of  granaries  were  generally  either 
paved  with  small  bricks,  or  covered 
with  earth  trodden  down.  The 
walls  were  covered  with  clay,  beat 
up  with  dregs  of  oil,  and  mixed 
with  olive  leaves.  On  the  northern 
side  were  excavated  small  windows 
or  air-holes.  The  term  horreum  was 
applied  by  the  Romans  to  buildings 
not  only  for  the  preservation  of 
corn,  but  for  various  other  effects. 

Grand  Staircase,  in  exten- 
sive buildings,  the  principal  stair- 
case receives  this  name. 

Grange,  anciently  meant  a  barn 
and  its  apurtenances,  and  was  an 
important  part  of  the  establishment 
belonging  to  abbeys, 

Grange,  New,  a  remarkable 
antiquity  in  Ireland.    It  is  a  large 


mound  or  pyramid,  surround*  by 
a  circle  of  stones,  25  miles  m 
Dublin,  and  near  the  town  0f  jL, 
heda.    The  gallery  is  62  feet}! 
and  the  arms  of  the  cross  or  >. 
septs  20  feet  each.    A  eupo! , 
the  centre  is  formed  of  lon»  n 
stones;  projecting  in  gradatioi 
tiles,  and  meeting  >n  the  ceta 
like  one  of  the  openings  to 
great  Egyptian  pyramid :  see  ( 

Granite,  a  genus  of  stones,  tU 
used  in  buildings,  composed  clfti 
of  quartz,  feltspar,  and  mica,  I  n. 
ing  rough  and  large  m-.sses  ol 
great  hardness,  striking  fire  th 
steel,  and  receiving  a  good  pi  h. 
Someties  garnet,  basaltes,  ani  n- 
durated  steatites  are  found  irr  el- 
ded in  its  composition,  whi(  is 
formed  of  particles,  visible  and  is- 
tinct.    Not  decomposed  by  ail, 
and  only  imperfectly  and  s 
calcinable  in  a  great  heat,  be 
most  stupendous  ranges  of  n  n- 
tains  on  the  globe  are  of  this  s:e, 
of  which  there  are  three  diaict 
species,  and  many  varieties,  wife 
granite  or  moor  stone,  is  v  te, 
interspersed  with  a  few  lar^e  Ick 
spots,  and  crystalline  quartz.  It 
is  much  used  in  London  foi he 
steps  of  public  buildings,  anon 
other  occasions,where  great  strr ih 
and  solidity  are  required.  Thilod 
its  varieties  are  found  in  Irejid, 
and  also  in  Cornwall  and  D< 
shire.    The  Scottish  granite  M 
Dundee  and  Aberdeen,  is  rent- 
able for  its  excessive  hardness  ml 
much  used  for  bridges,  and  \  Itf 
requiring  great  strength  and  di- 
dity.    Red  granite,  sometime.1;  el- 
lowish,  and  generally  intersp'sed 
with  black  mica,  is  found  in  Den- 
shire,  and  at  Mount  Edgc'be 
there  are  fine  tables  of  it,  eqi  '° 
the  finest  Oriental  granite;  it  isN 
found  in  other  parts  of  EngM, 
in  various  countries  of  Europep 
abundantly  in  Egypt  and  Ai>w- 


GRE 


Bl?<  granite,  with  dark  green  tinge, 
is  lquent  in  the  old  pavements  of 
Lovon,  and  on  the  sea  shore. 

je  pale  whitish  granite,  varie- 
tal] with  black  and  yellow,  is 
mo   frequently  found   in  loose 
HOtl  es  than   in   strata,  and  is 
mu  used  in  paving  streets.  Al- 
every  country  produces  these 
15,  and  in  many  places  they 
are  und  immensely  large,  of  which 
r^est  known  is  near  the  Cape 
of  ™d  Hope,  in  Africa.  This 
n  kable  mountain,  on  account  of 
-  ajnitude,  is  called  the  Tower 
ibel.    Granite  takes  a  good 
li  ;  hence  the  Egyptians  for- 
mei  employed  it,  and  the  Italians 
v  t  e  it,  for  working  large  pieces 
namental   architecture  ;  for 
purpose   it   is  particularly 
*el  adapted,  as  it  is  not  liable 
to  c  ay  in  the  air.    Indeed,  there 
are  solumns,  statues,   and  other 
nents  of  antiquity,  formed  of 
rase,  which  have  withstood  the 
ful  and  continued  action  of 
the  bather  during  the  vicissitudes 
of  400  years. 
C  aticulation,  is  the  dividing 
dign  or  draught  into  squares, 
r  e  purpose  of  reducing  it  to 
sma  r  dimensions. 

(;  £Costasis,  a  hall  or  portico 
adjc  ing  the  Roman  comitia,  in 
wlii(  foreign  ambassadors  waited 
fo  they  entered  the  senate,  and 
hil  the  senate  deliberated  on  the 
wvfr  that  was  to  be  given  them. 
l*  ci an  Architecture.  From 
1  '  pod  of  its  invention,  in  its  pro- 
sper Cection,  architect u re  must 
have?xperienced  those  gradations 
ifl  *  :h  every  art  is  necessarily  sub- 
The  first  rudiments  of  that 
style  'hich  has  since  been  the  ad- 
mira  >n  of  all  civilized  nations,  has 
supposed  to  be  drawn  from 
Svri:  and  Egypt.     The  Sidon- 
'aris,  horn  Homer  characterises  as 
l«v  ;  TToXvCuthaXoi,  as  "  skilful 


workmen,"  were  the  same  who  erect- 
ed for  Solomon  the  temple  of  Jeru- 
salem. But  with  the  Greeks  all 
the  arts  soon  lost  the  character 
impressed  on  them  by  their  first 
teachers ;  and  the  obligations  of 
Grecian  architecture  to  the  prac- 
tice of  Syria  or  Egypt,  are  limited 
to  the  mere  mechanism  of  the  art. 
The  main  object  of  building,  in  the 
first  stage  of  society,  was  security. 
Hence  arose  the  disproportionate 
and  astonishing  exertions  bestowed 
on  the  walls,  the  remains  of  which 
are  so  common  in  different  parts  of 
Greece,  and  which,  by  their  more 
polished  descendants,  have  usually 
been  attributed  to  the  agency  of 
supernatural  power,  as  the  works 
of  gigantic  Cyclopeans.  Of  these 
remains,  Tiryns  and  Mycenae  are 
among  the  most  ancient  and  most 
celebrated.  (See  Acropolis  and  Cy- 
clopean Buildings.)  The  same  mo- 
tives which  led  them  to  employ  this 
incredible  labour  in  defence  of  their 
cities,  influenced  the  more  powerful 
individuals  in  the  measures  adopt- 
ed for  the  preservation  of  their 
wealth.  Treasuries  were  common 
in  Greece  at  a  very  early  period. 
Minyas,  who  ruled  the  Boeotian 
Orchomenos,  considerably  before 
the  era  of  the  Trojan  war,  is  said 
to  have  been  the  first  who  erected 
a  building  for  this  purpose,  and  his 
wealth  is  celebrated  in  the  Iliad;  in 
the  passage  in  which  Achilles  re- 
jects the  offers  of  Agamemnon, 
even  although  accompanied  by  all 
the  riches  enclosed  in  the  "  stone 
mansion  of  Apollo,"  it  appears 
highly  probable  that  Homer  al- 
ludes, not,  as  is  generally  under- 
stood, to  a  temple,  which  there  is 
reason  to  believe  did  not  exist  at 
that  time,  but  to  some  treasury, 
which,  from  the  manner  of  build- 
ing employed  in  these  edifices, 
might  well  deserve  the  charac- 
teristic appellation  of  Xawae*  (See 

83 


GRE 


GRE 


Arch.)  Among  the  architects  em- 
ployed in  these  edifices,  are  pre- 
served the  names  of  Agamedes  and 
Trophorius,  (see  Agamedes.)  In 
the  time  of  Homer,  the  parts  of 
architecture,  properly  termed  orna- 
mental, appear  to  have  been  un- 
known in  Greece ;  the  chief  deco- 
ration of  his  age,  consisted  in  a 
smooth  polished  surface:  the  stones 
were  large,  and  well  fitted  toge- 
ther ;  but  the  charm  and  grace  of 
forms  were  unknown.  But  to  com- 
pensate for  it,  ho  exaggeration  is 
spared  to  make  them  rich ;  we 
have  brazen  walls,  and  golden 
doors,  with  silver  and  ivory  posts 
and  lintels.  The  mansions  of  the 
heroes  of  the  Homeric  age,  whose 
chief  recommendation  was  solidity 
and  extent,  were  built  round  a 
court,  on  the  same  p'an  as  was 
universally  adopted  in  later  ages. 
The  chambers  in  general,  with  the 
exception  of  the  great  hall  of  the 
palace,  were  small.  The  seats  and 
couches  were  frequently  distin- 
guished by  their  costly  materials 
and  beautiful  workmanship,  but 
the  chief  decoration  consisted  pro- 
bably in  the  magnificence  of  the 
arms,  and  in  the  skilful  manner  in 
which  they  were  arranged.  It  is 
impossible  to  fix  precisely  the  era 
of  the  introduction  of  the  two 
grand  distinctions  in  architecture, 
the  Doric  and  Ionic  orders.  Per- 
haps the  most  ancient  example  of 
their  existence,  may  be  found  in 
the  account  given  by  Pausanias  of 
the  Sicyonian  treasury  at  Olympia, 
built  in  the  thirty-third  Olympiad, 
or  about  six  hundred  and  fifty 
years  before  Christ,  in  which  were 
made  two  chambers  worked  with 
brass,  one  Doric,  the  other  Ionic, 
(see  Doric  and  Ionic.)  As  the 
Doric  style  continued  with  few 
exceptions,  to  be  generally  adhered 
to  by  the  European  states  of  Greece 
until  the  time  of  the  Roman  con- 


quest, the  examples  still  rema:',. 
are  numerous.  One  of  the  J 
ancient  is  the  temple  of  Ju  er 
Panhellenius  at  iEgina,  whic 
said  to  have  been  built  befort 
Trojan  war,  (see  JEgina.) 
temple  of  Jupiter  at  Oiympi 
supposed  to  be  as  old  as  six 
dred  years  before  the  Christian  y 
and  the  remains  of  the  Doric  |! 
pie  at  Corinth  prove  it  to  have  i 
a  work  of  remote  antiquity.  \v 
in  order  of  time,  we  may  class  ie 
Grecian  cities  of  Italy,  which  jiy 
be  arranged  in  the  following  co- 
nological  order — Syracuse.  Pies  n, 
Selinus,  Segesta,  and  Agrigen^, 
(see  these  Articles.)  The  cit  of 
Selinus,  whose  stupendous  ruin  re 
the  admiration  of  modern  ti.s, 
was  founded  by  a  Greek  coiy 
from  Megara,  about  the  year  0, 
A.A.C.  The  character  of  the  re- 
nificent  edifices  of  which  ves  es 
remain,  combined  with  histoai 
data  that  may  be  collected,  p ve 
them  to  be  at  least  as  old  as:ve 
hundred  years  before  our  era.  le 
Corinthian  colony  which  estabh- 
ed  itself  at  Syracuse,  is  sa it  to 
have  been  as  ancient  as  the  mi  le 
of  the  eighth  century  before  CI  >t, 
and  the  remains  of  the  temp!  of 
Minerva  in  the  Ortygia,  or  that  rt 
of  the  city  which  was  first  iuh  it- 
ed,  bear  every  mark  of  the  higflt 
antiquity. 

Immediately  next  to  these,  in 
relation  of  time,  come  the  Athem 
temples.  Here  we  may  paus;:m 
the  full  perfection  of  art*;  after ;  i Is 
period  nothing  was  added;  per  ps 
in  the  course  of  a  few  year:  ts 
gradual  decline  commenced,  ne 
dates  of  these  buildings  are  a  u- 
rately  fixed:  Mnesicles  began'ie 
Propylsea  in  the  eighty-fifth  OJwi 
iad,  and  the  Parthenon  was  W 
a  few  years  after.  The  teu'le 
of  Theseus  may  be  considereas 
coeval  with  the  buildings  ofw 


ORE 

Aopolte.  See  Athenian  Archilec- 
tu,  and  Acropolis. 

ne  of  the  noblest  efforts  of 
Ic  us,  the  architect  of  the  Par- 
thr'on,  and  perhaps  of  the  temple  of 
\[  rva  at  Sunium,  is  to  be  seen 
in  e  temple  of  Apollo  Epicnrius 
i  rcadia,  which,  although  still 
ne;  y  entire,  has  been  little  ex- 
plc  d,  or  even  visited.  The  exten- 
siv  ruins  of  Messene,  built  sixty 
ye'*:,  after  the  death  of  Pericles, 
pre  that  the  art  had  not  yet  suf- 
fer any  material  deterioration. 
Th  walls  of  this  city,  which  are 
in  mv  parts  still  entire,  and  may 
be  aced  through  the  whole  ex- 
ten  of  their  ancient  circmt,  pre- 
scribe most  beautiful  and  perfect 
gpc'men  of  the  military  architec- 
ts af  the  Greeks,  being  fortified 
anndomed  with  numerous  towers 
aneates.  But,  as  we  may  judge 
frouhe  proportions  of  the  portico 
of  hilip  in  the  isle  of  Delos, 
whin  must  be  as  ancient  as  the 
hur  ed  and  tenth  Olympiad,  the 
arc  lecture  of  Greece  in  a  very 
sho  time  experienced  a  consi- 
der le  change.  The  port'eo  of 
Aalstus,  at  Athens,  is  suppose  d  'o 
oe  'e  most  modern  specimen  of 
the')oric  order  in  Greece,  after 
whi  it  gradually  yielded  to  the 
ind  Corinthian. 
Tf?  Ionic  order  appears  to  be 
t  ;is  the  Doric,  but  was  con- 
fine at  first  chiefly  to  the  Asiatic 
it  The  earliest  specimen,  of 
i  remains  are  to  be  found,  is 
the  mple  of  Juno  at  Samos.  Its 
iotnjuction  into  Sicily  may  be 
ic  in  the  tomb  of  Theron  at 
A^r'  ntum,  which  has  Ionic  co- 
ll ,!  and  capitals,  surmounted  by 
I  Djc  entablature.  The  beauti- 
W  <  ostyle  temple  of  Bacchus  at 
feoitvas  built  by  Hermogenes  of 
Atahda,  probably  soon  after  the 
fcnfo  invasion.  The  temples  of 
Minva  Polias  and  Erechtheus,  at 


GRE 

Athens,  was  erected  during  the 
Peloponnesian  war.  The  temple 
of  Apollo  Didymoeus,  near  Mile- 
tus, does  not  appear  to  have  been 
built  before  the  hundredth  Olym- 
piad ;  and  the  temple  of  Minerva 
Polias,  at  Priene,  was  dedicated  by 
Alexander.  From  this  period  to 
the  Roman  conquest,  no  specimens 
of  the  Ionic  order  are  known  to 
exist. 

The  Corinthian  order  is  of  com- 
paratively recent  invention.  The 
first  examples  of  this  style  in 
Greece  appear  to  have  been  pro- 
duced during  the  last  few  years 
of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  It  was 
introduced  in  the  temple  of  Mi- 
nerva at  Tegea,  when  rebuilt  by 
Scopas  of  Paros  ;  and  in  the  Cho- 
ragic  monument  of  Lysicrates, 
which  was  erected  in  the  hundred 
and  eleventh  Olympiad.  Many  of 
the  ornamental  theatres,  so  nume- 
rous in  Asia  Minor,  may  perhaps 
be  referred  to  a  period  considerably 
before  the  Roman  conquest ;  the 
most  remarkable  amongst  those  of 
the  Corinthian  order,  are  those  at 
Laodicea  on  the  Lycufe,  and  Patara 
on  the  coast  of  Lycia.  The  Ro- 
man conquest  spread  the  Corin- 
thit»n  style  throughout  Greece, 
a'most  to  the  exclusion  of  every 
other;  and  although  the  buildings 
of  the  period  which  followed,  are 
often  more  splendid  and  costly, 
they  are  deficient  in  the  pure  taste 
and  correct  design  of  preceding 
ages.  See  Order. 

Greek  Cross.    See  Church. 

Greenhouse,  or  Conservatory, 
is  an  horticultural  erection  for  shel- 
tering tender  exotic  \ lants  from  the 
injurious  effects  of  our  variable 
climate,  especially  during  the  win- 
ter season.  The  length  of  green- 
houses will,  of  course,  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  number  of  plants 
they  are  intended  to  shelter  ;  their 
depth  should  not  exceed  12  or 


G  R  I 


G  It  O 


14  feet  in  small  houses;  nor,  in 
large  ones,  be  more  than  from 
18  to  20  feet.  The  windows 
should  extend  from  one  foot  and 
a  half  above  the  pavement  to 
nearly  the  same  distance  from  the 
ceiling,  so  as  to  admit  of  a  cor- 
nice round  the  building,  over  the 
tops  of  the  windows.  The  floor 
ought  to  be  of  Purbeck  stone,  or 
flat  tiles,  elevated  two,  or,  if  on  a 
damp  situation,  three  feet  above 
the  ground ;  it  will  also  be  ad- 
visable to  carry  a  flue  about  ten 
inches  wide,  and  two  feet  deep, 
beneath  the  floor,  through  the 
whole  length  of  the  house,  and 
to  return  it  along  the  back  part, 
where  it  should  be  carried  up  into 
funnels,  for  the  purpose  of  dis- 
charging (he  smoke.  The  inner 
wall  of  the  building  ought  to  be 
covered  either  with  stucco  or  mor- 
tar, in  order  to* exclude  the  frosty 
air,  and  the  shutters  for  the  same 
purpose  should  be  on  the  inside, 
and  fold  back  upon  the  piers,  that 
they  may  not  intercept  the  sun's 
rays.  The  walls  ought  to  be  white- 
washed, that  they  may  the  better 
reflect  the  li£ht  and  warmth  of  the 
sun.  As  the  front  of  the  conser- 
vatory is  usually  placed  south,  the 
two  wings  should  be  south-east 
and  south-west. 

Grey  Stocks  are  bricks  of  the 
third  quality  of  the  best,  or  marl- 
bricks. 

Grit,  (grytta,  greot,  Sax.)  a 
fossil,  sometimes  forming  a  sandy 
substance,  sometimes  in  the  form  of 
stones,  of  a  friable  texture;  called 
also  sand-stone.  It  resists  the  ac- 
tion of  acids,  but  is  permeable  to 
water,  and  used  for  filtering  stones. 
There  is  a  kind  of  sand-stone,  dug 
up  in  Derbyshire  and  other  nor- 
thern counties  of  England,  which 
is  used  for  whetstones,  to  sharpen 
knives,  and  various  implements  and 
tools. 

66 


Grit,  Argillaceous,  a  stor  0f 
various  degrees  of  hardness,  id 
of  a  gray,  sometimes  of  a  yel 
ish  colour,  composed  of  a  silic 
and  micaceous  sand,  closely  ( 
pacted  by  an  argillaceous  ceir 
It  gives  some  sparks  with  s 
is  indissolvable,  or  nearly  sojin 
acids,  and  verifiable  in  a  stlig 
fire.  It  is  used  for  millstonesjid 
sometimes  for  building.  Son  of 
the  varieties  of  grit  or  sanci-s  )e 
with  s  liceous,  micaceous,  or  spry 
mixtures,  constituted  the  puzo- 
lana  of  the  ancients. 

Groin,  the  angular  curve  n 
by  the  intersection  of  two  s 
cylinders, or  arches.  Groins  for  ;d 
of  cones,  are  calle-l  conic  gns. 
Cylinders  intersecting  each  o  r, 
form  a  cylindric  groin.  Whenw 
unequal  cylindric  vaults  intevct 
each  other,  a  cylindro-cylmk 
groin  is  formed.  When  the  se- 
rai axes  of  simple  vaults  form  e  al 
angles  around  the  same  poinhn 
the  same  plane,  what  is  termeir. 
equi-angular  groin,  is  the  re  It. 
If  three  or  more  vaults  join  to  m 
a  groin,  it  is  called  a  multangir 
groin.  When  the  axis  of  the  n- 
ple  vault  is  in  two  vertical  phis, 
at  right  angles,  a  rectangidar g  in 
results.  A  spheric  groin  is  at 
which  the  intersection  of  two  r- 
tions  of  a  spherical  vault  prooVs, 
When  the  junction  of  cyln'ic 
with  a  spheric  vault  forms  a  g  n, 
it  is  called  a  cylindro-spi[ic 
groin,  if  the  spheric  portion  '  of 
less  height  than  the  cylindric:  ut 
if  the  spheric  portion  be  of  gner 
height  than  the  cylindric ;  he 
formation  will  be  that  of  a  spro- 
cylindric  groin. 

Groined  Ceiling,  a  su  re 
formed  by  three  or  more  cued 
surfaces,  so  that  every  two  jay 
form  a  groin,  ail  the  groins  teoi- 
nating  at  one  extremity  in  a 
mon  point.    The  curved  suice 


GRO 


G  RO 


bereen  every  two  adjacent  groins, 
is  called  a  sectroid :  the  point 
v  re  the  groins  terminate  is  the 
ajv  or  summit.  The  reverse 
vild  of  a  sectroid  is  a  convex 
gu3Ce,  which  exactly  coincides 
wi  it;  equal  sectroids  have  the 
sais  reverse  moulds.  The  chord 
0ji  groin  is  a  line  supposed  to 
Mrawn  from  the  summit  to  the 
ot  r  unconnected  extremity.  A 
rejar  groined  ceiling  has  all  the 
se  oids  and  chords  of  the  groins 
eq.l,  and  the  unconnected  extre- 
m  js,  in  a  plane.  The  base  of  a 
reilar  groined  ceiling  is  a  regular 
pckon,  whose  angles  are  the  un- 
co ected  extremities  of  the  groins. 
Tl  axis  is  the  line  drawn  perpen- 
di  iar  from  the  apex  to  the  base. 
A  ctangular  groined  ceiling  con- 
Ki  of  four  equal  sectroids. 

hen  one  of  the  side  arches  of 
lin  vault  are  given,  to  find  the 
cu  2  of  the  other  side  and  angle 
ritpo  that  the  groin  lines  shall  be 
In irtical  planes,  passing  through 
thijdiagonals  on  the  plan.  The 
rihj'f  the  other  side,  and  that  of 
thi  iagonal,  may  be  described  by 
tWrammel,  when  the  given  rib  is  a 
set!  ellipsis,  as  in  Plate  I  Groin, 
To.ud  ihe  length  of  the  jack  ribs, 
let[e  plan  of  them  be  drawn,  and 
de:  ibe  a  rib  upon  each  opening, 
he  necessary  breadth  of  stuff ; 
froj  the  extremities  a,  c,  e,  of  the 
se<[  of  the  jack  ribs,  draw  lines  a  b, 
cc^/,  parallel  to  the  axis  of  its 
*  tive  vault,  and  the  same  upon 
theilier  side,  and  continue  them 
to  iieet  the  outer  edge  of  the 
brclth  ;  the  parts  bb,  dd,ff,  are 
theengths  or  chords  of  the  jack 
r'b  »n  the  semicircular  side  ;  their 
jen  hson  the  other  side  are  found 
in  |i  same  manner.  To  strengthen 
thoinis  of  the  ribs,  they  should 
taide  of  two  pieces  of  wood  of 
e<H.  thickness,  the  angle  ribs  being 
8o  ^veiled  as  to  ranyre  with  the 


side  ribs  in  the  following  manner : 
Let  a  b  be  the  plan  between  the 
ribs  E  and  F,  move  the  hip-rnould 
parallel  to  the  base,  to  the  required 
distance,  as  shown  by  the  plan,  and 
draw  a  line  by  the  inner  edge  of 
the  mould.  When  the  rib  is  the 
segment  of  a  circle,  as  in  Plate  II. 
or  any  curve,  the  ribs  may  be  de- 
scribed, as  here  shown  at.  B,  E,  F, 
by  the  method  given  in  the  de- 
scription of  Plates  in  Descrip- 
tive Carpentry.  To  describe 
the  ribs  for  the  cradling  of  a  cy- 
lindrical-cvlindroidic  groin,  let  N, 
0,P,Q,R,S,  {Plate  III.)  be  the 
piers,  TMU  the  given  arch,  and 
TU  its  seat,  and  draw  the  diagonal 
t  u,  No.ly  and  the  ordinates  GA, 
HB,  IC,  KD,  LE,  ME,  of  the  arch 
TMU  ;  draw  also  the  ordinates  a  gy 
bh,  c  i,  dk,  e  l,f  m,  No.  1,  and  the 
lines  a  a,  b  b,  c  c,  d  d,  e  e,  ff,  pa- 
rallel to  the  axis  of  the  side  arch, 
and  produce  them  to  g,  h,  i,  k,  I, 
m:  make  the  ordinates  of  Nos.  1 
and  2  respectively  equal  to  those 
of  the  given  arch,  and  the  curves 
traced  through  the  points  are  the 
arches  required.  The  other  part 
of  the  figure  represents  the  manner 
of  fixing  the  timbers.  To  describe 
the  intersecting  or  angle  ribs  of  a 
groin  standing  upon  an  octagon 
plan,  the  side  and  body  ribs  being 
given  both  to  the  same  height.  In 
Plate  IV.  F  is  a  given  body  rib, 
which  may  be  either  a  semi-circle 
or  a  semi-ellipsis,  and  A  is  a  side 
rib  given  of  the  same  height,  D  is 
a  rib  across  the  angles,  traced  from 
E,  the  bases  of  both  being  divided 
into  the  same  number  of  equal 
parts  :  from  these  points  draw  lines 
across  the  groin  to  its  centre  at  m, 
and  from  the  divisions  of  the  base 
of  the  other  rib  D,  draw  lines  pa- 
rallel to  the  side  of  the  groin;  then 
trace  the  angle  lines  through  these 
squares,  which  will  give  the  inter- 
secting ribs ;  draw  the  chords  a  b, 

87 


GRO 


GRO 


be,  trace  the  moulds  B  and  C  from 
£  or  D,  setting  the  ordi nates  from 
the  straight  chords  a  by  b  c.  To  de- 
scribe and  back  the  angle  ribs  of  a 
groin  circular  upon  the  plan,  the 
side  and  body  arches  being  given, 
as  in  the  last.  The  construction  is 
exhibited  in  PL  V.  The  ribs  may 
be  described  in  the  same  manner, 
as  in  the  last.  E  and  F  are  the 
same  moulds  as  shown  at  B  and 
D.  The  side- rib  A  (PL  Yhjtg.  1 .) 
and  the  angles  being-  given  straight 
upon  the  plan,  to  find  the  angle  rib 
C,  and  the  body  rib  C.  The  rib  A 
is  supposed  to  be  placed  ever  the 
straight  line  a,  6,  and  its  base  di- 
vided into  a  number  of  equal  parts, 
as  8,  from  the  divisions  draw  lines 
to  the  centre  of  the  groin,  to  in- 
tersect the  angles  at  the  points  a,  6, 
c,  d,  e,  f%  g,  with  the  foot  of  the 
compass,  in  the  centre  of  the  groin, 
from  the  points  a,  b,  c,  d,&c.  draw 
lines  to  the  base  of  C,  and  make 
the  ordi nates  of  C  equal  to  those  of 
A;  C  is  the  body  rib:  draw  lines  at 
right  angles  from  the  points  a,  6,  c, 
dy  &c.  and  prick  the  moulds  G  and 
B  from  A,  which  will  be  the  angle 
ribs  required.  To  describe  the  ribs 
of  a  groin  over  stairs  upon  a  cir- 
cular plan,  (PI.  VU.Jig.  2.)  Take 
the  tread  of  as  many  steps  as  you 
please,  suppose  nine,  from  E,  and 
the  heights  corresponding  to  them, 
and  lay  them  down  at  F:  draw  the 
plan  of  the  angles  as  in  other  groins, 
and  take  the  sketch  round  the  mid- 
dle from  a  to  6  of  the  steps  at  E, 
and  lay  it  from  a  to  d  at  F:  draw 
d  e  perpendicular  to  6c,  and  de  at 
B  perpendicular  to  c d,  and  make 
d  e  equal  to  de  at  F :  draw  the 
hypothenuse  ec,  and  perpendiculars 
from  dc  up  to  B,  and  prick  B  from 
A,  B  is  the  mould  to  stand  over  a  6, 
draw  the  chords  a  4  and  4  mat 
the  angles,  make  agy  4  /i,  perpen- 
dicular to  them,  each  equal  to  half 
the  height  d  e,  at  B  and  F,  draw 


the  hypothenuse  g  4,  and  hm, 
the  perpendicular  ordinates  ' 
the  chords  through  the  intersect 
of  the  other  lines  that  meet  ahe 
angles,  then  trace  the  mould  D 
and  C,  from  the  given  rib  Ayw 
are  there  for  the  angles  or  n  r~ 
sect i rig  ribs. 

For  the  mens-  ration  of  gro?d 
ceiling,  it  is  requisite  to  constn 
rectangle,  whose  surface  shal 
erfual  to  the  surface  of  the  cei 
If  the  groined  ceiling  be  reci 
gular,  let  A  BCD,  fg.  1. 
Groin  VIT.)  be  the  plan,  ancet 
the  arc  AED  be  the  intersecticof 
the  groined  surface  on  the  sit  of 
the  wall,  which  is  therefore  sup  s- 
ed  to  be  raised  perpendicular! to 
the  plan  A  BCD :  draw  the  a- 
gonals  AC,  BD,  intersecting  vg. 
Then  the  plans  of  the  four  sectt is 
are  AgB,  BgC,  CgJ),  and  Di; 
the  intersections  of  the  other  t;e 
arches  upon  the  faces  of  the  v  Is 
which  stand  upon  the  lines,  3, 
BC,  CD,  are  the  same  as  theirc 
AED:  bisect  the  arc  AED  \iK 
and  join  EA  and  Eg.  Desne 
the  rectangle  GHUT,  Jig.  2, 
being  equal  in  length  to  the 
AED  (Jig.  1.)  and  GT  or  HUe 
to  Jg  (Jig.  1 :)  bisect  GH  in  ftj 
draw  k  I,  perpendicular  to  |H, 
making  k  I  equal  to  f  g  (Ji<J-\') 
divide  either  half  DE  of  the  re 
AED  (fg.  1,)  and  each  ofjhe 
straight  lines  k  G  and  k  H  (ftf-,) 
into  an  equal  number  of  equal  p  ts, 
as  C.  From  the  points  of  divnl 
in  the  arc  DE  (Jig.  1,)  draw  |tes 
parallel  to  E  g,  to  meet  the  ia- 
gonal  DB,  and  from  the  poiniof 
division  in  GH  (Jig.  2,)  draw  pes 
perpendicular  to  GH.  Make|he 
perpendicular  on  each  side  ol|i  L 
respectively  equal  to  the  line^e- 
tween  D  /  and  D  g  (Jig.  1,)  aW  ; 
a  curve  through  the  extremes, 
then  the  triangle  Grll  (fig.  2)W-  s 
tained  by  the  two  equal  curve  pes  s 


>! 


[ 


GRO 


G  RO 


I  and  IH,  and  the  straight  line 
(I,  will  be  the  exact  covering  over 
a?  one  of  the  four  planes  of  the 
stroids.  Find  a  third  propor- 
tual  to  the  length  of  the  circular 
a  as  a  first  term,  and  the  two 
n  die  terms  each  equal  to  the 
scorial  radius,  by  the  operation 
ttfig.  3:)  make  11,  in  I  k  (Jig. 
2.  equal  to  the  fourth  propor- 
tilal:  draw  GT  and  MU  perpendi- 
ci  r  to  GH,  and  through  I  draw 
T  parallel  to  GH,  also  through  / 
div  v  w,  parallel  to  GH,  meeting 

pi  G  in  v,  and  HUin  w.  The  reet- 
HG  v  w  will  be  equal  to  the 
triple  GHI,  and  consequently 
eqil  to  the  area  of  one  of  the  sect- 
ro:,  or  of  one  fourth  of  the  whole 
ceri?.  If  PM  {Jig.  4.)  equal  GH, 
(i  2)  and  MN  and  PO  (Jig.  4) 
eq  I  twice  k  I,  (Jig.  2,)  the  rect- 

i  anf?  PMNO,  will  equal  half  the 
an  of  the  ceiling.  The  area 
GUT  (Jig.  2,)  is  that  of  a  cylin- 
dri  surface,  whose  arc  is  AED 
i  ji  1,)  and  the  length  of  its  axis 
f  i  draw  g  r  perpendicular  to 
AL  Jig.  1  : )  make  g  r  equal  to 
thehord  AE  or  DE,  produce  each 

,  of  i  diagonals  to  the  points  a,  b, 
c,  6  and  through  the  point  r,  in 
theniddle  of  one  of  the  sides, 
corlete  the  square  abed,  by 
dratng  lines  parallel  to  the  sides 
t>f  2  square  ABCD  :  the  square 
a  b  d,  will  be  equal  to  the  area 
"i  dome  having  the  same  base 
aod  .ection  as  the  groined  ceiling. 
Whj:  the  section  AED  is  a  semi- 
wrc  the  area  of  the  groined  ceil- 
ing xceeds  the  area  of  the  plan 
in  inuch  greater  proportion  than 
I  B.ments. 
I,  ABCDEF,/#.  1  (Pl.VM.) 
;i  plan  of  a  regular  semicir- 
cubcylindric  groined  ceiling.  A, 
i  CD,  E,  F,  being  the  springing 
poin  of  the  groins.  As  all  the 
Wt.l  sections  of  each  cylindric 
surf;  [»  upon  each  side  AB,  BC, 


CD,  &c.  are  semicircles,  and  as 
each  cylindric  surface  is  uniform, 
and  the  equal  sides  AB,  BC,  CD, 
&c.  of  the  groined  ceiling  are  dia- 
meters of  the  semicircular  cylindric 
surfaces,  the  axis  of  each  cylindric 
surface  will  bisect  each  of  the  sides, 
AB,  BC.  CD,  &c.  perpendicularly, 
and  will  meet  the  axis  m  the  centre 
O  of  the  hexagon.  The  groins  will, 
therefore,  be  in  the  vertical  planes, 
upon  the  diagonal  lines  AO,  BO, 
CO,  &c.  We  may  now  construct 
Jig.  3,  as  before.  Having  drawn 
lines  from  the  points  in  the  half 
arc  A  u  (Jig.  1,)  which  divide  it  in 
equal  parts,  to  meet  the  diagonal 
AD,  and  having  drawn  the  cor- 
responding line  in  Jig.  3,  make  the 
ordinates  ftom  the  points  in  w  x, 
on  each  side  of  k  I,  (Jig.  3)  re- 
spectively, equal  to  the  perpendi- 
culars from  AB  to  AO  (Jig-  1.) 
Make  w  n  the  first  term  of  four 
proportionals,  and  make  AE  and 
AB  the  two  middle  terms:  having 
found  the  fourth,  as  in  Jig.  2,  make 
m  z  and  n  y  (Jig.  3)  equal  to  it, 
join  y  z,  and  the  rectangle  w  xy  z, 
is  equal  to  the  surface  of  ihe  groin- 
ed ceiling  over  AOB  (Jig.  1.) 

Important  improvements  have 
been  recently  made  in  the  con- 
struction of  ribbed  £roi:s,  by  Mr. 
Sappling,  communicated  to  the 
Adelphi  Society  of  Arts;  a  full 
description  of  which  is  also  given 
in  the  Mechanic's  Magazine  of 
June,  1830. 

Groove,  or  Mortise,  the  channel 
made  by  a  joiner's  plane  in  the  cd^e 
of  a  moulding,  style,  or  rail,  to  re- 
ceive the  tenon. 

Guotfsque  a  singular  and  fan- 
tastic style  of  ornament,  found  in 
ancient  buildings.    See  Arabesque. 

Grotto, an  artificial  cavern.  (See 
Cave.)  Wansleben  was  astonished 
at  the  immense  number  of  arti- 
ficial grottoes,  hollowed  in  the 
mountains  of  Egypt.     Said  Ibn 


GRO 

Patrick  imagined  that  they  were 
the  work  of  the  Israelites,  done 
by  order  of  the  Pharaohs.  The  peo- 
ple attribute  them  to  the  devil  and 
to  sorcerers.  Many  of  them,  per- 
haps, may  be  referred  to  the  ear- 
liest ages  of  Egyptian  history,  when 
they  served  as  dwellings  for  the  then 
barbarous  people.  Artificial  caverns 
in  Greece  were  consecrated  to  the 
Nymphs,  See  Catacomb,  and  Nym- 
phcp.um. 

Ground-joints,  are  joints  sup- 
porting the  floor  immediately  above 
the  around. 

Groun d floor,  the  lowest  story 
of  a  building. 

Ground  Niche,  a  niche  rising 
from  the  floor. 

Ground  Plan,  an  ichnogra- 
phical  outline,  or  drawing,  of  the 
foundation  of  a  building. 

Ground  Plane,  a  line  forming 
the  ground  of  a  design  or  picture, 
which  line  is  a  tangent  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  face  of  the  globe;  as  a 
ground  line,  is  any  straight  line 
serving  as  the  ground  of  the  de- 
sign. 

Ground  Plates,  the  outermost 
pieces  of  timber  lying  on  or  near 
the  ground,  and  framed  into  each 
other  with  mortises  and  tenons. 
Mortises  are  also  made  in  these,  to 
receive  the  tenons  of  the  joists,  the 
summer,  and  girders  ;  and  some- 
times the  trimmers  for  the  stair- 
case and  chimney  way,  or  space, 
and  binding  joists. 

Ground  Plot,  the  ground  on 
which  a  building  is  placed,  ground- 
sel, or  sil,  (grand  and  sil,  Sax.) 
the  same  as  ground  plate. 

Groun  ds  :  joiners  give  this  name 
to  narrow  pieces  of  wood  built  in 
the  foundations  of  walls,  at  the 
surbases  of  rooms,  to  secure  archi- 
traves, and  support  the  walls  over 
apertures.  They  are  of  various  di- 
mensions, and  covered  in  with 
plaster  ;    or   sometimes  present- 


GUA 

ing   a    surface    flush  with  1e 

plaster. 

Grouped  Columns,  arc  \  , 
three,  four,  or  more  columnsire 
put  together  on  the  same  pede:|- 
when  two  are  placed  together,  J 
are  said  to  be  coupled. 

Grout,  a  thin  kind  of  mo  i 
see  Mortar. 

Gry,  a  measure  containing  lc 
tenth  of  a  line.  A  line  is  L 
tenth  of  a  digit ;  a  digit  one  t  :h 
of  a  foot ;  a  foot  one  third  a 
pendulum,  whose  diadromes.jr 
vibrations,  in  the  latitude  oti5 
degrees,  are  each  equal  to  ie 
second  of  time,  or  one  sixtiet  of 
a  minute. 

Guage,  for  measuring timbe- 
The  Silver  Medal  of  the  Adthi 
Society  was  voted  to  Mr.  Ja:s 
Broad  for  his  invention  of  a  Gije 
or  measure  for  timber,  whiclis 
described  in  the  14th  vol.  of  ie 
the  second  series  of  the  Repery 
of  Arts  for  1809.  It  consist^ 
two  pieces  of  well-seasoned  wd 
joined  near  the  middle  by  a  1, 
forming  an  axis  on  which  'y 
move,  and  has  an  index  fastene  o 
one  of  the  arms,  with  the  neefs  y 
contrivances  to  answer  the  inter  d 
purpose  of  enabling  any  gentlci  d 
or  workman  to  make  an  e:  ' 
estimate  of  the  contents  of  tret  r 
other  timber,  either  before  cut  g 
down  or  in  any  other  state. 
Adelphi  Society  also  presentedie 
Silver  Medal  to  Mr.  R.  Palmenf 
Hackney,  for  an  ingenious  and  - 
ful  invention  of  a  Gauge  for  ie 
purpose  of  marking  a  line  along  ie 
centre  of  any  parallel  or  incli  d 
surface  ;  also  for  finding  the  ce  « 
of  a  circle,  square,  or  any  regfti 
polygon.  This  useful  instrun  it 
marking  a  centre  line  with 
accuracy,  enables  the  workmario 
measure  timber  with  ease.  It  HI 
also  greatly  assist  in  making  r 
tises,  and  answers  all  the  purpes 


GUT 


GYM 


of  carpenter's  common  gauge. 
]t  ill  rost  about.  4s.  Engravings, 
wit  a  full  description  of  this  instru- 
m|,  are  g;ven  in  the  Repertory  of 
Ar  vol.  '25,  for  1814.    See  Gage. 

/  £ u  i t  r,  a  small  tower  of  wood 
or  we,  on  the  point  of  a  bastion, 
or  »me  oilier  appropriate  station 
feme  use  of  the  sentinel. 

jest  Hall,  see  Abbey. 

Ijeule,  Gale,  Gulce,  Go/a,  are 


whu 


r;us  modes  of  spelling  this  term, 
do  is  synonymous  with  cyma- 


(jildhall,  the  great  court  of 
rure  for  London.  In  it  are 
keprhe  Mayor's  Court,  the  She- 
riff Court,  the  Court  of  Hustings, 
thefcourt  of  Conscience,  Court  of 
ojmon  Council,  Chamberlain's 
Co  t,  &.C.  Here  also  the  judges 
sit  )on  Nisi  Prius,  &c.  The  ge- 
r  tyof  botough  towns  and  ci- 
tie«  ave  a  public  building  of  this 
dernination  for  similar  purposes. 
In  ime  of  the  larger  cities  these 
hal  are  of  considerable  antiquity, 
or  built  in  a  modern  style  of  ar- 
chi  rture,  large  and  commodious, 
for  e  transaction  of  public  busi- 
nes' 

(  illochi,  (Ital.)  ornaments 
in  e  form  of  a  series  of  spiral 
strijs. 

(  lbe.    See  Gorge. 

(  lpmor,  or  Gl'lpiiur,  the 
pru  pal  apartment  in  Arabian 
hou  s.  See  Arabian  Architecture. 

Qkduli'ii,  bishop  of  Roches- 
ter,- waid  the  close  of  the  eleventh 

i'  y,  the  inventor  of  numerous 
imptant  improvements  in  the  con- 
Btru  ion  of  castles.    See  Castle. 

C  rbi es.  See  Arabian  Archi- 
tect  e. 

C(tt*,  (Lat.  drops,)  ornaments 
of  iconic  form,  on  the  cornice  of 
the' jric  order ;  they  are  supposed 
to  r  resent  drops  of  water. 

Ottsiis,  are  a  kind  of  canals  in 
tte  ofs  of  houses,  to  receive  and 


carry  off  rain-water.  They  are 
either  made  of  lead  or  of  tiles, 
which  are  either  plain  or  concave ; 
these  last  are  called  gutter-tiles, 
and  so  adapted  to  each  other  as  to 
be  laid  with  great  ease.  The  Ro- 
mans had  gutters  of  terra-cotta 
along  the  roofs  of  their  houses, 
and  the  rain  water  from  them  ran 
out  through  heads  of  animals  and 
other  devises,  placed  in  the  angles 
and  in  convenient  parts.  Leaden 
gutters  were  known  in  the  middle 
ages. 

Gymnasium.  (Gr.)  Amongst 
the  public  edifices  of  the  Greeks, 
the  gymnasia  were  classed  in  the 
first  rank.  It  was  in  them  that 
they  instructed  the  youth  in  all  the 
arts  of  peace  and  war,  to  make 
them  useful  and  accomplished  citi- 
zens. As  long  as  they  were  care- 
fully protected  by  the  state,  the 
sciences  and  the  arts  were  culti- 
vated with  zeal.  The  name  of 
palcestra,  which  properly  desig- 
nated that  part  of  the  gymnasium 
where  they  exercised  their  bodies, 
was  sometimes  applied  to  the  whole 
building.  At  first  the  gymnasium 
was  only  an  open  space  enclosed  by 
a  wall,  as  the  ancient  gymnasium 
of  Elis  mentioned  by  Pausanias  : 
rows  of  plane-trees  were  planted, 
to  afford  shade  from  the  heat  of  the 
sun.  These  trees,  when  the  gymna- 
sia were  ornamented,  and  divided 
into  compartments,  gave  place  to 
colonnades  and  rows  of  pillars. 
The  philosophers  began  by  choosing 
a  place  to  give  their  lessons,  and 
built  the  Exedrce,  where  they  col- 
lected their  disciples.  According 
to  Ignarra,  in  his  work  de  Palces- 
tra Neapolitand,  it  was  from  this 
time  that  a  difference  was  made 
between  the  gymnasium  and  the 
palestra;  as  by  the  first  name 
they  generally  designated  the  place 
appropriated  to  the  lessons  of  the 
philosophers,  and  by  the  latter  the 

91 


GYP 


GYP 


place  destined  for  ihe  exercises  of 
the  body.  Baths  were  added,  as 
necessary  appendages ;  and  as  the 
gymnasia  degenerated,  particularly 
among  the  Romans,  they  were  re- 
garded as  the  principal  part  of 
them,  and  the  name  of  gymnasia 
was  replaced  by  that  of  therma. 

Vitruvius,  in  his  fifth  book,  has 
given  us  a  description  of  the  distri- 
bution of  a  gymnasium.  In  a 
square  or  oblong  space  of  two  sta- 
dia in  circumference,  was  built  a 
peristyle,  com  posed  of  four  colon- 
nades or  port  cos,  of  v  hieh  three 
had  but  a  single  range  of  columns; 
the  fourth,  on  the  conlrary,  situated 
towards  the  south,  had  a  double 
range.  Sometime?,  however,  the 
double  ranges  appear  to  have  been 
continued  all  round.  Behind  these 
porticos  were  different  halls.  On 
the  side  of  the  three  simple  porti- 
cos were  the  exedrce  of  the  philo- 
sophers :  under  the  double  portico 
were  the  entrances  to  the  places 
where  the  youth  prepared  for  the 
exercises  of  the  palaestra,  and  to 
the  baths.  In  the  middle  of  the 
halls  was  the  ephebeium,  at  the 
side  of  whieh  was  the  coriceum, 
next  the  conisterium,  and  at  the 
angle  of  the  portico  the  loutron, 
or  cold  bath.  On  the  left  of  the 
ephebium  was  the  elothesium,  by 
the  side  of  whieh  were  the  fri- 
gidariam,the  concamerata  sudatio, 
the  laconicum,  and  the  warm  bath. 
Under  them  was  the  propnigeum 
ot •  prcefurnium.  The  second  part 
of  the  gymnasium  bad  three  porti- 
cos, one  of  which,  looking  towards 
the  north,  was  very  large,  and  had 
a  double  range  of  columns.  Into 
this  we  entered  on  leaving  the  pe- 
ristyle. The  two  other  ranges, 
which  were  generally  simple,  ran 
to  the  right  and  left  of  the  first, 
enclosing  with  the  wall  the  area  of 


the  gymnasium.  By  the  sidY)f 
tne  wall  and  the  columns,  w<  a 
gallery  or  foot-path  ten  feet  w> 
which  was  destined  for  the  us,f 
the  spectators.  The  space  betwn 
the  porticos  was  planted  with  tr ;. 
Near  the  porticos  were  open  k 
menades,  called  by  the  Grl| 
peridromes,  and  by  the  Rorr  s 
xysti,  where  the  athleti  exercd 
sometimes  during  the  winter,  t 
their  extremity  was  a  vaststadiL 
which  afforded  sufficient  room.r 
a  great  number  of  spectators,  d 
in  which  were  exhibited  the  pu  c 
games.  Such  is  ihe  gymnasn 
as  described  by  Vitruvius.  t 
the  form  and  disposition  of  e 
gymnasia  varied  in  different  pi;  s 
and  in  different  times.  The  i  > 
rior  of  these  buildings  were  adord 
with  the  most  elaborate  work  n 
sculpture  and  paint'ng.  On  e 
subject  of  gymnasia,  thereadeny 
considt,  besides  the  work  of  Igr- 
ra  before- mentioned,  Stiegl  s 
Archiiologie  der  Baukurst.  e 
Circu  s ,  //  ippodrom  e,Palcestray\ 

Gynjeceium,  or  Gyncecom}, 
(Gr.)  a  part  of  the  Grecian  hois 
appropriated  to  the  women. 

Gypsum,  calcareous  earth  s;- 
rated  with  vitriolic  acid,  there  e 
it  does  not  effervesce  with  ae . 
Being  subjected  to  a  mode  e 
heat,  to  expel  the  water  of  c  - 
tallization  it  forms  plaster-of-Pat, 
and  coming  in  contact  with  war, 
immediately  assumes  a  solid  fo  : 
of  the  numerous  species  of  this  fo  I, 
alabaster  is  perhaps  ihe  mostab- 
dant.  The  plaster  earth  foundn 
Glipston  quarry,  in  Northampt  - 
shire,  is  a  dry,  harsh,  gritty,  lilt 
yellow  powder,  which  adhereso 
the  tongue,  but  not  to  the  fing>, 
and,  mixed  with  water,  immedia  y 
sets  without  previous  heating,  e 
Alabaster. 


92 


HAL 


II  A  If 


H. 


I  ckino,  an  inferior  and  imper- 
fect ode  of  walling,  to  save  stones. 

f  diuaneium.     See  Mauso* 
leuf 

\  lfmoon,  in  fortification,  an 
ufc  rk,  having  only  two  faces, 
forr icr  together  a  salient  angle, 
vhi   is  flanked  by  some  part  of 
the  ace,  and  of  the  other  bastions. 
Flf-space,   or  resting-place, 
e  oace  or  interval  between  two 
tiijl  of  steps  in  a  staircase. 

I  ll,  {hal,  Sax.)  a  name  ap- 
plieiindifferently  to  the  first  large 
pa  nent  on  entering  a  house,  to 
the  ublic  room  of  a  corporate 
bod  a  court  of  justice,  or  to  a 
mair  house.    Vitruvius  mentions 
thrt  sorts  of  halls;  the  tetrastyle, 
vfcjj  has  four  columns  supporting 
%  the  iling;  the  Corinthian,  which 
s  »lumns  all  round  let  into  the 
walhnd  is  vaulted  over;  and  the 
Eofyian,  which  had  a  peristyle  of 
insured  Corinthian  columns,  bear- 
ing second  order  with  a  ceiling  ; 
ihes  are  called  oeci.     The  length 
v  a  ill  should  be  at  least  twice 
and  quarter  its  breadth,  and,  in 
nil  lgs  of  large  dimensions,  three 
time  its  breadth.    Its  height  may 
be  t -thirds  of  its  breadth;  and 
an  sihed  ceiling  is  to  be  preferred. 
In    s  case,  its  height  is  found 
by  viding  its  breadth  into  six 
parti  five  of  which  will  be  the 
igj  from  the  floor  to  the  un- 
dersii  of  the  key  of  the  arch. 
In   jry    magnificent  buildings, 
i"  the  hall  is  larger  and  loftier 
rdinary,  and  in  the  middle  of 
'  >e  mse,  it  is  called  a  Saloon ; 

'd    royal  apartment  is  said  to 
cons;,  of  a  hall  or  chamber  of 
uai  ,  a  chamber,  an  ante-cham- 
ber, i  cabinet  chamber,  and  a 
f(  .    The  great  hall,  where  the 
«r  of  kings-bench,   &c.  are 
kept  exceeds  in  extent  any  hall 


in  Europe,  measuring  in  length  300 
feet,  and  in  breadth  100.  See  Al- 
mahara,  Basilika,  Andron,  and 
Cyzicenus. 

Halving,  the  junction  of  two 
pieces  of  timber,  by  inserting  one 
into  the  other ;  in  some  cases  to 
be  preferred  to  mortising. 

Ham,  (Sax.)  properly  signifying 
a  house  or  dwelling-place,  also  a 
street  or  village;  hence  Notting- 
ham, Bucking/mrw,  &c. 

Hammer  Beam,  a  beam  in  a 
gothic  roof,  not  extending  to  the 
opposite  side.  A  beam  at  the  foot 
of  a  rafter. 

Hand-railing.  (SeeBut-joint, 
Carriage  Carpentry,  Constructive 
Carpentry.)  The  art  of  forming 
hand-rails  round  circular  and  ellip- 
tic well-holes  without  the  use  of  the 
cylinder,  is  entirely  new.  The  new 
principle,  the  invention  and  per- 
fection of  which  we  owe  to  Mr.  P. 
Nicholson,  is  fully  described  in  the 
"  New  Carpenter's  Guide."  No 
previous  author  seems  to  have  had 
any  idea  of  describing  the  section 
of  a  cylinder  through  any  three 
points  in  space,  making  a  mould 
to  the  form  of  the  section,  and  ap- 
plying it  to  both  sides  of  the  plank 
by  the  principles  of  solid  angles, 
so  that  by  cutting  away  the  super- 
fluous wood,  the  piece  thus  formed 
might  be  made  to  range  over  its 
plan.  The  following  is  the  theory 
of  this  practice.  If  we  suppose  any 
line  to  be  drawn  on  the  surface  of 
the  working  cylinder, and  the  latter 
be  to  be  cut  entirely  through  from 
this  line  to  the  opposite  surface,  the 
line  coinciding  with  the  section 
made  by  cutting  the  solid  through 
the  line  thus  drawn,  will  be  parallel 
to  the  base  of  the  working-cyiinder. 
Then,  if  the  upper  portion  of  the 
working-cylinder,  separated  faun 
the  lower,  be  to  be  removed,  and 


HAN 


H  A  R 


the  lower  inserted  in  the  well- hole, 
the  surface  of  separation  comeiding 
with  the  nosings  of  the  steps,  while 
the  base  rests  on  the  floor ;  and  if 
the  whole  be  elevated  to  a  certain 
height  without  turning,  so  that  the 
base  may  be  parallel  to  the  floor, 
tYi  surface  of  separation  will  form 
the  lop  of  the  hand-rail  in  the 
square,  and  its  two  vertical  sides 
will  be  a  portion  of  the  vertical  sur- 
faces of  the  working  cylinder. 

Suppose  again,  that  another  por- 
tion next  to  the  top  is  again  sepa- 
rated from  the  lower  part,  but  not 
removed,  so  that  the  upper  part 
may  be  every  where  of  a  certain 
thickness  between  the  surfaces  of 
separation,  the  portion  of  the  work- 
ing cylinder  before  formed  still 
remaining  in  the  same  situation, 
the  upper  part  thus  separated  would 
form  the  hand-rail  in  the  square, 
and  this  the  solid  which  we  would 
wish  to  form,  first  in  parts,  and 
then  put  together  in  solid,  con- 
stituting what  is  called  the  square 
rail,  which  is  therefore  contained 
between  two  opposite  surfaces, 
which  are  portions  of  the  surfaces 
of  the  working  cylinder,  and  two 
other  winding  surfaces,  contained 
between  each  pair  of  curves  of  the 
helix.  The  area  which  the  base 
of  the  working  cylinder  would 
occupy  on  the  floor  is  called  the 
plan  of  a  hand  rail,  and  is  bound- 
ed by  two  equidistant  lines,  on 
which  each  of  the  working  cylin- 
dric  surfaces  stand  erect,  and  the 
breadth  of  the  space  between  these 
two  lines  is  the  breadth  of  the  rail. 
If  there  be  any  sudden  rise  in  the 
balusters,  the  top  of  the  rail  ought 
to  be  kept  to  the  same  height 
throughout,  but  should  the  height 
of  the  steps  lead  the  top  of  the 
rail  to  irregularity  in  the  curvature 
of  the  rail,  the  whole  must  be 
reduced  to  a  uniform  curve.  To 
fix  the  rail  as  nearly  as  possible 

94 


parallel  to  the  line  of  the  nos  rS 
the  top  over  the  upper  part  iy 
be  depressed,  and  over  the  m 
part  elevated,  half  a  step.  VvC 
the  well-hole  is  very  small,  )(j 
winders  necessary,  the  top  ohe 
rail  must  be  kept  higher  ovehe 
winders  than  over  the  strait 
part. 

Hangings,  were  originally, 
vented  to  hide  the  coarsenesof 
carpentry,  or  the  cold  and  kS 
appearance  of  stonewalls;  and  u 
of  tapestry,  particularly  the  gjj 
embroidered,  is  attributed  to  It- 
talus,  king  of  Pergamus,  who  d 
621,  A.  U.  C.  making  the  Ro'n 
people  his  heir;  at  which  pe  d 
tapestry  was  first  introduced  I 
that  country.  The  Anglo-Sans 
had  silken  wall  -  hangings,  h 
needle- work  figures  in  gold,  rep 
senting  birds  and  other  aniin, 
and  passages  of  history,  rea>r 
fabulous.  A  Saxon  lady  has  s 
corded  the  actions  of  her  husb.i, 
to  memorize  his  probity.  The  ■ 
of  hangings,  called  tapestry,  is 
invented  in  Flanders,  about  e 
year  1410,  and  none  or  very  He 
was  manufactured  in  England  11 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  whera 
highly  ornamented  kind,  with  fig 's 
of  men  in  fantastic  postures,  e 
morris  -  dancers,  was  much  ul 
Paper  hangings  were  invented  e;y 
in  the  17th  century;  and  leajir 
was  used  for  the  same  purp,\ 
about  the  same  time. 

Hanging-stile  of  a  door  is 
that  to  which  the  hinges  are  tix< 

Handspike,  a  lever  for  e 
purpose  of  carrying  a  heavy  beii, 
or  other  burden  requiring  M 
strength  of  two  or  more  m 
When  pieces  of  timber  are  m 
for  this  purpose,  they  are  cad 
pudlais. 

Hard,  signifies  a  ford,  or  |i 
sage,  particularly  used  in  fe  y 
districts. 


H  E  A 


H  EB 


]  rdening  of  timber  for  ship- 
buiin?,  by  keeping  for  a  long 
tim  at  the  bottom  of  deep  waters, 
ancient  practice,  and  said  to 
ans;r  the  intended  purpose. 

I.kness  -  room,  a  room  in 
whi<  the  harness  is  to  be  depo- 
.  te  near  the  stables ;  it  must 
y  and  clean,  and  free  from 
modiness. 

I  ssack,  the  provincial  name 

r  entish  rag-stone. 

I  Ten,  a  slight  erection  of 
boa  s  and  slips  of  wood,  for  corn 
and  other  agricultural  ^produce ; 
ds(  hollow  trap  to  catch  weasels 
anc!  ther  animals;  or,  a  hatch  is 
apr  priated  to  the  feeding  of 
ani  ils.  In  ships,  hatches  are  a 
kin  of  trap-doors  between  the 
ma.nast  and  foremast,  leading 
froi  one  deck  to  another,  and  the 
pla<  they  occupy  is  called  the 
hat  way.  Flood-gates  in  rivers 
and:anals  are  sometimes  called 
hat'es. 

Itch  way,  the  name  given  to 
the  assage  from  one  deck  of  a 
shir;  to  another,  through  the 
hates;  applied  also  to  the  pas- 
sagijthrough  a  falling  door  to  the 
top*'  a  house. 

1  un cues  of  an  Arch,  see 
Arc 

I  wke,  the  board  with  a  han- 
dle h  its  underside;  used  by  the 
plasrer  to  hold  his  plaster. 

r  aders,  in  masonry,  are 
extending  over  the  thickness 
of  a -all;  and  in  bricklaying,  the 
are  called  headers,  which  are 
I  lid  ngthway  across  the  thickness 
of  I  wall. 

I  a  ding  courses,  in  bricklay- 
ing, hose  courses  in  which  the 
lent;  of  the  brick  is  across  the 
thic:  ess  of  the  wall,  are  called 
hea  ig-courses. 

1  ad-stone,  see  Key -stone. 

1  ad-way  of  a  Stair  is  the 
dea  distance    measured    from  a 


given  landing-place  or  stair  to  the 
ceiling;  allowing  for  the  thickness 
of  the  steps. 

Headwouk,  a  name  given  to 
ornaments  on  the  key-stones  of 
arches,  frequently  representing 
heads  of  animals,  especially  a 
stag's  head  above  park-gates;  in 
market-places,  a  bullock's  or  a 
sheep's ;  and  over  stables,  the  head 
of  a  horse. 

Heart-eond,  in  masonry,  is 
where  two  stones,  forming  the 
breadth  of  the  wall,  have  one 
stone  of  the  same  breadth  placed 
over  them. 

Hearth,  among  the  Anglo- 
Saxons,  was  a  heap  of  ashes  or 
earth  heated  by  fire,  used  for  bak- 
ing cakes,  and  other  purposes :  the 
Norman  hearth  was  in  the  middle 
of  the  house  ;  but  when  chimneys 
were  introduced,  in  the  14th  or 
15th  centuries,  it  was  under  the 
fire-place,  for  which  the  chimney 
was  constructed. 

Heather-roof,  a  covering  to 
wooden  buildings  used  in  Scotland, 
especially  in  Argyleshire ;  recom- 
mended, as  superior  to  straw- 
thatch. 

Hebrew  Architecture. — 
Whilst  the  Israelites  sojourned  in 
the  desert,  their  temple,  or,  as  it 
was  denominated,  tabernacle,  was 
constructed  of  wood,  and  other 
materials,  sufficiently  light  and 
portable  to  allow  of  its  removal 
from  place  to  place.  And  this 
was  their  only  temple  for  a  long 
time  after  their  final  settlement  in 
Palestine.  It  was  in  the  time  of 
Solomon  that  the  first  grand  tem- 
ple was  erected,  and  this  work 
seems  to  have  been  executed  under 
the  superintendence  of  Tyrian  ar- 
chitects. The  details  of  this  tem- 
ple given  in  the  bible  are  the  only 
account  left,  by  which  we  can  form 
any  idea  of  the  architecture  of  the 
Hebrews.    It  was  divided,  like  the 

95 


H  EC 


H  EL 


tabernacle,  into  two  parts  by  a 
partition  of  cedar-wood.  Before 
the  anterior  facade  was  the  ulam, 
probably  a  great  gate,  such  as  we 
see  before  many  of  the  Egyptian 
temples,  whose  general  construc- 
tion has  been  supposed  to  bear 
considerable  resemblance  to  that 
of  Jerusalem.  The  latter  temple 
appears  to  have  had  lead  windows, 
resembling  those  observed  in  the 
ruins  of  the  grand  temple  at 
Thebes.  The  roof  appears  to  have 
been  flat.  The  whole  of  the  tem- 
ple was  enclosed  by  a  wall,  the 
space  between  which  was  occupied 
by  a  portico  divided  into  three 
stages.  Before  the  principal  edifice 
were  two  courts,  the  first  and  larg- 
est for  assemblies  of  the  people,  the 
second  for  the  priests,  whose  dwell- 
ing surrounded  it.  Before  the 
ulam  were  two  columns,  whose 
capitals,  from  ihe  expression  of  the 
bible,  that  they  resembled  a  rose 
spread  out,  appear  to  have  resem- 
bled those  of  the  Egyptians,  which 
were  generally  a  lotus  flower.  The 
walls  of  the  temple  were  covered 
with  tigures  of  cherubim,  palms, 
flowers,  &c.  David  and  Solonun 
were  the  authors  of  numerous  other 
edifices,  all  executed  by  Phoenician 
workmen.  See  JEgesta,  and 
Order. 

H kc atom py los,  (Gr.)  a  name 
anciently  given  to  the  Egyptian 
city  of  Thebes,  from  its  having  a 
hundred  gates. 

Hecatompf.don,  (Gr.)  a  temple 
of  a  hundred  feet  in  length,  parti- 
cularly applied  to  the  temple  of 
Minerva  Parthenon.  Mr.  Stuart 
appears  to  have  taken  very  great 
pains  to  discover  the  true  length 
of  the  Greek  foot,  from  different 
measures  of  the  Parthenon,  which, 
from  its  name  Hecatompedon,  was 
supposed  to  contain  a  measure  of  100 
feet  in  some  very  conspicuous  part. 
According  to  the  results  of  his  in- 

96 


quiries,  published  by  Mr.  Rev.y 
the  difference  of  the  foot,  taken  m 
the  various  parts  of  the  temp  js 
as  follows : — 

Eng.U 

1.  Length  of  the  upper  step  in 
the  front  of  the  temple  gives 
for  one  foot   i 

2.  From  outside  to  ootside  of  the 
angular  columns.   \ 

3.  From  centre  to  centre  of  the 
front  columns   12  ^2 

4.  From  the  Roman  foot  by  my 
measure  (Mr.  Stuart's)  of  the 
Obelisk  of  Sesostris  ..12.1)1 

5.  Length  of  the  architrave  ....  12  25 

This  last  'Mr.  Reveley  has  add, 
as  Mons.  le  Roy  has  supposed  u 
the  length  of  the  architrave  dbt 
probably  be  100  feet. 

Hecatonstylon,  the  namof 
a  celebrated  gallery  at  R<e, 
which  was  supported  by  a  hun»d 
columns. 

Heel  of  a  Rafter,  the  I 
or  foot  that  rests  upon  the  v|l- 
plate. 

Height  of  an  Arch,  a  le 
drawn  from  the  middle  of  lie 
chord,  or  spanning-line,  to  the i- 
trados. 

Helical  Line  of  a  Hand-il, 
the  line,  or  spiral  line,  twisjg 
round  the  cylinder,  represent 
the  form  of  the  hand-rail  befo;  it 
is  moulded. 

Hei.iocaminus,  (Gr.  if 
7]\ioq,  the  sun,  and  Kctfiivog,  a/- 
nace)  a  chamber  in  the  Ro:.n 
houses,  so  exposed  to  the  ray  of 
the  sun  as  to  be  heated  by  it.  • 

Heliopolis,  in  Syria.  See  Jj 
bee. 

Heliopolis,  a  city  of  Eg  t, 
and  one  of  the  most  ancient  in  ie 
world.  It  was  chiefly  celebnd 
for  its  temple  dedicated  to  the  m 
part  of  which  was  consecratei  0 
the  breeding  of  the  sacred  ox,  ip 
shipped  here  under  the  namdf 
Mneuis.  Jt  was  also  celebnd 
for  its  four  obelisks,  erected  by  - 
chis,  two  of  which  were  carrie  o 


H  EL 


HEN 


Ror?,  one  destroyed  by  the  Arabs, 
anc:he  other  still  remains.  Po- 
coc  observed  the  remains  of  the 
sohixes  in  the  way  to  the  grand 
tem  e,  but  both  are  now  buried 

ie  soil.  The  obelisk  is  de- 
icriid  by  Dr.  Clarke  as  one  entire 
masj)f  reddish  granite,  about  sixty- 
!  feet  high,  and  six  and  a  half 
See  Dr.  Clarke  s  Travels, 
I  irt  i.  sec.  2,  p.  98  ;  also  the 

i  Is  of  Norden,  Shaw,  and 
Pocke. 

pLioTRoriuM,  (Gr.)  the  name 
e  by  the  Greeks  to  their  dials 
o;  sar  quadrants,  which  were  also 
1  gnomons.  Josephus  asserts 
mat  loses  erected  columns,  which 
,  rv  to  mark  the  line  by  the 
shacv  projected  at  their  feet. 
[  e Egyptian  obelisks  appear  to 
havfjserved  the  same  purpose, 
u  isvas  therefore  the  first  step 

.  towBjS  the  invention  of  the  dial. 
Herotus  attributes  its  invention 

J  to  th  Babylonians  and  Chaldeans. 
The  irliest  mention  of  a  heliotro- 

i  piuiriamongst  the  Greeks  is  that 
in  th  isle  of  Syros,  which  was  said 
to  he  been  constructed  by  Phe- 
recyi Five  specimens  of  ancient 
solar  ials  are  still  preserved  :  (1.) 
lhat'-ected  on  the  monument  of 
rhra  IJus  at  Athens.  See  Athe- 
f  nian  fchitecture,  (2.)  One  formed 

ju  17  at  Castelnuovo,  near  Rome, 
and  \w  preserved  in  the  Capitol. 
—(3  One  at  Tivoli,  which  was 
(ounqimong  the  ruins  of  the  villa 

(!,of  Ac{an, — (4.)  one  found  at  Tus- 
culur  in    1741,  and  placed  in 

rlhe  l\iseum  Contucianum,  and 
••  hid  has  been  illustrated  by  the 
''"k'  )f  Jean  Luc  Zuzzeri  and 
Koge  Boscovjich, — and  (5)  one 
'LTI  of  a  worker  in  marble,  and 
yscr  d  by  Pierre  Lucatelli. 
Jneir  orm  varies  much,  some 
bavin  a  vertical  position,  others 
>mg  orizontal ;  some  of  a  cylin- 
ar|c  rm,  others  conic,  others 
N 


concave,  and  some  hemispheric. 
The  ancients  had  also  portable  solar 
dials  in  metal,  which  were  termed 
phorematica,  and  of  which  a  de- 
scription is  given  by  Baldini  in  the 
Memoires  de  VAlacademie  de  Car- 
tone.  On  a  silver  vase  found  in 
the  port  of  Antium,  which  was  given 
by  the  chevalier  Borgia  to  cardinal 
Corsini,  and  on  which  is  represented 
the  expiation  of  Orestes,  we  observe 
a  dial  placed  on  a  quadrangular 
pedestal,  as  that  dedicated  to  Diana 
by  Colirius  was  placed  on  a  column. 
A  solar  quadrant  is  also  seen,  sup- 
ported by  a  square  base  on  a  bas- 
relief,  published  by  Bartoli  in  his 
Admiranda  Romce,  by  Lamberti, 
in  his  Villa  Pinciana,  and  by  Vis- 
conti,  in  the  Museo  Pio-  Clementino. 
See  also  Martini,  in  his  book  Von 
den  Uhren  der  Alien. 

Helix,  or  Helyx,  (Helice,¥r. 
from  r/Xt£,  Gr.  which  signifies  a 
kind  of  ivy,  whose  stalk  curls,)  a 
small  volute  or  twist,  representing 
the  twisted  tops  of  the  acanthus 
stalk,  placed  under  the  floor  in  the 
abacus  of  the  Corinthian  capital. 

Hem,  the  spiral  projecting  part 
of  the  Ionic  capital. 

Hemi,  a  Greek  word,  which 
signifies  half,  often  used  in  the 
composition  of  architectural  teims. 

Hemicycle,  (Gr.)  a  machine  of 
the  ancient  theatres,  mentioned  by 
Pollux,  which  was  placed  near  the 
orchestra,  and  served  to  represent 
what  was  happening  at  a  distance, 
or  on  the  sea. 

Hemicyclium,  (Gr.)  a  chair 
whose  back  formed  a  half  circle, 
and  in  which  the  ancients  sat  when 
they  were  giving  instructions.  Ac- 
cording to  Cicero,  Scaevola  used 
one,  and  the  Menander  of  the  Mu- 
see  Napoleon,  No.  76,  as  figured 
in  the  third  volume  of  the  Museo 
Pio- Clementino,  is  seated  in  a  he- 
micyclium. 

Hendecagon,    a  geometrical 

97 


HER 


HER 


figure  with  eleven  sides,  and  as 
many  angles.  In  fortification,  it 
is  a  place  defended  by  eleven  bas- 
tions. 

Heptagon,  a  geometrical  figure 
of  seven  sides  and  angles. 

Heptangular,  having  seven 

angles. 

Hetaphonus,  (Gr.)  the  name 
of  a  celebrated  portico  in  the  city 
of  Olympia,  which  repeated  seven 
echoes  or  returns  of  sound. 

Heptapylos,  (Gr.)  a  name 
given  to  Thebes  in  Bceotia,  which 
had  seven  gates,  in  opposition  to 
that  of  Egypt,  which  was  termed 
Hecatompylos. 

Hercu lan eum, called  also  Her- 
culanum  and  Herculeum,  an  ancient 
town  of  Italy,  on  the  bay  of  Naples, 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  modern  town 
of  Portici.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  founded  as  early  as  1250, 
A.U.C.  and,  according  to  Dionysius 
of  Halicarnassus,  it  belonged  suc- 
cessively to  the  Oscians,  to  the 
Cumaeans,  and  to  other  very  an- 
cient people.  The  Romans  appear 
to  have  gained  permanent  posses- 
sion of  the  surrounding  territory 
about  293  years  before  Christ;  and 
it  appears,  from  an  inscription  in 
honour  of  Lucius  Manutius  Con- 
cessanus,  which  was  discovered  in 
the.  neighbourhood,  that  it  was 
made  a  Roman  colony.  Accord- 
ing to  the  received  opinion,  this 
city,  with  Pompeii,  disappeared 
totally  in  the  famous  eruption  in 
the  reign  of  Titus,  A.  D.  79.  In 
a  memoir  read  in  the  Institut  Na- 
tional, and  printed  in  the  Magasin 
Eucyclopedique,  M.  Dutheil  has 
shewn  that  the  existence  of  these 
cities  may  be  traced  up  to  the 
beginning  of  the  fourth  century, 
where  they  are  mentioned  as  inha- 
bited cities  in  the  Tabula  Peutin- 
genana ;  but  in  the  Itinerary  of 
Antoninus,  neither  of  them  is  men- 
tioned ;  and  concludes   that  the 


eruption  which  destroyed  therms 
most  probably  that  of  471,  m 
the  cinders  of  Vesuvius  were  * 
ried  even  to  Constantinople.  E 
centuries  had  elapsed,  and  a 
morials  of  the  unfortunate  tfcl 
had  been  lost,  a  peasant,  n 
ging  a  well  beside  his  cotta:  in 
171 1,  obtained  some  fraemr  ,t 
coloured  marble,  which  att:  ted 
attention.  Regular  excav  ollS 
were  then  made,  and  some  ces 
of  statuary  were  extracted  om 
what  afterwards  proved  to 
temple  in  the  centre  of  th  an- 
cient Herculaneum.  The  k  of 
the  two  Sicilies,  twenty  or  irty 
years  afterwards,  directed  th  ub- 
terraneous  ruins  of  the  anciei city 
to  be  explored,  and  the  entree  is 
now  gained  by  a  narrow  paige, 
descending  gradually  to  mor 
seventy  feet  from  the  surface,  lere 
it  branches  into  numerous  eys, 
leading  to  different  street  and 
houses.  All  the  streets  are  ived 
with  blocks  of  lava,  and  i|i  in 
straight  lines,  having  geneniran 
elevated  foot-path  along  thnitle. 
The  houses  were  of  brick,  nolrna- 
mented  on  the  exterior,  and  but 
one  story.  Among  the  Jiblic 
buildings  which  have  beer  dis- 
covered are  two  temples,  of  jhich 
one,  which  was  150  feet  160, 
contained  a  statue  of  Jijter; 
opposite  it  was  an  extensive|jiW" 
ing,  forming  a  rectangle  c! 228 
feet  by  132,  (supposed  t<|iiave 
been  appropriated  for  the  |>urt« 
of  justice,)  surrounded  by  ;por- 
tico,  whose  arches  were  suited 
by  columns;  within,  it  wa&javed 
with  marble,  the  walls  were  ]' nted 
in  fresco,  and  bronze  statues;tood 
between  forty-two  colurnnsinder, 
the  roof.  The  theatre  waspund 
nearly  entire,  and  had  tw<jpnn- 
cipal  gates,  with  inscription  over 
their  architraves,  and  sevl  en- 
trances, called  vomitoria,  cNf 


HER 


HER 


nicing  with  the  benches.    In  the 
pre  enium  were  found  many  co- 
funs  and   pilasters,  with  richly 
ornnented  entablatures,  and  some 
su porting  statues  in  bronze  and 
mai  e ;  the  walls  covered  with  paint- 
ing in  arabesque,  and  the  floor 
,   with  marble.     Its  greatest 
ter,   taken    at  the  highest 
es,  is  234  feet,  and  it  is  sup- 
'  post  that  it  would  contain  ten 
thoijind  persons.    Many  interest- 
Dg  niquities  were  found  in  the 
t]  or  e  and  its  neighbourhood  ;  and 
:  o  place  was  found  a  skeleton, 
withU  bag  of  money  in  its  hand, 
as  i  in  the  attitude  of  escaping. 
I  he  excavation    was  prosecuted 
alon  the  walls  of  the  buildings, 
whu  were  entered  by  the  doors 
or  vidows,  as  they  occurred.  A 
v  Jlvas  found,    still  containing 
iij  goocfyater,  surrounded  by  a  para- 
pet, id  covered  by  an  arch:  also, 
t!  a  ba  of  a  circular  formf  and  very 
t  repositories  of  the  dead, 
ns  of  various  coloured  mar- 
eautiful  mosaic  pavements, 
atues  perfect  and  mutilated, 
Diind  in  abundance.  When 
Equities  discovered  at  Her- 
im,  Pompeii,    and  Stabiee 
l  numerous,  the  king  of  Na- 
unded  an  academy,  whose 
s  it  was  to  publish  a  de- 
n  and  explanation  of  them. 
:ademy,  however,  did  not 
lg.     A  prodromus  of  the 
ies  of  Herculaneum  was 
r  published  by  Bayardi,  in 
4to.    The  king,  however, 
the  publication  of  a  more 
e  work,  which  was  accom- 
in  nine  volumes,  folio,  in 
irse  of  thirty-  eight  years, 
754  to  1792,  under  the 
(  Antichitd  d'Ercolano,  and 
d  to  the  principal  public 
of  Europe.  Amongst  these 
1  es  are  found  almost  every 
t  connected  with  the  public 


and  private  life  of  the  ancient  Ro- 
mans, with  immense  numbers  of 
statues,  paintings,  basso  relievos, 
&c.  A  few  of  the  manuscripts 
found  at  Herculaneum  have  been 
deciphered  in  part,  with  great 
labour  and  expense,  and  published 
under  the  title  of  Herculanensia 
Volumina.  Other  works  which 
may  be  consulted,  relating  to  Her- 
culaneum and  its  antiquities,  are — 
Vinuti,  Descrizione  delle  primo 
Scoperte  dell'  Antica  Citta  d'Erco- 
lano— Murr,  de  Papyris  Hercu- 
lanensibus — Walpole  and  Drum- 
mond,  Herculanensia — Hamilton, 
Campi  Phlegraei — Hay  ter' s  Letter, 
and  Report  on  the  Herculanean 
Manuscripts,  in  the  Philosophical 
Transactions  for  17.51,1753,  1754, 
1755,  1756. —  Winckelmann,  Fou- 
geroux,  and  Cramer,  on  Hercu- 
laneum, &c. 

Herbosum,  Marmor,  a  beau- 
tiful species  of  marble,  of  an  exqui- 
sitely fine  green  colour,  dug  out  of 
the  quarries  of  Taygetus;  it  was 
highly  esteemed  by  the  ancient 
architects. 

Herefordshire  Beacon,  the 
most  perfect  specimen  of  the  triple- 
ramparted  British  camp.  See  Cel~ 
tic  Architecture. 

Herisson,  in  fortification,  a 
beam  revolving  on  a  pivot,  and 
armed  with  abundance  of  project- 
ing spikes,  sharp-pointed,  fixed 
before  a  gate  or  passage,  to  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  suspected  or 
improper  persons. 

Hermitage,  a  little  hut  or 
habitation  in  a  desert  place,  in 
which  a  hermit  resides. 

Hermogenes,  a  Greek  archi- 
tect, who  invented  the  octostyle 
pseudo  -  dipteral  form  of  temples: 
having  omitted  the  innermost  range 
of  columns  in  the  peristyles  of 
dipteral  temples,  he  diminished  the 
number  by  thirty-eight,  and  thus 
reduced  the  labour  and  expense 


H  I  D 


HIN 


of  building,  at  the  same  time  ren- 
dering the  ambulatory  around  the 
cella  more  spacious,  whilst  the  out- 
ward appearance  of  the  temple 
remained  unaltered  :  Vitruvius,  lib. 
i.  c.  2. 

Hermskirk.    See  Cross. 

Herceum,  (Gr.)  any  temple  de- 
dicated to  Juno,  particularly  one 
near  Mycenae. 

Herring-bone,  see  Ashler. 

Herse,  in  fortification  a  port- 
cullis in  form  of  a  harrow,  fastened 
to  a  moulinet,  and  suspended  by  a 
cord,  and  rendered  formidable  to 
assailants,  by  projecting  iron  spikes. 
It  is  let  down  to  guard  the  passage 
of  the  gateway  on  the  enemy's  ap- 
proach. 

Hexagon,  a  figure  with  six 
sides. 

Hexahedron,  in  geometry,  a 
solid  figure  with  six  sides,  called 
also  a  cube. 

Hexastyle,  (Gr.  e£,  sixy  and 
ctvXoq,  a  column)  temples,  &c. 
whose  principal  fac/ade  have  six 
columns. 

Hick-joint  pointing,  is  dis- 
tinguished from  flat-joint  or  com- 
mon pointing ;  the  latter  being  no 
more  than  simply  smoothing  the 
mortar  between  the  joints  of  a  brick 
wall,  as  the  courses  are  formed  ;  in 
hick -joint  pointing,  a  portion  of 
a  superior  mortar  is  inserted,  and 
made  correctly  smooth  with  the 
surface. 

Hiding  -  places,  in  ancient 
buildings,  places  of  this  denomina- 
tion are  common,  and  a  very  cu- 
rious hollow  space  in  the  wall,  for 
the  purpose  of  a  hiding-place,  is  to 
be  seen  in  a  turret  of  Oxburgh 
Hall,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk, 
which  measures  six  feet  long  by  five 
wide,  and  seven  in  height.  The 
entrance  is  by  a  secret  trap-door  in 
the  pavement,  formed  of  a  frame 
covered  with  bricks  adjusted  to  the 
form  of  the  pavement ;  this  door 
100 


rests  on  an  iron  axle  in  its  ■  itre 
under  which  an  arch  passes  j  the 
secret  recess.  The  door  is  sCom- 
pletely  concealed,  that  it  ^Id 
never  be  discovered  but  by  en- 
dent. 

Hieron,  see  Adytum. 

Hindu  Architecture.  The 
period  of  authentic  history  in  id>a 
is  comparatively  of  recent  q\— 
Oude  is  said,  in  the  historical^ 
called  Mahabbarit,  to  have  be  one 
of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  1  dft- 
stan,  having  been  built  in  the  ,bn- 
lous  ages  of  the  reign  of  Ki  ma, 
which  is  placed  about  2,50C ears 
before  the  birth  of  Christ,  ar  was 
believed  to  have  been  the  re- 
place of  Rama.  The  extent  this 
ancient  city  is  estimated  the 
Ayeen  Akbery,  (vol.  ii.  p.  4)  at 
148  coss,  or  about  259  mi;  tn 
length,  and  36  coss,  or  53  mi,  in 
breadth.  About  1000  years  fore 
Christ,  the  city  of  Canougwas 
built  on  the  banks  of  the  G?i;es; 
and  its  walls,  according  to  thlMa- 
habbarit,  were  87  miles  in  ci;um- 
ference.  Major  Rennel  thinl that 
Canouge  and  Palibothra  wei  the 
same.  From  the  Ferishta  a  the 
Ayeen  Akbery,  the  city  of  ellii 
appears  to  have  been  founded  >out 
300  years  before  Christ,  ar!  the 
latter  states,  that  twenty  prir  sof 
the  name  of  Bal  followed  insu- 
lar succession  for  437  years;  La- 
hore, on  the  banks  of  the  IUee, 
or  ancient  Hydraotes,  appe;  to 
have  been  the  Bucephalus  of  lex- 
ander.  Ayra,  on  the  Jum  ,  i 
lat.  27°  15',  was  Ptolemy's  iara, 
and  was  enclosed  with  an  e;  hen 
wall  by  the  Patan  monarch:  but 
by  the  emperor  Akbar  it  was  ised 
to  splendour,  and  surrounds  vith 
a  wall  of  hewn  stone. 

The  architectural  remains  In- 
dia, in  style  and  constri'on, 
have  a  great  resemblance  to  'ose 
of  Egypt.    The  pyramids,  t  & 


HIN 

lossa  statues,   the   obelisks,  the 
sphyr,  the   numerous   pits,  and 
subtranean  temples,  with  colossal 
!  figur ,  and  the  lion-headed  sphyn- 
xes,  discovered    by    Belzoni  in 
Erv|  indicate  the  style  and  sys- 
.  \  f  mythology  to  be  akin  to 
S(if  the  people  that  formed  the 
vast  rxcavations  of  Ellora,  Ele- 
%han|,  and  Canarah,  and  the  va- 
rious^ mense  pagodas,  pillars,  and 
tMicoiosU  images  of  the  Indian  idols, 
proii,  he  Ayeen  Akbery,  and  Cap- 
tain ilson's  article  on  Caucasus, 
.  >1  su  e  Researches,  vol.  vi.)  we 
learn  hat  in  the  Joubah  of  Cash- 
mere: etween  Balkh  and  Cabul,  in 
the  imerous  excavations,  there 
i  ire  d)  places,  where  the  figure  of 
li  sebnt  is  carved,  and  that  near 
>>(  xcavations  there  are  carved 
n  tl  rock,  on  the  side  of  the 
.  nounin,  figures  of  15,  20,  and 
ven  ,3  ells  high.    Sir  W.  Jones 
dentl?s  the  Eswara  and  Isi  of  the 
Hind  with  the  Egyptian  Osiris 
-  idcI  s,  and  thinks  that  the  great 
jjstatuof  Narayen,  or  the  Spirit  of 
aod,  ho  at  the  beginning  floated 
pn  tl  waters,  as  it  now  stands 
h  great  reservoir  of  Catrnan- 
ier,  ,2  capital  of  Nepaul,  differs 
>nly    name  from  the  Cneph  of 
E?yp/ Asiatic  Researches,  vol.  i.) 
Anoth:  proof  of  a  similarity  of 
style  tween  the  ancient  Egyptians 
, and  1  idus,  is  their  mutually  using 
oily,  res  or  obelisks,  like  the  pil- 
ot ilahabad  ;  there  is  a  strik- 
%  rcmblance,  too,  between  the 
-,ryp  n  pyramids  and  the  eolos- 
btx  building  near  the  Gunduc 
"er,  the  Hadjipore  district.  It 
•    »ited   by  Mr.  Burrows  in 
1785,<-ho  considers  it  to  be  evi- 
!  ntlyotended  for  the  well-known 
o<  of  the  god  Mahadeo,  hav- 
-  or  nally  been  a  cylinder  placed 
upon  | »  frustum  of  a  cone,  for  the 
purpo,  of  being  seen  at  a  distance. 
»8  t  present  much  decayed. 


H  I  N 

Its  dimensions  are — diameter  of 
column  at  base,  363  feet;  height  of 
conic  frustum,  on  which  the  cylin- 
der is  placed,  93  feet;  diameter  of 
the  cylinder,  64  feet;  height  of  the 
remains  of  the  cylinder  or  round 
tower,  65  feet ;  entire  height,  158 
feet.  It  is  constructed  entirely  of 
well-burnt  bricks.  The  pillar  of 
Allahabad,  as  described  by  Captain 
Hoare  is  a  lofty  conical  structure, 
covered  with  inscriptions,  (Asiatic 
Researches.)  But  the  resemblance 
between  the  architecture  and  my- 
thology of  India  and  Egypt,  is  ap- 
plicable to  most  of  the  early  tribes 
of  mankind.  Similar  remains  are 
found  more  or  less  in  almost  every 
part  of  the  globe.  The  cylindric 
tower  of  India  resembles  the  ancient 
round  tower  in  Ireland.  The  an- 
cient religion  and  the  architectural 
remains  of  Ireland,  as  well  as  those 
of  Britain,  and  various  parts  of  the 
west  of  Europe,  bear  a  remarkable 
analogy  to  those  of  the  East.  The 
pyramids  of  Egypt  have  narrow 
passages  leading  to  dark  chambers 
or  temples  under  ground  ;  at  Be- 
nares, an  ancient  seat  of  Bramini- 
cal  learning,  there  are  pyramids  on 
a  smaller  scale,  with  subterraneous 
passages  that  are  said  to  extend  for 
miles.  The  caves  of  the  oracle  at 
Delphos,  of  Trophonius,  and  of 
New  Grange  in  Ireland,  had  nar- 
row passages  like  those  of  Egypt 
and  India.  New  Grange  is  a  large 
mound  or  pyramid,  surrounded  by 
a  circle  of  stones,  near  the  county 
town  of  Drogheda,  about  twenty- 
four  miles  north  of  Dublin.  (See 
Grange.)  On  its  first  opening,  a 
gold  coin  of  the  emperor  Valenti- 
nian  was  found  in  it,  which,  Dr. 
Llhwyd  observes,  might  bespeak  it 
Roman,  if  its  barbarous  origin  were 
not  proved  by  a  rude  carving  at  the 
entry  of  the  cave.  See  the  articles 
Pyramid,  Mexican  Architecture, 
Cholula,  Cave,  and  Round  Tower 

101 


H  I  N 


H  IN 


We  will  now  give  a  brief  sketch 
of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the 
architectural  works  of  the  Hindus. 
The  royal  palace  of  Agra  was  built 
in  the  form  of  a  crescent  along  the 
banks  of  the  Jumna.  It  was  four 
miles  in  extent,  and  its  walls  were 
of  very  large  stones,  in  colour  re- 
sembling jasper.  It  consisted  of 
three  courts,  each  containing  innu- 
merable porticos,  galleries,  and 
turrets,  all  richly  painted  and  gilt, 
and  many  of  them  overlaid  with 
plates  of  gold.  The  first  court  was 
surrounded  with  shady  arches;  the 
second  was  surrounded  by  the 
apartments  of  the  great  omrahs  and 
ministers  of  state;  and  the  third 
contained  the  seraglio  and  the  state 
apartments  of  the  emperor,  hung 
round  with  the  richest  silks  of  Per- 
sia, and  behind  these  were  the 
royal  gardens.  In  a  square  which 
separated  the  palace  from  the  city, 
a  numerous  army  lay  constantly 
encamped  ;  and  a  larger  area  in 
front  of  the  palace,  towards  the 
river,  was  occupied  by  the  royal 
elephants.  The  columns  of  silver, 
and  even  of  gold,  and  the  other 
costly  ornaments  of  the  interior,  are 
described  in  the  travels  of  Tavernier 
and  Mandesto.  The  foregoing  de- 
scription will  give  an  idea  of  the 
public  structures  of  more  modern 
times,  but  it  is  among  the  pagodas 
and  other  sacred  edifices  that  we 
must  look  for  the  pure  ancient 
buildings  of  the  Hindus. 

The  first  kind  of  sacred  edifices 
we  shall  notice  is  the  pyramid.  It 
has  been  supposed  that  pyramidal 
structures  on  the  plains,  served 
the  same  purpose  as  the  excavations 
of  the  mountains.  But  pyramids  are 
not  unfrequently  found  within  the 
mountain  caves.  The  pyramids  of 
Deogur  and  Tanjore  partake  much 
of  the  nature  of  the  cavern,  their 
entrances  being  very  small,  and  the 
interior  being  lighted  by  means  of 
102 


numerous  lamps:  in  the  cjfti] 
chamber  there  is  but  one  L 
The  exterior  is  very  rude. 

The  second  kind  of  sacred  lL<ft 
structures  are  the  temples  exc^ ted 
in  solid  rocks.  Abel  Fazal,  ke 
Ayeen  Akbery,(vo\.  ii.  p.  20t  in- 
forms us  that  in  the  middle  (the 
mountains  in  the  Soobuh  of  J|j». 
mere,  12,000  recesses  were  c  , 
of  the  rock.  Capt.  Wilson  ir  ms 
us,  that  in  the  extensive  branch  the 
Caucasus,  which  the  Greeks  tted 
Parapamesus,  on  the  road  be  een 
Balkh  and  Cabul,  between  dig 
and  Persia,  are  vast  numb  of 
apartments  and  recesses  car  l  in 
the  rocks,  many  of  which,  om 
their  dimensions,  must  haveeen 
temples.  There  are  in  this  vi iitv 
two  colossal  statues,  a  male  d  a 
female,  the  former  80,  am  the 
latter  50  ells  high,  erect,  ancoth 
adhering  to  the  rock  out  of  ich 
they  were  cut.  The  magnient 
excavations  of  Elephanta,  Lm, 
and  Salsette>  are  described  der 
their  respective  articles. 

A  third  kind  of  sacred  buijngs 
are  temples  which  consist  offen- 
sive courts. 

The  pagoda  of  Seringham,ear 
Tritchinopoly,  is  composed  of  m 
square  enclosures  one  withn 
other,  the  outermost  being  four  Ha 
in  circumference.  The  walls  i  25 
feet  high,  and  4  feet  thick,  wi  a 
gateway  in  the  middle  of  eacMcta 
The  stones  of  which  they  are  uik 
are  in  some  instances  of  imi  nse 
size.  In  the  centre  is  the  srtu- 
ary  of  Vishnu,  a  chapel  102reBt 
square.  Many  parts  are  adjfed 
with  mystic  figures.  At  SariWi 
in  Guzerat,  Buswara  on  the  n"1 
river,  and  at  Chittambrun  o; the 
coast  of  Coromandel,  are  fii  ex- 
amples of  this  kind  of  pagoda,  See 
the  Travels  of  Tavernier,  Son  rat, 
and  Thevenot.  At  ChittaifW 
there  is  but  one  court,  wh  H 


S  H  I  N 

i  ]3>  feet  by  936,  and  the  entrance 
is  nder  a  pyramid  120  feet  high. 
(Pl.  Trans,  vol  Ixii.  p.  354. 
Oie's  Hist.  vol.  i.  ) 

)me  pagodas  are  built  in  the 
foi  of  a  cross.    The  great  pagoda 
of  enares,  on  the  Ganges,  has 
be<  long  the  chief  seat  of  brami- 
ni(  learning.    Its  form  is  that  of 
a  ess,  with  a  cupola  in  the  centre, 
v.  hh  terminates  in  the  shape  of  a 
sin   py/nid :   each  extremity  of  the 
rc  terminates  in  a  tower.  Under 
uiupola,  in  the  inside,  is  the 
alt,  surrounded  by  the  figures  of 
Hi  u  idols.    The  same  figure  is 
fol  ved  in  the  pagoda  at  Malta. 
'  e  great  temple  of  Juggernaut, 
n|)f  the  oldest  in  India,  is  in  the 
j  of  a  circle.    Juggernaut  is 
-ii.ro  be  only  another  name  for 
Ms  ideo,  who  is  represented  by  a 
bull  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
edi  e,  and  his  image  is  on  an  ele- 
it   altar  in  the  centre  of  the 
bui.ing. 

lie  Hindu  temples  are  generally 
1  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges, 

isi.u,  or  some  sacred  river,  for 

convenience  of  ablution;  but 
irhi  tin's  is  not  the  case,  they  are 
ice  ipanied  by  square  tanks  or 
R8(  oirs,  sometimes  three  or  four 
hi  cd  feet  broad.  See  Crawford's 
•  u  lies,  and  the  Oriental  Sports. 

I :  most  ancient  remains  of 
Hir^  architecture  are  doubtlessly 
tbemmense  excavations,  which 
ire  iparently  as  old  as  the  earliest 
E&),ian  temples.    Mr.  D'Ancar- 

l"<  n  YilsRecherches  sur  I'Qrigine, 
1  ty'it,  et  les  Progres  des  Arts 
'■'  t  Grtce,  thinks  them  anterior 
tot  period  of  2000  A.  C.  The 
coluns  found  in  these  caverns  are 
nick  formed,  but  are  in  many 
inst;'-es  more  tasteful  than  those 
of  l  /pt.  Their  capitals  generally 
reprint  round  cushions,  pressed 
dow;  )y  the  superincumbent  weight. 
'  jl^l  Call  much  admires  the  ele- 


H  I  N 

gance  of  some  of  the  pillars.  "  I 
think,"  he  observes,  "  the  carving 
on  some  of  the  pagodas  and  choul- 
tries, as  well  as  the  grandeur  of  the 
work,  exceed  any  thing  of  the  pre- 
sent day,  not  only  for  the  delicacy 
of  the  chisel,  but  the  expense  of 
construction,  considering,  in  many 
instances,  to  what  distances  the 
component  parts  were  carried,  and 
to  what  height  raised."  In  plate 
Athenian  Architecture,  A.  II.  we 
have  given  several  specimens  of 
these  columns.  Fig.  d  and  e  are 
from  Ellora,  and  Jig  f  and  g  from 
Elephanta.  o,  b,  and  c,  which  are 
figures  of  Hindu  arches  and  gate- 
ways, are  described  under  the 
article  Gothic  Arthitecture.  A 
column  in  an  ancient  building  near 
Muddumpore,  engraved  in  Daniell  s 
Views,  has  the  elements  of  a  beau- 
tiful style.  The  gradation  from 
the  octagular  base  to  the  multan- 
gular shaft,  setting  off  to  the  circular 
upper  shaft,  is  at  once  elegant  and 
strong,  and  its  capital  is  bold  and 
characteristic.  We  have  given  in 
the  plate  {Hindu A rchitecture —  Co- 
lumri)  a  figure  of  a  beautiful  column 
in  the  ancient  temple  of  Visvisha, 
at  Benares.  It  is  considered  by  Mr. 
Hodges,  from  whose  work  we  have 
copied  the  print,  as  being  of  the 
age  of  Alexander,  when  some  ideas 
of  Grecian  architecture  may  have 
been  carried  into  India.  Its  ele- 
ments are  in  every  respect  Indian ; 
its  ornaments  are  purely  Greek. 
Its  base,  shaft,  and  capital  are  all, 
in  shape,  situation,  and  distribution, 
completely  Hindu,  with  its  multan- 
gular and  mixed  circular  shaft,  its 
quadrifrontal  capital,  and  trencher- 
shaped  abacus.  In  its  pedestal  is 
found  the  Grecian  honeysuckle  in 
all  its  purity;  the  angles  of  its 
shaft  are  adorned  with  the  sacred 
water-leaves  of  the  Hindu  mytho- 
logy ;  above  these  are  the  Doric 
flutes ;  and  in  the  capital  are  found 


H  I  N 


H  1  N 


the  leaves  of  the  Greek  acan- 
thus. 

The  following  observations  on 
the  architecture  of  Burmah,  are 
extracted  from  an  article  by  G.  H. 
Hugh,  on  the  customs  of  the  Bur- 
mans,  in  a  recent  number  of  the 
"  Friend  of  India,"  published  at 
Serampore,  in  Bengal. 

"  In  the  construction  of  their 
dwelling-houses,  bamboo,  of  which 
there  are  several  species,  and  in 
great  abundance,  is  the  principal, 
and  in  many  instances  the  only  ma- 
terial used.  Holes,  two  or  three  feet 
deep  in  the  earth,  receive  the  posts, 
which  are  more  or  fewer  according  to 
the  sizes  of  the  houses.  Mats,  made 
of  split  bamboos,  form  the  outside 
covering,  inside  partitions,  and 
sometimes  the  floor.  But,  com- 
monly, the  latter  is  made  by  split- 
ting the  material  into  quarters, 
laying  them  down  in  a  series,  and 
tying  them  to  the  transverse  poles 
with  split  rattans.  Leaves  of  the 
nipah  tree,  called  here  dance,  com- 
pose the  roof ;  and  a  house,  not 
positively  uncomfortable,  and  suffi- 
ciently capacious  for  a  small 
family,  is  constructed  at  the  mode- 
rate expense  of  thirty  or  forty 
rupees.  Men  of  high  rank  and 
ample  means  build  their  houses  in 
the  same  form,  with  posts  of  teak ; 
the  sides,  partitions,  and  floor,  are 
boards  of  the  same  wood  ;  and  the 
roof  is  made  either  of  leaves  or  of 
flat  tiles.  These  tiles  are  burnt 
like  bricks,  each  about  eight  inches 
long,  five  broad,  and  nearly  one 
thick,  jutting  over  at  the  head 
about  an  inch,  by  which  they  re- 
tain their  positions  upon  the  rafters. 
They  are  laid  double,  the  lower 
edges  of  one  series  projecting  over, 
and  lying  upon,  the  heads  of  the 
next  lower  series ;  thus  forming  a 
defence  from  wind  and  rain,  and 
presenting  a  good  degree  of  security 
from  exterior  fires.    The  <monas- 

104 


teries  are  built  in  the  same  mar  i 
having  two  or  three  roofs  elev:j 
one  above  another,  and  in  n,v 
instances,  their  cornices,  anji 
and  eaves  ornamented  with  ca  J 
work  of  flowers,  figures  of  E 
phants,  of  priests,  and  of  oir 
forms  which  have  no  existence  M 
in  the  superstition  of  the  pec|>. 
The  posts  of  the  houses  and^no  i- 
teries,  being  inserted  from  twk 
four  or  five  feet  in  the  ground, -e 
subject  to  the  depredations  jf 
white  ants,  and  to  rapid  dep. 
The  old  palace  at  Amarapooi  is 
built  of  teak  ;  the  roofs  piled  u  n 
each  other  to  a  great  height,  m 
diminishing  in  size  as  they  ascl, 
present  the  appearance  of  a  1  y 
spire.  The  exterior  and  intor 
parts  are  covered  with  gold  n 
and  the  whole  exhibits  a  respi- 
dent  object  to  the  beholder,  is 
present  majesty,  who  ascended  e 
throne  of  his  grandfather  aht 
June,  1819,  has  since  built  a  w 
palace  at  Ava,  a  few  miles  be tv 
the  former  capital,  of  which  e 
took  possession  about  March,  IN. 
The  pagodas  are  solid  massenf 
masonry,  varying  in  height,  ca 
conical  form,  covered  with  plair 
composed  of  sand  and  lime,  d 
many  of  them  with  gold  leaf.  ■ 
large  pagoda,  situated  ahou-a 
mile  and  a  half  to  the  NW>f 
Rangoon,  and  called  Shiva-da\n 
Parah,  is  a  splendid  and  magw 
cent  monument  of  heathen  su 
stition  and  idolatry.  Accorc  g 
to  its  history,  the  foundation 
laid  soon  after  the  supposed 
hilation  of  Gautama.  If  this 
true,  it  must  have  existed  fc 
period  of  about  2,302  years.  S  :e 
its  erection,  its  size  has  beend 
creased  by  successive  additions. 

The  following  account  of 
temples  of  Arracan,  is  from 
diary  of  Dr.  Tytler.    "  The  B< 
Deeong  is  one  of  the  most  rem; 


HIN 


H  I  N 


abl  hills  included  within  the 
bo'daries  of  this  extraordinary 
cit  It  is  situated  in  a  direction 
ne  !y  due  west  from  the  entrance 
whe  lne  army  gained  admission, 
?l,hquently  to  the  escalade  which 
wa  so  gallantly  executed  by  the 
IH  )s  under  the  command  of 
Bradier  Richards;  and  is  sur- 
roided  by  four  pagodas,  dedi- 
( a  I  to  the  worship  of  Gaud  ma, 
,oonee,  Simoonee,  Maha-moo- 
ne  or  Buddha.  Leading  to  these 
d  :es  are  several  flights  of  steps, 
islnding  the  eastern  face  of  the 
hi:  which  are  ornamented  with 
co  ;sal  figures  of  deformed  giants, 
co  posed  of  brick -work,  and  plas- 
1  with  chunam,  of  an  uncouth 
slue,  brandishing  clubs  in  their 
1 1  Is;  and  what  is  extremely  re- 
m  liable,  figures  of  the  Egyptian 
jpf'nx  present  themselves  close  to 
fh' temples,  and  these  are  so  con- 
ted,  as  to  exhibit  an  acute 
triple;  two  lions'  bodies  being 
ccoined  to  a  single  female  head, 
pled  at  the  sharp  angle  of  the 
ng.  The  Baboo  Deeong  hill 
is  )out  100  feet  in  height,  and  is 
cc  posed  of  strata  of  schistus;  it 
is  completely  surrounded  with 
w;  t,  even  when  the  tide  is  ebb. 
Srounding  the  outer  wall  of  one 
of  ie  principal  and  most  ancient 
ofieArracan  temples,  is  observed 
ar'ngst  the  weeds  and  jungle, 
w  h  in  many  places  obscure 
th:e  interesting  relics,  a  series  of 
ve  surprising  mutiiated  sculp- 
tujs,  placed  in  interstices,  resem- 
1)1 :  embrasures,  constructed  in 
th  ruined  wall  enclosing  the  court 
of'ie  temple.  Upon  one  of  those 
st'es  is  sculptured  the  Tauric 
m[,  or  Bucephalus  Siva,  the 
Mira  of  the  Persians,  or,  in  other 
wi'js,  the  Sun  in  Taurus.  Another 
di  nctly  exhibits  the  sphynx,  con- 
si:  ng  of  the  bust  of  a  woman 
at  ched  to  the  body  and  feet  of  a 


lion,  or  the  solar  luminary  having 
passed  Leo  and  entered  Virgo. 
The  dragon's  head  and  tail,  shewed 
in  the  headless  column  of  an  im- 
mense snake's  body,  are  conspicu- 
ous upon  another  stone  in  the 
series." — Asiatic  Journal,  April, 
1826,  p.  512. 

"  In  point  of  magnitude,"  says 
a  writer  in  The  Scotsman  in  the 
East,  "  the  monuments  of  Arracan 
are  unequalled  by  any  hitherto 
explored  by  me,  and  in  some  par- 
ticulars differ  essentially  from  the 
remains  of  former  magnificence  I 
have  examined,  either  on  the  con- 
tinent of  India,  or  on  the  islands 
of  the  Eastern  Archipelago.  Simi- 
lar to  those  of  Java,  they  consist 
of  octagonal  temples,  surrounded 
with  bell-shaped  fanes,  but,  unlike 
them,  are  less  decorated  with 
sculpture,  and  are  distinguished  by 
stupendous  arches,  vaults,  and 
arched  galleries,  which,  I  had 
thought,  existed  only  in  the  ima- 
gination of  poets  and  novelists. 
There  exists  here  the  ruins  of 
nearly  three  edifices,  which  con- 
sist of  circular  galleries,  arches, 
and  vaults,  built  of  brick  and 
stone,  strong,  cemented  with  mor- 
tar, and  of  the  most  massy  con- 
struction. These  subterraneous 
passages,  for  they  consist  of  exca- 
vations in  rocky  masses  of  the 
hills,  contain  not  fewer,  probably, 
than  ten  thousand  images  of Budd 
ha,  varying  in  size  from  not  less 
than  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  high,  to 
an  inch.  Many  of  them  are  deca- 
pitated, which  I  attribute  to  the 
Mussulmans,  in  their  erruptions 
into  this  province,  as  I  have  dis- 
covered a  portion  of  an  Arabic 
inscription  near  one  of  the  entrances 
of  the  principal  temple." 

On  the  architecture  of  Siam,  the 
following  observations  are  from 
the  public  accounts  of  the  mission 
from  the  Governor-General  to  the 

105 


H  I  N 


HIN 


court  of  Bankok,  in  1821,  and  a 

description  of  the  public  buildings 
of  that  city. 

**  The  palaces  are  buildings  of 
inconsiderable  size,  in  the  Chinese 
style,  covered  with  a  diminishing 
series  of  three  or  four  tiled  roofs, 
sometimes  terminated  by  a  small 
spire ;  they  are  more  remarkable 
for  singularity  than  beauty.  The 
palace  of  the  king  is  covered  with 
tin  tiles.  Many  of  the  temples 
cover  a  large  extent  of  ground  : 
they  are  placed  in  the  most  ele- 
vated and  best  situations,  sur- 
rounded with  brick  walls,  or  bam- 
boo hedges,  and  the  enclosure 
contains  numerous  rows  of  build- 
ings, disposed  in  straight  lines. 
They  consist  of  one  spacious  and 
in  general  lofty  hall,  with  narrow 
but  numerous  doors  and  windows. 
Both  the  exterior  and  interior  are 
studded  over  with  a  profusion  of 
minute  and  singular  ornaments,  of 
the  most  varied  description.  It 
is  on  the  ends,  and  not  on  the 
sides  of  the  exterior  of  the  building, 
that  the  greatest  care  has  been 
bestowed  in  the  disposition  of  the 
ornaments.  A  profusion  of  guild- 
ing,  bits  of  looking-glass,  China, 
basins  of  various  colours,  stuck 
into  the  plaster,  are  amongst  the 
most  common  materials.  The  floor 
of  the  temple  is  elevated  several 
feet  above  the  ground,  and  gene- 
rally boarded  or  paved,  and  cover- 
ed with  coarse  mats.  The  wildest 
stories  of  Hindoo  theology  figure 
on  the  walls." — "The  arrangements 
observed  in  the  Waal-thay-cham- 
poun,  may  be  given  as  an  instance 
of  what  occurs  in  the  rest.  This 
consists  of  a  number  of  temples, 
pra-cka-dis,  and  buildings  allotted 
for  the  accommodation  of  priests, 
enclosed  in  an  ample  square,  rather 
more  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile  on 
each  side.  The  principal  temples 
are  further  surrounded  by  a  piazza, 

106 


open  only  towards  the  temple, 
about   twelve  or  fifteen  feet 
breadth,  and  well  paved.  A<r? 
the  back  wall,  a  stone  platfon 
masonry  extends  round  the  tem 
on  which  are  placed  gilded  fig 
of  Buddha,  for  the  most  part  < 
siderably  larger  that  the  hu? 
size."  "  The  pra-cha-di,  callec 
the  Buddhists  of  Ceylon  dag< 
is  a  solid   building  of  maso  !t 
without  aperture  or  inlet  of  ■ 
sort,  however  large  it  may  be.  t 
is  generally  built  in  the  ne! - 
bourhood  of  some  temple,  bu  3 
not  itself  an  object  or  a  plaonf 
worship,  being  always  distinct  fin 
the  temple  itself.    It  would  apj  r 
to   have    been    sepulchral,  d 
destined    to  commemorate  eilr 
the  death  of  Buddha,  or  his  tn  - 
lation  into  heaven.     Even  at  e 
present   time,   these    orname  1 
buildings  are  thought  to  con  a 
some  relic  of  Buddha.    This  e 
(i.e.  that  of  the  Waal-thay-chs- 
poun)  in  particular  makes  a  lit 
and   handsome   appearance:  e 
lower  part  consists  of  a  seviejf 
dodecahedral    terraces,  dimm  - 
ing gradually  to  nearly  one  hal  f 
the  whole  height,  where  they  e 
succeeded  by  a  handsome  sdk 
fluted   longitudinally,  and  or- 
mented   with    numerous  circir 
mouldings.    The  minor  orname s 
are   numerous,  and   towards  |8 
summit  there  is  a  small  globeif 
glass.     The   total   height  wol 
appear  to  be  about  250  feet  fn 
the  ground.    Minor  edifices  of  1 1 
sort  are  common  in  every  temj 
They  are  in  general  raised  upo 
base  of  twelve  sides,  but  sometit 
of  eighteen."    Mr.  Finlayson 
scribes  a  temple  which  they  visi 
at  a  short  distance  from  the  |i 
of  audience, — a  pyramidal  str- 
ture,  its   point   terminating  \m 
slender  spire  about  200  feet  hij. 
The   interior  is  a  lofty  chaml, 


HIN 


HI  P 


n(r1y  50  feet  square,  paved  with 
sties.  Sir  Thomas  Raffles  ob- 
S€  es,  that  both  in  their  character, 
g|  sepulchral  shrine,  and  in  their 
ftk  the  pyramid  and  the  dagoba, 
oipra-cho-di,  seem  to  coincide. 
A  Bankok,  Mr.  Finlayson  ob- 
S(  ed,  for  the  first  time,  obscene 
pntin^s  in  a  temple  dedicated  to 
Bldha.    See  Capital. 

Iinges  are  the  iron  or  brass 
li  ments  affixed  to  folding-doors, 
sitters,  and  parts  of  buildings 
rolving  on  an  axis.  The  most 
aiient  hinges  of  Egypt  were  of 
#d,  rolling  in  a  stone  box.  The 
h  res  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
we  pins  of  wood  or  metal  fixed 
ii  he  middle  of  the  top  and  bot- 
t<  of  the  door  or  in  the  threshold, 
si  hat  the  door  might  open  either 
ii  ardly  or  outwardly.  Hinges 
a  of  many  sorts,  as  butts,  rising 
h  res,  new  hinges,  casement 
h;res,  casting  hinges,  chest  hin- 
fl  coach  hinges,  desk  hinges, 
detail  hinges,  esses,  folding 
h  res,  side  hinges  with  squares, 
g  iets,  weighty  sides,  side  hinges 
wi  rising  joints,  screw  hinges, 
s(  tie  hinges,  shutter  hinges,  trunk 
h  res,  of  various  descriptions, 
h  k-and-eye  hinges,  and  centre- 
p1  hinges. 

he  fixing  of  plain  hinges  to 
fc  ing-doors  is  a  common  and 
a|  arently  easy  operation,  but  in 
se  e  instances  great  delicacy  and 
ai  ts  required.  Sometimes,  as  in 
tl  rule  joints,  it  is  necessary  to 
cr  :eal  the  hinge,  others  intended 
tc  illow  a  door  to  fall  back,  are 
m  le  to  project  beyond  the  surface, 
Mi  pulpit-doors;  these  require  to 
b<  trongly  fixed,  or  they  will  soon 
N»ut  of  order.  The  hinge-joint, 
in  hich  the  hinge  is  entirely  con- 
ct'ed,  forms  the  most  difficult 
P'<  of  hinging.  In  PL  P.  3,,/fy.l, 
a  '^presentation  is  given  of  the 
m  ie  of  hanging  a  window-shutter, 


or  a  door  of  a  similar  construction, 
in  which  the  hinge  is  to  be  con- 
cealed. A,  bead  on  the  inside  of 
the  sash-frame ;  B,  inside  lining  of 
the  frame;  C,  the  hanging  style  of 
the  shutter :  a,  the  intersection  of 
the  face  of  the  shutter,  with  that 
of  the  inside  lining  of  the  same 
frame ;  a,  k,  the  face  of  the  inside 
lining.  Let  a  a  bisect  the  angle 
p  a  k,  the  centre  c  being  in  the 
line  a  a,  the  knuckle  of  the  hinge 
must  be  fixed  at  a  certain  distance 
from  the  face  of  the  shutter _p  a; 
draw  the  line  d  d  to  intersect  a  a 
at  right  angles;  the  line  d  c  will 
then  be  found  to  be  that  in  which 
one  side  of  the  hinge  is  to  be  fixed. 
That  the  shutter  as  it  opens  may 
clear  the  jamb,  describe  from  c  as 
a  centre,  with  the  radius  c  a,  the 
arc  a  i,  which  will  be  the  required 
joint.  The  strap  part  of  the  hinge, 
on  the  piece  to  which  the  shutter 
is  fastened,  may  in  this  case  be 
longer  than  that  on  the  shutter. 

When  i^.is  required  that  the 
bead  of  the^Hoor  jambs  and  styles 
shall  correspond  exactly  with  the 
knuckle  of  the  hinge,  as  the  door 
or  shutter  opens  at  right  angles 
with  them,  let  the  edge  of  the  style 
bear  a  bead  exactly  the  size  of  the 
knuckle  of  the  hinge,  and  be  rabet- 
ted  backwards  to  the  depth  of  half 
the  thickness  of  the  bead,  as  shown 
at  3.  The  part  adapted  to  receive 
3,  is  shown  at  No.  4.  and  2  repre- 
sents a  common  butt-hinge,  pro- 
perly adapted  and  fixed  to  the 
shutter  or  door.  Some  little  space 
is  left  between  the  sides  of  the 
hinge,  to  allow  for  the  thickness  of 
two  or  more  coats  of  paint. 

Hips,  pieces  of  timber  at 
the  corners  of  roofs.  They  are 
much  longer  than  rafters,  on  ac- 
count of  their  slanting  position  ; 
they  are  placed  not  with  a  right  or 
square,  but  an  oblique  angle,  and 
of  consequence  cannot  be  square 

107 


H  I  P 


HOL 


at  an  angle,  (as  rafters  are  at  all,) 
but  level  at  every  one  of  them ; 
and  as  rafters  have  four  planes, 
hips  have  commonly  five.  By 
some  workmen  they  are  called 
corners,  or  principal  rafters ,  or 
sleepers.  But  sleepers  are  distin- 
guished as  lyin°;  in  the  valleys,  and 
join  at  top  with  the  hips,  and  those 
plane  surfaces  which  make  the 
back  of  the  hip,  are  the  under  sides 
of  the  sleepers.  The  backs  of  a 
hip  are  those  superficies,  or  planes, 
on  the  outside,  which,  in  length 
and  breadth,  lie  parallel  with  the 
superficies  of  the  adjoining  sides, 
or,  in  some  Italian  roofs,  with  the 
corner  and  sides.  See  Angle- 
rafter,  and  Carpentry. 

Hip-moulds,  a  term  used  by 
some  workmen  for  the  back  of  the 
hip;  others  mean  by  this  term  a 
form  or  pattern  by  which  the  hip 
is  set  out. 

Hip- roof.  When  a  roof  of  a 
building  is  formed  by  equally  in- 
clined planes  rising  jrorn  each 
side,  it  is  called  a  hipped-roof,  and 
the  ridges  rising  from  the  angles 
of  the  wall  are  called  hips. 

Hip,  or  Corner  Tiles,  are 
those  used  at  the  hips  of  roofs ; 
they  are  ten  inches  long,  and  of  a 
convenient  breadth  and  thickness; 
they  are  bent  on  a  mould  before 
burning,  and  have  a  somewhat 
triangular  shape,  with  a  hole  for  a 
nail  at  their  narrow  end,  which  is 
laid  uppermost. 

Hippodrome,  (lttttoq,  o,  horse, 
and  ZpojioQ,  a  course,)  a  place  ap- 
propriated by  the  ancients  to  eques- 
trian exercises  :  that  of  Olympia 
was  one  of  the  most  celebrated 
amongst  the  Greeks ;  its  length 
was  four  stadia,  and  its  breadth 
one.  Another  hippodrome  is  de- 
scribed by  Pausanias  at  Elis.  There 
were  two  hyppodromes  at  Con- 
stantinople, which  are  described  by 
Banduri,  in  his  Imperium  Orientate* 


One  of  them  is  now  called  ; 
Atmeidan.     See  ConstantinojA 

Hoarding  is  the  timber  c 
closure  about  a  building,  when  it 
erecting  or  repairing. 

Hood-mould,  see  Drip. 

Hook-pins,  the  same  as  Lra; 
bore-pins,  which  see. 

Hollan  d-house,  as  well  as  tl 
Marquis  of  Salisbury's  mansio 
are  among  the  best  specimens 
the  style  of  Queen  Elizabetl 
time,  and  of  James  I. — the  apai 
ments  large,  gaileries  dispropo 
tionably  long,  the  cornices  heav 
and  the  ceilings  formed  into  con 
partments  of  great  depth. 

Hollow,  a  concave  mouldin 
about  a  fourth  of  a  circle,  by  son 
called  a  casement,  by  others  ? 
abacus. 

Hollow  Newel,  a  term  of  ? 
opposite  meaning  to  solid  newe 
with  the  ends  of  the  steps  bui 
into  it;  in  the  hollow  newel,  tl 
ends  of  the  steps  are  unsuj 
ported. 

Hollow  Quoins,  are  the  piei 
of  stone  or  bricks  made  behin 
lock  gates  of  canals :  sometime 
they  are  of  wood. 

Hollow  Tower,  in  fortifica 
tion,  a  rounding  of  the  remainde. 
of  two  brisures  to  join  the  curtai 
to  the  crillon,  where  the  small  she 
are  played. 

Holy  Island,  a  place  famou 
for  its  antiquities :  see  Norma 
Architecture. 

Holy- rood  House,  the  onl 
royal  habitation  remaining  entir 
in  Scotland,  is  an  ancient  an< 
remarkable  building:  the  inside  i 
a  quadrangle  of  230  feet,  sur 
rounded  by  piazzas.  The  wes 
front  consists  of  two  double  towers 
joined  by  a  beautiful  low  building 
adorned  above  with  a  double  balus 
trade.  The  gate-way  in  the  mid- 
dle is  decorated  with  double  stone 
columns,  supporting  a  cupola,  re- 


HOS 

p renting  an  imperial  crown.  On 
X\  right  hand  is  the  great  stair- 
c;i  leading  to  the  council  cham- 
t>;  and  royal  apartments.  These 

U  ai  large  and  spacious.  The  gal- 
le  is  on  the  left  hand,  and  mea- 
sns  150  feet  by  27  :  it  is  adorned 
b  portraits  of  al  l  the  Scottish  kings, 
fr  n  Fergus  1  st,  to  the  7th  James. 
T:  front  of  this  palace  is  two 

I  sines  high ;  the  roof  flat.  At  each 
ei  are  projections  ornamented 
Wi  circular  towers  at  each  angle  ; 
hi  the  building  is  much  higher, 
a  the  rest  of  the  palace  is  three 
sl  ies  high.  Towers  on  the  north- 
utwere  built  by  James  the  5th, 
f<  his  own  residence,  and  his  name 
a  tears  in  a  niche.  At  the  time  of 
t  restoration,  this  palace  was  re- 
eled by  Sir  William  Bruce,  archi- 
c,  executed  by  Robert  Mylne, 
nson. 

ioME-STALL,  a  mansion-house, 
o  >eat  in  the  country. 

Iorizontal  Cornice,  is  the 
lej.'l  part  of  the  cornice  of  a 
p  iment,  under  the  two  inclined 
cnices. 

Iorn,  a  name  sometimes  given 
t(  he  Ionic  volute. 

Iorologium,  (Gr.)  a  common 
t<n  among  the  ancients  for  any 
ii  rument  or  machine  for  measur- 
ii  the  hours.  There  were  an- 
c  itly  two  principal  kinds  ;  those 
wch  measured  the  time  by  Srops 
o  water  in  glasses,  to  which  was 
g>n  the  name  of  Clepsydra,  and 
the  in  which  the  place  of  water 
w  supplied  by  sand,  which  had 
tl1  name  of  Clepsammia.  See 
A  Ironicus  Cyrrhestes. 

Iospitalia,  (Lat.)  the  door- 
y>  s  in  the  scene  of  a  theatre 
a  >ngst  the  ancients,  on  the  right 
a  left  of  the  valvae  regiae,  or 
p  icipal  doorway.  Also,  the  name 
g>n  to  that  part  of  a  house  which 
c  tained  the  rooms  allotted  to 
■'.ngers. 


HOT 

Hospital,  (Lat.  hSpital,  Fr. ) 
a  building  endowed  by  public  or 
private  charity,  for  the  reception 
and  treatment  of  invalids  :  the 
name  is  also  applied  to  any  chari- 
table institution.  In  the  work  of  M. 
Durand,  (Parallele  des  Edi/ices 
de  tout  Genre )  we  have  a  collection 
of  plans  of  different  hospitals.  The 
magnificent  hospital  at  Milan  has 
never  been  entirely  finished,  but 
the  grandeur  of  its  court-yard,  and 
the  surrounding  porticoes,  and 
many  of  its  ornaments,  which  are 
executed  in  hard  clay,  render  it  a 
very  interesting  building.  The  hos- 
pital of  Geneva,  and  that  of  the 
Incurables  at  Paris,  partake  of  the 
same  character.  The  finest  build- 
ings of  this  kind  in  England,  and 
which  may  be  considered  the  most 
noble  in  Europe,  are  those  of 
Greenwich  and  Plymouth.  Hos- 
pitals for  old  soldiers  are,  in  their 
plan  and  purpose,  the  same  as  the 
meritoria  of  the  Romans. 

Hotel,  (Fr.)  a  large  inn,  or 
place  of  public  entertainment. 

Hot-house,  a  building  erected 
for  the  purpose  of  raising  such 
exotic  plants,  as  from  their  extreme 
tenderness  are  not  able  to  bear  the 
effects  of  cold  in  our  variable  cli- 
mate. Hot-houses  originally  signi- 
fied bagnios,  from  the  hot-baths 
there  used.  Those  for  orange-trees 
are  said  to  have  been  first  used,  as 
a  mark  of  royal  magnificence,  early 
in  the  17th  century.  Ottode  Munc- 
hausen built  the  first  hot-house 
for  pines,  about  the  commencement 
of  the  18th  century.  The  purpose 
of  these  erections  being  to  receive 
as  much  benefit  as  possible  from  the 
genial  warmth  of  the  sun,  assisted 
by  subterraneous  stoves  and  flues, 
the  chief  object  to  pursue,  will  be 
a  proper  aspect  of  the  slanting 
roof,  covered  with  glass,  (which  is 
usually  made  moveable,  to  admit 
air  occasionally,)  and  the  best  con- 

109 


H  O  U 


HOU 


struction  of  the  stove  and  flues. 
Among  the  numerous  modern  im- 
provements, the  introduction  of 
steam  in  preference  to  warm  dry 
air,  or  the  warm  air  mixed  occa- 
sionally with  steam,  and  the  air 
introduced  warmed  by  steam-pipes, 
vas  been  represented  as  beneficial ; 
but  conceiving  the  admission  of  air 
at  the  upper  part  of  the  building 
as  a  great  imperfection  in  these 
buildings,  Dr.  Anderson  procured 
a  patent  for  an  improved  mode  of 
constructing  hot-houses,  with  a 
glass  roof  perfectly  flat,  and  an- 
other above  it,  also  of  glass,  but 
slanting  in  the  usual  form.  The 
lower  glass  framing  is  made  air- 
tight, to  prevent  any  communi- 
cation with  the  common  atmos- 
phere, but  by  the  upper  roof.  A 
contrivance  for  occasional  commu- 
nication with  the  lower  apartment, 
is,  however,  made  by  the  insertion 
of  a  pipe  extending  through  it 
nearly  to  the  ground.  By  this 
construction,  as  soon  as  the  air 
in  the  lower  room  is  rarefied  by 
heat,  it  ascends,  and  forces  the 
cold  air  from  the  upper  story 
through  passages  left  for  that  pur- 
pose ;  and  when  the  influence  of 
the  sun  is  withdrawn  in  the  even- 
ing, the  air  in  the  upper  reservoir 
cooling,  becomes  heavier,  and  the 
current  through  the  tube  is  revers- 
ed, by  which  the  warmer  air  is 
made  to  descend  into  the  lower 
apartment  before  the  cold  can  reach 
it.    See  Stove. 

House,  (hus>  Sax.  huys,  Dutch) 
a  human  habitation ;  a  building 
in  which  a  family  resides.  Among 
the  Jews,  Greeks,  and  Romans, 
houses  were  flat  on  the  top,  for 
walking  upon;  and  had  usually 
stairs  on  the  outside,  by  which 
they  might  ascend  and  descend. 
Each  house  enclosed  a  quadran- 
gular area  or  court;  which  being 
ooen  to  the  sky,  gave  light  to  it. 
no 


This  was  the  place  where  comp L 
was  received,  and  for  that  purr.  8 
it  was  strewed  with  mats  or  u 
pets,  for  their  better  accommo. 
tion ;  it  was  paved  with  mar 
or  other  materials,  according  ) 
the  owner's  ability,  and  proviJl 
with  an  umbrella  of  vellum,  f o \ 
shelter   from    inclement  weatl . 
This  part  of  their  houses,  call 
by   the    Romans  impluvium, 
cavcediam,  was  provided  with  ch 
nels  to  carry  of  the  water  i  > 
the  common   sewers.    The  lei 
roof  was  covered  with  a  stra? 
plaster  by  way  of  terrace.  Hitl 
especially  among  the  Jews,  it  \ 
customaiy  to  retire  for  meditat: , 
private  converse,  devotion,  or  \ 
enjoyment  of  the  evening  bree, 
See  Acts  x.  9. 

In  plate  P.  3,  is  given  the  pi 
of  a  Roman  house,  according  i 
Vitruvius.  The  vestibuium 
into  the  atrium,  a  great  court  s  • 
rounded  by  porticoes,  (see  Atriuu 
on  the  right  and  left  of  the  atri  i 
were  the  alae  or  wings,  within  wh 
were  sometimes  the  cellee  fai  • 
liaricse,  or  apartments  for  dome*: 
purposes.  In  the  atrium,  acco- 
ing  to  Servius  (in  Virg.  Mn.  i.  75, 
and  iii.  353,)  was  also  the  culina  • 
kitchen.  The  tablinum  was  ent- 
ed  from  the  atriurn,  which  was  si- 
ceeded  by  the  cavcedium;  "T 
exedra  and  bibliotheca,"  obser ; 
Mr.  Wilkins,  whom  we  have  !■ 
lowed,  "  are  represented  in  It 
plan  under  the  porticoes  of  ' 
cavgedium ;  because,  although  • 
truvius  does  not  inform  us  in  wi 
division  of  the  house  they  wi! 
placed,  he  mentions  the  cavsediw 
amongst  the  parts  which  the  die  i 
and  friends  qf  the  proprietor  w.: 
at  liberty  to  enter  uninvited :  whei ! 
it  is  probable  that  these,  being  pi- 
lie  apartments,  were  situated  in  1 1 
court."  The  triclinia,  or  coram i 
eating  rooms,  are  placed  in  <! 


HOU 

por:oes  of  the  peristyle.  There 
...  *J  also  grand  banqueting  rooms 
for  Jblic  occasions,  called  oeci,  one 
kin  of  which  was  termed  Corin- 
Ihii  another  Tetrastyle,  a  third 
.  tian,  and  a  fourth  Cyzicene, 
is  the  kind  introduced  in 
the'plan.     In  plans  of  Roman 
hoi;s  commonly  given,   all  the 
n  of  oeci  are  introduced.  But 
jt  ims  more  probable  that  there 
utone  large  banqueting  room 
in  fe  generality  of  houses.  Vitru- 
is  altogether  silent  upon  the 
use)f  the  apartments  on  the  se- 
>i  floor;  he  mentions  stairs,  but 
be  oes  not  point  out  their  situa- 
:  01   In  our  plan,  a  is  the  vesti- 
luln,  b  the  atrium,  c  the  tabli- 
t.u  d  d  the  alse,  e  e  cellae  fami- 
lia i», /cavsedium,  g  vernal  tri- 
clium,  g"  summer  triclinium,  g" 
mx\x  triclinium,  i'  cold  bath,  i" 
tep  bath,  i"  warm  bath,  k  &  cubi- 
cul  m  pinacotheca,  n  bibliotheca, 

0  pistyle,  q  Cyzicene  oecus,  r  r 
coils  of  the  offices,  s  exedra,  tt 

ns,  u  rooms  for  embroidery, 

1  ndatories.     In  the  foregoing 
la  we  have  followed  Wilkins;  in 

the  ketch  below  it,  we  have  given 
the  plan   according   to  Newton, 
T  islation  of  Vitruvius, )  where 
all  e  oeci  are  introduced.    Here  h 
proceeton,  /  the  basilica,  p 
ie?rvants'  rooms,  q  the  Egyptian 
<Ec|,  r  the  Corinthian  oecus,  s  the 
teti  tyle  cecus,  and  t  the  Cyzicene 
The  other  references  are 
me  as  in  the  figure  above, 
h  'estibula,  the  atrium,  and  the 
offis,  are  uot  introduced,  as  they 
'  laced  in  the  same  situation  as 
by  .ilkins. 

e  Greek  house  had  no  atrium, 
butmstead  of  it  the  peristyle  was 
appached  by  a  passage  called 
tfiy  reum.  On  the  side  of  the 
per  yle  opposite  the  entrance  was 
a  I  id  of  vestibule  called  pastas ; 
"Apartments  on  the  right  and 


HOU 

left  of  which  were  termed  severally 
thalamos  and  amphithalamos,  and 
beyond  them  were  the  ceci  or  halls. 
In  the  first  peristyle  were  the  tri- 
clinia in  daily  use,  and  the  apart- 
ments of  the  domestics ;  this  division 
of  the  house  was  called  gynceco- 
nitis.    In  the  south  portico  of  the 
greater  peristyle,  which  was  termed 
andronitis,  were  the  Cyzicene  cecus 
and  pinacothecae,  in  the  eastern 
the  bibliotheca,  in  the  western  the 
exedra,  and  in  the  northern  the 
great  oecus  or  banqueting  room. 
The  hospitalia  consisted  of  triclinia 
and  sleeping  rooms  for  strangers, 
and  were  on  the  right  and  left  of 
the  great  cecus.    There  were  courts 
or  passages  to  these  apartments 
called  mesaulce.    In  the  plan,  (on 
plate  P.  3.)  a  is  the  thyroreum,  b 
peristyle  of  gyneeconitis,  c  pastas 
or  vestibule,  d  great  cecus,  e  stables, 
f  f  courts,  g  g  g  cellae  of  the  por- 
ter, h  h  common  triclinia,  i  thala- 
mos, j  amphithalamos,  k  k  square 
oeci,  I  I  mesaulae,  m  m  apartments 
for  strangers,  n  vestibule,  o  great 
peristyle,  p  bibliotheca,  q  q  pina- 
cothecse,  r  Cyzicene  cecus,  s  exe- 
dra. 

A  country  house  is  commonly 
for  the  occasional  residence  of  rich 
citizens,  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of 
the  country.  Such  was  the  villa 
of  the  ancient  Romans;  the  quinta 
of  Spain  and  Portugal,  called  in 
Provence  cassine ;  in  some  other 
parts  of  France,  closerie ;  and  in 
Italy  vigna.  The  citizens  of  Paris 
have  also  their  maisons  de  bouteil- 
les,  or  bottle-houses ,  in  which  they 
regale  their  friends. 

In  a  country  house  it  is  particu- 
larly necessary  to  have  wood  and 
water  near,  and  spring  water  of  the 
best  quality.  It  is  far  better  to 
have  a  house  defended  by  trees 
than  hills  ;  for  trees  yield  a  cool- 
ing, refreshing,  and  sweet  shade 
during  the  heat  of  summer,  and  in 
ill 


H  O  U 


HOU 


winter  are  a  protection  from  cold 
winds  and  tempests.  Hills,  as  they 
may  be  situated,  defend  only  from 
some  certain  winds,  and  if  on  the 
north  side  of  the  house,  as  they 
defend  from  the  cold  air  in  winter, 
they  also  deprive  of  cool  refreshing 
breezes  in  summer  ;  if  the  hills  are 
on  the  south  side,  they  are  yet  more 
inconvenient.  A  situation  too  low 
precludes  the  convenience  of  cel- 
lars, and  is  seldom  dry  and  healthy. 
If  this  inconvenience  cannot  be 
avoided,  let  the  first  floor  be  raised 
above  the  ground  ;  and  by  the  ap- 
propriation of  the  ground-floor  to 
the  purpose  of  cellaring,  the  house 
will  be  rendered  dry,  and  pleasant, 
and  healthy.  Houses  built  too 
high,  and  neither  defended  by  hills 
nor  trees,  require  more  materials 
and  stouter  walls,  and  are  not  so 
comfortable  to  the  residents,  as  those 
less  elevated  and  less  expensive, 
yet  not  less  beautiful.  In  houses 
of  not  above  two  stories  with  the 
ground-room,  and  not  exceeding 
twenty  feet  to  the  wall-plate,  and 
upon  a  good  foundation,  the  length 
of  two  bricks,  or  eighteen  inches,  for 
the  heading  course,  will  be  suffici- 
ent for  the  ground-work  of  any  com- 
mon structure,  and  six  or  seven 
courses  above  the  earth  to  a  water- 
table,  where  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  is  abated,  or  taken  in  on  either 
side  the  thickness  of  a  brick,  name- 
ly, two  inches  and  a  quarter.  For 
large  and  high  houses,  of  three,  or 
four,  or  five  stories,  with  garrets, 
the  walls,  from  the  foundation  to 
the  first  water-table,  must  be  three 
heading  courses  of  bricks,  or  twen- 
ty-eight inches,  at  least ;  and  at 
every  story,  a  water-table,  or  tak- 
ing in,  on  the  inside,  for  the  sum- 
mers, girders,  and  joists  to  rest 
upon,  laid  into  the  middle,  or  one 
quarter  of  the  wall  at  least,  for  the 
better  bond.  But  as  for  the  inner- 
most or  partition-wall,  a  half-brick 
112 


will  be  sufficiently  thick ;  an-  m 
the  upper  story  walls,  nine  in  e$ 
or  a  brick  length,  will  suffice,  he 
parts,  proportions,  &c.  of  hous  in 
London  are  regulated  by  sta  e 
See  Building  and  Villa. 

House,  portable,  described  i  he 
Register  of  Arts,  is  a  very  ingei  us 
and  simple  contrivance,  by  a  j.,e. 
maker  who  resided  in  it.  Each  de 
is  made  up  of  three  equal  jiSf 
each  part  reaching  from  the  grO 
to  the  roof ;  two  iron  rods,  furn  eri 
with  nuts  and  screws,  run  a  >ss 
each  side,  and  pass  edge  ys 
through  the  two  contiguous  s  ml 
by  which  the  four  sides  are  Id 
firmly  together.  Joists  are  b«  2d 
to  each  of  the  sides,  by  whicl.he 
floors  are  supported.  Each  sit  of 
the  roof  is  in  one  part,  all  the  ur 
sides  of  which  are  bolted  tog<  er 
at  the  angles.  None  of  the  is 
are  larger  than  two  men  may  e  lv 
manage.  The  whole  house,  w:h 
contains  three  flats,  may  be  ten 
down,  removed  to  a  considei/le 
distance,  and  put  up  again  in ne 
day  by  two  men,  with  the  assist  ce 
of  a  horse  and  cart.  The  adn- 
tages  of  this  plan  are  self-eviot. 
Many  delightful  spots  might  be 
obtained  for  the  site  of  a  porUe 
house  during  the  summer  mons, 
where  there  is  no  probability  a 
fixed  residence  being  built.  Tcjbe 
sportsman  in  particular  it  wlri 
furnish  a  cheap  and  most  com  t- 
able  lodging  on  the  moors. 

Housing,  the  hollow  mad  in 
one  body,  to  receive  the  extrc  ty 
of  another. 

House-warming.  In  an<nt 
times  new  houses  were  consecr  ?d 
by  fire  and  sacred  rites,  and  fri  ds 
and  neighbours  presented  viJp 
for  a  feast  ;  and  the  custon  uf 
warming  newly  occupied  housed 
feasting  friends  and  neighbtrs. 
may  possibly  be  a  vestige  ofw 
ancient  ceremonial. 


HUT 


celling,  a  mode  of  prevent- 
in^chimneys  from  smoking,  by 
car  ing  up  two  sides  higher  than 
iho  less  liable  to  receive  strong 
curnts  of  air;  or  apertures  are 
n  all  the  sides,  so  that  when 
the  air  blows    over  the  top,  the 

KC  may  escape  below. 

I  meri,  (La'c.)  the  angles  of  a 
teme  formed  by  the  longitudinal 
and  ransverse  walls  of  the  cella. 

e  Greek  inscription,  brought 
froi  Athens  by  Dr.  Chandler,  the 
hurri  are  mentioned,  and  termed 
hapoi,  apfiot. 

\  nting  To  avers.  There  is  a 
low  of  this  kind  of  great  antiquity, 

I  ats worth,  built,  as  we  are  in- 
d  in  the  second  volume  of  the 

Aniuarian's  Repertory,  for  the 
purse  of  giving  the  ladies  of  those 
ilw  an  opportunity  of  enjoying 
the  ort  of  hunting;  and  there  is 
i  ancient  castle  atTibbermuir, 
D  a  Perth,  in  Scotland,  bearing 
this  iame  ;  it  belonged  originally 
i  t  Ruthven  or  Gowry  family. 
It  w  here  that  an  earl  of  that 

II  imprisoned  his  king,  the  sixth 
it  .    A  daughter  of  one  of  the 

)f  Gowry,  in  danger  of  being 
ered  with  her  lover,  who  was 
not  proved  by  the  family,  ran  to 
«  the  p  of  the  tower,  and  took  a 
learn  nine  feet  four  inches  over  a 
of  sixty  feet  high  ;  luckily 
:  ng  on  the  battlements  of  the 
np'te  tower,  in  which  her  aston- 
*hej  mother  found  her  in  bed, 
t'd  pologized  for  her  suspicion; 
;  i  account  the  space  between 
owers  received  the  name  of 
the  aiden's  Leap. 

H  ileus.    The  name  given  to 
a  su'jlar  erection  of  large  stones, 
z  a  quadrangle,    near  St. 
Clar' in  Cornwall.    By  some  anti- 
quatos  they  are  believed  of  Dru- 
' '  origin  ;  by  others,  they  are 
1  ed  to  be  commemorative  of 
Vlctc  >  or  the  monuments  of  he- 
P 


roes.  The  country  people  believe 
that  men  engaged  in  the  game  of 
hurling  the  ball  on  a  Sunday,  were 
for  that  profanation  petrified,  form- 
ing this  assemblage. 

Hurries,  a  term  applied  in 
some  places  to  the  stages  of  wood 
on  navigable  rivers,  harbours,  &c. 
to  which  the  railways  are  conducted 
from  coalpits. 

Hut,  (hutte,  Sax.)  a  small  cot- 
tage, built  of  wood  and  earth.  In 
countries  abounding  in  woods,  the 
first  inhabitants  would  naturally 
seek  shelter  amongst  the  trees  of 
the  forest;  next  they  would 
weave  together  the  branches  over 
their  heads,  to  make  the  shelter 
more  complete ;  and  step  by  step 
would  at  length  form  artificial 
cabins  or  huts  of  turf  and  the 
branches  of  trees.  The  Colchians, 
according  to  Vitruvius,  who  inha- 
bited a  plain  on  the  shores  of  the 
Euxine,  in  a  woody  country,  form- 
ed their  dwellings  by  placing  at  an 
equal  distance  trees  of  a  certain 
length,  across  which  they  laid 
others  transversely  through  their 
extremities;  the  space  between  the 
trees  was  filled  with  loam  and  small 
branches,  so  as  to  form  a  kind  of 
wall ;  four  smaller  trees,  placed  over 
the  top,  and  joining  at  a  point  over 
the  middle,  formed  the  roof,  which 
was  also  covered  with  loam.  The 
Phrygians,  as  we  learn  from  the 
same  author,  followed  a  different 
method  :  inhabiting  a  country  in 
which  wood  was  scarce,  they  made 
their  dwellings  on  small  hills,  on 
the  summit  of  which  they  dug  pits 
as  deep  as  they  thought  necessary, 
and  made  an  outlet  at  the  side. 
Over  the  top  they  placed  branches 
of  trees,  and  covered  them  with 
straw,  reeds,  and  earth.  Among 
the  Arabians,  in  the  cities  of  Loheia, 
Tehama,  and  Machsa,  we  still  ob- 
serve huts  of  little  betler  construc- 
tion, even  beside  the  more  durable 

113 


H  YP 

houses  of  the  rich.  The  Tunguses, 
a  people  of  Siberia,  who  live  a  wan- 
dering life  among  the  woods  and 
on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  form 
their  huts  in  the  following  manner: 
They  place  long  poles  in  a  circle, 
so  as  to  meet  together  in  the  mid- 
dle in  the  form  of  a  cone;  at  the 
summit  a  hole  is  left,  through  which 
the  smoke  may  escape ;  the  en- 
trance is  about  four  feet  high.  A 
number  of  huts  have  been  built  on 
the  borders  of  the  South  Esk,  in 
Scotland,  which  have  a  very  pic- 
turesque appearance.  They  are 
built  of  a  sort  of  muddy  clay, 
mixed  with  the  roots  of  aquatic 
plants,  that  is  dug  from  the  side 
of  the  river  in  suitable  sizes  and 
shapes,  which  are  generally  those 
of  bricks. 

Hydraulic  Mortar.  See 
Aqueduct. 

Hydraulos,  (Gr.)  a  pneumatic 
engine  mentioned  by  Vitruvius  and 
other  ancient  authors,  the  use  and 
form  of  which  are  not  well  known. 

H  ypjetii  ros,  (Gr.  from  v7ro,above, 
and  at&rjp,  the  air.)  The  seventh  or- 
der of  lemples  mentioned  by  Vitru- 
vius, which  had  ten  columns  on  each 
facade,  and  was  surrounded  by  a 
double  portico,  as  in  dipteral  tem- 
ples. The  cella  was  without  roof, 
being  entirely  exposed  to  the  air, 
but  it  had  generally  round  it  a  por- 
tico of  two  ranges  of  columns,  one 
above  the  other.  Several  examples 
of  hypcethral  temples  still  remain, 
but  they  all  differ  in  some  particu- 
lars from  the  description  of  Vitru- 
vius. The  principal  are,  the  great 
temple  at  Psestum,  described  in  the 
works  of  Paoli,  and  Delagardette 
on  the  Ruins  of  Psestum,  ( see  Pces- 
tum,)  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
pius  at  Athens,  (see  Athenian  Ar- 
chitecture,) that  of  Selinus  in  Si- 
cily, (see  Selinus,)  that  of  Minerva 
at  Athens,  and  that  of  Jupiter  Pan- 
hellenius  at  iEgina,  (see  JEaina.) 

114 


HYP 

The  cella  of  the  hypcethral  tek 

was  twice  as  long  as  wide ;  an  a3 
every  hypcethral  temple  hftcB 
account  of  its  length,  two  entra  p 
it  had  also  two  pronaoi. 

Hyberbola,  (Gr.  from 
over,  and  fiaWu),  /  throw,)  JL 
tion  of  the  cone,  made  bv  the  m 
being  cut  by  a  plane  which  E 
within  its  circular  base,  beitiet 
ther  parallel  to  the  side  of  the  Z. 
nor  cutting  it  through  its  vfW 
but  which,  if  continued,  woul<m 
the  opposite  cone.  A  hyperlx  js 
termed  acute,  when  its  nsymj 
make  an  acute  angle;  ambiimi, 
when  one  of  its  infinite  legs  lu 
within  and  the  other  withowwi 
angle  formed  by  the  asympt  s; 
deficient,  when  it  has  only  me 
asymptote,  although  two  hybei.lie 
legs  run  out  by  its  side,  but  int 
trary  directions  ;  equilateral,  en 
its  asymptotes  are  equal. 

Hyberbolic  Cylindroi  a 
solid  formed  by  the  revoluiii  &f 
the  hyperbola  about  its  conj  ate 
axis. 

Hyperboloid,  or  HyberhoV'o- 
noid,  a  conoid  formed  by  the  vo- 
lution of  the  hyperbola  abo:  its 
axis.  It  bears  a  proportion )  a 
parabola  of  the  same  base  anc  lti- 
tude  =  t  +  %*.  t  +  k,  t  in* 
the  transverse  axis  of  the  gene  m: 
hyberbola,  and  k  the  altitude  the 
solid.  To  find  its  solidity,  wetat 
add  to  the  areas  of  the  twc 
four  times  the  area  of  the  n  n 
parallel  section  t,  and  multip  tfw 
sum  by  £  of  the  axis  or  heigl 

Hype  rtii  y  r  u  m  ,  (Gr.  vnep  we* 
dvpa,  a  door,)  in  ancient  bui  ag« 
the  ornament  which  extends )v  r 
the  aperture  of  the  doorway 
Hypocaustum,  (Gr.  a 
an  arched  chamber  among  tl  an- 
cients, in  which  a  fire  was  m  1 
warm  the  100ms  above.    Th  ir « 
was  conducted  by  means 
carried  through  all  the  rooms  >l"* 


I  C  E 


i  c  a 


m  le  of  heating  rooms  dees  not  ap- 
pX  to  have  been  in  use  among  the 
Rnans  before  the  time  of  the  em- 
As.  Winckelmann  has  given  us  a 
dcription  of  a  hypocaustum,  which 
w  discovered  under  some  cham- 
bJ  among  the  ruins  of  Tusculum. 
B  eath  the  rooms,  he  says,  were 
foid  little  cells,  about  as  high  as 
a  jle,  two  under  each  apartment, 
ar  without  any  entrance.  Their 
ceng  was  made  of  large  flat  bricks, 
ar  supported  by  two  pillars,  con- 
sulted of  brick  and  loam.  Through 
th:eiling  ran  quadrangular  tubes 
m  e  of  loam,  the  upper  extremity 
ofhich  terminated  in  the  chain- 
beibove,  whilst  the  other  end  de- 
sc  ded  half  way  down  the  little 
ce  Other  tubes  were  carried  in 
th  .vail  to  the  rooms  on  the  second 
stir.  The  extremity  of  the  tube 
vi  often  decorated  with  a  lion's 
he  made  of  hard  clay.  The  cells 
we  approached  by  a  corridor  two 
fet  wide,  and  the  coals  were  intro- 
dud  by  a  square  opening.  In 
bai,  the  hypocaustum  was  placed 
in  ie  middle,  and  around  it  were 
ph;d  the  other  chambers  apper- 
tai  ig  to  the  bath,  so  that  people 
mi  t  pass  directly  out  of  one  into 
thether. 

vpog£um,  (Gr.)  a  term  ap- 
pli  among  the  ancients  to  those 
pai  of  a  building  which  were  be- 


|ckly,  see  Jackly. 

)  inousE.asubterraneousapart- 
me  for  preserving  ice  during  the 
un  ier.  The  best  situation  for  an 
icel,jse  is  in  a  chalky  or  a  loose 
gra  lly  soil,  on  a  declivity,  where 
a  d  ity  is  dug  in  the  form  of  an 
iovi  ed  cone,  and,  when  the  nature 
oft  soil  requires  it,  accompanied 
will  a  drain,  which  may  conduct 
the  aste  water  into  a  well.  The 
side- should  be  of  bricks,  without 


low  the  level  of  the  ground,  and 
more  particularly  to  the  vaults 
where  they  deposited  the  remains 
of  the  dead.  Montfaucon,  in  his 
Antiquite  Expliquce,  torn.  v.  pi.  3. 
has  given  a  figure  of  two  hypogcea, 
in  the  interior  of  which  are  seen 
the  niches  containing  cinerary  urns. 
In  the  same  volume,  pi.  5,  and  pi. 
118,  he  has  given  the  design,  plan, 
and  description  of  two  others,  one 
found  in  the  Villa  des  Cavalieri, 
and  the  other  in  that  of  Corsini. 
The  hypogcea  in  later  times  were 
often  richly  ornamented.  See  the 
plates  to  our  article  Roman  Orna- 
ments. 

Hypomochlion,  the  fulcrumor 
prop  of  a  lever,  which,  when  heavy 
bodies  are  raised  by  that  instru- 
ment, bears  all  the  incumbent 
weight ;  it  is  applied  also  to  the 
roller  placed  under  pieces  of  tim- 
ber or  stones,  to  facilitate  their  re- 
moval. 

Hypopodium,  (Gr.)  a  footstool 
used  in  the  ancient  baths,  &c. 

Hyposcenium,  (Gr.)a  term  ap- 
plied by  Pollux  to  the  wall  before 
the  scene  which  faced  the  or- 
chestra. 

H  ypotrach elium, (Gr.)  a  term 
given  by  Vitruvius  to  the  slenderest 
part  of  the  shaft  of  a  column  where 
it  joins  the  capital.  It  signifies  the 
part  under  the  neck. 

I. 

mortar,  and  the  doors  should  be 
made  to  shut  close,  and  should 
have  bundles  of  straw  before  them, 
to  exclude  the  air  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. The  ice  should  be  placed 
on  a  frame,  or  a  cart  wheel,  covered 
with  straw.  The  icr;  should  be 
pressed  together  in  a  body  as  hard 
as  possible 

lciiNooRAPHY,  (Gr.)  the  trans- 
verse section  of  a  building,  which 
represents  the  circumference  of  the 

115 


IN  A 

whole  edifice,  the  different  rooms 
and  apartments,  with  the  thickness 
of  the  walls;  the  dimensions  and 
situation  of  the  doors,  windows, 
chimneys,  the  projection  of  co- 
lumns, and  every  thing  that  could 
be  seen  in  such  a  section,  if  really 
made  in  a  building. 

Icosahedron,  (Gr.)  a  regular 
body,  consisting  of  twenty  trian- 
gular pyramids  of  equal  height  and 
bases,  their  vertexes  meeting  in  the 
centre  of  a  sphere,  which  is 
supposed  to  circumscribe  it.  If 
the  linear  side  be  a,  the  surface 
will  be  5  aV3  and  the  solidity 


2 

Imbow,  to  arch  over. 

Im pages,  (Lat.)  a  term  used  by 
Vitruvius  (lib.  iv.  c.  6,)  and  sup- 
posed to  mean  the  rails  of  the  door. 

Impetus,  (Lat.)  the  span  of  a 
building,  arch,  roof,  &c, 

Impluvium,  (Lat.)  the  central 
part  of  the  court,  amongst  the  Ro- 
mans, which  was  uncovered,  and 
the  breadth  of  which  was  never 
less  than  a  quarter,  or  more  than  a 
third,  of  that  of  the  A trium.  See 
Cavcedium  and  Atrium. 

Impost,  (from  impono,  to  lay  on, 
Lat.)  the  layer  of  stone  which 
crowns  a  door-post  or  pier,  and 
which  supports  an  arcade,  &c.  It 
generally  projects,  and  is  orna- 
mented with  mouldings.  An 
arched  impost  is  that  which  crowns 
the  pier  of  an  arcade,  and  turns  in 
an  archivault,  or  which  crowns  a 
circular  wall,  niche,  &c.  An  im» 
post  is  mutilated  when  its  projection 
is  diminished,  that  it  may  not  ex- 
ceed that  of  a  pilaster,  as  at  the 
Fontaine  des  Innocens  at  Paris. 

In  Antis.  Temples  are  said  to 
be  in  Antis  when  there  are  two 
columns  between  the  antes  of  the 
lateral  walls  and  the  cella:  this 
disposition  is  observed  in  the  re- 


INC 

•'•  *Jh  M 

mains  of  the  temple  at  Myus'f 
which  figures  are  given  in  the  L 
cond  volume  of  the  Ionian  Antic, 
ties,  and  in  the  Architecture  C< . 
paree  of  Mr.  Durand.  See^wra 

Inbond  Jambstone,  a  be- 
stone  laid  in  the  joint  of  an  apert,  L 

Inch,  (ince,  Sax.)  the  twei 
part  of  a  foot. 

Incertum,  (Lat.)  a  term  g 
which  Vitruvius  designates  a  m  e 
of  building,  which  consisted  if 
small  rough  stones  and  mor, 
Chandler  is  mistaken  in  giving  e 
name  of  incertum  to  walls  ( - 
structed  of  hexagonal  and  pents  - 
nal  stones  without  mortar.  I 

Inclination,  (Lat.)  the  mu  1 
approach  of  a  line  to  a  plane,  r 
of  two  planes  to  each  other. 

Inclined  Plane.  The incli d 
plane  is  one  of  the  mechantl 
powers,  and  is  not  only  used |o 
assist  in  raising  ponderous  bo  s 
of  immense  magnitude,  to  elevat  s 
to  which  they  could  scarcely* 
raised  by  any  other  way  ;  but  o 
the  natural  declivities  of  hills  e 
frequently  made  to  serve  the  ft 
pose  of  the  quick  conveyance^ 
coals,  timber,  or  other  article?  o 
a  considerable  distance,  without  e 
aid  of  horses.  The  most  rent- 
able work  of  this  kind  is  the  SI 2, 
or  inclined  plane,  of  Alpnach  n 
Underwalden,  in  Switzerland,  'lis 
great  and  singular  erection  lis 
completed  under  the  superintejl- 
ence  of  Mr.  Rupp,  in  the  year  19 
for  the  conveyance  of  the  timbepf 
the  lofty  pine-trees  from  the  to  of 
Mount  Pilatus  into  the  Lak(pf 
Lucern.  This  wood  was  purchi  d 
for  £3000,  and  the  expense  of  ie 
slide  was  £9000.  Its  lengths 
eight  miles  and  a  quarter,  an:  it 
rises  from  the  level  of  its  leer 
extremity  2600  feet.  It  is  ime 
form  of  a  trough,  about  five  H 
broad  and  four  deep,  the  botm 
of  which  is  formed  of  a  triple  s<  es 


INC 

t   of rees,  those  in  the  middle  being 
u    ho>wed  out,  to  admit  a  stream  of 
w?  r  conveyed  into  it  to  lessen  the 
'?   fri'ion.    The  declination  at  the 
comencement  of  this  work  forms 
aningle  of  twenty-two  and  a  half 
!j  deees.     The  pines,  stripped  of 
yJl  branches,  descend  by  their 
ow  gravity  when  placed  on  the 
sli ,  and  proceed  rapidly  with  an 
derated  motion,  acquiring  an 
asfiishing  velocity,  passing  the  dis- 
tais  of  upwards  of  eight  miles  in 
ipLnutes;  and  in  rainy  weather, 
wi  an  increase  of  water,  the  pas- 
is  effected  in  tVjj.ee  minutes. 
Soetimes  a  tree  springs  out  of  the 
nve,  when,  if  it  goes  against  a 
•r<  ing  tree,  it  cuts  it  in  two  as 
thas  if  with  an  axe. 
i combustible.    We  read  in 
'    Ails  Gellius,  that  Sylla  endea- 
u  voed  in  vain  to  burn  a  wooden 
'     |p|r  that  was  defended  by  Arche- 
'  1  hv  one  of  the  generals  of  Mithri- 
'    da1;,  because  it  was  soaked  with 
ah  .    Gregory  of  Tours  speaks 
of  rtain  wooden  vessels  that  were 
1    imi  in  his  time,  that  withstood 
1  th(  ire  as  well  as  those  of  iron,  but 
:,e  )esnot  tell  us  by  what  process 
thfl  were   made  incombustible. 
At  tipts  have  been  made  to  com- 
!»  po:  a  chemical  mixture,  that  would 
H  rer  :r  houses  incombustible.  In 
iteii  17',  Hales  proposed  to  cover  them 
e   wit  earth,  but  this  is  only  practi- 
cal in  rustic  habitations.  M.  Sou- 
he;  in,  of  Montesor^ues,  in  1759, 
iftfe  anM.Didelot,  in  1781,  made  seve- 
r  rai  rials,  but  without  the  desired 
in<  ss.  Dr.Fochus,  of  the  Academy 
rf  of  'ience,  Munich,  has  discovered 
r  a  (;n position  which  renders  wood 
[c  inc  ibustible ;   it  is  made  of  an 
alk  i;  mixed  with  an  earth,  and  is 
it  sail  :o  be  produced  by  the  mixture 
I  of  ne  and  clay  calcined  in  a  fur- 
loj:  nac    An  equal  quantity  of  argil- 
,    lac  us  earth  or  clay  is  to  be  mixed 
jtj  wit, lime  and  water,  till  of  the  con- 


1  N  F 

sistence  of  thin  plaster;  this  is  eva- 
porated to  dryness,  and  subjected 
to  the  heat  of  a  lime-kiln  furnace, 
and,  being  afterwards  mixed  up  of 
a  proper  consistence,  is  found  to  dry 
as  hard,  and  of  as  compact  an  ap- 
pearance as  Portland  stone,  of 
which  it  is  a  good  imitation. 

The  saturating  of  timber,  or  any 
other  combustible  substance,  with  a 
solution  of  soda  and  potash,  render 
them  completely  fire-proof ;  and  a 
patent  was  granted  to  Mr.  Benja- 
min Cook,  of  Birmingham,  April 
16,  1822,  for  the  discovery  of  this 
mode  of  preventing  accidents  from 
fire.  The  mode  of  effecting  this 
purpose  is  described  in  the  44th 
volume  of  the  Repertory  of  Arts 
and  Manufactures.  Either  of  the 
alkalies  separately  will  have  the 
same  effect,  as  also  a  solution  of 
alum. 

Incrustation,  (Lat.)  any  thing, 
such  as  mosaic,  scagliola,  &c.  ap- 
plied with  mortar,  or  with  mastic, 
or  with  cramps,  to  incisions  that 
have  been  made  for  its  reception. 

Indefinite,  (Lat.)  a  line,  &c. 
which  has  but  one  extreme,  which 
may  be  produced  infinitely  in  a  di- 
rection opposite  to  this  extreme. 
In  dent  ED,(Lat.)  toothed  together. 

Indian  Architecture.  See 
Hindu. 

Indian  Rubber,  a  substance 
produced  from  a  tree  in  Cayenne 
and  South  America,  called  the  %- 
ringa  tree.  It  is  most  abundant 
in  rainy  weather,  when  it  oozes  in 
a  milky  form  from  incisions  made 
in  the  tree,  and  acquires  the  con- 
sistence, which  it  has  when  we  get 
it,  merely  by  exposure  to  the  air. 
The  colour  is  given  to  it  by  expos- 
ing it  to  the  smoke  of  burning  ve- 
getables. 

Indurating,  (Lat.)  any  thing 
which  hardens  another. 

Infirmary,  a  public  building 
for  the  reception  of  the  sick  ;  in  an- 

117 


I  N  S 


INS 


cient  abbeys,  an  establishment  of 
this  denomination  was  usually  pro- 
vided. 

Inlaying.    See  Incrustation, 

Mosaic. 

Instruments,  Mathematical. 
A  common  case  of  mathematical 
instruments  contains — (1.)  A  pair 
of  drawing  compasses,  with  pen, 
portcrayon  for  pencil,  &c.  and  dot- 
ting leg ;  (2.)  a  pair  of  plain  com- 
passes or  dividers ;  (3.)  a  drawing 
pen  ;  (4.)  a  plain  scale  ;  (5.)  a  sec- 
tor ;  (6.)  a  protractor,  in  the  form 
of  a  semicircle  or  rectangle ;  and 
sometimes,  (7.)  a  pair  of  bow  com- 
passes ;  (8.)  a  pair  of  triangular 
compasses  ;  (9.)  a  pair  of  propor- 
tional compasses;  and  (10.)  a  pa- 
rallel rule. 

(1.)  The  best  kind  of  drawing 
compasses,  have  a  cylindrical  soc- 
ket, with  a  parallel  slit  on  the  outer 
side,  into  which  the  end  of  the  foot 
fits. —  (2.)  Of  plain  compasses,  there 
are  two  sorts,  common  dividers,  and 
hair  dividers,  which  are  adjusted 
by  a  screw. — (3.)  The  drawing  pen, 
has  generally  a  pointer  screwed  into 
the  upper  end. — (4.)  The  plain 
scale,  has  the  following  scales  upon 
it:  aline  of  six  inches,  a  line  of 
fifty  parts,  and  a  diagonal  scale  on 
one  side;  and  on  the  other  a  line 
of  chords  marked  C,  and  seven  de- 
cimal scales  of  parts,  the  numbers 
at  the  beginning  of  which  shew  the 
number  of  the  small  divisions  at 
the  beginning  which  are  contained 
in  an  inch.  The  line  of  fifty  parts 
being  equal  to  six  inches,  gives  the 
hundredth  part  of  a  foot.  By  the 
diagonal  scale  any  number  may  be 
laid  down  to  the  hundredth  part  of 
an  unit ;  and  atone  end  on  a  scale, 
just  twice  the  size  of  the  other. 
Thus,  if  we  consider  the  divisions 
at  1,2,  3,  &c.  as  each  an  inch, 
foot,  mile,  or  any  other  measure, 
the  diagonals  at  the  end  will  give 
the  hundredth  parts.  For  instance, 

118 


if  we  wished  to  lay  down  ajj 
inches,  we  must  place  the  foo 
the  compass  on  the  fifth  par; 
under  3,  and  extend  the  other 
to  the  6th  diagonal  on  the  s 
parallel,  and  it  will  give  the  e 
length  ;  and  if  it  were  require* 
set  down  6,28  yards,  we  sh( 
proceed  in  the  same  manner,  y 
placing  one  foot  on  the  8th  pc  . 
lei  under  6,  and   stretching  e 
other  to  the  second  diagonals 
that  parallel.    If  we  considd 
each  of  the  divisions  as  10  feet, 
then  the  first  measure  would  re 
sent  36,5,  and  the  second  6 
and  if  we  reckoned  them  as  ), 
they  would  be  respectively  365  d 
628.    The  line  of  chords  is  of  g  it 
use  in  laying  off  or  measuring  - 
gles.    If  we  wish  to  have  a  linht 
a  given  angle,  suppose  23  degn, 
to  a  given  line  which  we  may  II 
A  C,  from  a  given  point  as  A,  e 
have  only  to  set  one  point  of  e 
compasses  at  the  beginning  of  e 
line  of  chords,  and  extend  it  to  ), 
then  with  this  radius  describe  n 
arc  from  the  given  point  on  e 
given  line,  and  take  23  deir  s 
from  the  chords  in  the  compass,  d 
measure  it  off  from  the  given  e 
on  the  arc  to  B,  and  from  ihe  gin 
point  draw  a  line  through  B,  an  l 
will  give  the  required  angle.  I, 
on  the  other  hand,  it  be  requires 
measure  a  given  angle,  sup} 
ACB  to  be  the  angle,  in  Jig.  \ 
plate  M  1,  with  the  same  chorif 
60,  from  the  point  A  describe  n 
arc  as  from  B  to  A,  take  the  lenh 
from  A  to  B  in  the  compass,  a]  y 
it  to  the  scale,  and  it  will  give  e 
degree  contained  in  the  angle.  1e 
seven  decimal  lines  are  called  p  - 
ting  scales;  and  as  their  divisi  s 
of  an  unit  into  ten  parts  beingD 
scales  differing  in  a  ratio  of  4  u  , 
the  scale  of  a  map,  place,  &c.  r  Y 
be  varied  in  seven  different  dr  - 
ings  comformable  to  the  same  tt% 


I  N  S 


I  N  S 


The  lines  generally  laid  down 
urn  the  sector,  are:  a  line  of  equal 
3S,  marked  L;  a  line  of  secants, 
m  ked  S  or  se  ;  a  line  of  chords  to 
oOiegrees,  marked  C ;  a  line  of 
pcgons,  marked  POL;  on  the 
ot  r  side  a  line  of  sines  to  90  de- 
rr;s,  marked  S  ;  two  lines  of  tan- 
re  s,  one  to  46  degrees,  the  other 

4,5  to  75  or  upwards,  marked 
f  ta ;  along  the  side,  when  quite 
op,  Gunter's  line  of  artificial  num- 
be,  marked  N  ;  a  line  of  artificial 
si, S;  a  line  of  artificial  tan- 
s.  T;  a  line  of  12  inches;  and 
I  ie  of  the  foot  divided  into  100 
p;'s.  The  following  examples  will 
ill  trate  the  use  of  each  line  : — 
L  »  of  lines,  L.  Three  numbers, 
41  and  12,  being  given  to  find  a 
proportional;  take  12  parts 
nne  compass  from  the  beginning 
ohe  line  L,  and,  opening  the  see- 
to  apply  it  across  from  4  to  4 ; 
th  ,  with  the  instrument  open  to 
th  same  angle,  take  in  the  com- 
piles the  distance  from  6  to  6, 
ar  by  applying  one  foot  on  the 
fit  from  the  beginning,  the  other 
a  reach  18,  for  the  answer.  Line 
ojkords,  C.  In  Jig.  12,  plate  M, 
1. oppose  it  required  to  draw  an 
are  DCB  —  35°,  with  any  conve- 
ni't  opening,  take  the  extent  from 
6(o  60,  and  with  it,  as  a  radius, 
fru  the  point  C  describe  the  arc 
B  and  with  the  same  opening  of 
th  sector,  take  the  extent  from  35 
to  5,  and  set  it  on  the  arc  BD  to 
D  and  by  drawing  the  line  CD, 
th  ingle  will  be  completed.  Line 
of  '^nes,  S.    In  the  triangle  a  b  c, 

,  (PL  Acropolis,  Tiryns,) 
it*  b  —  230,  and  the  angle  a  b  c 
■=p°  30'  be  given,  to  find  the 
li<  nc;  take  the  distance  230  on 
th  'ine  of  sines,  and  a  the  angle  at 
c  53°  30',  set  it  off  from  53°  30' 
to  3°  30'  in  the  line  of  sines;  take 
th .!  "stance  from  36°  30'  to  36"  30', 
*lp  will  measure  on  the  line  of 


sines  170,19,  the  length  of  ac. 
Lines  of  tangents,  TT.  Let  a  c,  the 
tangent  of  the  angle  b  be  required, 
when  a  c  230,  and  the  angle  6 
36°  30',  take  230  from  the  line  of 
sines,  set  it  off  from  45°  to  45°  on 
the  line  of  tangents,  then  measure 
from  36°  30'  to  36°  30'  on  the  tan- 
gents, apply  it  to  the  line  of  sines, 
and  it  will  give  170,19,  the  tangent 
a  c.  Lines  of  secants,  S  or  sec. — 
When  the  base  a  b,  and  the  angles 
a  c  b,  a  b  c,  are  given  to  find  b  c, 
the  secant  of  a  b  c,  take  230  on  the 
line  of  sines,  make  it  a  parallel  dis 
tance  at  the  radius  or  beginning  of 
the  lines  of  secants,  take  the  secant 
of  60°  30',  measure  it  on  the  line 
of  sines,  it  will  be  287,12,  the 
length  required.  In  the  solution  of 
spherical  triangles,  the  lines  of  sines 
and  tangents  are  used  conjointly; 
thus  in  the  spherical  triangle  efg 
(Jig.  1,  PL  Athenian  Architecture , 
A. 9)  right-angled  at  e.  The  side  ezz 
36°  15',  and  the  adjacent  angle  f 
-S  42°  34'  being  given,  it  is  required 
to  find  the  side  eg;  measure  the 
sine  of  36°  15'  from  90  to  90,  the 
parallel  tangent  of  42°  34  will  give 
the  lateral  tangent  of  28°  30'  eg. 
Line  of  polygons,  POL. — Take  any 
parallel  distance  between  6  and  6 
as  the  radius  of  a  circle,  then  the 
distance  between  4  and  4  will  be 
the  length  of  the  sides  of  a  square 
inscribed  in  the  circle,  from  6  to  5 
of  a  pentagon,  from  12  to  12  of  a 
regular  figure  of  12  sides,  &e.  The 
artificial  lines  of  numbers,  sines, 
and  tangents,  commonly  called 
Gunters  lines,  from  their  inventor, 
are  applicable  to  the  same  pur- 
poses as  ttie  sectorial  lines.  Thus, 
if  it  be  required  to  find  a  fourth 
proportional  to  3,  9,  and  10,  take 
the  extent  from  3  to  9  with  the 
compasses  on  the  line  of  numbers 
N,  with  this  measure,  place  one 
foot  in  10,  the  other  will  fall  on  30, 
the  answer.  In  Jig.  X,  PI  Acropolis, 

119 


I  N  S 


INT 


if  the  two  angles  b  and  c,  and  the 
side  a  b  be  given,  to  find  a  c,  take 
the  extent  from  53°  30'  to  36°  30' 
on  the  artificial  line  of  sines  S,  and 
put  one  foot  on  230  in  the  line  of 
numbers,  the  other  will  fall  on 
170,19.  To  find  a  c,  the  tangent 
of  b,  measure  from  45'  to  36°  30'  in 
the  artificial  line  of  tangents  T,  and 
it  will  reach  from  230  to  170,19, 
on  the  line  of  numbers.  We  may 
solve  the  example,  of  the  spheri- 
cal triangle,  by  taking  the  extent 
from  90°  to  36°  15'  in  the  line  of 
sines,  and  it  will  reach  from  42°  34*' 
to  28°  30'  in  the  line  of  tangents. 
— (6.)  The  use  of  the  protractor, 
is  to  lay  down  or  measure  an  angle, 
for  which  purpose  it  has  180  de- 
grees marked  round  the  outer  edge ; 
when  of  metal,  it  is  made  in  the 
form  of  a  semicircle ;  but  when 
made  of  ivory,  it  is  made  rectangu- 
lar, and  is  commonly  more  exact. 
— (7.)  Bow  compasses,  are  used  for 
drawing  small  circles  with  great 
exactness. — (8.)  Triangular  com- 
passes,  have  three  legs,  two  moving 
the  same  as  common  compasses, 
and  the  third  fitted  into  a  socket  at 
the  head,  so  as  to  move  in  any  direc- 
tion ;  they  are  used  to  measure  an- 
gles or  triangles,  and  are  very  useful 
in  drawing,  to  ascertain,  from  two 
fixed  points,  the  situation  of  a  third. 
— (9.)  Proportional  compasses,  are 
used  in  graduating  the  radii  of  spi- 
rals, in  dividing  circles  or  straight 
lines  into  equal  parts,  &c.  The 
common  form  is  that  of  a  cross, 
with  a  parallel  slit  down  the  middle 
of  each  part,  and  a  centre  piece 
moveable  round  a  pin,  and  fastened 
by  a  nut  and  screw. — (10.)  Of 
parallel  rules,  there  are  two  kinds, 
the  common  kind,  and  the  rolling 
parallel  rule,  the  latter  of  which  is 
on  many  accounts  preferable. — 
(11)  Elliptic  compasses,  consist  of 
a  beam  a  b,  PI.  C.  67 ',  Jig.  4,  about 
a  foot  long,  with  three  cursors  or 

120 


sliders,  to  one  of  which  ma  3e 
screwed  a  point  or  pencil;  t<  le 
bottom  of  the  other  two  are  riv>d 
two  sliding  dove-tails,  adjuste  d 
grooves  made  in  the  cross-bran  ?s 
of  the  instrument.  These  ha  ig 
a  motion  every  way,  by  UirO 
about  the  long  branch,  go  bS 
wards  and  forwards,  along  !)e 
cross:  so  that  when  the  beam | is 
gone  half  way  about,  one  of  m 
will  have  moved  the  whole  leS 
of  one  of  the  branches ;  and  v  n 
it  has  got  quite  round,  the  s'ie 
dove-tail  has  got  back  the  lei  h 
of  the  branch.  The  distance  i 
tween  the  two  sliding  dove-t's, 
is  the  distance  between  the  o 
foci  of  the  ellipsis,  and  by  ch;  r. 
ing  that  distance,  the  ellipsis  y 
be  changed  to  any  dimensiot- 

(12)  German  compasses,  have  t|ir 
legs  a  little  curved  outward, o 
that   their   points   only  mee- 

(13)  Draught  compasses,  are  m 
vided  with  several  moveable  poi  j, 
for  the  purpose  of  drawing  e 
lines  in  architecture 

Insular  Column,  is  a  colio 
standing  by  itself. 

Intaglio,  (Ital.)  any  tbingili 
figures  in  relief  on  it. 

1  n  ta  vol  at  a,  the  same  as  Cy  • 
tium. 

Intercepted  axis,  a  term 
conic  sections;  it  is  that  partf 
the  diameter  of  a  curve  line  c<- 
prehended  between  the  vertex;! 
the  ordinate;  it  is  also  ca  1 
abscissa  and  apscis,  or  apsis,  \  1 
forms  an  arch  of  a  peculiar  ki , 
appropriated  to  the  canopy  o  a 
kingly  or  an  ecclesiastical  throb 
and  to  vaults  in  churches.  e 
Apsis, 

Intercolumniation,  (Lat) 
the  space  between  two  colurr  » 
measured  from  the  place  whe 
they  are  of  an  equal  thickness,  s 
the  diameters  of  the  shaft  oU 
column  is  not  the  same  in  all  s 


INT 


INT 


heiit,  the  lower  part  of  the  shaft, 
jml?diately  above  the  base,  has 
bet  fixed  upon  as  the  measure  of 
;iS  and  intercolumniations.  In 
tliel'eraains  of  Egyptian  architec- 
ts the  intercolumniation  is  from 
i  t  and  a  half  to  three  feet,  and 
.r,- more.  Vitruvius  enumerates 
^different  properties  of  inter- 
,;  miation,   designated    by  the 
i  s  of  Pycnoshjlos,  Systylos, 
ilos,  Araostylos,  and  Eus- 
\  (see  these  words.)    The  two 
rs  vere  considered  as  very  incon- 
i  nt,  as  they  did  not  allow  room 
for  vo  persons  to  enter  the  temple 
:  st.    The  diastyle   and  the 
r  style,  from   their    too  great 
icL  seemed  to  weaken  and  en- 
i  ei  the  architrave,  and  on  this 
mt  wooden  architraves  were 
■»  in  the  latter.    The  eustyle 
referred  both  for  the  elegance 
of  ?  proportion,  and  because  it 
d  a  convenient  passage  be- 
the  columns,  without  dimi- 
-  ig  the  solidity  of  the  archi- 
It  is  probable,  that  in  the 
order  the  diastyle  and  sys- 
'tercolumniations  were  exclu- 
or  principally  used,  and  that 
;er  three  were  little  used,  on 
:<  mt  of  the    difficulties  they 
d  in  the  distribution  of  the 
.  phs   and   metopes.     In  the 
I )  order,  all  the  different  modes 
mis't  be  used.     The  araeostyle 
ieejj  to  have  been  used  principally 
Tuscan.    It  appears,  how- 
that   the  ancients  did  not 
alvj's  observe  the  rules  laid  down 
by  itruvius  for  the  disposition  of 
tiuMiitfTcolurnniaiions ;    at  least 
thcfispositi-  ns  of  the  intercolum- 
uia  »ns  in  the  remains  of  ancient 
.lenjica  rarely  agree  with  those 
*lu  are  given  by  that  author. 
Wtind  the  intercolumniations  un- 
and  disposed  so  that  that 
in  ie  middle  of  the  facade  of  a 
poi:o  is  larger  than  those  on  each 
Q 


side,  which  often  diminish  some 
inches  in  each  intercoiumniation, 
the  two  last  being  the  narrowest. 
Such  is  their  disposition  in  the 
temple  at  Segesta,  in  the  temple 
of  Concord  at  Agrigentum,  and  in 
the  great  temple  at  Paestum,  of 
which  figures  are  given  in  the 
works  of  M.  M.  Houel  and  Dela- 
gardette.  In  this  latter  temple, 
however,  this  disposition  exists  only 
in  the  two  principal  facades;  at 
the  sides,  on  the  contrary,  the  inter- 
columniations are  equal,  except  the 
two  last  towards  the  angles,  which 
were  always  made  narrower  than 
the  others,  on  account  of  the  tri- 
glyphs  of  the  corners.  Neverthe- 
less, there  are  temples  more  an- 
cient, and  others  belonging  to  the 
same  epoch  as  these,  on  every  side 
of  which  the  columniations  are  all 
equal,  except  only  those  at  the 
corners.  In  the  temple  at  Corinth, 
the  small  temple  at  Paestum,  and 
the  great  temple  at  Selinus,  the 
intercolumniations  are  equal  to  the 
inferior  diameters  of  the  columns, 
and  in  that  of  Thoricus,  of  which  a 
figure  is  given  by  Le  Roy,  is  a 
little  more.  Towards  the  time  of 
Pericles,  this  distribution  began  to 
be  constantly  observed.  The  inter- 
columniations of  the  temple  of 
Theseus,  and  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens,  which  are  given  in  Stuart, 
and  those  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Nemaeus,  near  Argos,  given  in  the 
Ionian  antiquities,  are  not  quite 
equal  to  an  inferior  diameter  and 
a  half  of  the  columns.  Those  of 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Panhellenius, 
in  the  isle  of  iEgina,  and  of  the 
temple  of  Minerva  Sunias,  on  the 
promontory  of  Sunium,  also  given 
in  the  Ionian  Antiquities,  are  a 
little  larger.  In  many  of  these 
temples,  which  appear  all  to  be 
of  the  Doric  order,  the  columns 
seem  to  approach  each  other  too 
near,  and  the  intercolumniations  to 
121 


INT 

be  too  narrow  to  allow  a  free  pas- 
sage :  however,  as  the  inferior  dia- 
meter of  the  columns,  by  which  the 
width  of  the  intercolumniations  was 
determined,  was  very  considerable, 
they  were  sufficiently  large.  But 
when  the  shaft  of  the  columns  were 
formed  less  conical,  and  conse- 
quently the  inferior  diameter  was 
diminished,  it  became  necessary  to 
make  the  intercolumniation  more 
than  a  diameter.  This  is  observed 
in  some  of  the  Doric  temples  just 
mentioned,  and  always  in  those  of 
the  Ionic  order.  The  intercolum- 
niation of  the  Ionic  temple  of  "  the 
Ilissus  is  a  little  more  than  two 
inferior  diameters  of  a  column ; 
and  it  is  nearly  two  diameters  in 
the  temple  of  Apollo  Didymaeus, 
near  Miletus.  The  temple  of  Bac- 
chus at  Teos  exhibits  the  eustyle 
which  was  invented  by  Hermogenes, 
who  built  it.  But  after  it  had  be- 
come well  known,  this  mode  was 
not  always  used.  In  the  Erech- 
theium,  the  intercolumniation  of 
the  portico  is  equal  to  two  inferior 
diameters,  and  that  of  the  portico 
of  Minerva  Poiias  is  a  little  more 
than  three;  that  of  the  temple  of 
Fortuna  Virilis,  and  that  of  the  Co- 
rinthian portico  of  the  Panthenon, 
at  Rome,  are  a  little  more  than  two 
diameters.  The  intercolumniation 
of  the  temple  of  Antoninus  and 
Faustina,  that  of  Jupiter  Stator, 
and  of  the  Basilica  of  Antoninus,  at 
Rome,  as  given  by  Desgodez,  are 
a  little  more  than  three  modules. 
The  peculiar  design  of  some  build- 
ings, as  the  Doric  portico  and  the 
Propylea,  at  Athens,  one  leading  to 
the  market,  and  the  other  to  the 
citadel,  and  which  consequently 
ought  to  have  a  wide  passage, 
required  the  intercolumniation  of 
the  middle  to  be  greater  than  that 
of  the  sides.  Vitruvius  directs, 
that,  in  temples  of  the  Ionic  order, 
the  intercolumniation  of  the  middle 
122 


IN  V 

of  the  principal  facades  ouglto 
be  equal  to  three,  and  the  o  rs 
only  to  two  and  a  quarter  inf  or 
diameters;  that  in  the  Doric  a- 
style,  there  ought  to  be  three  § 
glyphs  above  the  intercolumni;  )n 
of  the  middle,  and  only  two  01E 
others;  and  that  in  the  syse 
where  one  triglyph  was  commHy 
placed  between  each  intercolu  i- 
ation,  there  ought  to  be  two  aS 
that  in  the  middle. 

Interdentil,  the  space  3. 
tween  dentils. 

Inter  duces,  see  Inter- ties 

Interfenestration,  the  s  :e 
between  windows. 

Interjoist,  the  space  betv  n 
joists. 

Intermodillion,  the  spacej- 
tween  two  modillions. 

Intekpknsi vs.,  (Lat.)  timrs 
in  the  roof  of  the  cavsedium,  i;- 
tending  in  a  diagonal  direcn 
from  the  angles  of  the  court  0 
the  junction  of  the  beams  of  e 
roofs,  and  used  to  carry  colliqe 
or  gutters. 

Interpilaster,  is  the  iiil 
val  between  two  pilasters,  wl  h 
should  always  be  regulated  y 
the  principles  of  intercolun- 
ation. 

Interquarter,  the  space  - 
tween  two  quarters. 

Inter-ties,  are  short  pieced 
timber  used  in  roofing,  to  bind  - 
right  posts  together,  in  roof  pa- 
tions,  in  lath  and  plaster  wc, 
and  in  walls  with  timber  frai- 
work. 

Intrados,  (Italian)  the  unr 
curved  surface  or  soffit  of  |n 
arch. 

Intrita,  a  kind  of  clay,  ckj- 
my  like  pitch,  used  in  old  time|r 
mortar,  and  in  lamps  instead  f 
oil. 

Invalides,  Hotel  des,  1 
hospital  at  Paris,  begun  in  J6j 
after  the  plan   and   designs  f 


ION 


1  O  N 


Libcil  Bruant,  under  the  reign 
,  0f  luis  XIV.  for  the  reception  of 
the  /terans  who  had  fought  in  the 
r  ri  s  hattles   during  his  reign, 
and  hich  bears  some  resemblance 
in  i  general  form  to  the  Praeto- 
rian  amp  of  the  Romans. 
I  erted  Archer,   such  as 
their  intrados  below  the  cen- 
tre 1  axis.    Inverted  arches  are 
of  pt  utility  in  giving  stability 
to  h  idings,  in  all  cases  where  the 
wall's  hi°her  on  each  side  than 
,  the  rd  of  the  arch. 

If  a,  one  of  the  islands  called 
e  ebrides  ;  its  name  in  the  ori- 
ir  angnage  signifies  the  "  Island 
|ives."    This  little  island  is 
le  ated  for  its  remarkable  anti- 
itfe;  and  in  history  for  having 
ei  "once  the  luminary  of  the 
I  onian  regions,  whence  savage 
I  n  ind  roving  barbarians  derived 
the  nefits  of  knowledge,  and  the 
3  igs  of  religion."    It  has  only 
e  'wn,  near  which  is  the  Bay  of 
1 1!  rs,  so  named  on  account  of 
t h os who  were  slain  there  by  the 
n .    Beyond  the  town  are  the 
ii  of  the  nunnery  founded  by 
St.  >lumba ;    the  church  is  58 
feet  .  20,  and  the  east  roof  is  en- 
re.  On  the  floor  is  the  tomb  of 
the  st  prioress,  with  her  figure 
'  iv  g  to  the  Virgin  Mary.  From 
n<  a  broad  pavement  leads  to 
the  thedral,  and  on  the  way  is 
m's  Cross,  which  of  360  is 
iht'  fly  one  that  survived  the  Re- 
forrrrion.      A    large  enclosure, 
calle  Relig  Ouran,  is  the  burying 
placof  Oran,  where  the  kings  of 
Seothd,  Ireland,  and  the  Isles, 
and  eir  descendants,  were  buried, 
IB  tr  e  different  chapels.    One  of 
tbes<;  containing  48  Scottish  mo- 
narch from  Fergus  II.  to  Mac- 
beth ;  inscribed,  Tumulus  Regum 
Scot,  ;  the   next,  Tumulus  Re- 
gum  ibernice,  containing  four  Irish 
" "»:hs;  and  the  third,  Tumu- 


lus Regum  Norwegice,  containing 
eight  Norwegian  viceroys  of  the  He- 
brides.    Above   300  inscriptions 
were  collected  here  by  Mr.  Sache- 
verel,  in  1688,  and  given  to  the 
Earl  of  Argyle.    Here  also  stands 
the  chapel  of  St.  Oran,  the  first 
building  begun  by  St.  Columba, 
and  Oran's  red  grave- stone  is  near 
the  door.    A  little  to  the  north- 
west are  the  remains  of  a  cross, 
with  a  number  of  detached  stones, 
they  are  called  clachabratti,  and 
visitors  are  enjoined  to  turn  thrice 
round  here,  in  the  direction  of  the 
course  of  the  sun.  Originally,  there 
were  three  noble  globes  of  white 
marble,  placed  on  three  stone  ba- 
sons, and  these  turned  round  ;  but 
the  synod  ordered  them,  with  60 
crosses,  to  be  thrown  into  the  sea. 
A  little  north  of  these  is  the  cathe- 
dral, built  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
115  feet   long  by  23  broad,  the 
transept  70  feet.    The  pillars  of  the 
choir  have  their  capitals  charged 
with  historical  devices.  This  build- 
ing seems  to  have  been  too  magni- 
ficent  for  the  7th  century,  in  which 
it  is  said  to  have  been  built.  The 
walls  are  of  red  granite,  from  Nun's 
Island.    In  the  church  yard  is  a 
fine  cross  of  a  single  piece  of  red 
granite,  14  feet  high,  22  broad,  and 
10  inches  thick.    Near  the  south- 
east end  is  Mary's  chapel  ;  behind 
this  is  a  piece  of  the  cloister  of  the 
monastery,  and  some  sacred  black 
stones  in  a  corner,  on  which  con- 
tracts and  alliances  used    to  be 
made,  and  oaths  sworn.  The  place 
where   St.  Columba  landed  is  a 
pebbly  beach,  where  a  heap  of  earth 
represents  the  form  of  his  ship  ; 
near  it  is  a  hill,  with  a  circle  of 
stones,  called  the  Hill  of  Angels. 
The  ruins  are,  by  the  attention  of 
the  family  of  Argyle,  kept  in  tole- 
rable repair;   but  this  celebrated 
spot,  the  seat  of  learning  and  piety, 
has  now  no  school  for  education, 

123 


ION 


IRO 


no  temple  for  worship,  no  instruc- 
tor in  religion. 

Ionic  Order.  The  Ionic,  next 
to  the  Doric,  was  the  oldest  order 
amongst  the  Greeks.  It.  originated 
amongst  the  Ionic  colonies  of  the 
Lesser  Asia,  and  is  more  delicate 
and  graceful  than  the  Doric,  and 
yet  has  more  majesty  than  the  Co- 
rinthian. The  column  is  fluted 
with  twenty-four  channels.  The 
abacus  of  its  capital  is  scooped  on 
the  side,  and  the  chief  ornament  of 
the  capital  is  its  two  spiral  volutes. 
(See  Volute.)  It  is  supported  by 
the  echinus  moulding,  sculptured 
with  the  egg-and-tongue,  and  bor- 
dered above  and  below  by  a  headed 
astragal.  The  base  consists  of  a 
torus  and  two  scotise,  separated  by 
astragals,  and  resting  on  a  square 
plinth.  But  the  most  favourite 
base  used  with  this  order,  both  by 
the  ancients  and  moderns,  was 
the. attic.  The  cornice  is  in  ge- 
neral much  divided  by  moulding 
and  dental  bands.  In  most  of  the 
Asiatic  remains  the  frieze  is  found 
wanting.  In  the  temple  of  Erech- 
theus,  the  column  is  terminated  by 
a  fillet  and  astragal,  and  in  that  of 
Minerva  Polias  by  a  single  fillet,  a 
little  below  the  lower  edge  of  the 
volutes.  In  the  capitals  of  the 
Ionic  buildings  at  Athens,  and  of 
the  temple  of  Minerva  Polias  at 
Priene,  the  lower  edge  of  the  canal 
between  the  volutes  is  formed  into 
a  graceful  curve,  bending  downward 
in  the  middle,  and  revolving  round 
the  spirals.  In  the  temple  of  Bac- 
chus at  Teos,  in  the  great  temple 
at  Loadicea,  and  in  all  the  Roman 
examples  of  the  Ionic,  the  channel 
which  connects  the  two  volutes  is 
not  formed  with  a  border  on  the 
lower  edge,  but  is  terminated  with 
a  horizontal  line,  which  falls  a  tan- 
gent to  the  curve  of  the  spiral  at 
the  commencement  of  the  second 
revolution  of  each  volute.  The 
124 


proportions  of  this  order  are  the 
whole  column,  8  modules,  of  ^ 
the  base  occupies  30  lines,  ai  the 
capital  20  lines,  the  abacus  L* 
6hy  the  echinus  6*,  the  interv!ne 
channel  7,  the  whole  depth  oi,he 
volutes  is  27  lines,  depending  m. 
siderably  lower  than  the  ech  ,S; 
the  shaft.  7 J-  modules,  taperin  IQ 
lines  from  the  inferior  diame  to 
the  neck.  The  entablature,  lit*, 
dule  38  lines,  the  architrave  t|ng 
31  lines,  the  frieze  27,  anche 
cornice  34.  The  finest  sped  ns 
we  have  of  the  Ionic  order  arlhe 
temples  of  Minerva  Polias  at  P  ie, 
of  Erechtheus,  and  Minerva  'o- 
lias,  at  Athens. 

Lion,  (iren,  Sax.  Acam,  Wn.) 
a  metal  common  to  all  parts  cihe 
world  ;  and  though  recorded  toive 
been  extremely  scarce  amonjhe 
Greeks  at  the  time  of  the  sieg  of 
Troy,  it  is  now  every  wher>he 
most  abundant  and  the  mostu'ul 
of  all  metals.  Though  the  lig  ;st 
of  all  metals  except  tin,  yet  i  is 
the  hardest,  and,  when  pure  is 
naturally  malleable.  Most  of  le 
metals  become  more  brittle  as  By 
acquire  heat,  but  iron,  on  the  n- 
trary,  is  the  more  malleable  e  it 
approaches  to  fusion.  Its  spdc 
gravity  is  to  water  as  7632  to  10. 
It  is  the  only  known  subst  :c 
attracted  by  the  loadstone.  ie 
iron  manufactured  in  Great  Br  in 
is  obtained  from  three  kinds  of 
the  Lancashire;  very  heavy,  a 
fibrous  texture,  and  a  dark  pule 
colour,  inclining  to  black;  in 
lodged  in  veins.  Bog  Ore,  w  :* 
resembles  a  deep  yellow  clay,  fed 
in  strata  of  from  twelve  to  tw«  :y 
inches  in  thickness;  and 
Stones,  of  an  irregular  shape,  Sr 
quently  forming  beds  of  git 
extent,  like  other  stony  mass, 
frequently  intersected  with  se 
of  pit-coal.  By  various  process, 
iron  is  rendered  fit  for  casting; 


]  IRO 

forml  into  stoves,  fire-grates,  and 
an  elless  variety  of  culinary  and 
othe  Jtensils,  and  on  a  larger  scale 
,  it  stilies  the  place  of  heavy  beams 
0f  nber  in  machinery   and  in 
builds  and,  when  rendered  malle- 
able it  is  called  forged  iron,  and 
used;  for    purposes   requiring  a 
crear  degree  of  elasticity,  and 
ever  variety  of  form.  Besides 
cast  nd  forged  iron,  there  is  an 
inteiediate  state,  in   which  the 
?  metJi is  made  to  possess  a  certain 
aVr  of  hardness  with  the  neces- 
sary uctility  for  the  manufacturing 
of  I  ves,  and  all  kinds  of  edge- 
tools!  and   polished  ornamented 
gooc     As  early  as  1779,  cast 
n  .as  used  for  the  arches  of 
rj  s,  and  since  that  time  con- 
du   improvements    have  been 
mad  n  their  construction.    In  the 
Repjtory  of  Arts  for  1794,  an 
Kjcofit  is  given  of  Mr.  T.  Wilkin- 
'cast-iron  blocks  for  forming 
;:hesof  bridges,  since  which, 
I  i)um,ous  similar  inventions  have 
i  patented,  and  the  principle 
Kstones    in    forming  arches 
[Id  in  its  utmost  extent,  par- 
i  ticuWy  in  the  magnificent  bridges 
aero  the  Wear  at  Sunderland,  in 
w  iu  Mr.  Burdon,  by  the  appli- 
Itk  of  his  patent  iron  keystones, 
s  >  luced  an  arch  at  least  fifteen 
ighter  than  an  arch  of  stone 
of  tl  same  dimensions,  of  elegant 
formind  very  easily  put  together. 
In  tl  sixth  volume  of  the  Repertory 
-Js  for  1797,  an  account  is 
giveiof  a  similar  invention  for  the 
sam()urpose,  differing  only  in  the 
subs  ution  of  hollow,    or  box- 
shap  ,  for  solid  key-blocks.  Iron 
has  :;o  been  used  for  joists,  and 
otheparts  of  building,  to  render 
then:  ire-proof ;  and  Mr.  Farrow, 
Iron  )nger,  18,  Great  Tower-street, 
k>nn,  has  procured  a  patent  for 
fire-]  x)f  buildings  with  iron  joists 
and  fters.    A  model  of  a  house 


IRO 

of  this  construction  is  to  be  seen  in 
Mark  lane. 

In  1811,  a  patent  was  granted  to 
Thomas  Pearsal,  of  Bitton,  in 
Gloucestershire,  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  various  parts  of  buildings  ; 
roofs,  rafters,  joists  for  floors, 
skeletons  for  stairs,  frames  for 
windows  and  skylights,  and  various 
similar  appendages  to  houses.  De- 
scribed in  the  Repertory  of  Arts, 
vol.  xx.  second  series,  1812. — A 
patent  was  also  procured  by 
Richard  Jones  Tomlinson,  in  1814, 
for  a  mode  of  covering  the  roofs  or 
sides  of  buildings  with  sheet  iron. 
Described  in  the  Repertory  of  Arts, 
vol.  xxiv.  second  series,  1814. — 
And  in  the  same  volume,  a  descrip- 
tion is  given  of  the  manufacture  of 
a  patent  brick,  from  the  scoria,  cin- 
der, or  slag  of  furnaces,  cast  into 
smooth  and  convenient  forms  for 
building,  by  Messrs.Mander,Manby, 
and  Vernon,  of  Wolverhampton. 

Iron  Chains,  under  the  roofs 
of  circular  buildings,  are  found  of 
great  utility  in  preventing  the  pres- 
sure of  the  incumbent  weight  from 
pushing  out  the  walls,  especially  in 
domes  of  great  magnitude.  The 
dome  of  St.  Paul's,  in  London,  has 
two  massive  chains  for  its  support, 
which  are  sunk  into  the  substance  of 
a  circular  course  of  Portland  stone. 

Iron  King  Posts,  and  Queen 
Posts,  are  generally  to  be  preferred 
to  those  of  wood,  and,  where  bolts 
and  straps  are  used,  are  as  cheap. 

Iron-work.  Bolts,  straps,  and 
clamps,  are  preserved  from  the 
effects  of  moisture  by  the  following 
mixture.  Add  half  a  pound  of 
litharge  to  two  quarts  of  boiling 
linseed  oil,  putting  in  small  quan- 
tities at  a  time,  and  cautiously. 
Let  it  simmer  over  the  fire  two  or 
three  hours,  then  strain  it,  and  add 
a  quarter  of  a  pound  of  finely 
pounded  rosin,  and  a  pound  of 
white  lead,  keeping  it  in  a  gentle 


IT  A 

heat  till  incorporated,  and  use  hot. 
A  composition  of  oil  and  rosin,  and 
finely  levigated  brick-dust,  is  found 
a  most  effectual  preservative  of  iron 
from  rust:  it  must  be  mixed,  and 
used  as  a  paint,  of  the  usual  consis- 
tence, and  finely  ground. 

Irregular  Figure,  a  figure 
whose  sides,  and  consequently  an- 
gles, are  unequal  to  each  other. 

Is  agon,  (Gr.  from  urog,  equal, 
and  ytovia,  an  angle,)  a  figure  with 
equal  angles. 

Isiac  Table,  an  Egyptian  mo- 
nument, consisting  of  a  plate  of 
copper,  covered  with  various  figures 
in  basso-relievo,  which  was  disco- 
vered at  Rome  in  1525,  and  was 
bought  from  a  blacksmith  by  Car- 
dii.al  Rembo,  but  it  has  since  been 
lost.  The  principal  works  which 
treat  on  it  are  Pignorius,  Mensa 
Isiaca,  Montfaucon,  Antiquitee 
Expliquee  (torn.  ii.  part  2,  1.  2, 
c.  1  — 3)  Keysler,  Voyages,  torn  i. 
Banier,  Jablonski,  and  Pignorius. 

Isidomum,  or  Isodomum,  (Gr.) 
The  Greeks  had  commonly  two 
methods  of  building,  one  called 
isidomum,  was  with  courses  of 
equal  thickness  and  equal  lengths  ; 
in  the  other,  called  pseudisodomum, 
the  heights,  and  thicknesses,  and 
lengths  of  the  courses,  differed. 
Another  inferior  mode  was  styled 
Emplecton.    See  Cella. 

Isle.    See  A  He. 

Isosceles,  (Gr.)  a  triangle  which 
has  two  sides  equal. 

Ispahan,  see  Persian  Architec. 

Italian,  or  Hip-roof,  see  Car- 
pentry. 

Italy.  From  its  proximity  to 
Greece,  Italy  was  one  of  the  first 
of  the  western  states  of  Europe, 
which  received  literature  and  the 
arts.  The  church  of  St.  Mark  at 
Venice,  built  by  Grecian  artists  in 
the  tenth  and  eleventh  centuries,  is 
still  admired  for  its  conception,  for 
its  antique  magnificence,  and  for  its 


ITA 

fine  proportions.    The  cathe<  |  0f 
Pisa,  built  in  1016,  by  the  eek 
architect  Buchetto,  or  Busc  tto 
of  Dulichium,  is  faced  with  ri  b!e 
both  within  and  without,  a:  js 
supported  by  four  ranges  of  r  ble 
columns.    The  tower  built  [\ 
twel fth  century  beside  tbiscath  ral 
shows  that  architecture  had  a  |*dy 
made  some  progress.    In  th< 
teenth  century,  Lapo  or  Jaco ,  of 
Florence,  built  the  church  <  t> 
Portiuncule.     Contemporary  '\th 
this  architect,  were  also  Fuci  md 
Nicolas  de  Pise,  both  Floret  ,e 
The  works  of  the  latter,  abng 
which  are  the  church  of  St IVn- 
tony  at  Padua,  and  that  c  the 
Trinity  at  Florence,  were  gitiy 
admired  by  Michael  Angelo.  ur- 
ing  the  thirteenth  and  fourtntli 
centuries,  a  noble  emulation  m 
to  have  animated  all  the  ci|  of 
Italy.    The  church  of  Santa  ina 
Formosa,  built  at  Venice,  i  the 
antique  taste,  by  Paulo  Bar  :ta, 
many    monuments    at  Bolna, 
the  beautiful  marble  chapel  (  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  Majc  at 
Rome,  by  Marchione,  are  all  rks 
of  this  period.    In  Italy  arc  ec- 
ture  now  made  rapid  advanc  to- 
wards its  entire  restoration.  >hn 
of  Pisa,  in  Tuscany,  labour  at 
Campo  Santo,  but  it  was  Bne- 
leschi  who  opposed  most  vigot  sly 
the  ruling  taste  for  the  Gothic  flc, 
and  who  studied  without  ce ing 
the  remains  of  ancient  Rome.  Che 
treasures  of  the  Medicis,  and  (  the 
princes  of  Milan,  hasteneclthe 
progress  of  the  arts;  the  rks 
of  Vitruvius  were   studied  ;  had 
Leon  Battista  Alberti,  of  Flolice, 
succeeded  to  the  talents  and  <  er- 
prise  of  Bruneleschi.  From  tha  me 
a  crowd  of  eminent  architects ave 
contributed  towards  its  perfe  on. 
In  the  four  plates  of  Italian  th- 
ings, are  given  specimens  ojthc 
style  of  buildings  in  that  coin  y. 


J  A  V 


J  A  V 


J. 


ick  Arch,  an  arch  of  only 
th<  hickuess  of  one  brick. 
Lex  of  Hilton,  see  JEoli- 

^ TcKLY,  a  village  near  Mylasa, 
>ed  to  be  the  ancient  Labrau- 
a  which  was  visited  by  Dr. 
Chdler,  and  plans  and  drawings 
of  Is  temple  published  in  the  Io- 
ni;  Antiquities. 

The  temple,  (he  observes,)  was 
oflhe  Corinthian  order,  sixteen 
conns,  with  part  of  their  enta- 
bljire,  standing ;  the  cella  and 
ro<'  demolished."    The  remains  of 
,vn  were  also  traced  by  it,  with 
sq  re  towers  at  intervals,  and  walls 
lik those  of  Ephesus.     Within  is 
latre,  cut  in  the  rock.    Of  the 
nfj  and  lateral  walls  of  the  pro- 
only  the  base  is  left,  which  is 
inued  round  the  walls  of  the 
tenle.    The  pavement  of  the  pro- 
as raised  one  step  above  that 
of  le  portico.    The  columns  are 
flud,  except  those  on  the  south 
lii  and  on  their  front  are  inscribed 
h  names  of  the  benefactors  at 
wl  ;e  expense  they  were  done. 
TT  projection  on  the  front  of  the 
uprmost  step  has  the  appearance 
of  i  ovolo,  though  much  defaced  ; 
th')thers  are  concealed  under  the 
ru  ish.    The  entablature  is  left 
plli ;  it  probably  was  intended  to 
ha  been  decorated,  to  accompany 
lumns,  which  are  finished, 
rcumstance,  with  that  of  the 
co  mns  on  the  south  side  of  the 
te;>le   not   being  fluted,  shews, 
be  nd  a  doubt,  that  the  ancients 
w<  accustomed  to  finish  the  de- 
coiions  after  the  fabric  was  rais- 
ed the  temple  of  Apollo  Didymeus, 
Miletus,    furnishes  another 
exiple. 

iCk  Plane,  a  plane  about  18 
11  :s  long,  to  prepare  for  the  try- 
in;  jlane. 


Jack  Rafters,  the  jack  tim- 
bers which  are  fastened  to  the 
high  rafters,  and  the  wall  plates. 
See  Constructive  Carpentry. 

Jack  Ribs,  the  jack  timbers,  or 
parts  of  curved  ribs,  which  are 
fastened  to  the  angle  ribs,  and 
rest  upon  the  wall  plates,  in  groin- 
ed or  domed  ceilings. 

Jack  Timber,  a  short  timber 
fastened  at  the  ends  to  two  tim- 
bers which  are  not  parallel,  or  to  two 
timbers  which  actually  meet  in 
a  point,  as  to  the  wall-plate  and 
hip-rafter  of  a  roof,  the  wall-plate 
and  hip  of  a  groin,  &c. 

Jambs  or  Jawnbs,  (Fr.)  door- 
posts, or  upright  posts  at  the 
ends  of  window-frames,  also  the 
upright  sides  of  a  fire-place,  from 
the  hearth  to  the  mantel-piece. 

Jamb-lining,  the  side  work  of 
door-ways. 

J  a  mb- posts,  uprights  on  the 
sides  of  door-ways,  on  which  the 
jamb-linings  are  fixed. 

Japanese  Houses  (says  a  late 
traveller)  are  the  antipodes  of  those 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  and  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Hauran.  While 
the  latter,  always  aiming  at  mas- 
siveness,  constructed  their  houses 
of  huge  stones,  and  roofed  them 
with  the  same  materials,  you  here 
see,  upon  the  green  knolls  that 
skirt  the  road,  little  delicate  habita- 
tions of  fine  wood,  or  even  of  paper. 
But  their  light  and  graceful  struc- 
ture, and  their  gilded  ornaments, 
glittering  in  the  sun,  give  them 
the  air  of  fairy  dwellings,  which 
the  very  breath  of  heaven  might 
dissolve. 

Java,  an  island  in  the  East 
Indies,  in  which  remains  of  splen- 
did buildings,  laying  claim  to  the 
highest  antiquity,  are  yet  to  be 
seen.  "  Nothing,  (observes  Cap- 
tain Baker)  can  exceed  the  air  of 

127 


J  01 


JO  I 


melancholy,  desolation,  and  ruin, 
which  this  spot  presents;  and  the 
feelings  of  every  visitor  must  be  in 
unison  with  the  scene,  when  he 
reflects  upon  the  origin  of  this  once 
venerated,  hallowed  spot;  the  seat 
and  proof  of  the  perfection  of  arts, 
now  no  longer  in  existence  in 
Java,  and  the  type  and  emblem 
of  a  religion  no  longer  acknow- 
ledged, and  scarcely  known  among 
them  by  name.  Never  have  I  met 
with  such  stupendous  and  finished 
specimens  of  human  labour,  and  of 
the  polished  refined  taste  of  ages 
long  since  forgotten,  crowded  in  so 
small  a  space.  And  though  there 
may  be  remains  of  antiquity  in 
other  parts  of  the  globe,  equally 
worthy  the  eve  of  the  traveller  or 
the  pencil  of  the  artist,  yet  Chandi 
Servo  must  ever  rank  with  the 
foremost  in  the  attractions  of  curi- 
osity, or  of  antiquarian  research. " 
The  most  splendid  of  these  monu- 
ments of  antiquity  are  at  Pram- 
banan,  Boro  -  Bodo,  and  Singa 
Sari.  The  ruins  of  Boro-Bodo  is 
remarkable  for  grandeur  of  design, 
and  exquisite  workmanship.  This 
temple  is  under  the  residency  of 
Kadu,  its  name  being  a  corruption 
of  Bud'ho,  ancient  or  heathen. 
The  building  crowns  the  summit  of 
a  hill;  its  form  is  quadrangular, 
and  rises  by  seven  terraces,  one 
above  another,  each  enclosed  by 
a  stone  wall ;  flights  of  steps  at 
the  four  corners,  leading  to  the 
top,  on  which  are  four  latticed 
domes,  with  one  of  a  larger  cir- 
cumference. Upwards  of  300  stone 
images  of  devotees  occupy  as  many 
niches,  or  temples,  in  the  walls; 
these  are  above  three  feet  high. 
Similar  images  are  also  in  the 
domes  above,  both  within  and 
without,  carved  in  relief,  in  the 
most  correct  and  beautiful  style. 
Historical  scenes  and  mythological 
ceremonies    are    represented  by 

128 


groups  of  figures;  they  a  ,r, 
the  Indian  costume;  and  th ex- 
tent and  gTandeur  of  the  0le 
is  wonderful,  and  beautifull  9r. 
rect  in  the  workmanship ;  biLe 
of  the  most  extraordinary  rjjE 
mental  assemblage  of  wonde  j« 
an  immense  colossal  statue 
man  resting  on  his  hams,  lyi  cn 
its  face,  and  adjacent  to  a  t-  u 
on  which  it  was  originally  p  >,j 
It  measures  in  length  1*2  feet  ith 
corresponding  dimensions  in  ju 
parts ;  it  is  cut  from  one  fcj 
stone.  The  terrace  from  m 
this  enormous  statue  appea  to 
have  fallen,  is  about  18  feet  jh, 
and  could  not  have  been  rai  to 
that  station  by  any  machine  at 
present  in  possession  of  the  n  ves 
of  Java.  A  second  figure  o  his 
description  has  been  latelwk- 
covered  ;  and  in  the  distri  of 
Malang,  not  far  from  Singa- .ra, 
several  interesting  ruins  of  ai  er.t 
temples  have  been  found. 

Jerkin- head,  is  a  pe 
feature  in  roofs,  in  which  :hc 
gable  is  carried  higher  thai  the 
side  walls. 

Jet-d'eau,  (Fr.)  water  tlwn 
into  the  air  from  a  pipe  or  ibe 
placed  in  the  middle  of  a  basir  nd 
falling  again  into  the  basin  bp 

Joggle  Post,  a  strut-po:for 
fixing  the  lower  ends  of  the  s  ts. 
See  Crown. 

Joists,  for  floors  of  the  sirr  est 
construction,  are  placed  with  eii 
edges  uppermost,  extend  from 
to  wall,  and  are  generally  i 
and  thin;  these  floors  are  c 
single-jointed,  excepting  large  m 
bers,  called  beams:  all  the 
pieces  supporting  the  boards 
floor  are  called  joists;  and  if 
pieces  are  fixed  to  the  bearm'n- 
derneath,  to  sustain  the  lath  PQ 
plaster,  these  are  called  cM 
joists.  Bridging  joists  are  W 
to  which  the  boards  are  njed. 


liar 


JOI 

*  i.  . 

;  Th  binding  joists  are  those  into 
vh:i  the  bridging  joists  are  mor- 
tise   See  Bay,  and  Carpentry. 
\  i n er y,  in  building,  is  con- 
ul  fine  to  the  nicer  and  more  orna- 
al,  as  carpentry  is   to  the 
-c^erand  more  ponderous,  parts. 

!e  and  yellow  deal,  mahogany, 
a  American  oak,  are  the  woods 
n  -illy  used  by  the  joiner,  who, 
in  s  acting,  always  give6  the  pre- 
fere:e  to  such  pieces  as  are  free 
ror knots,  and  straight-grained  ; 
the  ellow  deal  is  in  general  the 
teas  liable  to  these  imperfections, 
:  therefore   best  for  styles  of 
doo  and  framing,  and  mouldings 
ery  description.     White  deal 
ii  n  e  preferred  for  panels,  which 
i  be  cut  down  the  middle, 
a;  Coined  again,  an  edge  to  a 
ids,  whether  the  panel  require 
iree,  or  more  pieces,  carefully 
»i     knots  on  the  edge  of  the 
ni  which  if  admitted  will  cause 
to  y,  even  in  dry  wood.  The 
itraihtest  logs  should  be  selected 
ir  jinscots,  of  a  clear  grain  and 
n  i  form  colour.    A  log  of  wain- 
g  ought  to  be   cut  in  a 
ire<  m  opposed  to  what  workmen 
ill  e  beat  of  the  wood,  in  order 
it  t  may  have  a  handsome 
■  k  ted    appearance;    for  the 
ityleand  frames  of  doors,  sashes, 

*  &c.  od  cut  in  the  same  direction 
astb&eafwill  make  better  mor- 

|J  nd  be  less  liable  to  split  or 
rp  Mahogany  is  used  only  for 
*    ors,  sash  frames,  banister 
Is,  nd  other  parts  of  the  most 
i   houses.     Spanish  maho- 
y  s  harder   than  that  from 
Hone  as,   and  also,  when  it  is 
'    (1,  is  far  more  beautiful. 
The  ecies  of  mahogany,  called 
ltt  h  is  of  the  cheapest  kind, 
*  i    netimes  used  for  panels  of 
imensions,  and  is  preferred 
1  boards,  the  facings  of  shops, 
*n(l  iat  the  workmen  call  sweep 


JOI 

work  ;  it  is  less  liable  to  be  affected 
by  the  weather.  For  polishing 
wainscot  work,  the  joiner  dissolves 
thin  shavings  of  bees-wax  in  spirit 
of  turpentine,  without  heat,  in  a 
glazed  earthen  pan,  stirring  it  fre- 
quently, and,  by  adding  of  either 
article,  keeping  the  compound  or 
the  consistence  of  honey  ;  this  ap- 
plication put  on  with  a  linen  rag, 
and  rubbed  till  it  will  not  adhere 
to  the  fingers,  gives  a  fine  polish  ; 
or  to  a  quart  of  linseed  oil  a  pint  or 
spirit  of  turpentine  is  added,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  lime;  it  is  kept 
hot  beside  the  fire  two  or  three 
hours,  strained  through  a  cloth, 
and  kept  for  use;  this  is  applied 
with  a  brush,  and  after  twenty-four 
hours  is  to  be  rubbed  with  oak 
saw-dust,  finishing  with  a  clean 
linen  rag ;  or  to  polish  and  heighten 
the  colour  at  the  same  time,  gently 
boil  one  quart  of  linseed  oil  with 
half  an  ounce  of  litharge  for  an 
hour  or  more,  then  strain  and  mix 
with  half  a  pint  of  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine, in  which  a  sufficient  quantity 
of  pounded  turmeric  has  been  left 
to  macerate.  This,  mixed  with  the 
oil  and  litharge,  is  to  be  applied 
with  a  brush  or  rag,  and  after  an 
interval  of  a  day  may  be  repeated, 
by  which  the  work  may  be  rendered 
very  beautiful. 

In  joints  of  boards,  it  is  in  gene- 
ral only  necessary  to  ascertain  the 
perfect  truth  of  the  joint,  and  that  it 
is,  as  the  workmen  say,  out  of  wind- 
ing ;  to  apply  the  glue  quite  hot, 
and  rub  the  edges  against  each 
other  till  it  become  nearly  cold  ; 
but  if  the  wood  be  porous  or  spongy, 
by  previously  rubbing  the  joint 
with  soft  chalk,  and  wiping  away 
all  loose  particles,  the  operation 
will  be  more  effectual. 

The  workman,  after  glueing  up 
his  work,  suffers  it  to  remain  at  rest 
a  short  time  till  the  glue  stiffens; 
that  which  escapes  from  the  joints 

129 


JON 

\s  then  carefully  scraped  off  with 
a  chisel,  and  all  the  corners  cleaned 
out  with  a  sponge  slightly  moistened 
with  hot  water;  the  work  then  re- 
mains till  perfectly  dry,  after  which 
a  fine  smoothing-plane  is  used,  to 
take  off  all  unevenness  about  the 
joints;  and  lastly  a  smooth  scraper 
and  fine  glass-paper  are  applied. 
Sometimes  it  will  be  necessary  to 
damp  the  whole  over  with  a  sponge, 
to  raise  the  grain,  and  afterwards 
apply  the  glass-paper,  when  the 
work  will  be  ready  for  polishing 
with  wax,  oil,  or  varnish. 

Joint.  See  Abreuvoir,  But- 
joint,  and  Constructive  Carpen- 
try. 

Jointer,  the  largest  kind  of 
plane,  termed  also  jointing  plane. 
In  bricklaying  the  term  is  applied 
to  a  piece  of  iron  bent  in  two  op- 
posite directions,  and  sometimes 
used  in  building  a  wall. 

Jointing  Rule,  a  rule  used  by 
bricklayers  for  securing  a  straight 
face  to  their  work. 

Jones,  Inigo,  a  celebrated  En- 
glish architect,  the  son  of  a  clothier 
in  London;  he  was  born  in  1572. 
He  was  put  apprentice  to  a  joiner, 
but  soon  distinguished  himself  by 
a  taste,  for  drawing,  particularly 
in  landscape  drawings  and  paint- 
ing: he  was  patronised  by  William, 
Earl  of  Pembroke,  who  sent  him 
abroad  with  a  handsome  allowance, 
to  perfect  himself  in  that  art.  He 
was  no  sooner  at  Rome,  than  he 
found  himself  in  his  proper  sphere  ; 
he  felt  that  nature  had  formed  him, 
not  to  decorate,  but  to  design  pala- 
ces. His  first  work  was  Whitehall. 
Christian  the  Fourth,  of  Denmark, 
invited  him  to  his  court,  and  ap- 
pointed him  his  architect.  He  was 
afterwards  architect  to  Queen  Anne. 
He  served  Prince  Henry  in  the 
same  capacity,  and  the  place  of 


JUM 

surveyor-general  of  the  works  as 
granted  him  in  reversion.    Oi  he 
death  of  his  patron  he  travjed 
again  into  Italy,  and  on  his  rJ 
the  surveyor  s  place  fell  to  him. 
he,  with  uncommon  disintere 
ness,  gave  up  the  profits  o  iis 
office,  which  he  found  great  in 
debt,  and  also  prevailed  on  he 
comptroller  and  paymaster  toni- 
tate  his  example,  till   the  vjle 
arrears  were  cleared.     In  ] 
Laud,  then  Bishop  of  London,  uu 
the  first  stone  of  St.  Paul's  Cta. 
dral,  and  Inigo  the  fourth,  nd 
after  completing  that  structunhe 
successively  designed  some  o 
most  splendid  erections  in  Lor 
among  which  are  the  chapf  01 
Lincoln's    Inn  ;    the  Banqung 
House,  begun  in  1619,  and  fin  ed 
in  two  years.    This  is  a  bealtl 
model  of  pure  taste.  Surgn's 
Hall  is  one  of  his  best  works  ;  nd 
of  the  most  admired  are  the  Aide 
of  Covent  Garden,  and  the  Ch  :h. 
One  of  his  most  beautiful  won  is 
the  Queen's  House,  at  Green  :\\. 
He  early  tasted  the  misfortune  of 
his  royal  master.    He  was  not  fa 
a  favourite,  but  a  Catholic;  a  m 
1646  he  paid  £544  for  his  ri  n- 
quencyand  sequestration.    H  mi 
Stone,  the  mason,  buried  their  m 
stock  in  Scotland   yard.     <  >'. 
misfortunes,  and  age,  put  anwd 
to  his  life  at  Somerset  House,  ! 
21,  1651. 

Judgment  Gate.  SceJnu 
hara. 

J uffers,  an  antiquated 
for  pieces  of  wood  four  or  five  i 
square. 

Jumper,  a  name  given  bi- 
sons and  miners  to  a  longiou 
chisel  used  *in  boring  shot-  >les 
for  blasting  large  masses  of  M 
by  which  they  may  be  spli  »t0 
smaller  ones. 


130 


KEE 


KEY 


K 


Kaaba,  see  Caaba. 

Kang,  or  Chinese  Stove,  is  heat- 
i  by  a  furnace,  which  casts  all  its 
jit  into  it.  The  furnace  is  po- 
rtioned and  fitted  to  the  stove, 
al  may  be  placed  either  in  the 
r  m,  or  on  the  outside  of  the 
h.ise.  The  heat  of  this  furnace, 
ii celled  by  the  outward  air,  rushes 
tough  a  slit  into  a  tubular  con- 
d  u  r,  and  passing  from  this  into 
a.'ther  pipe  at  right  angles  to  it, 
rag  under  the  middle  of  the  floor 
cthe  stove,  issues  through  vent- 
hes  in  the  last  pipe,  and  is  com- 
nnicated  to  the  bricks  which  form 
t!  pavement  of  the  stove,  and  from 
fm  to  the  whole  room.  The 
s  jke  is  carried  off  by  funnels  at 
ends  of  the  stove.  See  a 
d  wing  and  description  in  the  Phi- 
lophical  Transactions,  vol.  Ixi. 
pL  1.  article  7. — It  is  observable, 
tt:  in  order  to  draw  off  the  perni- 
c  is  vapours  arising  from  the  coal 
fi  water-pots  are  placed  in  the 
Hps,  and  the  emperor's  apart- 
ttjits  in  the  palace  are  decorated 
w  i  flower-pots,  with  little  orange- 
tis  and  other  plants;  and  the 
Cnese  philosophers  assert,  that 
tr  is  the  best  method  of  sweeten- 
in  the  air ;  a  doctrine  perfectly 
existent  with  the  opinions  of 
Eopean  chemists. 

tEP,  (  Sax. )  sometimes  styled 
ei  hatically  the  tower,  the  strongest 
pa  of  the  old  English  castles,  form- 
in  the  citadel  of  the  fortress.  It 
w  generally  near  the  centre  of  the 
fo  fied  works,  but  in  some  in- 
to es,  as  at  Portchester,  Good- 
ri(  Castleton,  and  other  very 
t  castles,  it  is  found  placed 
in  line  with  the  exterior  walls. 
ItMassive  walls  and  narrow  loop- 
i  were  calculated  to  afford 
deice  in  the  last  extremities  of 
*  Jge.    It  has  sometimes  been 


denominated  the  Maiden  tower, 
but  this  term  does  not  refer  to  its 
being  the  habitation  of  the  ladies, 
but  it  appears  to  be  a  corruption 
of  the  old  French  magne  or  mayne, 
great.    See  Castle  and  Don  Jon. 

KeRAUNOSCOPEION,    (  KEpUVVOQ, 

lightning,  aKOTrs.it>,  I  behold,  Gr.) 
a  machine  used  in  the  theatres  of 
the  ancients,  to  represent  the  light- 
ning of  Jupiter.  Another  machine, 
called  bronteion  served  to  imitate 
thunder. 

Kerf,  the  slit  or  cut  in  a  piece 
of  timber,  or  in  a  stone,  by  a  saw. 

Kerkis,  in  the  plural  kerkidest 
(kzqkiq,  Gr.  the  radius  of  a  circle,) 
a  name  which  in  the  theatres  of  the 
ancients  designated  the  stairs  which 
crossed  the  ranges  of  seats  like 
radii  of  a  circle,  and  which  were 
carried  from  the  orchestra  to  the 
outermost  circumference  of  the 
seats.    See  Theatre. 

Key,  (c&g,  Sax.)  In  the  earliest 
times,  the  locks  and  keys  were  very 
simple,  the  former  being  but  a  bar 
of  wood,  and  the  key  a  hook  by 
which  it  was  raised  or  drawn  back. 
By  degrees  they  became  more  com- 
plicated. The  keys  of  the  ancients 
were  generally  of  bronze  ;  they  had 
an  infinite  variety  of  forms,  and 
they  were  sometimes  so  large  and 
heavy,  as  to  require  to  be  carried 
on  the  shoulder. 

Keyed  Dado,  so  named  on  ac- 
count of  its  being:  secured  from 
warping  by  bars  grooved  into  it, 
on  the  inside. 

Keys,  in  naked  flooring,  are 
pieces  of  timber  fixed  in  between 
the  joists  by  mortise  and  tenon. 
When  these  are  fastened  with  their 
ends  projecting  against  the  sides  of 
the  joists,  they  are  called  strutting 
pieces. 

Key  of  a  floor,  the  board  last 
laid  down. 

131 


LAB 


LAB 


Keys,  pieces  inserted  in  boards 
to  prevent  warping. 

Key-stone,  the  stone  placed  in 
the  centre  of  the  top  of  an  arch  or 
vault.  See  Crown  and  Console. 
The  character  of  the  key-stone 
varies  in  the  different  orders.  In 
the  Tuscan  and  Doric  it  is  only 
a  simple  stone  projecting  beyond 
the  rest:  in  the  Ionic,  it  is  adorned 
with  mouldings  in  the  manner  of  a 
console ;  in  the  Corinthian  and 
Composite,  it  is  a  rich  sculptured 
console.  The  degree  of  ornament 
on  the  key-stone  is  usually  regu- 
lated by  the  general  character  of 
the  building.  The  ancients  have 
left  us  several  fine  models  of  orna- 
mented key-stones  of  arcades  and 
arches,  which  generally  represented 
some  ornament  or  figure  that  re- 
lated to  the  building.  Those  of 
the  arcades  of  the  amphitheatre  of 
the  ancient  Capua  are  adorned 
with  heads,  in  high  relief,  of  the  di- 
vinities to  which  it  appears  to  have 
been  consecrated.  The  key-stones 
of  triumphal  arches  were  orna- 
mented with  allegorical  symbols 
and  figures  allusive  to  the  subject. 
That  of  the  arch  of  Titus  is  the 
finest  known. 

Mr.  Burden,  the  architect  of  the 
bridge  at  Sunderland,  who  first 
formed  an  arch  of  iron  on  the  same 
principle  as  the  stone  arch,  obtained 
a  patent  for  making  blocks  of  iron 
as  substitutes  for  key-stones  of 
arches,  possessing  great  lightness, 
with  all  necessary  strength.  These 
blocks  in  the  widest  part  measure 
5  feet  2  inches,  and  in  thickness 
4  inches,  being  in  the  form  of  a 
kind  of  frame- work.    Each  block 


weighs  four  hundred  weight,  \\ 
they  are  fixed  together  by  pins  s  i 
bars  of  iron. 

Knee,  a  part  of  the  back  u 
hand-railing,  of  a  convex  form,  L 
reverse  of  a  ramp,  which  is  a  bfi 
of  a  hand-rail,  and  is  cone? . 
The  name  of  Knee  is  also  giver!} 
any  small  piece  of  timber  of  a  bfi 
or  angular  form. 

Knee,  Knee-piece,  or  Knee-r- 
ter,  an  angular  piece  of  timber, ) 
which  pieces  of  timber  in  a  roof  je 
fastened. 

Kilcullen's  Cross.  % 
Cross. 

Kiln,  a  building  for  the  ac  - 
mulation  and  retention  of  heat  i 
order  to  dry  or  burn  certain  m?- 
rials  deposited  within  them.  It 
Bricks,  and  Lime. 

King  Post,  the  middle  post 
a  roof.    See  Crown. 

Kitchen,  (cuisine,  Fr.  perh; 
from  culina,  Lat.  kegin,  Wels) 
that  part  of  the  office  of  a  ho 
where  the  business  of  cooking 
carried  on. 

Knotting,  a  process  to  prevt 
the  knots  appearing,  by  laying 
a  size  composed  of  (1)  red  lead,  ) 
white  lead  and  oil,  or  (3)  a  coatf 
gold  size,  (which  last  is  alwa 
effectual,)  as  the  preliminary  p- 
cess  of  painting. 

Knuckle,  the  joint,  of  a  cyli 
drical  form,  with  a  pin,  as  an  a? 
by  which  the  straps  of  a  hinge 
fastened  together. 

Krade,  (Gr.)  a  machine  in 
ancient  theatres  by  which  the  go 
and  heroes  were  represented  t 
versing  the  air,  by  means  of  a  ch 
and  ropes. 


L. 


Label,  in  Gothic  architecture,       Labyrinth,  (Lat.)  a  buildi; 

the   drip  or  hood-moulding    of  full   of  numerous   and  intric 

an    arch,  when    it  is  returned 
square 


133 


passages.  The  most  celebrai 
labyrinth  of  antiquity  was  that 


LAB 

E'pt,  wnich  was  situated  above 
la:  Mceris,  near  Crocodilopolis,  or 
A  noe,  in  the  district  now  called 
fkm,  or  Fium.  The  builder  of 
it.or  the  use  to  which  it  was  ap- 
p|J,  is  unknown.  Some  have 
reirded  it  as  a  kind  of  pantheon, 
u  re  they  sacrificed  to  all  the 
E  ptian  deities  ;  others  have 
tbight  that  it  was  appropriated 
totie  celebration  of  religious  mys- 
:e ?s ;  and  others  have  imagined 
tb,  it  was  dedicated  to  the  sun, 
ar  represented  the  zodiac,  and 

IM  tb  course  of  the  great  luminary, 
ai  of  the  planets.  See  Paul 
[ias's  "  Voyages  dans  la  Grece," 
&  and  the  same  author's  "  Voy- 
dans  la  Turquie,"  &c.  Pauvv's 
cherches  sur  les  iEgyptiens," 
P  Dcke's  "  Travels  in  the  East," 

it    G lerer's  "Weltgesehichte  in  ihrem 
:en  Umfange."  The  same  au- 

E    thj's  "  Article  de  Metempsychosi," 

s    <t'  in   the  "  Commentar.  Soc. 
S(,nt.  Gbtr."  &c.  vol.  v.  and  ix. 

i     S;iry,  44  Lettres  sur  l'jEgypt." 
B  ier,  "  Memoire  sur  les  Palais 

;sst  de'aron,"  &c.  in  the  fifth  vol.  of 
th  14  Memoires  de  l'Acad.  des 
Iriiript."  and  the  various  travellers 
ir.  ;ypt. — The  Labyrinth  of  Crete, 
it  ported  to  have  been  built  by 
Djialus,  in  imitation  of  that  of 
E;|pt.  In  the  time  of  Pliny  and 
D'ioms  it  had  ceased  to  exist. — 
Tl  Labyrinth  of  Porsenna,  near 
CI  jium  in  Etruria,  appears  to 
ha  served  for  the  sepulchre  of 
th'  prince.  It  is  described  by 
P%,  and  a  conjectural  plan  of 
t  given  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Adlemy  of  Cortona,  torn.  ix.  p.  80. 
The  was  also  a  labyrinth  of  some 
ce  irity  at  Lemnos;  and,  accord- 
•n^o  Strabo,  there  were  caverns 
ne  Nauplia,  in  Argolis,  which 
co  lined  a  labyrinth,  denominated 
Ci  opca. 

ibyrinth  Fret,  a  very  an- 
cie  ornament,  in  form  of  a  laby- 


LAN 

rinth,  with  numerous  turnings  and 
involutions. 

Lacunar,  (Lat.)  panels  or  cof- 
fers in  ceilings,  or  in  the  soffits  of 
cornices  ;  the  flat  roof  of  a  room  : 
a  roof  when  vaulted  was  termed 
camera. 

Lacunaria,  (Lat.)  the  ceiling 
of  the  ambulatory  around  the  cella 
of  a  temple,  or  of  the  portico. 

Laconicum,  (Lat.)  one  of  the 
apartments  of  the  ancient  baths, 
so  called  from  its  having  been  first 
used  in  Laconia. 

Lactaria  Column  a,  see  Co- 
lumn. 

Lady  Chapel,  the  name  given 
to  a  small  chapel,  generally  found 
in  ancient  cathedrals,  behind  the 
screen  of  the  high  altar.  It  is 
usually  dedicated  to  the  Virgin 
Mary ;  by  Catholics,  called  Our 
Lady. 

Laquearii,  (Lat.)  among  the 
Romans,  the  workmen  who  made 
the  laquear,  or  lacunar.  See 
Lacunar. 

Lancet,  see  Gothic  Architec- 
ture. 

Landing,  the  terminating  of 
a  stairs,  or  a  broad  step  where 
the  entrance  to  a  room  occurs 
in  the.  course  of  a  staircase,  or 
stairs. 

Lantern,  in  Gothic  architec- 
ture, a  turret,  placed  above  a 
building,  and  pierced  with  win- 
dows. Beautiful  specimens  of  the 
ornamented  open  lantern  or  louvre, 
are  preserved  in  the  cathedrals  of 
Peterborough  and  Ely.  Lanterns 
of  open  stone  -  work,  erected  on 
lofty  church  towers,  of  a  more 
recent  date  than  the  Anglo-Nor- 
man era,  are  supposed  by  some 
writers  to  have  been  intended  to 
hold  lights  in  aid  of  the  traveller. 
The  lantern  of  the  steeple  of  Bos- 
ton church,  Lincolnshire,  Mr.  Brit- 
ton  says,  (Architec.  Antiq.  vol.  iv. 
p.  118)  was  no  doubt,  intended 

133 


L  AT 


LAU 


to  be  lighted  at  night  for  a  sea- 
mark. The  church  of  All  Saints, 
at  York,  has  a  lantern  much  re- 
sembling it,  "  and  tradition  tells 
us,  that  anciently  a  large  lamp 
hung  in  it,  which  was  lighted  in 
the  night-time,  as  a  mark  for  tra- 
vellers to  aim  at,  in  their  passage 
over  the  immense  forest  of  Galtres 
to  this  city.  There  is  still  the 
hook  of  the  pulley  on  which  the 
lamp  huns  in  the  steeple."  Drake's 
York,  p.  292.  Lanterns  are  used 
to  cover  the  overtures  on  the  top 
of  cupolas.  Some  suppose  that 
the  tholus  mentioned  by  Vitruvius, 
was  something  of  this  kind,  but 
Winckelmann,  with  some  others, 
have  imagined  it  to  be  the  cupola 
itself.    See  Tholus. 

The  name  of  lantern  is  given 
also  to  a  square  cage  of  carpentry 
placed  over  the  ridge  of  a  corridor 
or  gallery,  between  two  rows  of 
shops,  to  give  light,  as  in  the  Royal 
Exchange,  London. 

Lantern  of  Demosthenes,  see 
Athenian  Architecture. 

Larakium,  (Lat.)  a  kind  of 
domestic  chapel  in  the  Roman 
houses,  dedicated  to  the  worship 
of  the  lares,  or  household  gods. 

Larmier,  ( Fr. )  the  same  as 
the  corona,  the  upper  member  of  a 
cornice.  In  Gothic  architecture  it 
is  a  kind  of  plinth,  the  upper  sur- 
face of  which  is  inclined,  and  the 
inferior  part  hollowed  in  a  round 
canal,  to  throw  the  water  from  the 
wall. 

Latch,  the  simplest  kind  of  fas- 
tening to  a  door. 

Lath,  a  long  narrow  slip  of 
wood,  nailed  on  the  rafters  of  a 
roof,  for  receiving  the  plaster. 
Latin  authors  give  the  names  of 
ambrices,  templa,  and  ligatura,  to 
those  parts  of  the  frame-work  of 
ceilings  which  are  also  used  in 
plaster  partitions.  Laths  are  of 
three  kinds,  heart  of  oak  laths,  sap 

134 


laths,  and  deal  laths.  The  $ 
sort,  as  the  most  durable,  are  ^ 
for  tiling;  the  two  last,  only,  >r 
ceiling  and  partitioning.  LathiL 
cut  in  lengths  of  three,  four,  M 
five  feet;  yet  the  statue  only aUs 
of  five  and  three  feet  lengths,  eaJtf 
which  are  to  be  an  inch  and  a  If 
in  breadth,  and  half  an  inclm 
thickness. 

Lath-bricks,  a  particular  tt 
of  brick,  made  in  some  par  of 
England,  of  twenty-two  inchein 
length,  and  six  inches  broad,  'hy 
are  used  for  drying  malt,  for  wh 
they  are  well  adapted,  and  nm 
heat  a  long  time. 

Lattice,  (lattis,  Fr.)  a  ref- 
lated window,  made  of  lath: or 
slips  of  iron,  separated  by  ess 
windows,  and  only  used  where  ir, 
rather  than  light,  is  to  be  admi  d. 
as  in  cellars  and  dairies. 

Laundry,  a  spacious  and  n 
lighted  apartment,  which  is  in  le 
occupation  of  the  laundress,  10 
will  need  every  thing  conveint 
for  mangling,  ironing,  and  drW 
the  linen  of  the  family;  these  e, 
a  stove  to  heat  the  irons,  ancor 
drying ;  with  a  range  of  gra  e, 
and  other  conveniences,  le 
stove  must  have  an  iron  pipe,  > 
ducted  in  several  directions  apt 
the  room,  to  give  out  heat,  an  at 
last  inserted  in  the  chimney  k 
near  the  ceiling.  Horses,  or^i- 
der  frames  of  wood,  are  provid, 
to  hang  the  linen  upon  ;  and  t  se 
are  occasionally  drawn  up  to  ie 
top  of  the  room,  where  the  at 
being  greater  than  below,  the  y- 
ing  will  be  sooner  completed.|A 
water-pipe,  for  the  use  of  the  wk- 
women,  and  various  other  requis  s, 
should  be  provided. 

Laura,  a  collection  of  Me 
cells,  or  monkish  habitations,  P- 
tiguous  to  each  other,  in  w I  n 
hermits,  in  ancient  times,  N 
together  in  a  wilderness.  OfP 


LEA 


LEV 


r  st  celebrated  Lauras  of  antiquity 
jre,  that  of  St.  Eu:hymius,  four 
cfive  leagues  from  Jerusalem  ;  the 
Jura  of  St.  Saba,  near  tbe  brook 
(dron;  and  that  of  the  Towers, 
r|ir  Jordan. 

Layer,  a  stratum,  or  row,  one 
]  1  upon  another,  stratum  super 
latum;  applied  to  the  stones 
c  bricks,  and  synonymous  with 
cirses. 

Lazaretto,  (Ital.)  a  hospital 
f  the  reception  of  persons  sick  of 
citaeious  disorders,  the  wards  of 
\ich  are  quite  isolated. 
Lead,  (laid,  Sax.)  the  heaviest 
rtal  except  gold  and  quicksilver, 
ci  hluish  white  when  first  broken  ; 
s  cific  gravity  11,450,  less  hard, 
1  i  elastic,  less  tenacious,  and  less 
s  orous,  than  any  other  metal ; 
s  jble  in  all  acids  and  alkaline 
s  irions ;  fusible  before  ignition, 
ai  easily  calcined.  It  is  found 
neralized  with  sulphur,  with  a 
s  ht  mixture  of  silver  and  anti- 
l  ny :  in  diaphonous,  prismatical 
c  stals,  generally  hexagonal ;  white, 
\  owish,  or  greenish,  in  the  Men- 
d  hills,  in  Somersetshire.  Near 
I'stol,  and  in  Cumberland,  it 
a  imes  the  form  of  a  white,  grey, 
o/ellowish  spar,  without  the  least 
n  .liic  appearance  ;  in  some  places 
it;  in  the  state  of  native  ceruse,  in 
white  powder;  and  in  Monmouth- 
it  has  been  found  native,  or 
ii  i  metallic  state.  The  metal  of 
1' '  is  easily  rolled  out  into  very 
t!)  plates.  Next  to  tin,  it  is  the 
n-t  fusible  of  metals.  Plumbers 
tojchase  the  lead  as  it  comes  from 
tl|  manufacturer,  in  pigs,  which 
tlr  reduce  to  forms  suitable  to 
t^  r  purposes  :  for  buildings,  they 
h  e  cast  sheet-lead,  used  for  flat 
r'  s,  for  terraces,  gutters,  and  the 
si,  s  and  bottoms  of  reservoirs,  and 
Wilar  purposes.  Rolled  lead  is 
v  thin,  for  putting  over  ridges  and 
*  les  of  roofs,  and  in  various  situ- 


ations, as  a  protection  from  the 
weather.  Leaden  pipes  are  used 
to  convey  water  from  the  gutters 
of  the  roofs  of  houses,  and  for  other 
purposes. 

Lean-to,  the  name  given  to  a 
small  building,  whose  side-walls 
and  roof  project  from  the  wall  of  a 
larger  building. 

Ledge,  or  Ledgement,  a  pro- 
jection from  a  plane,  as  the  slips 
on  the  sides  of  window-frames  to 
keep  them  steady  in  their  places, 
or  those  against  the  door-frame, 
against  which  the  door  shuts. 

Ledgers,  the  horizontal  pieces 
fastened  to  the  standard  poles  or 
t  mbersof  scaffolding,  raised  around 
buildings  during  their  erection; 
those  which  rest  upon  the  ledgers 
are  called  putlogs,  and  on  these 
the  boards  for  working  upon  are  laid. 

Legs  of  an  Hyperbola,  are  the 
two  parts  on  each  side  of  the 
vertex. 

Legs  of  a  Triangle :  when  one 
side  of  a  triangle  is  taken  for  the 
base,  the  other  two  are  called  the 
legs. 

Length,  (leng,  Sax.)  length, 
and  breadth  also,  are  understood, 
as  applied  to  the  ground,  or  the 
floors,  or  the  horizontal  plane  which 
the  building  occupies  :  the  dimen- 
sions of  an  ascending  vertical  line, 
is  called  height;  and  the  same  line 
measured  downwards,  gives  what  is 
called  the  depth  of  an  apartment, 
or  a  building. 

Lesche,  amongst  the  Greeks, 
the  name  of  a  building,  or  hall, 
used  for  public  resort. 

Level,  (loefel,  Sax.)  a  surface 
which  inclines  to  neither  side. 
There  are  several  instruments  used 
to  take  levels:  as,  the  Air  Level; 
Water  Level;  Pendulum  Level; 
Refecting  Level ;  Mason  s  Level ; 
Carpenter's  or  Bricklayer's  Level, 
&c.  The  Air  Level,  invented  by 
Dr.  Hooke,  shews  the  line  of  level 

135 


LIN 

by  means  of  a  bubble  of  air,  en- 
closed with  some  liquor  in  a  glass 
tube. — The  Water  Level,  which 
resembles  the  chorobates  of  the 
ancients,  shows  the  horizontal  line 
by  means  of  a  surface  of  water  or 
otber  fluid. — A  Carpenter  s  Level, 
consists  of  a  long  ruler,  to  the  mid- 
dle of  which  a  broader  piece  is 
fitted  at  right  angles,  with  a  plum- 
met hanging  down  it. — The  Masons 
Level,  is  formed  of  three  pieces  of 
wood,  joined  in  the  form  of  an 
isosceles  triangle,  having  a  plummet 
suspended  from  the  vertex,  over  a 
mark  in  the  centre  of  the  base. 

Levelling,  the  art  of  discover- 
ing a  line  parallel  to  the  horizon  at 
several  places,  to  determine  heights 
or  depths. 

Library,  (bibliotheca,  Lat.)  an 
apartment  to  contain  books. 

Liburna,  (Lat.)  a  species  of 
Roman  swift  ship,  with  two  sets  of 
rowers. 

Line,  (Linea,  Lat.)  in  Geometry, 
that  figure  which  has  only  length. 
Lines  of  the  Sector  and  Scale  :  see 
Instruments.  Horizontal  line,  in 
perspective,  the  common  section  of 
the  horizontal  plane,  and  that  of  the 
draught  or  representation,  passing 
through  the  principal  point:  in 
Dialing,  it  is  the  common  section 
of  the  horizon  and  the  dial  plane. 
Other  lines  in  perspective  are,  the 
Geometrical  line,  a  right  line  drawn 
any  way  on  a  geometrical  plane : 
Terrestrial  line,  the  line  of  inter- 
section between  the  geometrical 
plane  and  that  of  the  picture  :  Line 
of  the  front,  the  common  section 
of  the  vertical  plane  and  that  of 
the  picture  :  Line  of  station,  the 
common  section  of  the  geometrical 
and  vertical  planes,  or,  according  to 
others,  the  perpendicular  height  of 
the  eye  above  the  geometrical  plane : 
Objective  line,  the  line  of  an  object, 
from  whence  the  appearance  is 
sought  for  in  a  picture;  Vertical 


LIG 

line,  the  line  intersecting  a  vert  1 
plane  :  Visual  line,  a  reflectioi  f 
light  from  a  visible  object:  Le 
of  direction,  that  in  which  mot] 
is  given  to  a  moveable  body ;  L  \ 
of  light,  that  which  defines 
light  parts  of  bodies  diversified!* 
light    and    shade,   of  which  5 
shaded  part  is  defined  by  the 
of  shade.     The  Lines  of  divisi 
or  gradation,  denote  the  arithi 
tical,   or  geometrical  proportu; 
into  which  a  body  may  be  dividi, 
In  France,  the  name  of  line  isgii 
to  a  measure  which  contains  1 
twelfth  part  of  a  foot.    In  fort- 
cation,  a  Line  of  defence,  is  a  1 5 
supposed  to  represent  the  flight 
a  ball :  the  Line  forming  the  Jia  , 
is  a   line  drawn  from  the  an  \ 
formed  by  the  two  demigorges  f 
the  bastion,  to  the  angle  at  w 
flank  ;  the  Capital  line,  is  a  11 
drawn  from  the  point  of  the  bast 
to  the  point  where  the  two  dei 
gorges  meet:  the  Line  of  circu 
vallation,  is  a  line  or  trench  cut 
besiegers  round  their  camp:  t 
Line  of  contravallation,  is  a  dil 
bordered  by  a  parapet,  serving  > 
cover  the  besieged  :  Lines  of  co 
munication,  are  trenches  that  r 
from  one  work  to  another:  a  L 
of  approach,  or  attack,  is  the  w< 
which   besiegers   carry  on  un( 
cover,  to  gain  the  moat  and  bo 
of  the  place. 

Light-house,  a  high  buildii 
on  the  top  of  which   lights  i\ 
placed,  to  guile  ships  at  sea.  Tht 
erections  were  called  by  the  Saxo> 
becns  or  beacons,  originally  &ig 
fying  signals,  and  serving  eitl 
to  prevent  shipwrecks,  or  to  g| 
notice  of  invasions :  for  the  lat ' 
purpose,  the  green  flame,  and  t 
fire  cross,  were  peculiarly  adapts 
The  light-house  is  generally  erect, 
upon  a  cape  or  promontory  on  t| 
sea-coast,  or  upon  a  rock  in  t| 
sea.     Lamp-lights  are  on  ma 


LI  G 

accints  preferable  to  coal-fires  or 
can  es;  and  the  effect  of  these  may 
be  :reased  by  placing  them  either 
behd  glass  hemispheres,  or  before 
pro  rly  disposed  glass  or  metal  re- 
flects; which  last  method  is  now 
ver:enerally  adopted.  In  England 
it  is  branch  of  the  royal  prerogative 
to  Jet  these  landmarks,  for  guid- 
jng  nd  preserving  vessels  at  sea, 
by"  ?ht  as  well  as  by  day;  and 
r  e  ing  has  the  exclusive  power, 

,  i  emission  under  the  great  seal, 
todse  beacons,  light-houses,  and 
sea-  arks  to  be  erected  in  conve- 
niei  places,  as  well  upon  the  lands 
of  s  subject,  as  upon  the  de- 
nies* of  the  crown  ;  which  power 
ually  vested  by  letters  patent 

t  office  of  lord  high  admiral, 
inly  statue,  8th  Elizabeth,  c.  13. 
the  orparation  of  Trinity- house 

?  npowered  to  set  up  any  bea- 

n  or  sea-marks,  whenever  they 
sha  think  them  necessary;  and 

tf  owner  of  the  land,  or  any 
oth<  person,  shall  destroy  them, 
or  all  take  down  any  steeple, 
treeor  other  known  sea-mark,  he 

a  forfeit  £100,  or,  in  case  of 

tl  ty  to  pay  it,  shall  be  ipso 
r  /cc' outlawed. 

T  light-house  on  the  Eddystone 
rod  has  already  been  described 
una"  the  article  Eddystone.  The 
!  frkrfof  the  Forth  and  the  Tay  are 
ncud  by  several  light-houses.  On 
es  of  Inchkeith  and  May  are 
nail  light  houses;  a  third  is 

<  I  on  Cape  North,  at  the 
rnoi:  of  the  Tay,  and  a  signal  or 

ac;i  is  placed  upon  the  Carr- 
1<  near  Cape  South.    But  the 

ai  light-house  is  situated  on 

*  Jell-rock,  which  warns  the 
mar  ?r  of  a  vast  and  dangerous 
reef:f  rocks,  in  front  of  the  Tay 
and  e  Forth, advanced  a  consider- 
ately into  the  sea.  In  former 
wm*'  to  warn  sailors  from  these 
rock  the  monks  of  Abeibrothock, 
S 


LI  G 

or  Aberbroath,  are  said  to  have 
placed  a  lar^e  bell,  called  the 
Inch  Cape  Bell,  on  the  principal 
rock,  whence  it  received  its  name. 
The  Bell-rock  light-house  was  built 
on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  Eddy- 
stone, with  the  improvements  in 
lighting  which  have  been  since 
made.  It  was  begun  in  1807,  and 
in  December,  1810,  the  lantern 
which  had  been  previously  made 
and  fitted  in  Edinburgh,  was  placed 
upon  its  elevated  position.  During 
the  erection,  a  temporary  edifice 
was  built,  for  the  shelter  and  con- 
venience of  the  workmen.  It  was 
constructed  with  timber,  well  secur- 
ed with  iron  stanchions.  Fig.  6, 
(PI.  Light-house)  represents  two 
of  the  bracing  chains,  with  their 
tightening  shackle,  meeting  in  the 
ring  which  is  fixed  to  one  of  the 
batts,  which  were  sunk  into  the  rock 
about  twenty  inches,  and  immove- 
ably  wedged  with  timber  and  iron. 
The  lowest  story  ( Jig.  7.)  of  this 
temporary  erection  served  as  a 
forge,  and  had  a  space  for  mixing  the 
mortar  for  the  building:  the  figure 
represents  the  floor  of  this  apart- 
ment, showing  the  situation  of  the 
mortar  tubs  and  lime  casks,  and 
the  smith's  bellows,  fire  -  place, 
and  anvil.  The  floor  immediately 
above  this  was  occupied  by  the 
kitchen,  the  next  was  fitted  up 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  archi- 
tectand  conductors,  and  the  highest 
served  as  a  bedroom  for  the  work- 
men. The  light-house  is  of  a  cir- 
cular form,  and  composed  of  blocks 
weighing  from  4500lbs  to  5500lbs. 
A  general  elevation  is  given  in  Jig. 
1.  and  a  section  in  Jig.  2.  The 
lowest  course  is  forty-two  feet  and 
two-thirds  in  diameter.  The  en- 
trance is  on  the  twenty  -  seventh 
course,  32  feet  8  inches  above  the 
rock  at  the  foundation  of  the  first 
stone.  The  stairs  are  30  feet  long 
in  the  centre  of  the  tower,  the  walls 

137 


LIG 


LI  M 


of  which  are  here  7  feet  thick. 
The  provision  store  occupies  the 
floor  of  the  thirty-ninth  course,  and 
is  entered  from  the  stairs  of  the 
landing:  in  the  section  of  this 
room,  in  Jig.  2  are  seen  the  ma- 
chinery for  raising  the  stores,  &c. 
The  next  room  is  the  light-room 
store,  the  floor  of  which  is  on  the 
48th  course,  55  feet  10  inches 
above  the  foundation.  The  next 
is  the  kitchen,  its  floor  on  the  57th 
course,  65  feet  8  inches  above  the 
foundation.  Above  th>s  is  the  bed- 
room, the  floor  of  which  occupies 
the  66th  course,  75  feet  8  inches 
above  the  foundation.  The  last 
room  is  the  stranger's  room  or 
library,  on  the  78th  course,  85  feet 
11  inches  above  the  foundation. 
Fig.  4  is  a  plan  of  the  light-room 
floor,  86th  course,  97  feet  9  inches 
above  the  foundation  :  in  the  cen- 
tre is  shown  the  drum  or  barrel  on 
which  the  rope  is  coiled,  which 
gives  motion  to  the  machinery  both 
of  the  lights  and  the  bells.  The 
weight  which  causes  the  move- 
ment is  shown  in  the  foundation, 
Jig.  2 ;  the  rope  is  carried  down 
through  the  various  floors  of  the 
whole  building,  by  means  of  pulleys, 
&c.  and  will  be  traced  in  the  very 
fine  line  from  the  drum  to  the 
cavity  in  the  solid  courses :  the 
two  bells  are  also  shown  on  this 
floor.  Fig.  5  is  a  plan  of  the 
lantern,  shewing  the  reflectors, 
frame,  &c.  The  upper  and  lower 
sides  are  the  white  lights :  the 
right  and  left  sides  are  the  red 
lights.  The  sill  of  the  sash  of  the 
frame  is  102  feet  6  inches  above 
the  foundation,  and  the  cupola  is 
13  feet  4  inches  higher.  The  light- 
house was  lighted  for  the  first  time 
on  February  2d,  1811.  The  light 
is  brilliant  and  powerful,  alternately 
red  and  white,  and  may  be  seen 
distinctly,  when  the  sky  is  clear,  at 
a  distance  of  eight  leagues.  The 

138 


reflectors  are  fixed  upon  a  i 
iron  frame,  which  presents  )Ur 
vertical  faces.  For  a  warnirl  in 
misty  weather,  when  the  lij>!t  j8 
not  visible,  two  bells,  each  wk. 
ing  a  hundred  weight,  are  t  ed 
day  and  night,  by  the  mach  ; 
which  imparts  motion  to  th( re- 
flectors. Signals  are  made  ti he 
keepers  who  are  on  shore,  by  n  n 
of  a  ball  painted  black,  and  ifo 
tical  staff  which  passes  the  c  tre 
of  it. 

Like  Arcs,  segments  of  c  les 
which    are   contained    by  i ; 
angles. 

Like  Figures,  such  as,  vc 
their  angles  equal,  and  the  les 
about  those  angles  proportion; 

Like  Solids,  such  as  are  igi 
tained  under  like  planes. 

Lime-Kiln,  Cato  has  give  us 
a  description  of  the  ancient  ie- 
kiln.  Its  form  was  that  of  a  ( e: 
its  height  commonly  twenty  et, 
its  breadth  at  the  base  ten,  a  he 
top  three.  The  greater  half  c  he 
base  consisted  of  a  ditch  dug  i  he 
ground ;  the  part  above  the  th 
was  constructed  of  bricks  or  sie, 
plastered  with  mould.  At  the  li- 
mit was  an  opening  to  leUit 
the  smoke.  In  the  kiln  a  vai  of 
limestone  was  formed  over  there, 
and  afterwards  all  the  superior  irt 
was  filled  with  limestone.  Her 
the  emperors  certain  criminals  m 
condemned  to  work  at  the  ,ie- 
kilns. 

Lime  is  prepared  for  morta  by 
burning  in  kilns  in  modern,  \\r.\~ 
cisely  the  same  manner  as  n  in- 
dent times,  and  it  is  from  thi cir- 
cumstance, that  all  stones  m 
which  quicklime  is  producfd^e 
called  calcareous  or  calculable  To 
convert  carious  stones  into  (Pck 
lime,  they  are  kept  in  a  kiln.it  a 
white-red  heat,  for  the  spao  of 
twelve  or  fourceen  hours;  oijthe 
same  purpose  may  be  attainei  by 


i 


LOG 


LOR 


Ice  in g  the  stones  a  longer  time 
inj  lower  degree  of  heat;  but  if 
threat  be  too  great,  vitrification 
tab  place. 

ning,  covering  for  the  in- 
rl,  as  casing  is  covering  the 
ex  ior  surface  of  a  building. 

ning  of  a  Wall,  a  timber 

ling,  whose  edges  are  either 
retted,  or  grooved  and  tongued. 

hikg-out,  the  marking  lines 
wh'e  timbers  are  to  be  cut. 

kings  of  Boxings  for  win- 
do  shutters,  the  wainscot  frame- 
wof  into  which  the  window  shut- 
ter fall,  when  folded  back  from 
thtvindow. 

nings  of  a  Door,  the  lin- 
i:  of  the  sides  of  apertures  of 
dol>,  called  also  jambs,  or  jamb 
lings;  and  that  which  covers 
the  top,  or  head,  is  called  the 
M 

ntel,  (  Fr.  )  the  horizontal 
pie^  which  covers  the  opening 
of  I  door  or  window.  Vitruvius 
terj;  it  antepagmentum  superius. 
Lir  Is,  in  some  old  authors,  are 
cal  1  wull-plates. 

|st,  or  Listel,  ( Fr.  )  a  little 
sqi  e  moulding,  serving  to  crown 
or  company  a  larger,  also  termed 
a/?f. 

Isting,  the  cutting  the  sap- 
wo»?  out,  from  both  edges  of  a 
W. 

Jnio^TiiATON,(Gr.  from  Xi0oc, 
tto\  and  ^paryvfii,  to  pave,)  a 
Gru  term  for  a  species  of  mosaic, 
ten  d  by  the  Romans  opus  sectile, 
ant  consisting  of  pieces  of  marble 
ofrertain  size.  Another  variety 
was'Tmed  opus  tessclatum,  or  ver- 
mkntum. 

1  bby,  {laube,  Germ.)  an  open 
spa-,  surrounding  a  range  of 
cha'bers,  or  seats  in  a  theatre,  a 
»mr  I) a  1 1 ,  or  waiting  room. 

*ck,  (/oc,  Sax.)  an  instrument 
for  siening  doors. 

1;CK  Weir,  or  Pound  Lock, 


consists  of  a  deep  bason  or  reser- 
voir, in  a  canal,  closed  at  each  end 
by  gates,  which  successively  opening 
and  shutting,  allow  the  water  to 
rise  or  fall,  in  order  to  afford  the 
means  of  raising  boats  as  they  pass 
up  the  course  of  a  canal,  or  lower- 
ing them  as  they  pass  down. 

Lodg  e,  (logis,  Fr.)  a  small  house 
in  a  park  or  forest. 

Logeum,  (Xoytiov,  Gr.)  the  pul- 
pitum,  or  wooden  stage  of  a  theatre, 
placed  upon  the  proscenium,  or 
permanent  stage. 

Log  house,  temporary  habita- 
tions, made  of  branches  of  trees, 
or  logs  of  wood. 

Logistic  Spiral,  or  Propor- 
tional Spiral,  a  spiral  whose  radii 
are  in  continued  proportion,  where 
the  radii  are  at  equal  angles. 

Longimetry,  the  art  of  mea- 
suring lengths,  accessible  and  in- 
accessible. 

Loop,  (Fr.)  a  small  narrow 
window. 

Lo rimer,  the  name  given  to  a 
square  member,  under,  or  forming 
part  of,  a  cornice,  which  projects, 
and  has  a  groove  in  its  under  side. 

Lorme,Pii  i  labert,  a  celebrated 
French  architect,  born  at  Lyons, 
early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  he  went  to 
Italy  to  study  the  art  to  which  he 
had  devoted  his  attention,  and  soon 
became  noticed  by  Obrdinal  Cevino, 
who  took  him  into  his  palace.  In 
1536,  he  returned  into  his  native 
country,  and  constructed  the  Horse- 
shoe, at  Fontainbleau,  and  the 
chateaus  of  A  net  and  Neudon,  for 
Henry  the  Second.  On  the  death 
of  this  king  he  was  made  inspector 
of  the  royal  buildings,  by  Catherine 
de  Medicis,  under  whose  direction 
he  commenced  the  building  of  the 
Thuilleries;  and  in  1555,  was 
created  counsellor  and  almoner  to 
the  king,  and  was  presented  with 
two  abbacies  for  his  services.  He 

139 


MAC 


MAC 


died  in  1557.  He  wrote  Dix 
Livres  <V Architecture,  and  Nou- 
velles  Inventions  pour  bien  Bdtir 
et  a  petits  Frais.  He  had  the 
honour  of  introducing  a  taste  for 
Grecian  architecture  into  France. 

Losange,  (Fr.)  "  a  figure  of 
four  sides,  with  two  acute  and 
two  obtuse  angles."  Millin. 

Lotus,  a  plant  of  great  celebrity 
amongst  the  ancients,  the  leaves 
and  blossoms  of  which  generally 
form  the  capitals  of  Egyptian  co- 
lumns. It  is  mentioned  in  the 
scripture,  under  the  name  dudiim. 
See  Sprengel,  Antiquitatum  Botani- 
carum  specimen. — Mahudel,  Me- 
moire  sur  le  Lotus,  in  the  Memoires 
de  l'Academie  de  Belles  Lettres, 
torn.  ii. — Savigny,  Description  du 
Nymphaea  Coerulea,  in  the  Annales 
Musee  d'Histoire  Naturelle,  torn.  i. 
■ — and  Delille,  sur  le  Lotus 
d'iEgypt,  in  the  same  volume. 

Lou v re.    See  Lantern. 


Luffer    Boarding,    b:  ds 

nailed  on  the  sides  of  buildirg 
or  lanterns,  or  across  apertles' 
arranged  and  fixed  so  as  to  a'ait 
air,  but  to  exclude  rain. 

Lunette,  (Fr.)  cylindrie,  c  | 
droidic,  or  spherical  apertim  in 
ceilings,  of  the  same  form  ashe 
upper  lights  in  the  nave  of W 
Paul's  Cathedral,  in  London.  ; 

Luthern,  the  same  as  Dor>r, 

Lying  Panels,  those  w hid  re 
cut  out  with  the  grain  of  the  wd, 
not,  as  is  usual,  with  the  grain  a 
vertical,  but  a  horizontal  direc in. 

Lysicrates.  See  Athein 
Architecture. 

Lysis,  (perhaps  from  theG?k 
aXvaig,  a  chain,  or  band,)  a  id 
of  plinth,  or  step,  above  thejiv 
nice  of  the  podium  of  anint 
temples,  which  surrounds  or  n- 
braces  the  stylobate,  as  majje 
observed  in  the  temple  of  Foriia 
Virilis. 


M. 


M  Roof,  the  junction  of  two 
common  roofs,  with  a  vallum  be- 
tween. The  letter  ay  inverted 
would  also  correctly  represent  this 
kind  of  roof. 

Mach xcoi.ations, (machicoulis, 
Fr.)  in  old  castles,  "  over  gates,  are 
small  projections,  supported  by 
brackets,  having  open  intervals  at 
the  bottoms,  through  which  melted 
lead  and  stones  were  thrown  down 
on  the  heads  of  the  assailants." 
Grose.  Machicolations,  however, 
were  not  always  projecting  works, 
but  sometimes  consisted  of  rows  of 
square  holes  in  the  vaulting  of 
portals,  for  the  same  use.  As 
castellated  edifices  became  more 
magnificent,  these  became  orna- 
mental works  over  the  principal 
gates.  Sculpture,  however  rude, 
was  admitted  at  an  early  period, 
either  over   the  machicolation  of 

140 


the  gates,  or  in  the  grotesque  figs 
used  as  water-spouts,  &c.  (>r 
the  grand  entrance  into  Caernai  n 
castle,  is  the  statue  of  Ed  war  I. 
drawing  his  sword  in  an  attitud)f 
defiance. 

Macra  Teiciie,  (ra  paKpa  rjl 
or  ra  <TKe\n,  the  long  walls,)  m 
fortified  walls  which  joined  c 
citadel  and  the  maritime  citjit 
ancient  Athens,  and  which  ve 
flanked  at  intervals  with  tows, 
some  traces  of  which  are  still  toe 
seen.  They  formed,  together  Wi 
a  portion  of  the  walls  of  the  M 
(city)  and  of  the  Peiraeus,  at  ei  >r 
end,  an  enclosure,  which  was  ie 
of  the  three  great  garrisons  o 
which  Athens  was  divided,  id 
which,  in  this  light,  was  somett  N 
denominated  the  long:  fortress^ 
fiaKpov  teixoq.  At  the  beginr  g 
of  the  Pelopennesian  war,  when  e 


I 


MAD 

'J   rej,r  part  of  the  population  of 
v  Atti   crowded  into   Athens,  its 
towi,  and  those  of  the  two  cities, 
i  furrhed  dwellings  to  the  fugitives 
,L  fronthe  open  country.    The  long 
mi  v  space  between  the  two  walls 
overed  with  dwellings,  and 
Slickly  inhabited  as  long  as 
this  remained  flourishing  and 
poppus.    When  Athens  fell  into 
ower  of  the  Lacedemonians, 
>s -vails  were  demolished.  Some 
?  >  have  supposed  that  there 
v.  nhree  walls,  but  Leake  (Topo- 
yL  of  Athens)   has  proved 
8  satisjctorily  that  this  is  a  mistake, 
e  vestiges   which    remain  are 
i  bie  towards  the  lower  end,  where 
theyvere  connected  with  the  for- 
fic:  ons  of  Peiraeus  and  Phalerum. 
'  fheiodern  road  from  Athens  to 
port >hrako,  about  two  miles  from 
J  the  ter,  comes  upon  the  founcla- 
i;  tionof  the  northern  wall,  which 
are  rnned  of  vast    masses  of 
d  stones,  about  twelve  feet  in 
thic  ess.    Precisely  parallel  to  it, 
at  1;  distance  of  550  feet,  are 
trao  the  foundations  of  the  south 
11  o  the  Peiraic  peninsula,  and 
othe  vestiges  are  found   in  the 
e  rds.    The  southern  wall  ap- 
1  pear  :o  have  terminated  in  a  round 
iom  at  the  heights  near  the  angle 
1  oftr'Phaleric  bay. 

Mderno,  Charles,  an  ar- 
chiu   of  considerable  eminence, 
in  Lombardy,  in  1556.  He 
was  [it  under  the  care  of  his  uncle 
Don'ico  Fontana,  at  Rome,  and 
at  ai  ;arly  age  distinguished  him- 
1  self 1  a  sculptor ;  but  being  left 
i  uncle  to  superintend  an  ar- 
lite  ural  erection  of  some  import- 
e  e  completed  the  undertaking 
li  e  much  skill  and  judgment, 
Lbati'e  was  earnestly  advised  to 
ichige  the  study  of  sculpture 
1  t  of  architecture.     His  first 
1  jf  note  was  a  magnificent 
roon  lent  over  the   remains  of 


MAG 

Sixtus  V.  He  gained  so  higfh  a  repu- 
tation under  Clement  VIII.  by  the 
erection  of  numerous  public  works, 
that  on  the  death  of  that  pontiff, 
and  the  accession  of  Paul  V.  in 
1605,  he  was  appointed  to  finish 
the  building  of  St.  Peter's,  being 
chosen  in  preference  to  eight  other 
candidates  for  the  undertaking. 
The  pontificial  palace  on  the  Qui- 
rinal  mount  was  improved  and 
repaired  under  his  direction,  and 
the  fine  fluted  column  on  a  marble 
pedestal,  in  the  square  of  St.  Maria 
Maggiore,  was  raised  by  him  from 
the  prostrate  ruins  of  the  Temple  of 
Peace,  and  placed  where  it  now 
stands.  Most  of  the  great  public 
works  undertaken  in  his  time,  in 
Italy,  France,  and  Spain,  were  in 
part  under  his  direction;  and  the 
splendid  palace  of  Urban  VIII. 
was  begun,  but  not  finished,  by  him. 
During  his  public  career  he  wit- 
nessed a  succession  of  ten  popes, 
by  all  of  whom  he  was  regarded 
with  favour.  He  died  in  1629,  at 
the  age  of  73. 

Ma  drier,  a  term  applicable  to 
flat  beams  of  wood,  placed  at  the 
bottom  of  a  moat,  to  support  a 
wall ;  to  a  thick  plank  armed 
with  plates  of  iron,  projected  from 
a  petard  against  the  gate,  or  any 
other  part  of  a  fortified  place,  to 
make  a  breach ;  a  plank  of  wood 
covered  with  tin  and  earth,  for  a 
defence  against  fire,  is  also  called 
a  madrier. 

Maeniana,  seats  in  the  upper 
porticoes  of  the  forum,  whence  the 
spectators  beheld  the  performance 
of  the  gladiators. 

Magazine,  Powder.  Gun- 
powder is  a  store  requiring  peculiar 
attention  and  care,  and  is  either 
deposited  in  fortified  places,  found 
in  towns  requiring  military  protec- 
tion, or  magazines  are  constructed 
and  particularly  adapted  for  the 
safe  custody  of  this  combustible 


M  A  I 


MAI 


article.  These  erections  require  to 
be  of  great  strength,  and  fire-proof. 
The  Gothic  arch  was  therefore 
adopted  ;  but  the  proportions  of 
these  were  believed  to  be  too  weak, 
and  modern  architects  have  built 
the  arches  of  powder  magazines  of 
a  semicircular  form,  in  the  propor- 
tions of  60  feet  in  length  and  25 
broad ;  within  the  foundation  wall 
8  or  9  feet  thick,  and  from  the 
foundation  to  the  spring  of  the 
arch,  8  feet ;  the  floor  raised  two  feet 
above  the  ground,  and  well  pro- 
tected from  moisture;  and  the  store 
room  six  feet  high  to  the  floor  of  the 
arch.  The  arch  is  formed  of  four 
arches,  one  above  another,  and  the 
top  of  the  building  formed  of  solid 
workmanship,  rising  out  of  the 
arch.  The  gable  ends  are  four  feet 
thick,  and  their  foundations  five; 
the  sides  are  supported  by  four 
counterforts ;  between  which  there 
are  air-holes,  to  ventulate  and  keep 
the  room  dry. 

Mahogany,  a  wood  sometimes 
used  for  doors  and  window  sashes, 
is  seasoned  by  sawing  out  and  dry- 
ing in  the  open  air,  after  exposing 
to  the  weather  during  the  winter: 
it  ought  never  to  be  exposed  to 
fire-drying.  It  was  some  time  early 
in  the  last  century,  that  this  beau- 
tiful wood  was  first  introduced  into 
this  country.  The  Jamaica  maho- 
gany is  the  hardest  and  most  beau- 
tiful, and  distinguished  from  that 
of  Honduras,  by  the  chalky  ap- 
pearance of  its  fibres :  those  from 
Honduras  appear  quite  dark;  after 
oiling,  this  distinction  is  not  so 
clearly  observable.    See  Joinery. 

Main  Couple,  see  Couple. 

Maison  Angelique,  see  Aque- 
duct. 

Maison  Carree,  (Fr.)  an  an- 
cient edifice  at  Nismes,  of  a  long 
square  form,  which  is  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  Roman  archi- 
tecture  and   sculpture   found  in 

142 


ler 


France.  It  is  twelve  toises  ](T 
including  the  vestibule,  and  ^ 
interior  is  eight  toises  long  <jx 
wide,  and  six  high.  The  entJ3 
is  on  the  north.  The  walls  llP 
two  feet  thick,  and  compose  0f 
fine  white  stones.  It  has  t  ty 
fluted  pillars  of  the  Corhvan 
order,  with  attic  bases,  the  mffi 
ings  of  the  base  are  round,  nd 
delicately  worked.  A  rose  occ  ies 
the  whole  height  of  the  ab  is 
which  is  also  charged  with 
ornaments.  The  architrave 
three  great  bands,  the  frie 
covered  with  sculptured  folto 
and  the  cornice  is  enriched  th 
fine  sculptures.  The  vesting  is 
open  on  three  sides,  and  is  p. 
ported  by  ten  columns,  six  ofveh 
are  in  front.  The  front  on  he 
tympanum,  which  surmountshe 
vestibule,  is  without  ornamts; 
those  of  the  frieze  and  archi  ve 
are  gone;  but  the  cramps  inne 
or  two  places  are  still  visible,  v  ch 
have  served  to  fasten  the  lette  of 
bronze,  that  once  formed  ann- 
scription.  Traces  which  renin 
seem  to  indicate  that  the  vest  ile 
had  gates  of  bronze.  The  flo  of 
the  vestibule,  and  of  the  intor, 
is  elevated  five  feet  abovehc 
ground,  and  the  entrance  is  p- 
proached  by  a  flight  of  t\  \ 
steps.  Under  the  vestibule 
vault.  Architects  who  have  a- 
mined  this  edifice,  have  discced 
some  faults  and  irregularities,  ch 
as  the  unequal  number  of  he 
modillions,  which  moreover  c\pot 
answer  to  the  capitals,  except  j>se 
of  the  four  columns  at  the  arjes. 
Every  circumstance  connected  ith 
this  building,  prove  that  it  has  en 
a  temple,  although  some  have  ip- 
posed  it  to  be  a  capitol,  and  oers 
a  praetorium.  M.  Seguier  has!:en 
enabled  to  decipher  the  foiling 
inscription:  c.  cesari  avo^ti 

FILIO     CONSULI,    LUCIO  CM  RI 


MAN 


MAR 


eng 
tho 


AU  STI  FILIO  C0NSULI  DESIG- 
KAi  PRINCITIBUS  JUVENTUTIS. 

It  r  st,  therefore,  have  been  erect- 
ed wut  the  year  of  Rome  754, 
or  e  first  year  of  the  Christian 
era  The  best  and  most  detailed 
vings  of  this  building  are 
by  Clerisseau,  in  the  first 
cahf  of  his  Antiquites  de  la 
Frae.  . 
?  llet,  (  malleus,  Latin  )  a 
,  n  hammer  used  by  carpen- 
ters tc. ' 

KiLTHA,  (uaXda,  Gr.)  origm- 
alljj  native  bitumen,  with  which 
the^ncients  plastered  their  walls. 

!i  rtificial  kind  was  made  of 
pitc1  wax,  plaster,  and  grease ; 
anc  er  sort  was  composed  of  lime 
slac^d  with  wine,  and  incorpo- 
ratfiwith  melted  pitch  and  fresh 
figs' 

I .  nsart,  Francis,  born  at 
Par'  in  1598,  was  the  son  of  the 
kinf  carpenter,  and  received  his 
edition  as  an  architect  from  the 

■!(  ated  Gautier.     Possessed  of 

si  and  genius,  he  attained  great 
pro  .sional  eminence,  and  was  so 
nx  as  to  produce  perfect  works, 
tha  he  discovery  of  even  a  trifling 

fi  ncy  in  what  he  had  done, 
sufficient  inducement  to  him 

i  iiolish  works  of  considerable 
tude.  The  fine  abbey  of 
I  al  e-Grace  was  begun  and  near- 
ffnpleted  by  him,  for  the  foun- 

i'  Anne  of  Austria  ;  but  he  was 
irr<  ?d  in  his  attempt  to  demolish 
par  f  his  work,  and  others  finish- 
it  he  had  begun.  President 
Lon'ieil  employed  him  in  the 
builjng  of  the  chateau  des  Mai- 
not  far  from  St.  Germain's ; 
wd  hen  he  had  made  consider- 
ablt  .rogress  in  this  work,  he  pull- 
ed flown  again,  without  consult- 
ing is  employer.  But  he  after- 
war  finished  it  in  a  style  of  excel- 
lent which  gave  it  the  character 

*   5  most  perfect  architectural 


work  of  the  age.  The  portal  of  the 
Minims  in  the  Place  Royale,  was 
his  last  work.  He  died  at  the  age 
of  69,  in  the  year  1666. 

Mansard  Roof,  see  Curb 
Roof. 

Mansion,  (Lat.)  a  large  house. 
The  origin  of  the  term,  and  appli- 
cation, is  believed  to  have  come  from 
the  mansiones,  or  stationary  ca?npsy 
of  the  Roman  soldiers,  see  Castra  : 
and  on  the  subject  of  mansions, 
see  House.  The  French  maison, 
a  house,  comes  from  the  same 
origin. 

Mantel  Tree,  or  Mantel- 
piece, the  name  given  to  the  beam 
of  wood  supporting  the  breastwork 
of  a  chimney.  In  modern  build- 
ing its  place  is  supplied  by  an  iron 
bar,  or  by  an  arch  of  brick  or 
stone. 

Mantlets,  in  fortification, a  kind 
of  moveable  pent-houses,  made  of 
pieces  of  timber  sawed  into  planks 
about  three  inches  thick,  nailed 
over  one  another  to  the  height  of 
six  feet,  cased  with  tin,  and  set 
on  wheels,  to  be  driven  before  the 
pioneers  or  miners  in  a  siege,  to 
conceal  them  from  the  enemies' 
shot. 

Maple,  (acer  campestre,)  a  very 
common  tree  in  almost  every  part 
of  Great  Britain.  The  timber  of 
the  common  maples  is  far  superior 
to  the  beech  for  all  the  uses  of  the 
turner;  and  when  it  abounds  with 
knots,  as  it  frequently  does,  it  is 
much  esteemed  by  joiners  for  in- 
laying. It  is  frequently  employed 
for  making  musical  instruments,  on 
account  of  its  lightness.  It  is  of 
the  same  genus  of  plants  as  the 
sycamore,  or  acer  pseudo-platanus. 
See  Sycamore. 

Marble,  (marbre,  Fr.  marmor, 
Lat.  from  papfiapov,  Gr.  a  shining 
stone,)  a  peculiar  kind  of  stone, 
of  a  hard  and  compact  texture, 
and  a  very  fine  grain.    Its  varieties 

143 


M  A 

are  almost  innumerable.  It  is 
formed  in  beds  or  strata  in  most 
of  the  mountainous  countries  of 
Europe.  In  England  it  is  most 
abundant  in  Derbyshire.  That  of 
Italy  is,  however,  the  most  valuable 
of  any,  particularly  the  black  and 
milk-white  marble  found  at  Carara, 
in  the  duchy  of  Massa.  Goguet 
thinks,  that  in  Homer's  time  mar- 
ble was  unknown  in  Greece,  but 
Millin  and  others  think,  that  the 
Greeks  of  the  Homeric  age  not  only 
knew  the  nature  of  marble,  but 
also  the  art  of  polishing  and  work- 
ing in  it ;  but  this  writer  thinks  the 
only  marble  known  by  Homer,  or 
perhaps  the  only  stone  to  which 
the  name  was  given,  was  the  bril- 
liant white  marble,  marmor  sali- 
num.  Workmen  in  marble,  among 
the  Greeks,  were  called  lithotomoi, 
lithokopoi,  lithourgoi,  &c.  among 
the  Romans,  marmorarii  :  their 
business  was  to  take  it  out  of  the 
quarries,  to  saw  it,  and  to  polish 
it.  From  inscriptions  that  remain, 
it  appears  that  they  formed  a  kind 
of  society,  sodalitium,  who  had 
their  patrons,  schools,  privileges, 
and  gods,  which  were  Minerva  and 
Vulcan.  The  authors  who  treat  of 
the  marbles  of  the  ancients,  are 
Ernesti,  Winckelmann,  de  Launay, 
"  Mineralogie  des  Anciens,"  and 
Caryophilus,  "  De  Marmoribus 
Antiquis." 

Amongst  the  most  valuable  mar- 
bles of  antiquity,  we  must  first 
enumerate  the  white  marble  of 
mount  Penteles  in  Attica,  thence 
called  Pentelican  marble.  It  was 
used  in  the  Parthenon  and  other 
buildings  of  Athens,  and  it  was  in 
great  repute  among  the  sculptors. 
The  isle  of  Paros  has  always  been 
celebrated  for  its  marble.  The 
finest  Parian  marble  was  that 
excavated  in  mount  Marpessus, 
and  thence  called  Marpessian  mar- 
ble.   The   marble  of  Paros  was 

144 


MAR 

I  J 

sometimes  termed  lychneusM  L 
used  in  making  candelabra ;  nj 
Lygdinum,  from  the  promontc  0f 
Lygdos.  Another  of  the  white  ,  . 
bles  of  antiquity  was  that  of  nW 
Hymettus  in  Attica.  The  jte 
marbles  of  Thasus  and  Lhos 
were  also  in  great  repute,  he 
latter  isle  produced  also  a  ck 
marble.  A  marble  even  vter 
than  that  of  Paros  was  disco 
at  Luna  in  Etruria.  Amon- 
white  marbles,  we  may  also  n- 
tion  the  marmor  Phellcnse,  )m 
mount  Phelleus ;  the  marmoho. 
raliticum,  found  near  the  ,er 
Coralios  in  Phrygia,  and  te  ed 
also  Sangarium,  from  another  ,ne 
of  the  same  river;  the  Cyzim 
marmor  was  taken  from  theur- 
ries  of  Cyzicus  in  Asia  Minor  ;  he 
marmor  Synnadicum,  or  ma  or 
Phrygium,  was  found  in  the  vi- 
rons  of  the  city  of  Synnad  in 
Phrygia,  and  was  of  a  !ck 
ground  with  little  circles,  n- 
other  sort  of  marble,  which  ren- 
bled  ivory  in  its  colour,  was  c  ed 
Chemites.  Among  the  black  ir- 
bles,  that  of  Tcenarus  was  in  <  at 
esteem  ;  the  marmor  Libycur,  or 
Numidian  marble,  called  so 
marmor  Luculleum,  was  whalhe 
French  term  noir  antique,  ouge 
antique.  The  celebrated  Cm 
marmor  was  excavated  from  he 
mount  Pelineus,  in  the  isle  of  do, 
and  was  of  a  transparent  chenr- 
ed  black  colour.  The  ma: or 
Obsidianum  was  also  black,  nd 
was  procured  from  Ethiopia.  1  he 
isle  of  Proconesus  produced  a  I  ck 
veined  marble,  called  Procone'.n, 
or  Cyzican  marble.  The  m  :le 
of  mount  Taygetes,  called  ma  wr 
Laconicum,  was  of  a  green  cour, 
and  is  known  among  antiquies 
by  the  name  of  verde  antie. 
The  marble  of  Carystus,  w  a 
mingled  green ;  that  of  mj»nt 
Atrax,  in  Thessaly,  called  Ja* 


I 


MAR 


MAR 


ciu  marmor,  was  a  mixture  of 

wliN  ffreen,  blue,  and  black.  The 
prei  ^Tiberian  and  Augustan 
;  ma  les  were  found  in  E°:ypt.  The 
naior  Apkites,  or  Memphites, 

h  i  took  its  first  name  from  its 
ibiance  to  the  colour  of  the 
of  a  serpent,  and  its  other 
:  o!  the  city  of  Memphis  where 
is  found,  is  called  now  in 
(taf  il  serpentino  antico.  The 
ma  ''.or  Synnadicum,  which  was 
lis,  ermed  Phrygian,  and  Myg- 
was  black  and  red,  and 
i  isfound  at  Synnas,  in  Phrygia. 
'\\\Corinthian  marble  was  yellow  : 

e  armor  Phengites,  which  was 

iu  in  Cappadocia,  was  white 
,  il  vellow  spots:  the  Rhodian 
Kale,  was  marked  with  spots 
resebling  gold:  the  marble  of 
Jfek  excavated  in  mount  Acyn- 
thu  was  also  yellow. 

1'  varieties  of  marble  used  in 
morn  times,  are  exceedingly  nu- 
mer  s,  and  a  classification  of 
ther  would  occupy  a  larger  space 
■wan  be  allowed  for  this  arti- 
cle. (Except  the  finest  specimens 
Bute  marble,  they  are  all  opake, 
som  exquisitely  fine  specimens  of 
pi)  marble  are  to  be  seen  in  the 
Bor  ese  p  dace  at  Rome,  which 
on  I  iig  suspended  by  the  centre, 
■I :  on  a  hard  body,  bend  very 
con:  erably  ;  and  it  isfound  that 
W  ry  marble  exposed  to  the  sun, 
in  t  e  acquires  this  property,  in- 
dica  ig-  a  less  degree  of  adhesion 
'■'  i  parts,  than  it  naturally  pos- 
The  ancients  were  sup- 
with  marble  from  quarries, 
are  at  present  almost  en- 
tfetl  unknown ;  of  these  marbles 
<-xqi  ite  specimens  are  preserved 
H  t  Musee  Napoleon.  Almost 
ever  mountainous  part  of  the 
wod  produces  this  mineral,  but 
lhe  iest  and  most  valuable  is 
mm  Italy.  The  British  marbles 
Itom  Der^shire,  Devonshire,  An- 


glesea,  and  Kilkenny  are  well 
known. 

Marble,  Polishing  of,  was  well 
understood  by  the  ancients,  and 
performed  differently  in  different 
countries.  It  is  first  brought  to 
an  even  face,  by  rubbing  with  free- 
stone ;  afterwards  with  pumice 
stone;  and  lastly,  emery,  if  of  seve- 
ral colours;  but  white  marble  is 
finished  with  calcined  tin.  The 
Italians  polish  with  lead  and  emery. 
The  process  of  polishing  practised 
in  the  manufactory  of  Messrs.  Brown 
and  Mawe,  at  Derby,  is  said  to  be 
as  perfect  as  any  in  the  kingdom ; 
and  accelerated  by  numerous  im- 
provements in  the  mode  of  opera- 
tion. Several  kinds  of  sand  are 
used,  from  the  sharpest  sand  to  the 
finest  that  can  be  procured  ;  after 
which  emery,  of  various  degrees  of 
fineness;  and  then  the  substance 
called  tripoli,  which  owes  its  red 
colour,  and  polishing  power,  to  the 
oxide  of  iron  it  contains.  Thig 
smooth  powder  leaves  a  Igood  po- 
lish on  the  face  of  the  marble ;  but 
the  application  of  putty,  or  oxide 
of  tin,  gives  a  superior  brilliancy 
to  the  work.  Finely  levigated 
ironstone  may  be  used  with  effect, 
instead  of  tripoli.  An  iron  plate 
is  used  for  rubbing  the  sand  upon 
the  marble,  in  the  commencement 
of  the  process :  an  alloy  of  tin 
and  lead  is  applied  to  the  stra- 
tum of  emery,  and  a  coarse  linen 
cloth  fixed  to  an  iron  plate,  is 
used  with  the  putty  in  the  last 
part  of  the  process.  A  graduated 
supply  of  water  is  necessary  in 
these  operations.  The  sawing  of 
marble  preparatory  to  polishing  is 
by  a  saw  of  soft  iron,  with  a  con- 
tinued supply  of  the  sharpest  sand, 
and  water. 

Marcia  Aqua,  one  of  the  aque- 
ducts of  ancient  Rome. 

Market,  see  Agora. 

Market  Cross,  see  Cross. 

145 


MAS 


MAS 


Marmorarii,  (Lat.)  workers  in 
marhle.    See  Marble. 

Marmoratum.  (Lat.)  a  plaster 
of  pounded  marble,  or  mortar  of 
lime  and  marble  beaten  together, 
mentioned  by  Varro  as  employed 
in  walls,  terraces,  &c. 

Marquetry,  (Fr.)  inlaid  work 
of  fine  hard  pieces  of  wood  of  dif- 
ferent colours  fastened  in  thin 
leaves  on  a  ground ;  called  also  in- 
laying.   See  Parquetry. 

Masonry,  the  art  of  arranging 
and  joining  stones  together  for  the 
formation  of  walls,  in  the  construc- 
tion of  buildings.  Vitruvius  men- 
tions seven  kinds,  distinguished  by 
the  different  modes  of  arranging 
the  stones  :  of  these,  three  are  of 
hewn  stones.  The  reticulated  Ma- 
sonry, consisting  of  stones  squared 
in  their  courses,  forming  a  regular 
appearance  with  the  intersecting 
lines,  parallel,  diagonally,  and  per- 
pendicularly;  it  is  agreeable  in 
appearance,  but  the  weakest  mode 
of  masonry. —  Bond  masonry,  is 
that  wherein  the  stones  of  each 
succeeding  course  are  laid,  not  ex- 
actly over  those  below,  but  project- 
ing, as  tiles  of  roofs  are  arranged  ; 
so  that  the  joint  that  mounts  and 
separates  two  stones  always  falls 
directly  over  the  middle  of  the 
stone  below.  The  appearance  of 
this  work  is  less  beautiful,  but  more 
durable,  than  the  net-work  masonry. 
— The  mode  of  laying  the  stones  so 
that  when  two  stones  are  laid,  each 
of  which  makes  a  course,  a  third  is 
laid  at  the  end,  of  the  thickness  of 
two  courses,  and  the  same  order 
observed  throughout  the  building, 
may  be  called  double-binding;  the 
binding  being  not  only  of  stones  of 
the  course  with  one  another,  but  of 
one  course  with  another. — Masonry 
by  equal  courses,  called  by  the  an- 
cients isodomum,  differs  in  nothing 
from  the  bond  masonry  but  in  this, 
that  its  stones  are  not  hewn. — Ma- 

14G 


sonry  by  unequal  courses,  is  so 
made  of  unhewn  stones  laic  jn 
bond-work,  but  the  courses  of  n. 
equal  thickness. — Masonry  eci 
up  in  the  middle,  is  likewise  ide 
of  unhewn  stone,  and  by  the  n- 
cients  called  emplecton ;  in  L 
method  the  stones  are  only  J  jn 
order  by  the  courses,  the  m  ile 
being  filled  up  with  stones  th  ?n 
in  at  random  among  the  mort;  — 
Compound  masonry,  is  so  calle  as 
being  made  up  of  all  the  rest.  In 
this,  the  courses  are  of  hewn  s  ie, 
and  the  middle,  being  left  voi  is 
filled  up  with  mortar  and  pejles 
thrown  in  together.  After  thiihe 
stones  of  one  course  are  hour  to 
those  of  another  course  by  cr;  p. 
irons,  fastened  with  melted  lee  — 
All  the  kinds  of  masonry  in  ujat 
present,  may  be  reduced  to  \m 
Bond  masonry  :  that  of  brick-irk, 
where  the  bodies  and  projecns 
of  the  stones  enclose  square  sj: es, 
or  panels,  &c.  set  with  bricks;  lat 
called  de  motion,  or  small  «k, 
where  the  courses  are  equal,  ell 
squared,  and  their  edges  or  ds 
rusticated  ;  and  that  whereii.he 
courses  are  unequal,  and  filleup 
in  the  middle  with  little  stone  nd 
mortar. — Further  informatiot  on 
the  different  parts  of  the  practjof 
masonry,  will  be  found  underjeit  ■ 
different  articles ;  as  Foundion, 
Wall,  &c.  As  the  construct^  of 
domes,  groins,  and  circular  ajies 
are  the  most  difficult  and  eo pli- 
cated branches  of  the  art,  we  ne 
illustrated  it  by  the  plates  Maim 
M.  6,  7.  In  plate  Masonry,  j  6, 
the  first  figure  shows  the  methlof 
constructing  spherical  domes,  i.lj 
is  the  mould  applied  on  the  he- 
lical surface  to  the  vertical  jets; 
and  No.  2,  the  mould  on  the  me 
surface  to  the  other  joints,  the 
mould  tending,  in  both  cases,  jtbfl 
centre  of  the  dome  ;  Nos.  3,1  5* 
6,  7,  8,  are  moulds  that  apply  Hhe 


I 


MAS 

covex  surface  to  the  horizontal 
joij :  the  lines  a,  b,  c,  df  e,f,  &c. 
belr  »r  ri£nt  an?'es  t0  tne  differ- 
eniadii  be,  dc,  fc,  &c.  produced 
Un!  they  intersect  the  perpendi- 
cul*  ac,  the  different  intersections 
be;!:  the  centres  which  give  the 

ir  leg  of  the  mould,  and  the 
str::ht  part  that  which  gives  the 
hoiontal  part.  The  second  figure 
j  t  plan  of  a  ground  vault.  The 
arc|must  be  laid  down  on  a  floor 
or  !*ce  of  floor-cloth,  then  let  the 
nui'er  of  joints  in  the  semi-circu- 
lar *ch  be  divided,  and  drawn  on 
the  lan,  and  from  the  intersections 
wit -he  diagonals  draw  the  trans- 
,  r  joints  on  the  plan,  of  which 
we  3V  find  the  curve  by  setting 
the  orresponding  distances  from 
the  ne  of  the  base  to  the  curve, 
as  t  equal  to  ab',  next  draw  the 
join1  of  the  elliptic  arch  in  the, 
mai  3F  shown  at  cd ;  that  is, 
dra-  the  chord  ec,  and  bisect  it, 
and'raw  a  line  from  the  centre  c 
thrcfrh  the  bisecting  point,  and 
pnx ^e  it  till  it  touches  the  per- 
peiwular  ef,  then  cd,  being  at 
righ  angles  to  ef,  will  be  the  re- 
qtiir  joint :  the  others  may  be 
four  in  the  same  manner.  On 
exai  nation,  we  shall  find,  that  a 
rect  i\e  circumscribing  the  mould 

ill  give  the  magnitude  of  the 
on  n  its  square  state,  and  that 
if  ea  stone  in  both  arches  be  thus 
enclud,  the  dimensions  for  each 
will   found,  and  the  position  for 
ie  nilds.    The  third  figure  on 

iate  shows   the  manner  of 

j;  the  joints  for  the  stones  in 
an  <  ptic  arch  in  a  wall,  &c. 
The  •  urve  is  described  by  the 
inter riion  of  lines;  find  the 
foci  ;  and  since  in  an  ellipsis 
the  Stance  of  either  focus  from 
onet  remity  of  the  axis  minor  is 
eqiia  o  the  semi-axis  major,  DF 
'» eo^l  to  c  C ;  then  to  find  a  jo:nt 
a»aoidraw  lines  from  both  foci 


MAS 

through  the  point  b,  as  F  e,fd,  and 
bisect  the  angle  dbe  by  the  line 
ab,  which  will  be  the  joint.  In 
plate  M  7,  the  first  figure  shows 
the  method  of  finding  the  moulds 
necessary  for  the  contraction  of  a 
semicircular  arch,  cutting  a  straight 
wall  obliquely.  Let  A  B  C  D  E 
F  G  H  be  the  plan  of  the  arch, 
I  KLM  the  outer  line,  on  the 
elevation,  and  N  OP  Q  the  in- 
ner line;  a  b  c  d  e  on  the 
elevation  exhibits  the  bevel  of 
each  joint  from  the  face  of  the 
wall,  and  abode  beneath,  gives 
the  mould,  x  y  on  the  elevation, 
corresponding  with  x  y  at  a.  The 
arch  mould,  No.  2,  is  applied  on 
the  face  of  the  stone,  and  gives, 
when  applied  to  the  parts  of  the 
plan,  the  bevel  of  each  concave 
side  of  the  stone  with  the  face,  i.  e. 
K  to  O  on  the  elevation.  The  se- 
cond figure  shows  the  method  of 
finding  the  mould  for  constructing 
a  semicircular  arch  in  a  circular 
wall.  No  1  shows  the  elevation 
of  the  arch,  and  No  2  the  plan  of 
the  bottom  bed  from  q  to  r ;  a  to  b 
is  what  the  arch  gains  on  the  circle 
from  the  bottom  bed  k  to  /,  and 
cto  d  is  the  projection  of  the  intra- 
dos  to  p,  on  the  joint  lp.  Nos. 
2,  3,  4,  plans  of  the  three  arch 
stones,  Nos.  1,  2,  3,  in  the  ele- 
vation ;  Nos.  5,  6,  moulds  to  be 
applied  to  the  beds  of  stones,  Nos. 
1,  2,  where  sc  is  equal  to  sc  in 
No.  2,  and  tw  to  tw  in  No.  3 ;  k  I 
pom  No  1,  is  the  arch  or  face- 
mould. 

Masonry,  Free.  The  strange 
oblivion  attending  the  introduction 
of  the  Pointed,  or  English  style  of 
architecture,  is  in  some  measure 
explained  by  a  consideration  oHhe 
character  and  circumstances  of  the 
persons  engaged  in  greeting  build- 
ings during  the  centuries  in  which 
it  flourished.  It  would  appear  that 
associations  of  architects  and  work- 

147 


MAS 

men  had  been  long  in  the  habit  of 
traversing  various  countries,  for  the 
purpose  of  undertaking  the  con- 
struction of  ecclesiastical  edifices, 
according  to  the  most  approved 
method  of  each  prevalent  style,  or 
fashion.  These  associated  parties 
of  masons  met  with  peculiar  favour 
from  the  pope,  towards  the  close 
of  the  twelfth  century.  "  Bands 
of  architects  and  artists,"  of  vari- 
ous nations,  were  then  incorpo- 
rated by  the  holy  father,  and 
were  endowed  with  many  great  and 
exclusive  privileges.  Among  the 
advantages  obtained  by  them  at 
that  time,  was  an  authoritative 
grant  of  permission  to  fix  their 
own  prices  of  labour,  subject,  per- 
haps, to  some  regulations  enacted 
in  the  papal  chapter.  This  arbi- 
tary  privilege,  which  exempted  such 
artists  from  the  operation  of  the 
statutes  of  labourers  prevailing  in 
England,  remained  in  force  until 
the  reign  of  Henry  the  Sixth ;  but 
it  will  appear,  that  they  assumed 
little  on  so  comprehensive  an  in- 
dulgence, and  were  as  moderate  in 
demands  for  compensation,  as  they 
were  transcendent  in  professional 
skill.  The  persons  thus  incorpo- 
rated, and  stimulated  to  exertions 
by  such  valuable  endowments,  were 
termed,  in  England,  "  Free  and  ac- 
cepted Masons."  Many  important 
particulars  respecting  this  frater- 
nity are  transmitted  by  Christopher 
Wren,  who  was  the  grand  master 
and  ruling  genius  of  that  wreck, 
or  mimicry  of  the  institution,  which 
existed  in  his  time;  and  he  was 
a  man  likely,  from  professional 
curiosity,  to  examine  all  its  remain- 
ing records.  After  noticing  the 
indulgence  granted  to  these  builders 
by  the  pope,  he  observes,  that  they 
styled  themselves  free  masons,  and 
ranged  from  one  nation  to  another, 
as  they  found  churches  to  build, 
(for  very  many  in  those  ages  were 


MAS 

every  where  building,  through  If 
or  emulation.)  Their  govern >m 
was  regular,  and  where  they  e<i 
near  the  building  in  hand,  eT 
made  a  camp  of  huts.  A  1 
veyor  governed  in  chief;  ■ 
tenth  man  was  called  a  warden  nd 
overlooked  each  nine ;  the  gele- 
men  of  the  neighbourhood,  9 
out  of  charity,  or  commutati  0| 
penance,  gave  the  materials  ml 
carriages.  Those  who  have  en 
the  exact  accounts  in  record  of 
the  charge  of  the  fabrics  of  tie 
of  our  cathedrals,  near  four  1 
dred  years  old,  cannot '  but  hi- a 
great  esteem  for  their  economy  nd 
admire  how  soon  they  erected  ch 
lofty  structures.  "  Indeed,  I 
height  they  thought  the  gre3st 
magnificence ;  few  stones  were  ed 
but  what  a  man  might  carrup 
a  ladder,  on  his  back,  from  1 
fold  to  scaffold,  though  thejad 
pulleys  and  spoked  wheels  on 
occasion;  but,  having  rejected  ■ 
nices,  they  had  no  need  of  |;at 
engines  ;  stone  upon  stone  ■ 
easily  piled  up  to  great  heirs; 
therefore,  the  pride  of  their  vks 
was  in  pinnacles  and  steeples.  In 
this  they  essentially  differe  I  )m 
the  Roman  mode,  which  lai  all 
the  mouldings  horizontally,  in  ■ 
to  make  the  best  perspective;  nd 
they  made  their  pillars  of  a  bille 
of  little  toruses,  which  divided  en 
they  came  to  the  roof;  and  I 
these  toruses  split  into  manysn  !er 
ones;  and,  traversing  one  ancer, 
gave  occasion  to  the  tracery  jrk 
(as  it  is  called)  of  which  this  ■ 
ety  were  the  inventors.  TheyW 
the  sharp-pointed  arch,  which  v'lld 
rise  with  little  centreing,  req  ed 
lighter  key-stones,  and  less  ut- 
ment,  and  yet  would  bear  an  M 
row  of  double  arches,  rising  om 
the  key-stone;  by  diversify'n  oi 
which,  they  erected  structure  m 
eminence,  such  as  the  steep'  oi 


MAS 


MAT 


*S  Viqia,  Strasburg,  and  others  in 
diflent  countries.      In  different 
par  of  the  Parentalia  of  Sir  Chris- 
topT  Wren,  it  appears  that  the 
praice  of  the  pointed  arch  exclu- 
sive belonged  to  the  fraternity  of 
the'ree  masons.    And  the  infer- 
ic  thus  arising;,   is   the  chief 
arte  of  information  which  he 
cor  vs.    His  distaste  towards  the 
ittitive  style  used  by  this  skilful 
station,  is  sufficiently  known. 
It  vuld  appear  that  he  could  not 
tljm  the  rules  of  art  by  which 
the  works  were   governed,  and 
M  pol  :ally  affected  to  despise  that 
h  i  he  wanted  invention  to  imi- 
m  •  <.u  To  a  contemptuous  neglect 
i  }uiry,  or  to  an  affectation  still 
mo  reprehensible,  must  be  attri- 
it  the  excursive  spirit  which 
i  im  to  Vienna  and  Strasburg, 
rh<  he  might  have  found  finer 
exHples  on  English  ground,  exe- 
iti  by  English  artists.  While 
we  collect  that  the  cultivation  of 
i  the  ointed  style  appears  to  have 
beej  exclusively  confined  to  the 
.  frat  lity  of  free  masons,  we  shall 
ss  surprised    at    the  mys- 
n  which   the   early  history 
Bftjs  beautiful  order  of  architec- 
s  involved.    The  associated 
utlpscts  and  artificers,  so  deno- 
(I,  naturally  made  a  secret 
ol   :>se  rules  of  art  which  pro- 
iuc  a  lucrative  monopoly.  And 
ucl  an  intention  was  carried  into 
tffe<  with   comparative  ease,  in 
ui>lf  :red  ages,  when  war  was  the 
grea  employment  of  the  chieftain, 
t  his  adherents  throughout 
neat  all  the  classes  of  the  laity. 
The  ime  spirit  has  been  evinced 
m  r.re  recent  ages,  in  regard  to 
Ihe  lltivation  of  the  arts;  and 
has  en  rendered  futile  only  by 
the  nterprising   and  commercial 
tony  of  an  advanced  state  of 
' '    •    The  mysterious  and  se- 
cret radices  of  the  free  and  ac- 


cepted masons  have  descended,  by 
tradition,  to  their  united  repre- 
sentatives of  the  present  day,  and 
are  wrought  into  a  proverb  by  the 
vulgar.  That  they  possessed  writ- 
ten documents  illustrative  of  those 
principles  of  art  by  which  they  pro- 
duced architectural  effects  so  con- 
sistent and  impressive,  will  scarcely 
be  denied.  Intent  on  a  love  of 
privacy,  and  indignant  at  the  neg- 
lect into  which  their  science  was 
fallen,  it  is  probable  that  many  of 
these  documents  were  destroyed  by 
the  masons,  on  the  revival  of 
Grecian  architecture.  We  are  dis- 
tinctly told  by  Preston,  that  "  many 
of  the  fraternity's  records,  of  the 
time  of  Charles  the  Second,  and 
succeeding  reigns,  were  lost  at  the 
Revolution ;  and  that  not  a  few 
were  too  hastily  burnt,  at  a  later 
date,  by  some  scrupulous  brothers, 
from  a  fear  of  making  discoveries 
prejudicial  to  masonry.  The  im- 
port of  these  writings  is  involved, 
perhaps  for  ever,  in  that  profound 
obscurity  so  much  cherished  by 
the  association.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  they  contained  little 
or  no  intelligence  respecting  those 
valuable  secrets  of  art  which  were 
once  so  profitable  to  the  brethren, 
and  concerning  which  we  now  in- 
quire with  such  earnest  and  rational 
solicitude.  That  no  illustrative 
papers  remained  to  the  time  of  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  is  evident  from 
his  silence;  and  is  still  more  appa- 
rent, from  the  absurdities  into  which 
he  fell,  when  he  attempted  to  imi- 
tate the  works  of  his  "  accepted'* 
predecessors. 

Mathematical  Instruments. 
See  Instruments. 

Mathematics,  (Gr.)  may  be 
defined  as  the  science  of  quantity, 
or  that  science  which  considers 
magnitudes  as  computable  or  mea- 
surable. The  mathematical  sciences 
are  divided  mio  pure  or  speculative, 

149 


M  AU 


M  E  C 


which  are  those  that  consider  matter 
abstractly,  and  mixed ;  the  latter 
treating  of  magnitude  as  subsisting 
in  material  body,  and  combined 
with  physical  considerations.  The 
mixed  mathematics  are  very  crm- 
prehensive,  including  astronomy, 
optics,  geography,  hydrostatics, 
mechanics,  fortification,  navigation, 
&c. 

Mauresque,  the  style  of  build- 
ing peculiar  to  the  Moors  and 
Arabs.   See  Arabian  Architecture. 

Mausoleum,  (fjiavcru)\uov,  Gr.) 
a  building  erected  by  his  wife  to  the 
memory  of  Mausolus,  king  of  Caria, 
whence  the  term  was  afterwards 
applied  to  every  sumptuous  sepul- 
chral monument.  An  es^ay  on 
this  monument  is  given  by  Caylus, 
in  the  26th  volume  of  the  Memoires 
de  l'Academie  des  Belles  Lettres, 
and  a  treatise  by  Aulisius,  De  Mau- 
solei  Architectural  will  be  found  in 
the  third  volume  of  the  Thesaurus 
of  Salengre.  The  Adrianeium,  or 
Mausauleum  of  Adrian,  is  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  monuments 
with  which  that  emperor  embel- 
lished the  city  of  Rome.  It  was 
situated  near  the  Tiber,  and  there 
are  considerable  remains,  which 
have  in  modern  times  been  turned 
into  a  fort,  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo.  The 
lower  part  is  a  great  square,  each 
side  of  which  is  about  one  hundred 
and  forty-eight  ells  long,  and  thirty- 
four  high.  Above  this  square 
rises  a  round  building,  anciently 
surrounded  by  a  gallery  of  Corin- 
thian columns.  The  diameter  of 
this  circular  building,  including  the 
peristyle,  was  one  hundred  and 
nineteen  ells;  the  height  of  the 
columns,  including  the  architrave, 
was  twenty-four  ells.  Probably 
this  circular  building  was  sur- 
mounted by  another  of  a  similar 
form,  also  surrounded  by  columns. 
The  entire  edifice  was  coated  with 

150 


white  marble,  adorned  with  a 
number  of  statues,  and  surmc  ti  | 
by  a  quadriga  with  a  stat  0f 
Adrian.  This  edifice  commun  > 
with  the  city  by  a  bridge  ov  t| , 
Tiber,  which  was  no  less  m;  ijfi. 
cent  than  the  building  itself,  t 
three,  hundred  feet  long,  an(|has 
five   arches.      Anciently  it  i  . 
called  the  iElian  Bridge,  noJtii 
called  the  bridge  of  St.  Angel 

Mea^v  re,  (mensura,  Lat.^/  w 
Gr.)  that  which  serves  todete;ine 
the  extent  of  any  quantity.  The 
measure  of  an  angle  is  a|arc 
described  upon  the  angular  jnt; 
\nfig.  12,  pi.  M.  1,  the  arc  OB 
is  the  measure  of  the  angle  "B. 
The  measure  of  a  plane  fgtor 
superficies,  is  a  square  of  1  tot, 
inch,  &c.  The  measure  of  a  im- 
ber,  is  a  number  of  which  [sa 
multiple,  as  2  is  the  measure!  4. 
The  measure  of  a  ratio,  is  a  _m 
rithm.  The  measure  of  a  so,  is 
a  cube  of  1  inch,  &c.  The  en- 
sure of  a  line,  is  any  righ  ine 
taken  at  pleasure,  and  consired 
as  unity.  The  measure  of  vel  ty, 
in  mechanics,  is  the  space  psed 
over  by  a  moving  body  in  my 
given  time  ;  to  measure  a  velity, 
the  space  must  therefore  bdi- 
vided  into  as  many  equal  pa  as 
the  time  is  conceived  to  be  d i  led 
into  :  the  quantity  of  space  in  ich 
intervals  is  the  measure  of  tr  ve- 
locity. 

Measure  of  the  mass  or  nn- 
tity  of  matter,  is  only  to  be  ;  <  >- 
tained  by  its  gravity  or  weighuhe 
same  bulk  of  an  homogeneous  ly 
being  of  the  same  weight,  wr  so- 
ever its  form  may  be. 

MECIIANlCALCARPENTRYhat 

branch  of  Carpentry  which  te  hes 
the  disposition  of  the  timberac- 
cording  to  their  relative  stre'th, 
and  the  strains  to  which  the  are 
subjected.  Timber  in  building, 
is  exposed  to  four  strains—  )  * 


M  EC 


MEC 


p^e  may  be  torn  asunder — (2) 
c  shed— (3)  broken  across— (4) 
o  vrenched  or  twisted.  The  first 
0jy  happen  to  tie-beams,  king- 
pts,  stretchers,  SfC.  the  second 
upillars  and  truss-beams ;  the 
tld  to  a  joist  or  lever;  and  the 
fj-th  to  the  axle  of  a  wheel,  the 
J  of  a  press,  &c.  The  first  of 
the  strains  is  the  most  simple, 
ai  the  others  are  all  modifications 
ol ...  It  has  generally  been  agreed, 
bi  it  is  denied  by  Buffon,  that  the 
h<  t  of  the  tree  is  the  weakest 
p; ,  and  that  this  weakness  in- 
crtses  with  its  age.  The  middle 
of  iie  trunk  is  stronger  than  at  the 
ro,  or  at  the  springing  of  the 

lies,  or  the  branches  them- 
se  s,  and  the  outer  fibres,  which 
an  termed  the  blea,  are  weaker 
tli  the  rest.  In  European  trees, 
th  vood  on  the  northern  side  is 
th  weakest,  and  that  on  the  south 
sic  the  strongest ;  and  it  is  always 
ob'rved  that  the  heart  of  the  tree 

rest  the  north  side,  where  also 
th  annual  plates  are  considerably 
th  ler  than  on  the  south.  Mus- 
chbroek  made  a  number  of  ex- 
penents  on  the  absolute  strength 
of  tftrent  woods,  with  pieces  cut 
m  ps,  one  part  being  cut  away 
to  parallelopipedon  one-fifth  of  an 
if  square,  and  the  twenty -fifth 
pa  of  a  square  inch  in  section. 
Th  following  are  the  results  of  his 
ex  nments ;  ihe  number  of  pounds 
givg  the  absolute  strength  of  a 
squre  inch. 

Pounds. 

I  ust  Tree.  (A  oacia.)  20100 

Jel>   1*500 

I  cli  and  (J;ik   17300 

(  "Ke   15500 

ler   1:5900 

*  13200 

Mberrv  and  Willow   12500 

j    •  12000 

1  "  11800 

1  >'   10000 

Tirnranate    9753 

L  on    92  ,0 

T  arind    8750 


Pounds. 

Fir   8330 

Walnut   ..,   8!  30 

Pitch  pine   7650 

Quince   0750 

Cv  press   0000 

Poplar   5500 

Cedar   4880 

These  numbers  are  given  as  the 
weights  will  just  tear  them  asunder. 
To  this  table  of  the  strength  of 
wood  we  may  add — 

Pounds. 

Ivor?  10270 

Horn   8750 

Whalebone   7500 

Bone   5250 

Tooth  of  the  Sea-calf   4075 

It  may  be  observed,  however, 
that  two-thirds  of  these  weights 
will  greatly  impair  the  strength 
after  a  considerable  time,  and  in 
general  one  half  is  the  utmost  that 
ought  to  be  reckoned  upon,  as 
more  may  risk  their  ultimate  demo- 
lition. Woods  of  very  straight 
fibre,  such  as  fir,  will  suffer  less 
injury  from  a  load  which  is  not 
sufficient  to  break  them  immedi- 
ately. Muschenbroek's  tables  as- 
sign a  much  greater  tenacity  to  the 
different  woods  than  the  generality 
of  writers  who  have  treated  on  the 
subject;  the  reason  however  is,  that 
he  gives  the  weight  that  will  just 
tear  them  asunder,  while  others 
give  that  which  may  be  suspended 
to  them  with  safety.  He  gives  a 
very  minute  detail  of  his  experi- 
ments on  the  ash  and  walnut,  and 
the  result  as  given  in  the  table  on 
these  woods  may  be  considered  as 
the  average  of  more  than  fifty  trials 
on  slips  from  each  side  of  the  tree, 
from  the  centre  to  the  circum- 
ference. t 

Mr.  Emerson  lays  down  as  a 
rule,  that  a  cylinder  of  any  of  the 
following  substances,  of  six  inches 
diameter,  when  loaded  to  one-fourth 
of  its  absolute  strength,  will  carry — 

Cwt.  Cwt. 

Iron  135  1  Good  Rope  ...  22 

Oak   14    Fir  ,  ..  9 

151 


M  E  C 

From  Emerson's  experiments  it 
appears  that  the  following  weights 
may  be  safely  suspended  to  an  inch 
square  of  the  different  bodies  enu- 


merated. Pounds. 

Iron    76400 

Brass   35000 

Hempen  Rope  19G00 

Ivorj    15703 

Oak,  Box,  Yew,  Fluni-tree.. .  7850 

Elm.  Ash,  Beech   6070 

Walnut    5360 

Red  Fir,  Holly,  Elder,  Plane,  }  Q0 

Crab  $ 

Cherry,  Ha? el   47G0 

Alder,  A*h,  Birch,  Willow  . . .  4290 

Freestone   914 

Lead   430 


We  calculate,  in  theory,  that  the 
positive  strength  of  a  body  suffer- 
ing under  compression,  will  sustain 
a  weight  in  relative  proportion  to 
the  area  of  its  section.  But  as  a 
piece  of  timber  cannot  be  so 
straight,  and  the  weight  acting 
upon  it  so  equally  disposed,  that 
it  will  press  in  a  direction  precisely 
perpendicular  upon  each  fibre,  the 
weight  must  be  regulated  in  some 
measure  by  its  length.  From  the 
observations  of  Parent,  it  appears 
that  the  force  required  to  crush  a 
body,  is  in  general  nearly  equal  to 
that  which  will  tear  it  asunder,  and 
that  it  requires  something  more 
than  sixty  pounds  on  every  square 
line,  to  crush  a  piece  of  sound  oak. 
But  Parent's  rule  is  not  applicable 
in  every  case,  as  woods  of  a  soft 
texture  are  much  more  easily 
crushed  in  proportion  to  their  te- 
nacity than  others.  Euler  published 
first  in  the  Berlin  Memoirs  for  1757, 
and  confirmed  in  the  Petersburg 
Commentaries  for  1778,  his  theory, 
that  the  strength  of  prismatic  co- 
lumns is  in  the  direct  quadruplicate 
ratio  of  their  diameters,  and  the 
inverse  ratio  of  their  lengths. 

One  of  the  most  common  strains 
to  which  bodies  are  exposed,  is  that 
which  tends  to  break  them  across, 
in  which  case  it  frequently  happens, 

152 


M  EC 

that  in  addition  to  the  po:Ve 
force  of  the  strain,  the  powt  ot 
a  lever  is  exerted.  This  wilL 
better  explained  by  the  diajm 
(plate  Athenian  Architecture rip 
Jig.  2)  in  v\hich  ABC  is  the  vei'Lj 
section  of  a  prismatic  solid,  at 
projects  horizontally  from  a  ill 
in  which  it  is  firmly  fixed;  iL 
weight  be  hung  on  it  at  B,  or  \\ 
power  act  there  in  a  direction  r 
pendicular  to  AB,  and  let  the  1  Jy 
be  supposed  to  possess  insupei  le 
strength  in  every  part  but  the  r- 
tical  section  DA,  perpendiculJto 
its  length,  in  wh  ch  place  on  it 
must  break.  Let  the  cohesio 
uniform  through  the  whole  ofliis 
section  ;  that  is,  let  each  of  he 
adjoining  particles  of  the  two  ;  ts 
cohere  with  an  equal  force.  Ae 
part  ABCD,  may  simply  slide  (Ira 
along  the  surface  of  the  fractu  if 
the  power  acting  at  B  be  eqn  to 
the  accumulated  force  which  i|x- 
erted  by  every  particle  compng 
the  section  in  the  direction  l). 
Let  this  be  prevented  by  someng 
supporting  the  point  A,  then  lie 
action  at  P  tends  to  make  theiiy 
turn  round  A  in  the  same  ma  er 
as  round  a  joint,  in  which  en  it 
must  separate  at  the  line  DA,  v?n 
the  adjoining  particles  at  D,  fat 
E,  wiil  be  separated  horizont  y. 
Since,  however,  their  attract ic  of 
cohesion  resists  this  separation  in 
order  that  the  fracture  may  ha j  n 
at  the  Hace  intended,  the  en  :v 
of  the  power  P,  acting  by  the.'er 
AB,  must  be  superior  to  the  au- 
mulated  energies  of  the  compo  nt 
particles  :  and  the  energy  of  iph 
depends  not  only  on  its  cohesive  ut 
also  on  its  peculiar  situation,  see 
the  supposed  insuperable  firm  ^ 
of  the  rest  of  the  body  rende  11 
a  lever,  turning  round  the  fulc  m 
A  ;  the  individual  cohesive  pow<  of 
each  particle,  as  D  or  E,  actinjby 
means  of  the    arm  DA  or  It* 


M  EC 


M  EC 


!    Ccequently,  the  precise  energy 
0f  ch  particle  may  be  ascertained 
ultiplying  the  force  individually 
fxled  by  it,  at  the  moment  of 
fraure,  by  the  arm  of  the  lever 
wWh  enables  it  to  act.  Let/* 
repent  the  equal  force  exerted 
ich  individual  particle  at  the 
h  ent  of  fracture  :  the  energy  of 
D  ill  be  DA  x  f\  that  of  E  will 
e  A  x  f\  and  that  of  the  whole 
vi  be  the  sum  of  all  these  pro- 
luk    Let  d  represent  the  depth 
of  e  section  DA,  and  let  x  repre- 
iei  any  undetermined  part  of  it,  as 
[]  then  the  space  occupied  by 
j   an  particle  will  be  x\    The  cohe- 
sio  of  this  space  may  be  repre- 
r  d  by  fy  x\  and  that  of  the 
1  e  by  /v  d.   fs  x  xy  will  repre- 
the  energy  by  which  each  ele- 
me:  xv  of  the  line  DA,  or  d,  resists 
th(  fracture,  and  the  whole  accu- 
mi  ted  energies  will  bef'Xx fx  x\ 
Th  is/  x  ^  d  2,  or  p  d  X  \  d, 
vl  h  is  the  same  thing  as  if  the 
co  sion  fs  d  of  the  whole  section 
ha  been  concentred  at  the  point 
G,  hit  h  is  in  the  middle  of  DA. 

itTon  and  Du  Hamel  were  di- 
re(d  by  the  French  government 
to, lake  a  variety  of  experiments 
on  ie  strength  of  timber,  and  were 
flushed  with  ample  funds  and 
ap  ™tus,  with  all  the  forests  of 
Free  at  their  disposal,  for  sub- 
let .  The  repoits  of  M.  de  Button 
''Ziven  in  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Fr  ch  Academy  in  the  years  1740, 
l7  ,  1742,  and  1760,*  and  those 
of  1 .  Du  Hamel  in  his  work,  "  Sur 
llploitation  des  Arbres,  et  sur  le 
Cd.ervation  et  la  Transportation 
luftois."  Du  Hamel  took  six- 
te(f  bars  of  willow,  two  feet  long, 
an  half  an  inch  square,  and  after 
rting  them  by  props  under 
thjends,  he  suspended  weights  to 
Ihjniddle,  and  found  that  four  of 
th«,i  were  broken  by  forty,  forty- 
On|  forty -seven,   and    fifty -two 


pounds,  of  which  the  mean  is  forty- 
five.  When  he  cut  through  one- 
third  of  four  of  them  on  the  upper 
side,  and  filled  up  the  cuts  by 
pieces  of  harder  wood  wedged  in- 
tolerably tight,  he  found  they  were 
broken  by  forty -eight,  fifty- four, 
fifty,  and  fifty-two  pounds,  of  which 
the  mean  is  fifty-one.  Four  others, 
when  cut  through  one  half,  were 
broken  by  forty-seven,  forty-nine, 
fifty,  and  fifty-six  pounds,  of  which 
the  mean  is  forty-eight.  The  others 
were  cut  through  two-thirds :  and 
their  mean  strength  was  forty-two 
pounds.  At  another  time  he  found 
that  six  battens  of  willow,  thirty- 
six  inches  long,  and  one  and  a  half 
square,  were  broken  on  an  average 
by  five  hundred  and  twenty- five 
pounds :  that  when  cut  through 
one-third,  they  were  broken  by  five 
hundred  and  fifty  -  one  pounds  ; 
when  cut  half  through,  by  five 
hundred  and  forty-two  ;  when  cut 
three  -  fourths  through,  by  five 
hundred  and  thirty  pounds  at  a 
medium.  The  result  of  his  experi- 
ments on  oak  is  exhibited  in  the 
following  table,  when  three  pieces 
of  each  dimension  were  tried.  The 
column  B  contains  the  breadth  of 
the  pieces  in  inches,  D  the  depth, 
L  the  length,  P  the  number  of 
pounds  which  broke  each  piece, 
and  M  the  mean  weigh*- 


B 

I) 

L 

P 

M 

Exp.  1. 
ends  loose. 

1 

18 

400 
415 

40.) 

400 

Exp.  2. 
ends  (irmly 
fixed. 

1 

18 

(iOO 
(iOO 
G24 

GOh 

Exp.  3. 
ends  loose. 

2 

1 

18 

810 
79.-> 
812 

803 

Exp.  4. 
ends  loose. 

1 

2 

18 

1570 
1580 
1590 

1580 

M  EC 


Table  continued. 


B 

D 

L 

P 

M 

Exp.  5. 
ends  loose. 

1 

1 

36 

185 
195 
180 

187 

Exp.  6. 
ends  fixed. 

1 

1 

30 

285 
280 
285 

283 

Exp.  7. 
ends  loose. 

2 

2 

30 

1550 
1020 
1585 

1585 

Exp.  8. 
ends  loose. 

'5 

H 

30 

1005 
1675 
1040 

1G00 

From  this  table  it  appears  that 
(from  Exp.  1  and  3,)  the  strength 
is  proportional  to  the  breadth,  the 
length  and  depth  being  the  same  ; 
that  (  Exp.  1  and  4)  the  strength 
is  nearly  as  the  square  of  the 
depth,  the  breadth  and*  length  be- 
ing the  same;  that  (1  and  5)  the 
strength  is  nearly  as  the  lengths 
inversely,  the  breadth  and  depth 
being  the  same;  and  that  (1  and  7) 
the  strengths  are  as  the  square 
of  the  depth,  multiplied  by  the 
breadth,  and  divided  by  the  length. 
The  cause  of  the  irregularity  always 
observed  in  such  experiments,  is 
the  texture  of  the  timber. 

M.  BufTon,  tried  a  number  of 
experiments  on  the  strength  of  oak, 
with  the  largest  beams  he  could 
possibly  break.  The  following  is 
the  result  of  his  experiments  on 
bars  of  sound  oak  four-inch  square, 
and  free  from  knots.  The  first 
column  is  the  length  of  the  bar 
between  the  supports  in  clear  feet : 
the  second,  the  weight  of  the  bar 
in  pounds,  on  the  second  day  after 
it  was  felled,  tried  on  two  bars  of 
each  sort:  the  third,  the  number 
of  pounds  required  to  break  the 
tree  in  a  few  minutes :  the  fourth, 
the  number  of  inches  in  which  a 
tree  bends  down  before  bieaking : 


MEC 

and  the  fifth,  the  time  at  whit  it 
broke. 


2 

3 

4 

5 

2£ 

n 

15 

la 

14 

12 

7 

$  00 
\  56 

5350 
5275 

4600 
4500 

3-  5 

4-  5 

8 

\  68 
I  68 

3-  75 

4-  7 

9 

S  77 
I  71 

4JO0 
3950 

4-  85 

5-  5 

10 

S  84 
(  S2 

3025 
3000 

5  83 
0-5 

15 
15 

12 

S  loo 

i  98 

3050 
2925 

7 

8 

M.  Buffon,  found  the  cuts  i;t 
the  root  both  the  heaviest  and  e 
strongest.  He  made  similar  i 
periments  on  other  pieces  of  | 
ferent  sizes.  The  beams  were'll 
square.  In  the  following  table,! 
first  column  gives  their  length,  d 
at  the  head  of  the  others  are - 
pressed  their  sizes  in  inches. 


4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

7 

5312 

11525 

18950 

32200 

-17649 

- 
11 

8 

4550 

9787 

15525 

26050 

39750 

10 

9 

4025 

8308 

13150 

22350 

32800 

81 

to 

3612 

7125 

11250 

19475 

27750 

8- 

12 

2987 

6075 

9100 

1617.f, 

23450 

to 

14 

5300 

7475 

13225 

19775 

5' 

16 

4350 

6362 

11000 

16375 

5( 

18 

3700 

5562 

9245 

13200 

4- 

•20 

3225 

4950 

8375 

11487 

« 

22 

2975 

31 

24 

2162 

28 

1775 

On  the  strength  of  other  ki|S 
of  timber  no  experiments  he 
been  made.  Fir  possesses,  acct  - 
ing  to  Buffon,  three-fifths;  accc- 
ing  to  Parent,  five-sixths ;  or, i- 
cording  to  Emerson,  two-thirds  e 
strength  of  oak. 


MED 

Axles  of  wheels  are  the  principal 
oects  which  are  liable  to  be  twist- 
e  or  wrenched,  but  they  scarcely 
c'ie  within  our  limits.  When 
t ,  cylinders  are  wrenched  asun- 
d,  we  must  of  necessity  conclude, 
t  t  the  external  particles  of  each 
a  placed  beyond  their  limits  of 
c  esion,  that*  they  are  extended 
a  operate  equally  ;  hence,  at  the 
i,  ant  of  fracture,  the  entire  sum 
o  he  forces  actually  exerted,  is  as 
tl  squnres  of  the  diameters. 

Ir.  John  Banks,  in  his  treatise 
o  the  "  Power  of  Machines,"  has 
gm  some  valuable  observations 

0  the  subject  of  the  strength  of 
ti  jer.  "  The  resistance  of  which 
a!  beam  of  wood  or  iron  affords," 
^observes,  "  will  be  as  the  sum 

01  he  products  of  all  the  fibres, 
brveen  the  top  and  the  bottom, 
mtiplied  by  their  respective  dis- 
ta  res  from  the  top.  For  if  a  =: 
fekh,  b  —  breadth,  and  z  z= 
d(!,h,  we  shall  have  z  x  z,  and 
dried  by  —  ;  the  fluent  of  z  z  = 

*  2 

:. ;  hence,  —  the  whole  re- 
si  mce,  which  when  the  weight  is 
s'  tended  from  Jlhe  middle  of  the 
ton,  must  be  divided  by  half  the 

le  th,  or  by  _f_,  which  will  be  = 

i  :  .a 

to  111  ;    which    expresses  the 

a 

st  ligth  of  the  beam."  Hence  he 
d<  res  the  rule  :  "  Multiply  the 
brdth  in  inches  by  the  square  of 
tli  lepth  in  inches,  and  divide  that 
pr  uct  by  the  length  in  inches, 
th  quotient  is  a  fraction,  or  whole 
ruber,  &c.  by  which  is  expressed 
thi  comparative  strength  of  the 
be!i." 

ickias,  or  Megyas,  (Arabic) 
an.  rabic  term  which  signifies  an 
ins'iiment  to  measure  with,  and 
hy  hich  they  more  particularly 
de  nated  the  Ndometer  at  the 
wiiiern  extremity  of  Roud- 
ha 


MEL 

Medallion,  any  circular  tablet 
on  which  are  embossed  figures  or 
bustos. 

Medianos,  the  middle  columns 
in  a  portico,  where  the  intercolum- 
niation  is  enlarged. 

Medieval  Architecture,  the| 
architecture  of  England,  France, 
Germany,  &c.  during  the  middle 
ages,   including  the  Norman  and 
early  Gothic  styles. 

Mega  log  raphia,  (Gr.)  a  name 
applied  by  Vitruvius  to  a  kind  of 
painting,  representing  the  history 
of  the  gods  and  heroes,  which  the 
ancients  employed  for  the  interior 
ornament  of  their  houses. 

M ei dan,  see  Constantinople. 

Melrose  Abbey,  a  ruin,  in  the 
parish  of  Melrose,  in  Roxburgh- 
shire, in  Scotland,  and  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  in  that  country. 
Venerable  Bede  gives  an  account 
of  the  original  abbey,  and  of  its 
abbots.  It  is  said  to  have  been 
built  in  the  sixth  century.  The 
last  erection  was  founded  by  king 
David,  in  the  year  1136.  Vestiges 
of  the  older  abbey  may  yet  be  seen 
at  the  place  called  Old  Melrose ; 
the  foundation  stretches  across  a 
kind  of  promontorv  enclosed  by  a 
curvature  of  the  Tweed.  Several 
erections  have  been  since  built, 
which  have  been  successively  de- 
stroyed, and  the  present  remains 
belong  to  a  building  erected  in  the 
time  of  king  Robert  Bruce.  It  has 
evidently  been  a  spacious  and  mag- 
nificent structure,  hardly  exceeded 
by  any  of  the  ancient  monastic 
buildings  in  Great  Britain.  What 
remains  of  this  building,  are  the 
ruins  of  the  church,  which  was 
built  in  the  form  of  St.  John's  cross, 
and  the  patron  saint  was  the  Vir- 
gin Mary.  These  ruins  measure 
two  hundred  and  fifty-eight  feet  in 
length,  and  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
seven  and  a  half  in  breadth,  and  it 
is  nine  hundred  and  fortv-three  feet 

155 


MEN 


in  circumference.  Its  original  ex- 
tent was  far  more  considerable,  as 
is  evident,  from  the  appearance  of 
the  western  part,  formerly,  both 
the  internal  an^  outward  walls  were 
covered  with  sculptures  of  men  and 
animals,  but  these  were  destroyed 
by  the  violence  of  the  Reformation,  in 
the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward 
VI.  and  Elizabeth.  The  tower 
which  rose  from  the  middle  of  the 
transept,  was  a  structure  of  great 
beauty  and  magnificence,  as  may 
be  clearly  inferred  from  what  re- 
mains. The  great  eastern  window 
consists  of  four  mullions,  with  beau- 
tiful tracery.  Several  elegant  niches 
remain  on  each  side  ;  and  on  the 
top  is  the  figure  of  a  venerable  old 
man  hold;ng  a  globe  in  his  hand, 
and  also  the  figure  of  a  young  man, 
both  in  a  sitting  posture,  with  an 
opc  n  crown  over  their  heads.  Many 
of  the  pillars  remain  in  a  perfect 
state,  the  embellishments  beautiful, 
and  as  fresh  in  appearance  as  if 
newly  executed.  Besides  the  church, 
some  of  the  walls  of  the  cloisters 
remain  ;  the  original  buildings, 
with  gardens  and  other  appendages, 
occupied  a  space  enclosed  by  a  wall 
of  more  than  a  mile  in  circuit. 

Members,  (membrum,  Lat.)  the 
different  parts  of  a  building;  the  dif- 
ferent parts  of  an  entablature ;  the 
different  mouldings  of  a  cornice,  &c. 

Memel  Timber,  imported  from 
the  town  of  that  name,  in  Prussia. 
It  is  situated  on  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Cruische-Haf,  an 
inlet  of  the  sea,  and  its  greatest 
trade  is  in  timber,-  an  immense 
quantity  of  which  is  brought  to  this 
country. 

Memnonium,  (  Gr.  )  a  grand 
building  which  encircled  the  cele- 
brated statue  of  Memnon,  in 
Egypt. 

Menagerie,  (Fr.)  a  building  to 
keep  rare  and  foreign  animals  in. 
The  ancient  Romans  had  generally 

156 


private  menageries,  a  kind  of  sr!j 
parks,  in  which  they  had  all  kL 
of  animals,  attached  to  their  vill 

Mensuration,  the  sciee 
which  teaches  us  to  estimate  L 
magnitudes  of  bodies,  superficL 
and  lines.  The  most  import  t 
parts  of  it  will  in  general  be  foi] 
under  their  different  articles. 

Merlon,  in  fortification,  L 
part  of  a  parapet  which  terming 
by  two  embrasures  of  a  batte : 
its  height  and  thickness  is  usu;  / 
the  same  as  the  parapet  ;  i 
breadth  about  six  feet  on  - 
outside,  and  nine  within;  it  sen 
to  cover  those  on  the  battery  fn 
the  enemy's  attacks. 

Meros,  (Gr.)  a  triglyph  conss 
of  six  parts,  two  and  a  half  of  wh 
are  on  each  side,  and  the  meros 
in  the  centre,  and  constitutes  i 
part. 

Mf.saulje,  (  Gr.  )  described  / 
Vitruvius  as  itinera,  or  passae; 
they  were,  however,  smaller  con  . 
They  are  mentioned  by  Apolloi ; 
Rhodius,  who,  describing  the  rec- 
tion  of  the  Argonauts  in  the  pah 
of  iEetes,  conducts  them  first  i) 
the  vestibule,  then  through  2 
folding  gates  info  the  mesm I 
which  had  thalami  here  and  ttV, 
and  a  portico,  atdovaa,  on  ev 
side. 

Meta,  (Lat.)  the  mark  or  J 
in  the  Roman  circus,  where  ! 
chariots,  &c.  run  to.  See  Circu 

Metagenfs,  a  Grecian  arc- 
tect,  who  with  his  father  Ct«- 
phontes,  assisted  in  the  erect  1 
of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephes. 
He  wrote  a  description  of  that  c<- 
brated  building 

Metatome,  (Lat.)  the  same  s 
Metoche. 

Metezan,  Clement,  architt 
to  Louis  XIII.  celebrated  for  f 
dertaking  and  completing  the  1- 
mense  dyke  and  fortifications  nec- 
sary  to  the  reduction  of  Roche , 


M  EX 

tl  plan  was  an  'imitation  of  the 
f]  ous  works  of  Csesar  at  Durazzo, 
ai  those  of  Alexander  the  Great 
q  Tyre.    In  this  undertaking  it 
J  necessary  to  raise  a  solid  wall 
aoss  a  gulf  of  more  than  740 
Boms  in  breadth,  and  to  do  this 
jrjthe  face  of  an  impetuous  and 
'    h«  terous  sea.    Huge  rocks  were 
[    fi  thrown  into  this  abyss,  in  order 
tcorm  a  foundation,  and  to  secure 
the,  immense  beams  of  timber 
Jte  driven  into  the  bottom  of  the 
i     st  with  incredible  labour.  These 
!     wfks  were  raised  so  high,  that  the 
1     sc  iers,  even  at  spring-tides,  expe- 
!™   riced  no  inconvenience  from  the 
ri  ig  waves.    The  platform  at  the 
fcirlation  was  ninety  feet,  dimin- 
is  ig,  as  it  rose,  to  thirty.  Strong 
'     fcj  were  erected  at  the  extremities 
1     ofi-ie  wall,  and  an  opening  in  the 
mdle,  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
lS    p:  ?s,  was  guarded  by  a  floating 
i«|    bi  stwork  formed  of  thirty -five 
v<  els  chained  together,  and  before 
the  were  a  double  row  of  tall 
fci    st-es.    In  six  months  this  truly 
grt  work  was  completed,  and 
to    pi'ed  effective  in  compelling  the 
Wbged  to  surrender.    A  portrait 
k    ofvletezan  was  on  this  occasion 
ci  ilated  through  France,  under 
w    wi  h  the  following  lines  were  in- 
soed,  to  express  the  admiration 
ai  gratitude  of  the  nation  : 

'  itnr  Archimedes  Ternm  potuisse  roovere  ; 
;       n  jra  qui  potuit  sistere,  uon  minor  est." 

fETociiE,  (f.ierox'n,  Gr.)  the  in- 
to ils  between  two  denticuli  in  the 
if    lo>2  entablature. 

etope,  (Gr.  from  fiira,  be- 
tu  n,  and  071-77,  a  hole,  see  Opce,)  the 
sp  e  between  the  triglyphs  in  the 
D  c  frieze.  They  were  sometimes 
td  ned  with  carved  work,  as  the 
he'  s  of  oxen,  vessels,  and  other 
ar  les  used  in  sacrifices. 

kxican  Buildings  The  re- 
!     tn:  is  of  ancient.  Mexican  buildings 
th  have  been  discovered  are  prin- 


M  EX 

cipally  in  those  parts  t)iat  were  least 
frequented  by  the  Spanish  con- 
querors. In  the  city  of  Mexico, 
there  is  scarcely  a  trace  of  its  for- 
mer grandeur.  The  cathedral,  a 
somewhat  heterogeneous  edifice,  is 
said  to  stand  on  the  ruins  of  the 
great  teocalli  of  the  god  Mexitli. 
A  very  credible  perosn  assured 
Mr.  Humboldt,  that  the  foundations 
are  surrounded  by  an  immense 
quantity  of  idols  and  reliefs.  Near 
the  Capilla  del  Sagrario,  a  sculp- 
tured rock  was  found,  seven  metres 
long,  six  broad,  and  three  in  height. 
Within  the  enclosure  of  the  cathe- 
dral is  preserved  the  remarkable 
stone  called  the  stone  of  sacrifices, 
which  was  found,  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  idols  and  other  remains  of 
Aztec  sculpture,  in  Dec.  1790,  in 
digging  twenty  or  thirty  feet  deep, 
in  order  to  level  the  great  square. 
It  is  supposed  by  Humboldt  to  be 
one  of  those  stones  called  temala- 
catl,  on  which  the  combat  of  the 
gladiators  took  place,  between  the 
prisoners  of  rank  designed  to  be 
sacrificed,  and  a  Mexican  warrior. 
At  the  same  time  were  discovered 
the  calendar  stone  and  the  statue 
of  the  goddess  Teoyaomiqui. 

The  only  remarkable  monuments 
in  the  valley  of  Mexico,  Mr.  Hum- 
boldt tells  us,  are  the  remains  of 
the  two  pyramids  of  San  Juan  de 
Teotihuacan,  on  the  north-east  of 
the  lake  Tezcuco,  consecrated  to 
the  sun  and  moon,  and  called  by 
the  Indians  Tonatiuh  Ytzaqual, 
(house  of  the  sun,)  and  Metzli 
Ytzaqual,  (house  of  the  moon.) 
Mr.  Bullock  visited  this  site  on  his 
return  from  Themascaltepec.  For 
some  time  before  he  reaches  the 
gate  of  Tezcuco,  the  traveller  is 
apprised  of  his  approach  to  a  place 
of  ancient  importance,  by  a  large 
aqueduct  still  in  use,  and  the  ruins 
of  several  stone  buildings.  The 
Spanish  quarters  built  i'ur  Cortes, 


MEX 

are  still  entire.  Several  tumuli  are 
seen  on  entering  the  gates,  which 
are  supposed  to  have  been  teocallis. 
The  most  important  ruin  is  what 
Mr.  Bullock  calls  the  site  of  the 
palace  of  the  ancient  caziques  of 
of  Tezcuco,  which,  though  in  ruins, 
£*r  surpassed  every  idea  that  he 
had  formed  of  ancient  Mexican 
architecture.  "  It  extended  for 
300  feet,  forming  one  side  cf  the 
great  square,  and  was  placed  on 
sloping  terraces,  raised  one  above 
the  other  by  small  steps.  Some  of 
these  terraces  are  still  entire,  and 
are  covered  with  cement,  very  hard, 
and  equal  in  beauty  to  that  found 
in  ancient  Roman  buildings.  From 
what  is  known  of  the  extensive 
foundations  of  this  palace,  it  must 
have  occupied  some  acres  of  ground. 
It  was  composed  of  large  blocks  of 
basaltic  stone,  of  about  four  or  five 
feet  long,  and  two  and  a  half  or 
three  feet  thick,  cut  and  polished 
with  the  utmost  exactness."  The 
sculptured  stones  from  these  ruins 
have  been  used  in  building  the 
modern  church  and  houses.  Heaps 
cf  ruins  surround  it  on  every  side, 
and  Tezcnco,the  Athens  of  Anahuac, 
as  it  is  called  by  a  Spanish  historian, 
would  seem  to  invite,  above  all 
others  in  Mexico,  the  attention  of 
the  antiquary. 

At  about  two  leagues  from  Tez- 
cuco, is  a  spot  called  Bano  de 
Montezuma,  Montezuma's  bath,  on 
the  summit  of  a  conical  hill,  called 
Tescosins:o.  "  We  scrambled  with 
great  difficulty,"  observes  Mr.  Bul- 
lock, "through  bushes,  and  over 
loose  stones,  which  were  in  great 
quantities  on  all  sides,  and  at  last 
perceived  that  we  were  on  the  ruins  of 
a  very  large  building  ;  the  cemented 
stones  remaining  in  some  places 
covered  with  stucco,  and  forming 
walks  and  terraces,  but  much  en- 
cumbered with  earth  fallen  from 
above,  and  overgrown  with  a  wood 

158 


MEX 

of  nopal,  which  made  it  differ, 
to  ascend."     He  discovered 
bath  on  one  of  the  sides  of  the  1 
"  It  was  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  <  [ 
standing  o;  t  like  a  martin's  ri\ 
from  the  side  of  a  house.    It  is 
only  an  extraordinary  bath,  but  s  | 
more  extraordinarily  placed.  I 
a  beautiful  basin,  about  twelve  m 
long,  by  eight  wide,  having  a  v 
about  five  feet  by  four  deep  in  p 
centre,  surrounded  by  a  parapet  * 
ruin  two  feet  six  inches  high,  \A 
a  throne  or  chair,  such  as  is  rep  . 
sented  in  ancient  pictures  to  hi 
been  used  by  the  kings.  There 
steps  to  descend  into  the  basin- 
bath  ;  the  whole  cut  out  of  \ 
living  porphyry  rock  with  the  m; 
mathematical  precision,   and  4 
lished  in  the  most  beautiful  mam  . 
The  mountain  appeared  to  b| 
been  covered  with  palaces,  temp  , 
baths,  hanging-gardens,  &c  ? 
Mr.  Bullock   was   informed  t  ; 
he  had  seen  but  the  commen- 
ment  of  the  wonders  of  the  plae 
About  two  miles  from  Tezcu, 
is  the  Indian  village  of  Huexo, 
Mr.  Bullock  observed,  on  his  ;• 
proach,  several  small  pyramids  ( 
alternate  layers  of  clay  and  unbu  ; 
brick.    One  of  them  had  evider, 
an  entrance  to  the  centre,  wh 
was  discovered  by  part  of  it  havr 
fallen  in.    Within  the  town  w| 
the  foundations  of  a  palace,  a 
two  large  reservoirs,  with  which 
was  supplied  with  water,  rema 
entire.    The  ancient  wall  of  i 
town,  almost  thirty  feet  high,  a  I 
very  thick,  extends  to  a  consid- 
able  distance.     It   is  singula' 
constructed,  being  divided  into  h 
unequal  parts.    The  broadest  di- 
sion  is  built  of  large  oval  ston, 
with  the  ends  standing  out,  so  as  I 
give  it  the  appearance  of  havij 
been  formed  of  human  skulls,  a  I 
it  is  divided  from  the  rest  by  a  p- 
jecting  cornice.    Beyond  the  wa  r 


MEX 

on  he  road  to  Tezcuco,  a  broad 
coved  way   runs   between  two 

h,  ,.  walls,  terminating  near  a  river, 
wfafn  appears  to  have  been  one  of 
:;  rntrances  to  the  town.  Over 
ihejed  of  the  river,  which  is  now 

(here  is  a  remarkable  bridge, 
,  ,t  a  pointed  arch,  nearly  forty 
feekieh,  supported  on  one  side  by 

ss  of  masonry  in  a  pyramidal 
,  r.  It  is  ascribed  to  the  ancient 
Ifefcans,  but  if  constructed  on 
the'rinciple  of  the  arch,  it  must 
ha\  been  the  work  of  European 
arc'tects. 

;  .  Bullock  visited  the  cele- 
ratj  pvramids  of  San  Juan  de 
Tecpuacan.     "As  we  approach 
"  he  says,  "  the  square  and 
pgr  t  form  of  the  largest  became 
■  <  My  step  more  and  more  visibly 
disllct,  and  the  terraces  could 
>e  counted.    We  rode  first  to 
the  sser,  which  is  the  most  dilapi- 
of  the  two,  and  ascended  to 
r  the  tp  over  masses  of  fallen  stone 
(  ruins  of  masonry,  with  less 
i  diff ilty  than  we  expected.  On 
the  lu  mm  it  are  the  remains  of  an 

i.  it  building;,  forty-seven  feet 
Ion  and  fourteen  wide;  the  walls 
Me  irincipally  of  unhewn  stone, 
::m  feet  thick  and  eight  feet  high  ; 

i  the  Urance  at  the  south  end,  with 
i  n  windows  on  each  side  ;  and 
Mi  f;  north  end  it  appears  to  have 
bee  iividecl  at  about  a  third  of  its 
i.     We  soon  arrived  at  the 

I  fool)f  the  largest  pyramid,  and 
bep  to  ascend.  It  was  less  dif- 
ficu.  than  we  expected,  though 
the  lole  way  up,  lime  and  cement 
areiixed  with  fallen  stones.  The 
terr-es  are  perfectly  visible,  parti- 
cub  y  the  second,  which  is  about 
thin-eight  feet  wide,  covered  with 
acc  of  red  cement  eight  or  ten 
mel ;  thick,  composed  of  small 
pel)  i-stones  and  lime.  In  many 
plat  ,  as  you  ascend,  the  nopal 
treehave  destroyed  the  regularity 


MEX 

of  the  steps,  but  no  where  injured 
the  general  figure  of  the  square, 
which  is  as  perfect  in  this  respect 
as  the  great  pyramid  of  Egypt.  We 
every  where  observed  broken  pieces 
of  instruments,  like  knives,  arrow, 
and  spear  heads,  &c.  of  obsidian, 
the  same  as  those  found  on  the 
small  hills  of  Cholula;    and,  on 
reaching  the  summit,  we  found  a 
flat  surface  of  considerable  size,  but 
which  has  been  much  broken  and 
disturbed.     On  it  was  probably  a 
temple,  or  some  other  building : 
report  says,  a  statue  covered  with 
gold.    We  rested  some  time  on 
the  summit,  enjoying  one  of  the 
finest    prospects    imaginable,  in 
which  the  city  of  Mexico  is  included. 
Here  I  found  fragments  of  small 
statues  and  earthenware,  and,  what 
surprised  me  more,  oyster-shells, 
the  first  I  had  seen  in  Mexico.  In 
descending,  I  also  found  some  orna- 
mental pieces  of  earthenware,  the 
pattern  one  of  which  is  in  relief, 
much  resembling  those  of  China, 
the  other  has  a  grotesque  human 
face.      On    the    north-east  side, 
at  about  half  way  down,  at  some  re- 
mote period,  an  opening  has  been 
attempted.    This  should  have  been 
from  the  south  to  the  north,  and  on 
a  level  with  the  ground,  or  only  a 
few  feet  above  it ;  as  all  the  remains 
of  similar  buildings  have  been  found 
to  have  their  entrances  in  that  di- 
rection."   According  to  the  mea- 
surements made  by  Dr.  Oteyza,  a 
young  Mexican  savant,  in  1803, 
the  base  of  the  larger  pyramid  is 
682  feet  long,  and  its  elevation  180 
feet  perpendicular.      Mr.  Bullock 
thinks  its  height  to  be  nearer  half 
the  base.    The  other  pyramid  (that 
of  the  moon)  is  36  feet  lower,  and 
its  base  much  smaller.     They  are 
constructed  of  clay    mixed  with 
small  stones,  covered  with  a  thick 
facing  of  porous  amygdaloid,  over 
which  was  a  coating  of  cement. 

159 


M  EX 


M  EX 


There  are  four  stages,  subdivided 
into  smaller  steps;  a  stair  of  hewn 
stones  formerly  led  to  their  summits. 
Early  travellers  all  mention  the 
prevailing  tradition  that  their  in- 
terior was  hollow.  Around  them, 
in  the  plain,  there  are  several  hun- 
dred smaller  ones,  in  general  about 
30  feet  high,  which,  according  to 
the  tradition,  were  dedicated  to  the 
stars.  It  is  probable,  however,  that 
the  whole  plain  was  a  vast  burial 
place  ;  its  Aztec  name  was  Micaotl, 
i.e.  the  road  of  the  dead,  which  the 
Spaniards,  borrowing  a  word  from 
the  language  of  the  island  of  Cuba, 
have  rendered  Llano  de  los  Cues. 
They  are  supposed  to  be  the  most 
ancient  of  all  the  Mexican  monu- 
ments. The  military  intrenchment 
of  Xochiculco,  near  Tetlama,  two 
leagues  south-south-west  of  Cuer- 
navaca,  is  another  remarkable  an- 
cient monument.  It  is  an  insulated 
hill,  about  370  feet  high,  formed 
into  five  terraces,  which  are  covered 
with  masonry ;  the  whole  form  a 
truncated  pyramid,  of  which  the 
four  faces  accurately  correspond, 
like  the  pyramids  of  Hotihuacan, 
to  the  four  cardinal  points.  The 
stones  are  of  very  regularly  cut 
porphyry,  adorned  with  hieroglyphi- 
cal  figures,  among  which  are  to  be 
seen  crocodiles  spouting  up  water, 
and  men  sitting  crosslegged  in  the 
Asiatic  manner.  The  base  is  sur- 
rounded with  ditches  or  trenches, 
which  appears  to  be  the  only  reason 
of  its  being  styled  by  Humboldt  a 
military  intrenchment."  The  plat- 
form exhibits  the  ruins  of  a  small 
square  edifice. 

At  two  leagues'  distance  from 
the  large  village  of  Papautla,  there 
is  a  remarkable  pyramid,  which 
was  first  discovered  about  sixty 
years  ago.  Situated  in  the  midst 
of  a  thick  forest,  called  Tajui,  it 
was  concealed  from  the  first  con- 
querors.   It  differs  from  the  pyra- 


mids of  Teotihuacan  and  Chi  ]a 
in  being  constructed,  not  of  ',ck 
or  clay,  but  wholly  of  imn!)se 
blocks  of  stone,  very  regularlj  ut 
and  laid  with  mortar.  The  b;  ig 
an  exact  square  of  80  feet, 
not  quite  60  feet  high.  It  is  L. 
posed  of  several  stages,  of  v  ch 
six  are  yet  visible;  a  seven!  is 
concealed  by  vegetation. 
flights  of  57  steps  lead  to  the  jm- 
cated  summit.  The  facin 
adorned  with  hieroglyphics  in 
which  are  discernible  serpents  nd 
crocodiles  in  relief.  378  si'ire 
niches  are  symmetrically  distril'ed 
over  the  pyramid,  which  haveien 
conjectured  to  correspond  tc  he 
Mexican  calendar. 

In  the  northern  part  of  he 
intendancy  of  Sonora,  on  he 
banks  of  the  Rio  Gila,  arefnd 
some  remarkable  ruins,  whiclire 
known  by  the  name  of  La  \:sa 
grande.  They  are  consider*  by 
the  Mexican  historians  as  the  s  de 
of  the  Aztecs  on  their  arrival  h  he 
Rio  Gila  towards  the  end  o  he 
twelfth  century.  The  count  is 
still  held  by  native  tribes,  anrno 
permanent  communication  has/er 
been  established.  Twoenterpmg 
monks,  Fathers  Garces  and  jut, 
however,  succeeded  in  penetmg 
these  districts  by  land  in  177  of 
which  enterprise  the  college  o  he 
Propaganda  published  an  int< st- 
ing notice.  The  edifice  calle<Z« 
Casa  grande,  is  situated  in  he 
midst  of  the  ruins  of  an  an?nt 
Aztec  city,  which  occupy  >re 
than  a  square  league.  The  tw 
grande,  exactly  laid  down  act- 
ing to  the  four  cardinal  w% 
is  445  feet  from  north  to  sjth, 
and  276  from  east  to  west,  is 
constructed  of  unburnt  brick  of 
unequal  size,  but  symmetri'Hy 
arranged.  The  walls  are  njrly 
four  feet  thick.  It  had  threcto- 
ries,  and  a  terrace ;  the  stair,  ro- 


v  MEX 

(  bay  of  wood,  was  on  the  outside. 
\V  perceive  in  it  five  apartments, 
pa,  of  which  is  about  27  feet  long, 
road,  and  11  high.  A  wall, 
iJrupted  by  large  towers,  sur- 

/  roids  the  principal  edifice,  and 
apiars  t0  nave  served  t0  defend 
it.  Vestiges  of  an  artificial  canal 
we  discovered,  which  brought  the 
war  of  the  Rio  Gila  to  the  town. 
Thsurrounding  plain  is  covered 
wit  broken  earthen  pitchers  and 
poi  prettily  painted  in  white,  red, 
am  blue.  The  social  civilization 
of  e  Indians  in  the  neighbouring 

9s,  forms  a  singular  contrast 
the  state  of  the  savages  who 
er  about  on  the  banks  of  the 
Mi  )uri.    They  live  collectedly  in 
:  vill  es,  are  clothed,  and  peaceably 
1   cul  ate  the  earth.    Still  further 
n  ,  in  the  country  of  the  Moqui, 
s  Riode  Yaquesila,  in  laf.36°, 
Faier  Garces  was  astonished  to 
fiocm  Indian  town  with  two  great 
squtes,  houses  of  several  stories, 
inc  treets  well  laid  out  in  parallel 
tlx i  dirdgns.'  The  edifices  were  con- 
n  ed    exactly    in    the  same 
ma  er  as  the  casas  grandes  on 
ici  the  inks  of  the  Gila  river.  Every 
ig  the  people  assemble  toge- 
r    the  on  the  terraces  which  form 
the  >ofs.    "  Every  thing  in  these 
,    cou  ries, "    observes  Humboldt, 
ajears  to  announce  traces  of  the 
civi  ation  of  the  ancient  Mexicans/' 
I  the  district  of  Zapoteca,  in 
'lie  tendancy  of  Oaxaca,  is  one  of 
ost  remarkable  monuments  of 
it  civilization  in  all  Mexico  ; 
the  dace  of  Mitla,  a  name  con- 
'  ii  J   from    Mignitlan,  which 
M?i  es,  in  Aztec,  place  of  woe. 
I  eTzapotec  Indians  call  these 
Win  leoba,  or  luiva,  (burial,  or 
ti)  alluding  to  the  excavations 
four  beneath  the  walls.    It  is 
"  ti  n  leagues  from  Oaxaca,  on 
the  oad  to  Teuautepec.      It  is 
•up  sed  to  have  been  a  palace 
X 


MEX 

constructed  over  tne  tombs  of  the 
kings,  where  the  monarch  retired, 
on  the  death  of  a  son,  a  wife,  or  a 
brother.  The  tombs  of  Mitla  con- 
sist of  three  edifices  symmetrically 
placed  in  an  extremely  romantic 
situation.  The  principal  edifice, 
which  is  in  the  best  preservation, 
is  nearly  130  feet  long.  A  stair, 
formed  in  a  pit,  leads  to  a  subter- 
ranean apartment,  88  feet  long,  by 
26.  This  gloomy  apartment,  as 
well  as  the  exterior  walls  of  the 
edifice,  is  covered  with  a  lagrecque 
and  arabesque  ornaments.  But 
what  distinguishes  the  ruins  of  Mitla 
from  all  the  other  remains  of  Mexi- 
can architecture,  is  six  porphyry 
columns,  which  are  placed  in  the 
midst  of  a  vast  hall,  and  support 
the  ceiling.  These  columns,  almost 
the  only  ones  found  in  the  new 
continent,  bear  stiong  marks  of  the 
infancy  of  the  art.  They  have 
neither  base  nor  capital :  only  a 
simple  contract'on  of  the  upper 
part  is  observable.  Their  total 
height  is  nearly  19  feet;  the  shaft 
of  each  is  of  a  single  piece  of  por- 
phyry. The  ceiling,  which  they 
supported,  was  formed  of  beams 
of  savine  wood,  three  of  which  are 
still  in  good  preservation.  The 
roof  consists  of  very  large  slabs. 
There  appears  to  have  been  origi- 
nally five  separate  buildings,  dis- 
posed with  great  regularity.  A  very 
large  gate,  some  vestiges  of  which 
are  still  to  be  seen,  led  to  a  spacious 
court,  150  feet  square.  Heaps  of 
earth,  and  remains  of  subterraneous 
structures,  indicate  that  four  small 
edifices,  of  oblong  form,  surrounded 
this  court.  That  on  the  right  is  in 
tolerable  preservation,  and  the  re- 
mains of  two  columns  still  exist.  In 
the  principal  edifice  we  first  distin- 
guish a  terrace,  raised  three  or 
four  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
court,  and  surrounding  the  walls,  to 
which  it  served  as  a  base.    A  niche 

161 


M  E  Z 


M  I  L 


formed  in  the  wall  with  pillars  four 
or  five  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
hall,  is  supposed  to  have  en- 
closed an  idol  The  principal  door 
of  the  hall  is  covered  with  a  stone 
12  feet  long  by  3.  After  entering 
the  inner  court,  is  seen  the  well. 
A  very  broad  staircase  leads  to  the 
excavation,  which  is  in  the  form  of 
a  cross,  supported  by  columns. 
The  two  galleries,  which  intersect 
each  other  at  right  angles,  are  each 
82  feet  long,  by  25.  Three  small 
apartments  surround  the  inner  court, 
and  behind  the  niche  is  a  fourth, 
with  which  they  have  no  communi- 
cation. In  the  interior  of  the 
apartments  are  paintings  of  wea- 
pons, trophies,  and  sacrifices.  There 
is  no  appearance  of  their  ever  having 
had  windows.  The  arabesque  (with 
which  the  exterior  walls  are  covered) 
form  a  kind  of  mosaic  work,  com- 
posed of  several  square  pieces  of 
porphyry,  placed  with  much  dexte- 
rity by  the  side  of  each  other,  and 
attached  to  a  mass  of  clay,  which 
appears  to  fill  up  the  inside  of  the 
walls.  In  the  neighbourhood  are 
the  remains  of  a  great  pyramid, 
and  some  other  buildings,  very 
much  resembling  them.  Mr.  Hum- 
boldt observed  many  ornaments 
remarkably  similar  to  those  on  the 
Etruscan  vases  of  lower  Italy.  See 
Cholula,  Palenque,  Pyramid. 

Of  the  picture  writing  of  the 
Mexicans,  some  singular  specimens 
have  been  preserved.  Purchas 
has  published  some  of  the  most 
valuable,  in  sixty-six  plates.  Thirty- 
two  plates  have  been  published 
by  the  Archbishop  of  Toledo,  and 
others  are  found  in  various  mu- 
sseums  of  Italy,  Spain,  and  other 
countries  of  Europe,  See  also 
Humboldt,  Vues  des  Cordilleras, 
and  Robertson  s  History  of  America. 

Mezzanino,  a  low  story  be- 
tween two  floors. 

Mezzo- relievo,  or  mean  relief, 

162 


in  comparison  with  alto-reliev 
high  relief. 

Middle  Quarters  of  a 
lumn,  is  a  name  given  to  the 
quarters  of  a  column  divided  by 
zontal  sections,  forming  an  an<|  of 
45  degrees  from  the  horizontal  ,. 

Middle  Post  in  a  roof,  lee 
King-post. 

Miletus,  an  ancient  and  ie- 
brated  city  of  Asia  Minor. 

The  ruins  of  the  celebrated 
ple  of  Apollo  Didymeus  arde- 
scribed  in  the  Ionian  Antiqi  es, 
vol.  i.  p.  27.     The  site  of  his 
temple  is  in  a  manner  buried  i  ler 
its  vast  ruins,  but  from  the  pa  ol 
columns  which  yet  appear  in  eir 
places,  it  is  evident  the  fron  a 
decastylos,  the  aspect  the  dij 
and  the  species  between  the 
nostylos  and  systylos,  the  inl  o- 
lumniation  being  one  diamel  of 
the  columns  and  seven-ninths,  he 
breadth  of  the  west  front  is  >. 
10"  2  ;  but  as  no  trace  of  the  asl 
front  remains,  it  was  impossil  to 
ascertain  the  length.     The  l| 
had  no  door  in  the  west  fror  of 
which  omission,  (except  in  prole 
and   in  antis)  examples  oce  in 
that  at  Jackly,  that  on  the  l\m 
at  Athens,  and  of  Jupiter  Nefi 
in  Achaia.    The  wall  of  the 
in  the  west  front  is  8'  10'',  it  is  :ed 
on  each  side  with  large  piec  pj 
marble  inclining  to  a  lightish 
and  left  rough.    The  intern;  rc- 
lumns  of  the  dipteros  are  flute  i he 
whole  length  of  their  shafts 
the  external  only  two  feet  I 
the  capitals,  the  rest  of  the 
being  left  rough,   except  a 
inches  above  the  apophyses, « 
as  this  temple  was  never  cprnpMi 
evidently  proves   that  the  flP| 
was  finished  after  the  columns  ere 
raised,  as  also  the  walls  of  the  'k 
which  remain  rough.    Sever;  ca- 
pitals of  pilasters  remain  oithe 
north  side  of  the  temple ;  thfTft4 


out 
ow 
aft 
few 
ch, 


MIL 

fi;  are  not  quite  half  the  breadth 
t  o  heir  front,  from  which  it  is  evi- 
t  that  none  of  them  belonged 
tc'he  antae,  for  the  internal  face 
otthe  antee  in  temples  have  the 
2le  breadth  as  the  front,  answer- 
in  to  the  diameter  of  the  columns 
pl  ed  between  them.  The  hem 
01  order  in  front  of  the  volutes  of 
tb  external  capitals  of  thedipteros 
is  it  square,  but  in  those  of  the  in- 
teal  is  wrought  circularly,  and 
th  flowers  resting  on  the  echinus 
of  ie  former  have  only  three  leaves ; 
of  ie  latter,  four.  From  the  num- 
be  and  proportion  of  the  capitals, 
wi  out  mentioning  the  frieze  deco- 
I  ra'i  with  griffins  and  lyres,  of 
wl:h  several  fragments  remain, 
l|  which  undoubtedly  filled  the 
sp  e  between  these  capitals,  it  may 
eDncluded  that  the  lateral  walls 
of  he  cella  were  enriched  with 
pi!  ters,  corresponding  with  the 
ptomata  or  colonnades  round  the 
tenle.  The  griffin  was  particu- 
lai  sacred  to  Apollo,  and  is  here  in- 
rrc'iced  as  the  guardian  of  the  lyre. 

illiare,  (Lat.)  the  stone  or 
coinn  placed  by  the  Romans  in 
thf  public  roads,  to  mark  the  dis- 
(;u  s  from  one  mile  to  another, 
BJQ  also  from  Rome.    Hence  we 
all    oft  find  in  Roman  writers  such 
PX|  issions  as  tertio  ab  urbe  lajjide, 
tduartum  lapidem,  &c.  to  mark 
thfiistance  of  three  or  four  miles 
s    fro  Rome ;  the  expression  was  often 
i    abiged,  and  only  the  words  ad 
i  tgunum,ad  septimum,  &c.  used. 
•V  the  temple  of  Saturn,  in  the 
i  of  Rome,  was  a  gilded  pillar, 
1  ;d  by  Augustus,  and  called 
Wihrium  aurium,  whi^h  some 
supposed  to  have  been  the 
>i  from  which  the  other  distances 
reckoned  ;  but  Hennin,  in  his 
not  on  Bergier,  has  conjectured 
lhalit  was  only  from  this  point 
tha  listances  in  the  city  were  esti- 
va' I,  and  that  in  the  country  the 


M  I  N 

distances  were  reckoned  from  the 
outside  of  the  capital.  In  1757, 
between  Montelimart  and  Valence, 
a  milliare  was  discovered,  nearly 
eight  feet  high,  on  which  might  be 
read  sextum  milliarium,  above  an 
inscription  in  which  occurred  the 
name  of  iElius  Hadrianus.  In  the 
cemetery  of  the  village  of  Saquenay, 
a  milliary  column  was  discovered 
in  1703,  with  the  inscription  An- 
domatunum  millia  passuum  xxii. 
and  the  name  of  Germanicus;  An- 
tomatunum  was  the  name  of  Lan- 
gres,  before  it  was  called  Lingones. 
At  Juvigny,  a  village  two  leagues 
from  Soissons,  has  been  long  pre- 
served a  milliary  column  with  the 
inscription  —  Millia  vii.  ab  Au- 
gusta Suessionum. 

Minaret,  (Turkish,)  a  circular 
turret  rising  by  different  stages  or 
divisions,  each  of  which  has  a  bal- 
cony. They  are  very  common  in 
the  east.  The  first  minaret  was 
erected  at  Damascus,  contiguous  to 
the  church  of  St.  John  the  Baptist. 
See  Arabian  Architecture. 

Minerva  Polias,  Temple  of. 
See  Athenian  Architecture.  We 
will  here  introduce  a  translation  of 
the  celebrated  Architectural  In- 
scription relating  to  the  temples  of 
Erechtheus,  Minerva  Polias,  and 
Pandrosus,  which  was  brought 
from  Athens,  and  published  by  Dr. 
Chandler.  It  is  a  survey  made  by 
order  of  the  people  of  Athens,  when 
Diocles  was  archon,  which  was  in 
the  twenty-third  year  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  in  the  fourth  year 
of  the  ninety-second  Olympiad, 
B.C.  409,  of  such  parts  of  these 
temples  as  were  at  that  time  un- 
finished. The  marginal  numbers 
were  shewn,  by  Visconti  and  Mr. 
Wilkins,  to  have  related  to  the 
number  of  pieces  of  marble  belong- 
ing to  different  parts  of  the  edifice, 
the  state  and  situation  of  which  are 
spoken  of  contiguous  to  them. 


M  IN 


M  IN 


"The  Epistatae  (public  inspectors) 
of  the  temple  in  the  city  (acropolis) 
in  which  is  the  ancient  statue  of 
Brosyn  *  *  *  es  of  Cephissia,  Cha- 
riocles  of  Agryle,  Diocles  of  Ce- 
phissia, the  architect  Philocles  of 
Acharnse,  the  secretary  Etearchus 
of  Cydathenseum,  have  taken  an 
account  of  the  works  of  the  temple 
in  the  state  in  which  they  found 
them,  some  finished,  and  some 
half  finished,  according  to  the  de- 
cree of  the  people,  which  Epigenes 
proposed  in  the  archonship  of  Dio- 
cles. The  tribe  Cecropis,  being 
first  in  the  council  in  which  Nico- 
phanes,  of  Marathon,  was  secretary 
of  the  first  pytany. 

"  We  have  found  these  parts  of 
the  temple  half  finished.  In  the 
angles  towards  the  Cecropium  : 

IV.  Plinths  (JlXivdovg)  not  placed, 
four  feet  long,  two  feet  wide,  and 
a  foot  and  a  half  thick. 

I.  Maschalieea,  or  shoulder  tile, 
(MatrxaXiaiavy)  four  feet  long,three 
feet  wide,  and  one  and  a  half  thick. 

V.  Simse,  (JLiriicpaviTtdag,)  four 
feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  and  a 
foot  and  a  half  thick. 

I.  Saddle-stone  of  the  pediment, 
or  angular  ridge  of  sima  (ywi/icuay,) 
seven  feet  long,  four  feet  wide,  and 
a  foot  and  a  half  thick. 

Marble  tiling  (yoyyvXovg  XiOovg) 
not  placed ;  continuation  of  the 
same,  ten  feet  long,  and  a.  foot  and 
a  half  high. 

II.  Pieces  in  continuation  of  the 
Epistylia(a>rt</uo/5w  toiq  eTriffrvXtois) 
four  feet  long,  five  palms  wide. 

I.  Capital  of  a  column  (tuoKpavov) 
which  is  to  be  between  the  win- 
dows (fierwTrov)  not  placed,  a  foot 
and  a  half  wide,  and  a  foot  and  a 
half  thick. 

Epistilia,  not  placed,  eight  feet 
long,  two  feet  one  palm  wide,  and 
two  feet  thick. 

III.  Epistilia  in  their  places,  not 
worked  on  their  surface,  eight  feet 

164 


long,  two  feet  and  a  palm  v|e> 
and  two  feet  thick. 

The  Eleusinian  stone,  agist 
which  are  to  be  the  figures',  ir- 
mounts  all  round  the  rest  of  he 
work,  and  is  already  placed  er 
the  epistylia  of  those  columi  at 
the  wall  towards  the  Pandrosern. 
IV.  Of  the  attached  columi  a 
foot  and  a  half  of  each  from  w  ,in 
the  volute  (avdefiiov)  is  left  n- 
sculptured.  The  inner  cymaim 
of  an  epistylium  eight  feet  jL, 
on  the  wall  towards  the  sch, 
has  to  be  placed.  These  part  re 
unpolished  and  unfluted.  The  all 
towards  the  south-wind  is  u  o- 
lished  except  in  the  portico  (r<r- 
Taatg)  towards  the  Cecropiui 

The  antse  (opdoaTarag)  are  ot 
polished  outside  throughout  x- 
cept  in  the  portico  towards  he 
Cecropium. 

All  the  bases  are  unflute  in 
the  upper  part. 

All  the  columns  are  unfluted  x- 
cept  those  upon  th^wall.  Thes  o- 
bata  encircling  it  is  all  unpolisd. 

Of  the  exterior  wall  are  n- 
polished  :  four  feet  length  of  gi  er 
stones  (yavXov  XiOov — Muller  id 
Boeck  read  yoyyvXov.  SeeEau.) 
eight  of  which  are  at  the  entra  e; 
four  feet  lengths  towards  the  p  s- 
ter,  four  feet  lengths  towards 
statue,  four  feet  lengths  toward  ie 
doorway.  (dvpcjp.a)  The  alt  of 
the  Thyecus  is  not  placed. 

The  cramps  (atyrjKiffKot)  andtie 
tyes,  (ifxarTas)  of  the  flat  rooi  re 
not  placed. 

Above  the  portico  towardsbe 
Cecropium,  three  stones  of  tho- 
cunaria,  which  are  over  the  vims 
(em  Th)v  Kopwv)  thirteen  feet  1  g, 
and  five  wide,  have  to  be  worke; 

The  flowers  «(rae  ^-aX^ac-  e- 
the  present  paterse)which  areoi  he 
epistylia,  do  not  require  finis!  g. 
Masonry  entirely  finished  lyinon 
on  the  ground. 


M  I  N 


M  1  N 


i  Tilbc  Tour  feet  long,  two  feet 
ide,andafootandahalf  thick,  in- 
Lplete. 

J,  Maschalisea,  or  shoulder  tile, 
ur  feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  a 
ot  and  a  half  thick.  The  alter- 
ite  joint  and  the  joints  behind 
each  of  these  are  not  wrought. 

M.  Six  feet,  long,  two  feet  wide, 
foot  thick;  the  alternate  joint, 
id  the  joint  behind,  of  these  are 
>t  wrought. 

\   Four  feet  long,  two  feet  wide, 
foot  thick,  of  each  of  which  the 
i       ternate  joint,  and  the  joints  be- 
nd, are  not  wrought. 
I  Five  feet  long,  two  feet  wide, 
f      foot  thick,  of  which  the  alter- 
i       ite  joint  and  joints  behind  are 
>t  wrought. 
V.    Parts  of  the  corona,  (yeto-a) 
ur  feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  five 
lms  thick,  wrought  smooth,  with- 
■t  carving. 

\  Others  of  the  same  magnitude, 
both  of  which  the  cymatium 
d  the  astragal  were  un wrought, 
•ur  feet. 

I  Others,  the  cymatium  was 
wrought  four  feet,  and  eight 
lit  of  the  astragal. 

I  Another,  a  foot  and  a  half  of 
e  cymatium  was  un  wrought,  and 
;r  feet  of  the  astragal. 

I  Other,  the  smooth  work  was 
tie,  but  of  the  cymatium  six  feet 
da  half  were  unwrought,  of  the 
f       tragal  eight  feet. 

I  Others,  six  feetof  the  cymatium 
wrought,  eight  of  the  astragal. 

»  Other,  what  relates  to  the 
ooth  work  half  worked. 

I  Parts  of  the  corona  above  the 
rtico,  four  feet  long,  three  feet 
tie,  five  palms  thick,  worked 
.  ooth,  without  carving. 

1  Angular  pieces  upon  the  por- 
o  towards  the  east,  six  feet  long, 
ree  feet  and  a  half  wide,  five 
lms  thick,  of  one  of  which  the 
tooth  work  is  done,  but  the  en- 


tire cymatium  and  astragal  un- 
wrought ;  of  the  other,  three  feet 
and  a  half  of  the  cymatium  are 
un  worked,  and  five  feet  of  the 
astragal  unwrought. 
L  On  the  wall  towards  the  Pan- 
droseium,  seven  feet  and  a  half 
long,  three  feet  and  a  half  wide, 
the  smooth  work  half  done. 

I.  Six  feet  long,  three  feet  and  a 
palm  wide,  five  palms  thick,  also 
on  the  wall  towards  the  Pandro- 
seium ;  of  this,  five  feet  of  the 
astragal  are  unwrought. 

VI.  Stones  of  the  Tympanum 
(AuTiaioi.  sc.  Xtdot.  See  Eagle.) 
of  those  belonging  to  the  porticos, 
seven  feet  long,  three  feet  and  a 
half  wide,  and  one  foot  thick,  are 
half  worked. 

II.  Others  five  feet  long,  three 
feet  and  a  half  wide,  one  foot 
thick,  are  half  worked. 

The  corona  above  the  pediments, 
two  feet  and  a  half  wide,  four  feet 
and  a  half  long,  a  foot  wide,  the 
smooth  part  is  completed., 

I.  Other  half  finished  in  the 
smooth  work. 

II.  Marble  door  frames,  eight  feet 
and  a  palm  long,  two  feet  and  a 
half  wide. 

IV.  These  others  are  however 
completed,  but  the  black  marble 
has  to  be  placed  over  the  super- 
cilium  (£vya.) 

I.  Console  (ovf)  to  the  door  lin- 
tel (v7r£pdvpov)  towards  the  east, 
half  worked. 

III.  Pentelic  marbles  to  the  altar 
of  the  Thyecus,  four  feet  long,  two 
feet  and  one  palm  high,  one  foot 
thick. 

I.    Other  three  feet." 

In  his  explanation  of  this  inscrip- 
tion, Muller  considers  the  tiles 
(7rAiv0cn)  to  be  the  blocks  of  mar- 
ble composing  the  southern  wall, 
and  the  E7riKpaviri^eQ  to  be  the 
capitals  of  the  walls,  i.e.  the  blocks 
forming  the  continuation  of  the 

165 


M  L 


lines  and  ornaments  of  the  capitals 
of  the  antae,  the  ywviaia  being  the 
angular  stone  of  the  same  range. 
The  avdefjitov  he  supposes  to  be  the 
flatted  torus  above  the  echinus, 
between  the  volutes,  peculiar  to 
this  example  of  the  Ionic  order. 
The  term  a^KicrKoi  he  supposes  to 
refer  to  the  dentils  of  the  Caryatic 
building.  See  in  explanation  and 
illustration  of  this  inscription, 
Chandler's  Inscript.  Antiq.  pi.  ii. 
In.  1. — Muller  de  Minerva?  Pol. 
Templo. — Roeckh.  Corpus  Inscript. 
Groec.  pi.  ii.  ch.  ii.  p.  264. — Vi- 
truvius,  ed.  Schneider,  vol.  ii. 
p.  2G0. — Rose,  Inscript.  Grsec. 
p  130. — Wilkins,  Atheniensia. — 
Wal pole's  Memoirs,  vol.  i.  p.  591. 

Minerva  Polias  at  Priene. 
See  Priene. 

Minion,  an  ore  of  iron  used  in 
mortar ;  with  lime  and  sand,  it  forms 
a  water  cement. 

Minute,  (Lat.)  the  lower  dia- 
meter of  a  column  is  divided  into 
60  equal  parts,  called  minutes, 
which  are  used  in  measuring  the 
proportions  of  the  other  parts. 

Minster,  (minstere,  Sax.)  a 
monastery  ;  an  ecclesiastical  frater- 
nity ;  a  cathedral  church.  This 
name  is  yet  retained  at  York,  Be- 
verley, and  Litchfield. 

Misericord.    See  Abbey. 

Mitch  el,  Purbeck  stones  of  15 
inches  by  2  feet,  when  squared  for 
building  have  this  name  given  them 
by  the  workmen. 

Mitre,  an  angle  of  forty-five 
degrees,  a  half  of  a  right  angle. 

Mitre,  in  carpentry,  is  the  name 
given  to  the  joint  formed  between 
two  pieces  of  wood  fixed  to  each 
other  by  the  formation  of  an  in- 
denture in  each  to  correspond  with 
the  other,  so  that  the  two  surfaces 
may  coincide  when  brought  toge- 
ther. This  mode  is  sometimes 
employed  to  hide  a  dovetail,  and  is 
called  lap-and-mitre  joint. 

166 


or  f  me 


Mitre  Box,  a  block 
for  cutting  mitres. 

Mixed  Angle,  an  angle  fo 
by  one  right  line  and  one  curvec 

Mixed  Figure,  one  cdhsikg 
of  straight  and  crooked  lines. 

Mnesicles,  a  Greek  arch  ct, 
who  superintended  the  buildij  of 
the  Propylsea.  (Plutarch  iir  ir, 
Periclis.)    See  Propylaa. 

Moat,  ditch,  fosse,  or  va  m, 
terms  used  to  express  a  h-iow 
space  on  the  outside  of  the  \va  or 
ramparts  of  ancient  fortresses.  Ven 
the  moat  was  dry,  there  were  sie- 
times  subterranean  passages,thr  gh 
which  the  cavalry  could  sally. 

Model,  see  Effect. 

Modillion,  (modillon,  F  a 
projection  under  the  corona  o  he 
richer  orders,  resembling  a  bra  et. 
The  Grecian  Ionic  has  no  till- 
lions,  and  the  Roman  Ioniout 
seldom.  The  modillions  of  he 
frontispiece  of  Nero  at  Rome,  in- 
sist of  two  plain  faces,  separately 
a  small  cyma  reversa,  and  cre  ed 
with  an  ovolo  and  bead.  Ii  he 
frieze  of  the  fourth  order  of  theCbs- 
seum,  the  modillions  are  cut  oi  he 
outside  in  the  form  of  a  cym  re- 
versa.   See  Plate  M.  4. 

Modular  Proportions,  a 
term  applied  to  building,  in  refeiice 
to  the  module,  according  to  v  ch 
they  have  been  erected.  See  Mode. 

Modulation,  (from  modor, 
to  regulate,)  the  proportion  ot  he 
parts  of  an  order. 

Module,  (Lat.)  the  semi  ia- 
meter  of  the  lower  part  of  the  aft 
of  a  column,  equal  to  30  min  es. 
Vignola  divided  the  module  int  12 
parts  in  the  Tuscan  or  Doric,  nd 
18  in  the  other  orders. 

Moineau,  (Fr.)  in  perfect  fcifi- 
cation,  a  little  flat  bastion  r;ed 
before  a  courtin  which  is  too  lot. 

Mole,  (mcel,  Sax.)  a  pi(  of 
stone,  to  shelter  ships  from  he 
violence  of  the  waves  Amcljst 


MON 


MON 


I  Romans,  the  name  was  given  to 
;kind  of  circular  mausoleum,  as 
j  t  of  the  Emperor  Adrian.  See 
/rianeium. 

Monastic  Buildings.  The 
f  t  simple  habitations  of  the  mo- 
ikic  recluse  was  a  cave  in  the 
ik,  or  a  hut  of  the  rudest  con- 
viction, but  from  that  aera  to  the 

f?  (solution  of  those  institutions  in 
us  country,  many  of  the  build- 
j.s  for  religious  devotees  had 
tome  highly  ornamented,  and 
sieof  the  most  elegant  cathedral 
cirches  arose  from  the  ruins  of 

1  masteries.  The  ornamental  im- 
f'vement  in  these  buildings  is 
tieved  to  have  commenced  with 

ills  t  Conquest,  and  ended  in  the  time 
c  Henry  VHIth  ;  an  opinion  con- 
f  led  by  an  examination  of  the  re- 

bsi    ninsof  ancient  edifices,with  a  refer- 

m  e  eto  the  periods  of  their  erection, 
"he  seals  of  the  kings,  in  Speed's 

ill  Mory  of  England,  give  a  complete 
a  just  view  of  the  different  modes 
o  architecture  which  prevailed  in 
t!  r  respective  reigns ;  in  these, 
efh  king  is  represented  sitting  en- 

i  lined  amid  a  sumptuous  pile  of 
a  litecture.    Henry  III.  is  seated 

\\  a  >ng  arches  of  the  round  Saxon 
f<  i.  So  are  his  successors,  Ed- 
»'J  I.  and  II.;  Edward  III.  is 
tl| first  whose  seal  exhibits  pointed 
a  ies,  and  those  are  of  the  simplest 
k  I.    Richard,  prior  of  Hexham, 

,  fljrished  about  A.D.  1180;  and 
al  it  this  time,  as  he  informs  us, 
\  Wilfred  presided  over  nine 
m  asteries,  some  of  which  were  of 

5«    tlj  most  elegant  and  sumptuous 

g  *i|  ;  and  it  cannot  be  doubted 
these  buildings  rose  in  ele- 
^  e,  and  became  more  orna- 
1,1  fed  as  they  became  richer.  The 
,il  us  abbey  of  Ramsey,  in  Hun- 
onshire  was  founded  by  Ailwin, 

II  "man  of  all  England,  as  he  is 
rt!  d,  with  the  assistance  of 
&  aid,  bishop  of  Worcester,  after- 


wards archbishop  of  York.  Its 
church,  which  was  six  years  in 
building,  is  described  as  of  great 
elegance,  in  the  form  of  a  Roman 
basilica,  but,  as  far  as  we  can  learn, 
the  Monastery  itself  was  not  dis- 
tinguished from  other  structures, 
merely  adapted  for  convenience  as 
a  receptacle  for  a  numerous  society. 

The  abbey  church  of  St.  Alban's, 
erected  in  honour  of  the  first  British 
martyr,  remains,  the  most  venerable 
monument  of  christian  antiquities 
in  the  kingdom.  This  church,  or 
monastery,  had  the  precedence  of 
other  abbeys  given  to  it  in  1154, 
by  Pope  Adrian  the  Fourth,  an 
Englishman,  born  near  the  place, 
on  account  of  its  being  erected  to 
the  memory  of  the  proto-martyr  of 
England,  it  was  therefore  judged 
proper  that  St.  Alban's  abbot  should 
be  the  first  in  England  in  order  and 
dignity.  This  august,  ancient 
building  is  in  the  form  of  a  cross, 
with  a  high  tower  in  the  middle.  It 
is  constructed  of  old  Roman  bricks 
from  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  city 
of  Verulam,  which  was  removed,  to 
found  the  town  and  monastery  to 
honour  the  martyr's  grave.  The 
length  of  the  building,  from  east  to 
west,  is  600  feet,  of  which  41 1  feet 
is  the  extent  from  the  western  door 
to  the  high  altar,  from  which  to  the 
end  of  the  Lady  chapel,  including 
the  shrine  of  the  saint,  is  189  feet. 
The  great  cross  isle  from  north  to 
south  measures  180  feet,  which 
corresponds  with  the  height  of  the 
great  tower  in  the  middle;  the 
breadth  of  the  body  of  the  nave, 
including  the  side  aisles,  is  72  feet, 
and  the  height  of  it  measures  about 
the  same.  The  roof  of  the  cross 
aisle  and  the  west  end,  with  the 
Lady  chapel,  are  wainscoted,  but 
the  choir  is  vaulted  with  wood,  and 
painted.  A  little  above  the  middle 
of  this  vaulting,  is  the  stately  high 
altar,  built  by  William  Walling- 


MON 


MON 


ford  :  it  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of 
ornamental  stone-work,  originally 
overlaid  with  gold  and  silver ;  pro- 
bably one  of  the  most  splendid  in 
the  kingdom.  But  all  these  images 
are  gone,  as  well  as  the  shrine  and  the 
brass  font  brought  out  of  Scotland; 
a  wooden  shrine  has  since  been  put 
up,  with  this  inscription  on  black 
rn  h  rbl  e :  —  Sane  tits  A  Iba  nus,  Verola- 
meyisis  Anglorum  Protomartyr,  17 
Junii,  293. 

The  original  foundation,  by  king 
Offa.  was  in  794.  All  the  offices, 
the  library,  cloisters,  chapter-house, 
&c.  are  demolished,  except  a  large 
gate-house,  and  vestiges  of  the 
cloisters  on  the  south  side,  with  the 
door-way  from  the  south  aisle,  and 
the  marks  of  the  arches  on  the 
outside,  from  which  we  learn  that 
they  were  129  feet  in  length,  and 
21  in  breadth.  The  whole  of  the 
remaining  fabric  is  leaded  over,  and 
the  brick  walls  covered  with  plaster 
or  stucco,  of  superior  hardness  and 
stone-like  appearance. 

The  ancient  Cistercian  monas- 
tery of  VVhalley,  on  the  banks  of 
theCalder,  in  Lancashire,  has  been 
destroyed,  as  all  the  buildings  of 
this  description  were,  at  the  Re- 
formation, but  the  ruins  have  been 
partly  preserved,  and  incorporated 
with  a  family  mansion.  We  can- 
not better  illustrate  this  subject 
than  by  giving  the  following  de- 
scription of  this  abbey,  from  Mr. 
Whitaker's  History  of  Whalley  : — 

"  The  area  of  the  enclosure,  con- 
taining 36  acres  3  roods  14  poles, 
is  still  defined  by  the  remains  of  a 
broad  and  deep  trench,  which  sur- 
rounded it ;  over  this  were  two 
approaches  to  the  house,  through 
two  strong  and  stately  gateways, 
yet  remaining.  They  are  con- 
structed in  that  plain  and  substan- 
tial style,  which  characterized  the 
Cistercian  houses;  a  style  which 
approximates  to  that  of  fortifica- 


tion, and  shows  that  the  monks  id 
not  obtain  a  license  to  kernel  id 
embattle,  without  an  end  in\w. 
Within  this  area,  and  on  the  v^e 
of  the  Calder,  which  formed  lie 
south-west  boundary  of  thecloseias 
the  house  itself,  consisting  of  lee 
quadrangles,  besides  stables  M 
offices.  Of  these,  the  fust  id 
most  westerly  was  the  cloi:  r- 
court,  of  which  the  nave  of  ie 
conventual  church  formed  the  n  th 
side  ;  the  chapter-house  and  ve  y, 
yet  remaining,  the  east;  the  r- 
mitory,  also  remaining,  the  wh 
and  the  refectory  and  kitchens,  ie 
south.  The  cloister  was  of  w  i, 
supported,  as  usual,  upon  cor1 1, 
still  remaining;  the  area  within  as 
the  monks'  cemetery,  and  sie 
ancient  gravestones  are  still  e- 
membered  within  it.  Against  ie 
wall  on  the  south  side  of  this qvl- 
rangle,  is  a  wide  surhased  ah, 
apparently  of  Henry  the  Ei^'s 
time,  which  has  evidently  contaid 
the  lavatory.  The  groove  of  ie 
pipe  of  lead  which  conveyed  M 
water,  is  still  conspicuous,  a  is 
also  another  for  the  reception  <  a 
wooden  rail,  on  which  the  to1  Is 
hung.  Beyond  this  court,  to  ie 
east,  is  another  quadrangle,  for.id 
by  the  choir  of  the  church  on  ie 
side;  the  opposite  side  of  the  cb- 
ter-house,  &c.  on  another;  a  ie 
of  ruinous  buildings  on  a  thll; 
and  a  large  distinct  building  it«f, 
surrounding  a  small  quadranjrle-m 
the  fourth.  This  appears  evidely 
to  have  been  the  abbot's  lodgiii; 
for  which  reason,  as  being  st 
adapted  to  the  habits  of  an  c  i- 
nary  family,  it  immediately  bee  ie 
the  residence  of  the  AssheUs; 
and  after  many  alterations,  an  a 
demolition  of  its  best  apartmes, 
particularly  a  gallery  nearly  :»0 
feet  in  length,  has  still  sevial 
good  and  habitable  rooms,  an 
now  preserved  with  due  care»v 


MON 


MON 


j-owner.  The  ancient  kitchen,  the 
Liina  abbae  of  the  Compotus, 
fence  such  hecatombs  were  served 
1  remains,  though  roofless,  with 
t )  fire-places.  On  the  southern 
se  of  this  building  is  a  small,  but 
^  v  beautiful  and  picturesque  ruin, 
i  ntled  with  ivy,  which  appears  to 
ite  been  a  chapel,  and  was  pro- 
blv  the  abbot's  private  oratory. 
It  the  conventual  church  itself, 
Jich  exceeded  many  cathedrals 
Extent,  has  been  levelled  nearly 
t  the  foundation." 
A  very  curious  plan  of  a  monas- 
tv,  from  an  ancient  manuscript,  is 
1  p'en  among  the  '*  Vetusta  Monu- 
rnta,"  published  by  the  Society 
r     c  Antiquaries. 

Che  mandra,  or  early  monaste- 
rs, of  Ireland,  are  composed  of 
re  Cyclopean  masonry,  without 
c  ient,  being  mere  super terrane- 
o  caverns.  At  Inis  Murray  is 
aienclosure  of  walls,  from  five  to 
t1  feet  thick,  rough,  and  built 
P    c  large  stones,  without  mortar. 

Vhin  are  cells  covered  with 
[  eth,  thrown  up  so  as  to  make 
i  tin  in  a  manner  subterraneous, 
vi  a  small  hole  at  the  top,  and* 
a  ther  on  the  side,  apparently 
r  e  for  air  than  light.  They  have 
!  ai  been  vaulted  with  the  same 
ne  stone.  The  entrance  into  the 
e  iosure  is  so  narrow  as  scarcely 
Mm  it  a  man  to  pass.  Within 
a  three  square  chapels,  dedicated 
tot.  Melas  and  Columbkill,  built 
o  ;tone  and  lime  in  a  rude  man- 
n  but  modern  compared  with  the 
N  of  the  building.  An  altar,  or 
>i;le  stone,  is  enclosed  within 
a  ther  square  wall.  Dun  Angus, 
it  lie  Isle  of  Arran,  on  the  coast 
Oiialway,  is  a  circle  of  monstrous 
sliies,  without  cement,  of  which 
tl  monastic  appellation  is  man- 
d  .  Within  one  of  these  man- 
01,  or  stone  circles,  stood,  among 
tl  Orientals,  the  pillar  which 
Y 


Simeon  Stylites  occupied.  The 
appropriation  of  these  buildings  to 
the  early  monastic  uses,  is  proved 
by  Bede's  description  of  a  religious 
house,  built  by  Cuthbert.  The 
building  was  constructed  around 
four  or  five  perches,  made  between 
wall  and  wall.  On  the  outside  the 
wall  was  the  height  of  a  man,  but 
in  the  inside  higher,  which  was 
done  by  sinking  the  rock,  and  in- 
tended, by  restraining  the  light,  to 
prevent  the  thoughts  from  ram- 
bling. The  wall  was  of  rough  un- 
polished stones,  with  turf  dug  up 
in  the  middle  of  the  place,  and 
banked  on  both  sides  of  the  stone 
all  around.  Some  of  the  stones 
were  so  large  that  four  men  could 
hardly  lift  them.  Within  were 
two  nouses  and  a  chapel,  with  a 
room  for  common  purposes,  the 
roofs  of  unhewn  timber,  and 
thatched.  Within  the  walls  was  a 
house  for  the  reception  of  strangers, 
and  a  fountain  of  water.  (Led- 
wich's  Ireland.)  The  size  of  the 
stones  may  be  traced  to  the  Cyclo- 
pean architecture,  and  the  mode  of 
building  was  probably  derived  from 
Druidism.  This  was  not  the  only 
druidical  or  pagan  interpolation. 
At  Kildare,  where  once  stood  a 
temple  resembling  Stonehenge,  was 
a  nunnery,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  St.  Brigid  before  484, 
and  about  the  same  time  an  abbey 
was  also  formed  under  the  same 
roof  for  monks,  but  separated  from 
the  nunnery  by  walls.  In  1220, 
Henry  de  Lowndres,  archbishop  of 
Dublin,  quenched  the  fire  which 
had  been  kept  perpetually  burning 
by  the  nuns,  and  which  was  called 
unextinguishable.  It  was,  however, 
relighted,  and  continued  to  bum 
till  the  suppression  of  monasteries. 
(Hoare's  Tour;  Fosbrooke's  Bri- 
tish Monachism.) 

At  Inismore,  or  Church  Island, 
in  Sligo,  in  a  rock  near  the  door 

169 


•4 


MON 


of  the  church,  is  a  cavity  called 
our  Lady's  Bed,  into  which  preg- 
nant women  go,  and  turn  thrice 
round,  with  the  repetition  of  cer- 
tain prayers,  fancying  that  it  will 
preserve  them  from  death  in  child- 
bed. This  is  evidently  derived 
from  the  Druidical  deasuil.  The 
monks  of  Ireland  were  of  such 
holy  celebrity,  that  in  the  Legends 
of  St.  Brandon,  the  Egyptian  her- 
mit, Paul  is  made  to  say,  "  Som- 
tyme  I  was  a  monke  of  Saynt 
Patrike's  Abbey  in  Yreland,  and 
was  wardein  of  the  place,  whereat 
men  entre  into  Saynt  Patrike's 
purgatorie." 

Those  singular  monuments,  the 
Cloghads,  which  are  ascribed  to 
the  ninth  century,  are  tall  slender 
round  towers,  fotfnd  annexed  to 
various  Irish  churches.  Some  have 
supposed  them  to  have  been  resi- 
dences of  fire-worshippers.  Col. 
Morres  says,  that  the  founders  of 
these  towers  were  the  primitive 
coenobites  and  bishops.  Only  two 
are  known  out  of  Ireland,  at  Aber- 
nethy  and  Brechin.  (Sir  K.  C. 
Hoare's  Irish  Tour,  p.  279.  Ar- 
chaeologia,  vol.  ii.  and  vol.  ix.~  - 
Ledwich's  Ireland.) 

Monkey,  a  name  given  to  a 
block  of  iron,  with  a  catch,  used 
in  gins,  for  driving  piles. 

Monolith al,  (fiovog,  one,\idog, 
stone,  Gr.)  works  constructed  of 
one  stone.  M.  Denon  has  given 
representations  of  several  subter- 
raneous structures  worked  in  single 
rocks,  together  with  sundry  little 
monolithal  temples. 

Monopodium,  (Gr.)  a  table 
'  with  one  leg. 

Monopter a l,  (Gr.)  a  species 
of  temple,  of  a  round  form,  which 
had  neither  walls  nor  cella,  but 
only  a  cupola  sustained  by  co- 
lumns. The  base  of  the  columns 
is  raised  by  one-third  of  the  diame- 
ter of  the  temple;  the  height  of 

170 


the  columns  was  equal  to  the  4 
meter  of  the  temple  taken  at  > 
outer  side  of  the  pedestals;  tl 
thickness   was   one-tenth  of 
height  of  the  shaft  and  capit  j 
the  architrave  equalled  in  he 
half  the  diameter  of  the  cohftfm 

Monot rygliph,  (Greek,) 
space  of  one  triglyph  and  two  rji 
topes,  between  two  Doric  colum 

Montmorillon,  asmalltov, 
about  eight  leagues  from  Pcictii, 
celebrated  for  an  ancient  buildik 
which  is  generally  supposed  ) 
have  belonged  to  the  ancit 
Druids,  and  of  which  engravi  $ 
have  been  given  by  Montfaut, 
in  the  supplements  to  his  Antiqic 
Expliquee,  and  by  Martin,  in  s 
work  on  the  religion  of  the  Gai. 
The  statues  which  adorn  its  por , 
they  suppose  to  be  Gaulish  drv  - 
ties,  and  Martin  thinks,  that  one  f 
them  is  meant  for  a  personificat  i 
of  the  moon,  and  that  the  e<ii  i 
was  a  temple  dedicated  to  the  lui 
goddess.  Millin,  however,  c- 
siders  it  as  nothing  more  than  i 
old  Christian  church  of  the  fell 
or  eleventh  century,  and  jud  s 
that  the  figures  are  only  the  wdi 
of  fancy,  and  have  no  spec: 
meaning. 

Monument,  the  London,  \ 
erected  by  order  of  parliament,  > 
commemorate  the  burning  of  ! 
city  in  the  year  1666.  This  in  - 
nificent  pillar  was  designed 
Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  nfiaft 
the  place  where  the  fatal  fire  co-J 
menced.  It  is  of  the  Doric  ore!  , 
fluted,  the  height  202  feet  fri 
the  ground  ;  its  diameter  is  1-5  f» 
It  is  of  solid  Portland  stone,  <• 
closing  a  staircase  of  black  marl , 
with  365  steps.  The  pedestal  in  - 
suring 28  feet  in  circumferen. 
and  its  height  is  40  feet :  its  mjt 
is  covered  with  numerous  fig'|> 
in  basso-relievo.  It  has  a  balcC 
32  feet  from   the  top,  which  J 


MO  R 


MOR 


oamented  by  a  spacious  blazon- 
h  urn  of  gilt  brass.  This  erec- 
m  was  begun  in  1671,  and  finish- 
em  1677. 

JoNUMENTS.    See  Sepulchral. 

,\0SI  MENT     OF  L\TSICRATES. 

S  Athenian  Architecture. 

loo  in  s  n,  or  Mores k.  See 
il  uresque 

Ioor-S  ton  E,  a  kind  of  granite 
fc  id  in  Cornwall,  and  some  other 
p-.s  of  England,  and  of  great 
v;  le  for  the  coarser  parts  of  build- 
ir  Its  colours  are  chiefly  black 
a!  white,  and  it  is  very  coarse. 
It  found  also  in  immense  strata, 
ii  mie  parts  of  Ireland. 

Iortar,  the  calcareous  cement 
M  in  building,  compounded  of 
but  limestone  and  sand  Lime- 
st  e  or  chalk,  slowly  calcined  till 
al  ts  carbonic  acid  gas  is  expelled, 
\o>  about  44  per  cent  of  its 
wi  ht,  and  becomes  what  is  called 
lliked  lime,  on  the  application  of 
(Mt,  fulling  into  a  fine  powder: 
It  <  nly  formed  into  a  stiff  paste 
wi  water,  this  powder  becomes 
hy ate  of  lime,  assuming  a  solid 
fo  ,  and,  as  it  attracts  carbonic  acid 
fr<  the  air,  hardens,  and  consti- 
tn  the  common  builder's  mortar. 
H  rate  of  lime,  without  any  other 
lient,  whilst  in  a  moist  state, 
fal  away  and  is  dissolved  in 
wa:r.  Alumina,  silica,  and  man- 
ga'se  produce  the  same  effects 
wi  lime,  but  in  an  inferior  degree. 
H  v  substance  in  powder,  which 
coi 'ins  much  iron,  be  added  to 
hi  nortar,  its  hardness  and  eom- 
is  much  increased,  and  it 
alsiequires  the  property  of  har- 
den g  under  water,  and  is  deno- 
miii  ed  Roman  Cement,  or  Water 
Mcjir.  In  these  combinations,  if 
the'  me  should  be  in  excess,  it  sepa- 
rah  either  crystallizing  or  forming 
stal-  tes ;  by  which  it  appears  that  a 
def  te  proportion  of  the  materials 
'3  n  essary  to  form  the  best  cement. 


Various  additions  are  made  to 
mortar,  for  the  purpose  of  increas- 
ing its  hardness  or  tenacity,  which 
for  this  purpose  must  be  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder,  and  the  whole 
intimately  kneaded  together,  and 
Wrought  to  a  smoolh  consistence^ 
puzzalana,  terras,  iron  ores,  ba- 
salt, and  other  similar  substances, 
in  considerable  variety,  with  sand 
of  various  descriptions.  Common 
limestone,  (the  chaux  rnaigre,  or 
poor  limestone,  of  the  French)  con- 
sists of  nearly  pure  carbonate  of 
lime.  It  slacks  freely,  and  pro- 
duces white  lime,  and,  wiih  the 
addition  of  sand,  good  common 
mortar.  The  species  of  lime  in- 
cludes chalk,  marble,  &c.  Chalk 
lime  is  seldom  sufficiently  burnt, 
and  more  quickly  absorbs  carbonic 
acid  than  stone  lime.  Silicious  lime- 
stones give  a  buff  colour.  Those 
stones  which  are  almost  entirely 
constituted  of  pure  carbonate,  as  is 
the  case  with  respect  to  most  of  the 
varieties  of  marble  or  limestone 
called  rich,  when  burned,  slacked, 
and  made  into  paste,  will  retain 
their  softness  under  water,  or  other- 
wise excluded  from  the  air,  for 
almost  any  length  of  time  ;  whilst 
those  stones  in  which  calcarious 
matter  is  found  mixed  with  sand, 
silex,  alumine,  and  iron,  and  which 
are  called  meagre  limes,  if  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  quickly  harden 
under  water,  and  in  time  form  a 
kind  of  free-stone,  which  cannot  be 
easily  broken  :  from  this  circum- 
stance it  is  called  hydraulic  lime. 
Mortar  of  this  lime,  when  exposed 
to  the  air  to  dry,  acquires  a  crum- 
bly consistence  ;  and  these  kinds  of 
lean  lime,  which  contain  an  excess 
of  silex,  are  found  unfit  for  hy- 
draulic cement.  The  rich  lime, 
exposed  to  the  air,  mixed  with  a 
due  proportion  of  sand,  acquires  a 
great  degree  of  hardness.  Puzzo- 
lanas  are  either  natural  or  artificial. 

171 


M  O  R 


MOR 


The  natural  are  found  in  situations 
which  have  been  acted  upon  by 
subterraneous  heat.  They  all  con- 
sist of  silex,  alumine,  oxide  of  iron, 
and  a  little  lime;  their  properties 
vary  greatly,  silex  or  clay  being 
the  predominating  ingredient ;  the 
lime  and  iron  sometimes,  though 
rarely,  wanting.  The  scoria  of 
forges  and  furnaces,  broken  pottery, 
and  pulverized  brick  or  tile,  are 
artificial  substances  analogous  to 
puzzolanas.  One  class  of  puzzo- 
lanas,  containing  a  large  proportion 
of  clay  or  argil,  resist  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid:  another  class,  with 
a  less  proportion  of  clay,  easily  dis- 
solve with  this  acid,  and  abandon 
the  clay,  which  immediately  sub- 
sides. From  very  rich  slacked 
lime,  with  sand  alone,  or  with  puz- 
zolana,  which  resists  the  action  of 
sulphuric  acid,  we  obtain  a  mortar 
which,  placed  under  pure  water,  re- 
mains always  soft,  or  acquires  a 
feeble  consistence.  Exposed  to  the 
air,  this  mortar  soon  acquires  a 
crumbly  consistence,  but  never 
hardens.  If  the  same  experiment 
be  made  with  a  puzzolana  readily 
decomposed  by  sulphuric  acid,  a 
mortar  is  obtained,  which  soon  sets 
under  water,  and  becomes  gradually 
harder,  but,  exposed  to  the  air,  it 
dries  quickly,  and  consequently 
never  becomes  very  hard.  Since 
the  quality  of  natural  hydraulic 
lime  depends  on  the  mixture  of 
various  ingredients,  with  only  a 
certain  proportionate  quantity  of 
clay,  combined  by  heat,  it  is  natural 
to  suppose  that  an  artificial  mixture 
of  the  same  materials,  submitted  to 
heat,  would  produce  a  compound 
of  equal  efficacy.  Experience  has 
abundantly  confirmed  this  opinion, 
and  it  is  now  known  that  an  arti- 
ficial hydraulic  lime  may  be  pre- 
pared almost  in  any  place,  at  a 
moderate  price,  and  superior  to  the 
natural. 

172 


M.  Berthier  is  of  opinion,  t| 
with  one  part  of  common  clay,  J| 
two  parts  and  a  half  of  chaik  i 
very  good  hydraulic  lime  may  j 
made,  which  sets  as  quickly  | 
Parkers  cement.    He  concluc' 
that  a  limestone,  containing  six  j 
cent  of  clay,  affords  a  mortar  p 
cisely  hydraulic.    Lime  contain  ■ 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent  \ 
very  hydraulic  ;  and   when  fr 
twenty-five  to  thirty,  it  sets  aim 
instantly,  and  may  therefore  be  h 
to  be  a  trite  Roman  cement.  But, 
argillaceous  limestone,  which,  wl 
slacked,  increases  in  bulk  from  < 
to  three  parts  upon  ten,  and  wh 
when  in  the  form  of  a  slacked  p&: 
will  take  from  one  hundred  toe 
hundred  and  sixty  or  one  hund  j 
and  eighty  measures  of  sand,  -l 
afford,  at  a  moderate  cost,  a  cem  ; 
equally  fitted  to  resist  the  chan  ; 
of  weather,  and  the  constant  ex;- 
sure  to  a  running  stream.    A  lili 
magnanese  added  to  mortar  give  t 
the  property  of  hardening  unit 
water.     Limestone  is  frequen 
found  combined  with  this  mine' 
which  gives  it  a  brown  colour  wh 
burnt. 

Sharp  coarse  sand  is  the  best  | 
mixing  with  the  lime,  and  it  she  < 
be  divested  of  the  clay  or  m 
which  generally  adheres  to  it.  | 
sea-sand  be  used,  it  will  require 
be  freed  from  alkaline  salts,  al 
other  impurities,  by  washing  i 
fresh  water;  but  for  the  purpose; 
mixing  or  slacking  the  lime, 
water  is  injurious,  as  it  preve  i 
the  mortar  from  becoming  perfec ' 
dry.  In  drying,  sand  is  not  dit- 
nished  in  magnitude,  but  li  I 
shrinks  much,  therefore  the  grea' 
the  proportion  of  sand,  the  sooi* 
the  mortar  sets,  and  the  harde.t 
will  be  when  dry;  but  thorn 
many  valuable  treatises  have  bet 
written  on  the  subject,  and  n1 
experiments  made,  the  exact  p 


MO  R 


MOR 


po  ons  of  the  lime  and  sand,  have 
n0 yet  been  ascertained.  Accord- 
ing .0  Virruvius,  the  Romans  pre- 
ssed three  parts  of  coarse  sand 
to  ne  of  lime;  and,  according  to 
Pl  y,  four  of  the  former  to  one  of 
tkatter.  The  usual  proportions 
of  he  London  builders,  is  two 
and  a  half  of  sand  to  thirty- 
sen  bushels  of  lime. 

the  mortar  be  well  beaten,  it 
ril  take  a  greater  proportion  of 

i,  and  will  be  proportionably 
im  oved ;  and  it  is  agreeable  to 
an  bservation  of  Mr.  Smeaton, 
thr1  one  measure  of  unslacked 
Km  well  beaten,  will  always  re- 
qoi  two  measures  of  sand  for 
mo  ir  of  any  kind  ;  and  the  greater 
:  te  roportion  of  sand,  the  more  it 
is  t'be  beaten. 

re  mixture  of  fine  and  coarse 
sar  is  found  to  improve  the  corn- 
potion  of  mortar,  and  Dr.  Hig- 
,ives  the  following,  as  the 
besoropqrtions  of  each.  Newly- 
sla<2(l  lime,  1  part;  coarse  sand, 
4  pts;  fine  sand,  3  parts.  The 
aduon  of  J  of  the  quantity  of 
the  me,  of  burnt  bone  ashes,  im- 
prod  the  composition,  giving  a 
re  t  degree  of  tenacity,  and 
can  lg  it  to  dry  without  cracks. 

I  'rtar  is  best  made  in  a  vault 
or  illar,  and  kept  covered  up 
froi  the  air;  when  used,  it  must 
be  ;aten  up,  and  brought  to  a 
pro  r  consistence. 

(out  is  a  diluted  kind  of  ce- 
mei  sufficiently  fluid  to  fill  up 
therregular  spaces  between  the 
stois  of  rough  walls;  if  it  be 
mat,  of  mortar  that  has  been 
eaten  in  the  making,  and 
kep%  long  time,  it  will  then  set  in 
a  te  days  ;  but  if  new-made  mortar 
he  :ed,  the  grout  will  be  a  long 
tirn  before  it  hardens,  or  perhaps 
Hv!  never  properly  set. 

(mmon  mortar,  even  when 
tho  ughly  dry  before   the  water 


is  admitted,  is  by  no  means  well 
adapted  to  the  purpose  of  lining 
reservoirs  or  aqueducts;  but  if  a 
certain  portion  of  burnt  clay  be 
mixed  with  the  lime,  the  mortar 
will  set  and  harden  under  water. 
To  give  this  property  to  cement, 
various  ingredients  have  been 
added  :  coal  -  ashes,  wood  -  ashes, 
coal-cinders,  brick-dust  or  burnt 
clay,  pumice  -  stone,  unslacked 
powder  of  quicklime,  forge  scales, 
roasted  iron  ore,  wakke,  or  com- 
pact basalt,  cellular  basalt,  puzzo- 
lana,  &c. 

In  the  construction  of  the  Eddy- 
stone  lighthouse,  Mr.  Smeaton 
used  equal  quantities  of  puzzolana 
and  A  berth  aw  lime,  as  the  mixture 
best  calculated  to  withstand  the 
utmost  violence  of  the  waves,  con- 
tinually beating  against  the  founda- 
tion of  that  building.  Two  bushels 
of  slacked  lime,  from  Aberthaw, 
one  bushel  of  puzzoiana,  and  three 
of  clean  sand,  will  form  a  good  water 
cement  ;  and  in  various  parts  oi 
England,  as  at  Tinker's-hill,  near 
Ludlow,  and  places  bordering  on 
Wales,  a  peculiar  kind  of  lime  is 
found,  which,  if  properly  prepared, 
forms,  with  sand  only,  a  mortar 
which  will  set  and  harden  under 
water.  The  substance  called  puz- 
zolana was  discovered  by  the 
Romans  near  the  town  of  Puteoli, 
not  far  from  Mount  Vesuvius,  and 
was  first  used  for  buildings  bor- 
dering the  bay  of  Baiae,  some  of 
which  were  built  in  the  water. 
The  only  preparation  this  substance 
requires,  is  pounding  and  sifting, 
in  which  state,  when  mixed  with 
lime,  it  is  found  to  possess,  in  the 
highest  degree,  all  the  requisite 
properties  of  a  water-cement. 

No  nation  in  Europe  has  had 
so  much  occasion  for  water-cement 
as  the  Dutch,  and  the  substance 
called  terras,  or  trass,  was  first 
used  by  them.     This  substance 


MOR 


MOR 


which  is  also  called  wakkc,  is  a 
species  of  basaltes,  which  has 
proved  extensively  useful  in  form- 
ing mounds,  and  various  aquatic 
works,  in  the  Low  Countries.  This 
celebrated  terras  mortar  is  made 
by  covering  a  previously  prepared 
mass  of  quicklime,  of  about  a  foot 
thick,  (and  sprinkled  with  water,) 
with  an  equal  quantity  of  powdered 
terras.  The  whole  is  then  left  at 
rest  two  or  three  days ;  after  which, 
what  is  wanted,  is  taken  each  day, 
and  beat  up  for  use. 

One  measure  of  quicklime,  and 
two  of  slacked,  in  powder,  with 
one  of  terras,  the  whole  well 
beaten  to  the  consistence  of  paste, 
with  as  small  a  portion  of  water  as 
can  be  made  sufficient,  forms  the 
terras  mortar  commonly  used  in 
England.  A  cheaper  kind  is  made 
by  mixing  two  parts  of  slacked 
lime,  and  one  of  terras,  with  three 
of  coarse  sand. 

Pebble  mortar  is  used  when 
cavities  occur  in  walls,  between 
the  unequal  projections  of  unhewn 
stone :  it  was  much  used  by  the 
Romans,  and  is  yet  of  great 
utility,  where  large  quantities  of 
mortar  are  required.  For  this  pur- 
pose, take  one  part  of  terras,  or  of 
puzzolana,  two  of  coarse  sand,  two 
of  fine  sand,  eight  of  small  pebbles, 
screened  and  washed,  and  four  of 
slacked  lime.  Mix  the  whole 
together.  The  lime  termed  argil- 
lacious,  from  its  containing  a  por- 
tion of  clay,  is  preferred  for  this 
purpose. 

It  is  only  under  water,  or  with 
the  exclusion  of  air,  that  terras 
mortar  acquires  its  usual  degree  of 
hardness ;  for,  when  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  it 
will  not  become  as  hard  as  com- 
mon mortar. 

Though  the  experiments  of 
Morveau  have  proved  that  com- 
mon compact  basalt  will,  when 
174 


previously  burnt,  make  nearly 
good  a  water-cement  as  the  eel 
lar  species,  (the  terras  of  | 
Dutch,)  yet  it  has  rarely  been  J 
for  that  purpose.  This  mine 
abounds  in  Great  Britain,  and  | 
expense  of  its  importation  mi< 
be  saved  to  the  country.  Caltc 
hill,  in  the  vicinity  of  Edinbii^ 
and  near  the  port  of  Leith,  is 
most  one  entire  mass  of  basalt. 

The  cendre  de  Tour-nay  is  us! 
in  the  Low  Countries  ;  this  article 
procured  from  the  lime-kilns  b( 
dering  the  Scheldt :  the  lime  of  t 
district  contains  a  consider!! 
portion  of  clay  mixed  with  iro 
and  the  pit-coal,  with  which  it 
burnt,  contains  a  large  quantity 
an  argillacious  schist  impregnat 
with  iron.  After  the  lime  is  tak 
out  of  the  kilns,  there  remains  t 
cendree,  about  one-fourth  of  whi 
consists  of  burnt  lime-dust,  a 
three-fourths  of  coal-ashes.  Tl 
material  is  sprinkled  with  water, 
slack  the  lime,  and  well  mix 
together,  and  put  into  a  prop 
vessel,  and  covered  over  with  \\ 
earth.  In  this  state  it  is  kept  f 
a  considerable  time,  and,  win 
taken  out,  and  strongly  beaten  i 
for  half  an  hour  with  an  in 
pestle,  in  a  wooden  mortar 
trough,  it  is  reduced  to  a  sc 
pasty  consistence  ;  it  is  then  spre; 
out  in  a  shady  place  several  day 
and  the  operation  of  beating  r 
peated  ;  the  oftener  this  is  don 
the  better,  except  it  should  becon 
unmanageable  from  being  :< 
much  dried.  In  a  few  minute 
this  cement,  when  applied  to  bri< 
or  stone,  adheres  so  firmly,  th 
water  may  be  immediately  porm 
over  it;  and  if  kept  dry  tvvent 
four  hours,  it  will  receive  no  injur 
even  from  the  most  violent  action 
a  flowing  stream. 

In  London,  a  blue  mortar 
cinders  and  lime  is  used  for  cove 


MOR 


MOH 


income  parts  of  buildings  much 
exped  to  the  weather;  and  if 
this  *ere  prepared  with  the  same 
(r  and  attention,  it  might  be 
red   to   possess,  in  a  great 
,  the  valuable  properties  of 
ndree  mortar  of  the  Scheldt. 
(  v.mon  mortar  of  ashes  is  made 
xing  together  two  bushels  of 
u  slacked  lime,  and  three  bush- 
,    i  wood  ashes,  which  when  cold 
w  i  beaten  ;  in  which  state  it  is 
v  kept  for  a  considerable  time, 
d  r'  beaten  two  or  three  times 
us  to  using  it,  will  be  found 
improved  by  keeping.  In 
gi«!ng  the  effects  of  alternate 
ne  and  dryness,  this  mixture 
riorto  terras  mortar,  but  not 
near  equal  to  it  underwater. 
.A  Smeaton  has  ascertained,  by 
se  of  experiments,  that  the 
ial  (the  grey  oxide  of  iron)  that 
f  under  the  forge  hammer 
ed-hot  iron,  pulverized  and 
:r   and  mixed  with  lime,  form  a 
yhIi  >le  cement,  equal  to  that  of 
z  ana.    In  pursuing  these  ex- 
nts,  roasted  iron  ore  pro- 
uc  an  efficacious  water  cement, 
ng  a  greater  proportion  of  it 
ai  either  terras  or  puzzolana. 
ji  quantities  of  iron  scales  and 
.1  leous  lime,  with    half  the 
[ua'lty  of  each  of  these  of  sand, 
roi  ;ed  a  cement  in  every  respect 
equ;  to  terras  mortar.     If  pure 
rl  late  of  lime  be  used,  equal 
part  of  each  of  the  ingredients 
ou£'  to  be  incorporated. 

\iut  forty  years  ago,  M.  Loriat 
li(  :d  he  had  discovered  the  true 
proc  s  of  making  the  celebrated 
cem't  of  the  Romans.  His  sup- 
pose discovery  is  merely  the  adding 
of  tl  powder  of  dry  burnt  lime  to 
corn'on  mortar,  of  a  consistence 
rath  thinner  than  usual.  The 
lime  owder,  when  of  a  right  pro- 
port  i,  and  well  worked  together, 
sets  .vithout    cracking,  acquires 


the  consistence  of  plaster  of  Pa- 
ris, and  is  as  dry  in  two  days  as 
common  plaster  is  in  several  months. 
The  proportion  of  quicklime  pow- 
der in  the  Loriat  mortar  varies  as 
the  other  materials  vary  in  quality; 
one-sixth  of  the  other  materials  is 
frequently  too  little,  and  one-fourth 
not  too  much;  experience  alone 
can  determine.  As  a  water  cement 
it  is  of  inferior  utility,  and  very  little 
better  than  common  mortar  driedbe- 
fore  the  admission  of  water  upon  it. 

Brick  or  tile  powder,  and  forge 
scales,  are  added,  to  improve  this 
composition,  as  in  the  following 
receipt : — Take  of  bricks,  in  fine 
powder,  one  measure,  of  fine  river 
sand  two  measures,  old  slacked 
lime  to  make  a  mortar  in  the  usual 
manner,  and,  lastly,  add  one  mea- 
sure of  dry  powder  of  quicklime. 
About  the  time  of  M.  Loriat's  dis- 
covery, Mr.  George  Semple  pub- 
lished a  treatise  on  building,  in 
Ireland,  in  which  a  similar  mode  of 
preparing  a  water  cement  was 
given,  as  follows :  "  Get  your  lime 
brought  to  you  hot  from  the  kiln, 
and  immediately  pound  or  grind  it 
with  a  wooden  maul,  on  a  smooth 
large  stone,  or  a  dry  boarded  floor, 
till  you  make  it  as  fine  as  flour; 
then,  without  loss  of  time,  sift  it 
through  a  hair  or  wire  sieve,  and  to 
a  quantity  of  a  hod  of  your  setting 
mortar,  (which  on  this  account 
should  be  poorer  than  ordinary,) 
put  in  two  or  three  shovel-full  of 
this  fine  flour  of  lime^-and  let  two 
men,  for  expedition's  sake,  beat 
them  together  with  such  beaters 
as  plasterers  make  use  of,  and  then 
use  it  immediately." 

Plaster  of  Paris,  with  a  propor- 
tion of  one-tenth  of  rust  of  iron, 
makes  a  water  cement,  which  sets 
almost  instantly,  and  is  of  great 
hardness,  and  if  boiled  patatoes  be 
incorporated  with  mortar  of  lime 
and  sand,  or  with  mortar  contain- 


MOR 


MOR 


ing  burnt  clay,  these  compositions 
will  be  much  improved. 

M.  Vicat  has,  by  numerous  ex- 
periments, found  that  calcarious 
stones,  slightly  or  imperfectly  cal- 
cined, will  produce  a  Roman 
cement;  and  in  the  83rd  volume 
of  Annales  de  Chimie,  it  is  stated 
that  powdered  chalk,  heated  from  six 
to  thirty  minutes  on  a  red-hot  iron 
plate,  acquires  the  property  of  set- 
ting in  water,  when  slacked  stiff 
like  plaster  of  Paris.  Yet  the  re- 
sult of  these  experiments  seems 
only  to  have  established  the  gene- 
rally received  opinion  that  no  Roman 
or  hydraulic  cement  of  a  sufficient 
hardness  can  be  obtained  from 
purely  calcarious  stones. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  architects 
gave  the  name  of  Maltha  (Ma\0a) 
to  a  calcarious  cement  used  as 
stucco,  and  this  and  the  term  Mas- 
tic are  given  to  various  compositions. 
The  mixture  of  milk  with  sand  and 
lime,  is  said  to  have  constituted  the 
maltha  of  the  Greeks;  and  we 
learn  from  Pliny  that  Roman  mal- 
tha was  made  by  mixing  fresh 
burnt  lime,  slacked  with  wine,  and 
beat  in  a  mortar,  with  hog's  lard 
and  figs.  This  composition  pos- 
sesses great  tenacity,  and  acquires 
the  hardness  of  granite.  A  second 
kind  was  made  of  powder  of  slacked 
lime,  with  bullock's  blood  and  pow- 
dered scales  of  the  grey  oxide  of 
iron.  Previous  to  the  application 
of  the  maltha,  the  surface  of  the 
wall  or  ceiling  was  smeared  over 
with  oil,  to  make  the  composition 
adhere. 

The  inhabitants  of  Tunis,  and 
other  places  in  Africa,  use  a  species 
of  maltha,  which  has  gained  great 
celebrity.  The  process  of  prepa- 
ring it  is,  according  to  Dr. 
Shaw's  account,  as  follows.  To 
one  measure  of  sand,  two  of  wood 
ashes,  and  three  of  sifted  lime  pow- 
der, are  mixed,  with  a  sprinkling  of 

176 


water.  After  the  mixture  has  t 
subjected  to  the  operation  of  b 
ing,  a  little  oil  is  added ;  the  bea 
is  then  resumed,  and  continued 
three  or  four  days,  during  wl 
the  proper  degree  of  softness 
preserved  by  alternately  adc 
small  quantities  of  water  and  I 
In  a  short  time  after  its  applica 
in  the  usual  way,  it  acquires 
hardness  of  stone. 

In  a  mausoleum  of  some  of 
Tartar  princes,  the  spaces  betw 
the  bricks  are  about  an  inch  brd, 
and  filled  with  a  cement  wl  h 
appears  to  have  been  applied  i 
liquid  state,  and  it  has  acqu 
such  a  solid  consistence,  that  i 
easier  to  break  the  well-burnt  br  s 
than  to  separate  the  cement,  wlh 
is  of  a  grey  colour,  and  appear  o 
have  been  a  mixture  of  unslacd 
lime,  pulverized  charcoal,  and  poi- 
ded  sand-stone. 

Parker's  Roman  cement,  aja 
facing  to  brick  and  other  walls,  a 
composition  forming  an  artifiil 
stone,  and,  being  w ater- proof,  - 
cellently  adapted  to  this  purpc ; 
if  the  wall  be  previously  wettec it 
will  adhere  firmly.  Arch  sto  s, 
cornices,  and  ornamental  parts  >f 
buildings,  may  also  be  convenieiy 
made  of  this  material.  An  acco  t 
of  it  is  given  in  vol.  xxvi.  second  :- 
ries  of  the  Repertory  of  Arts. 

This  valuable  composition  s 
been  long  known,  and  was  f  t 
brought  into  public  notice  un  r 
the  name  of  Parker's  Patent 
ment,  sold  by  Messrs.  Ch.  Wy 
and  Co.  Bank  Side,  London 
5s.    6d.   per  bushel;  it  is  iw 
sold  at  about  3s.  per  bushel  by 
rious  dealers.     This  material 
mixed    with    an   equal  quan 
of   sharp   grit- sand,    freed  fin 
impurities,  and  when  beaten  p 
with  a  due  proportion  of  war, 
forms  a  handsome   and  dun  e 
covering  for  the  outsides  of  bu  - 


MOR 


M  O  R 


jn>     If  the  sand  should  have 
bd  previously  moistened,  the  ce- 
m  t  must  be  immediately  used, 
ar  in  no  case  mixed  up  before- 
m.    To  give  a  proper  finishing 
to  iis  kind  of  work,  a  mixture  of 
fi\ ounces  of  sulphat  of  iron  to  a 
m  of  water,  is  mixed  with  as 
m  h  lime  and  cement  as  will  pro- 
tji|<  the    consistence    and  the 
color  required,  for  a  wash  to  be 
apied  to  the  surface  of  the  work. 
Scetimes  the  colour  is  modified 
i,\  i<r;o!ic  acid,    and  when  the 
,ti  of  the  work  is  made  to  imitate 
bo!ed  masonry,  the  intersecting 
sp^s  are  tinted  with  umber.  It 
I  nerally  calculated,  that  one 
«1  of  cement,  properly  applied, 
form  a  superficial  covering  of 
,  v  four  square  yards.     In  per- 
il ng  this  work,  which  is  called 
Fit  in£,  laborious,  unceasing,  and 
i!    action  will  be  required,  as 
theomposition  sets  almost  instan- 
tan  usly. 

<  rbonate  of  lime,  calcined  at  a 
not  exceeding  that  at  which 
ion  softens,  and  cooled  with- 
ut  ccess  of  atmospheric  air  or 
mo  ure,  acquires  the  property  of 
qiiily  hardening  under  water; 
m  mixed  with  silicious  sand  and 
ii,  forms  an  artificial  puzzolaua 
r  ;man  cement,  and  for  this  dis- 
w  ,  a  patent  was  granted  to  Mr. 
nii  Frost,  on  the  3rd  of  April, 
The  process  is  described  in 
the  1,1th  vol.  of  the  Repertory  of 
,f  nd  Manufactures.    A  patent 
is  so  granted  to  Edgar  Dobbs, 
huthwark,    for  a  variety  of 
^itions  to  form  a  water-proof 
'"  t,  mortar,  or  stucco,  which 
a  iluted  state  are  also  appli- 
1  'blfas  durable  colouring  washes 
for  hidings.    These  compositions 
of  carbonate  of  lime,  burnt 
:-  f<  common  plaster,  and  mixed 
UP  "h  water,  clay,  loam,  mud, 
*hal'  road-dust,  soil,  cheap  me- 
Z 


tallic  oxydes,  ores,  sand,  or  any 
earthy  substance  which  may  be 
subjected  to  the  heat  above  specified. 
The  whole  of  these  ingredients 
are  then  to  be  reduced  to  fine  pow- 
der, mixed  with  water,  and  left 
in  proper  vessels  till  it  has  subsided. 
The  water  is  then  to  be  poured  off, 
and  the  plaster  materials  formed 
into  square  pieces,  and  dried;  after 
which  they  are  subjected  to  the 
heat  of  a  lime-kiln  or  stove,  and, 
lastly,  mixed  with  the  lime  and 
water  for  the  intended  purposes. 

One  hundred  parts  of  quicklime, 
five  of  white,  or  other  coloured  clay, 
and  two  of  yellow-ochre,  forms  a 
cement,  which  is  tenacious,  and 
remains  unchangeable  when  ex- 
posed to  the  weather.  The  lime 
must  first  be  slacked  with  a  small 
proportion  of  water,  more  of  which 
must  afterwards  be  mixed  till  of 
the  consistence  of  cream.  White 
clay  is  at  the  same  time  mixed  with 
water  to  a  similar  consistence,  and 
after  having  remained  some  time 
separate,  the  two  solutions  are 
carefully  mixed  together.  During 
its  continuance  in  the  tub  for 
twenty-four  hours,  this  mixture  is 
frequently  stirred  ;  and  after  that 
period  a  portion  of  yellow  ochre  is 
incorporated  with  it,  to  give  it  a 
pleasant  colour.  Walls  covered 
with  this  cement,  have  remained 
exposed  to  south-west  winds  and 
rains  for  two  years,  without  injury. 

A  composition,  said  to  be  equal 
to  the  Roman  cement,  is  made,  by 
dissolving  three  pounds  and  a  half 
of  sulphat  of  iron,  and  mixing  it 
with  a  bushel  of  lime,  and  half  a 
bushel  of  fine  gravel  sand,  previously 
made  into  mortar. 

Artificial  puzzolana  is  made  by 
heating  of  slacked  lime  one  part,  to 
three  parts  of  clay,  and  keeping  of 
a  red  heat  several  hours.  After 
which,  cover  the  top  of  the  kiln 
with  sand  or  earth,  and,  when  cool, 

177 


M  OR 


MOR 


pack  up  close  in  casks  for  use.  A 
composition,  consisting  of  lime- 
stone, road  dust,  sand,  or  similar 
substance,  with  powder  of  burnt 
bones  ;  these  ingredients  powdered, 
are  to  be  heated  in  an  oven,  and 
when  hot  to  be  mixed  with  one- 
fourth  part  of  tar,  pitch,  or  rosin, 
and  used  to  form  a  facing  for 
houses. 

Cement  for  mouldings,  is  made 
of  powdered  whiting  two  pounds, 
glue  one  pound,  with  half  a  pint  of 
oil.  This  mixture  is  first  thoroughly 
incorporated  in  a  metal  vessel,  by 
means  of  heat,  and  well  beat  toge- 
ther on  a  stone  with  whiting,  till  it 
has  acquired  the  necessary  consis- 
tence and  toughness.  It  is  kept 
under  moist  cloths  till  used.  Pro- 
per moulds  are  used  for  casting 
ornaments  of  this  composition, 
which  when  dry  are  fixed  on  the 
surfaces  to  be  ornamented,  by  glue 
or  white-lead.  • 

A  delicate  cement  is  made  for 
small  work,  by  heating  a  pint  of 
milk  to  the  boiling  point,  and  add- 
ing vinegar  till  the  curd  separate; 
then  straining  off  the  whey,  which 
is  carefully  beaten  up  with  the  whites 
of  four  or  five  eggs,  gradually  add- 
ing the  whey ;  when  the  whole  is 
well  mixed,  sifted  quicklime  is  stir- 
red in,  till  the  consistence  is  that 
of  a  thick  paste.  It  is  used,  to  sup- 
ply deficiences  in  small  works,  and 
to  fasten  pieces  broken  of}*,  which 
it  joins  firmly  together.  It  resists 
the  action  of  fire  and  water.  The 
prepared  liquid  may  be  kept,  if 
closely  corked  up,  but  the  lime 
must  only  be  added  when  wanted. 

Half  a  pound  of  bees-wax,  sliced, 
melted  with  a  quarter  of  a  pound 
of  rosin,  powdered,  and  an  ounce 
of  chalk  and  of  brick  dust,  both  in 
fine  powder,  added,  the  whole 
boiled  up  together  and  well  mixed, 
forms  a  valuable  cement  for  filling 
up  holes  either  in  stone  or  marble, 

178 


and  for  veneering  marble  for  in! 
ing,  and  mosaic  work.  The  cerr,  t 
must  be  used  hot,  and  the  wor  t 
is  applied  to  must  be  warmed. 

The  cold  cement  for  the  s; 
purposes  is  reckoned  a  secret  am-g 
workmen;  it  is  made  by  grat r 
with  a  bread  grater,  a  pound  if 
old  dry  Cheshire  cheese,  wHfa 
must  remain  fourteen  hours  a 
quart  of  milk,  stirring  it  frequen  ; 
a  pound  of  unslacked  lime  in  p- 
der  must  then  be  added,  and  ie 
whole  well  beat  up.  Finally,  d 
the  whites  of  twenty  or  thirty  <,rs 
beat  up  with  any  colouring  mafer 
desired,  and  let  the  whole  be  <- 
ceedingly  well  mixed  and  bea  ip 
together. 

Mr.  Beavans  Mortar,  m 
mortar,  or  building  cement,  is  op- 
posed of  marble,  flint,  chalk,  1  e, 
and  water;  and  when  dry  is  ca- 
ble of  a  high  polish.  The  pro  r- 
tions  are  one  part  of  pulvei.d 
marble  ;  one  part  of  pulvei  d 
flint ;  and  one  part  of  chalk — m  d 
together,  and  sifted  through  a  ry 
fine  sieve:  to  this  is  to  be  affid 
one  part  of  lime  which  has  n 
slacked  three  months,  and  sufficnt 
water  to  make  the  whole  in  a 
thin  paste;  in  this  state  it  is  tbe 
spread  over  a  coarse  groundras 
thin  as  possible,  and  made  snvth 
on  the  surface;  it  may  be  polisd, 
when  dry,  by  Venetian  talc.  If 
buildings  are  to  be  covered  th 
this  composition,  a  prepar?ry 
rough  ground  should  be  first  i  d, 
consisting  of  river-sand  and  liri 

Derbyshire  Spar  Cement  is 
made  with  about  eight  part  of 
resin  and  one  of  bees'  wax  m  ed 
together,  with  a  small  quanti 
plaster  of  Paris ;  if  small 
ciencies  occur  in  the  article  to  u 
it  is  applied,  a  little  more  of  he 
plaster  of  Paris  may  be  addedM 
when  the  mixture  is  nearly  col  it 
must  be  well   kneaded  togeer. 


MOR 


MOR 


\ien  used,  this  cement  must  be 
Solved  by  heating:  the  portions 
0;par  to  be  fastened  together.  A 
Iture  of  melted  sulphur  and  some 
c  the  spar,  powdered,  is  sometimes 
Jd  for  this  purpose. 
)team  Cement,  is  not  only  use- 
I'  for  different  parts  of  hydraulic 
a  steam  engines,  but  for  broken 
lines,  and  the  joints  of  square 
v  er-troughs.  Linseed  oil  boiled, 
liarje,  and  red  and  white  lead, 
cstitute  this  cement,  which  is 
n  ed  to  a  proper  consistence,  and 
a  lied  on  each  side  of  a  piece  of 
fl.nel,  previously  shaped  to  the 
j(  t  of  iron  or  other  substance, 
a  put  between  the  pieces  previous 
ttheir  being  screwed  or  hammered 
tt.ther,  or  "  brought  home,"  as 
tl  workmen  term  it :  by  this  means 
a  lose  and  durable  joint  is  made. 
Ce  must  be  taken  not  to  leave  the 
n  ture  too  thin  with  oil;  and  as 
th  white  lead  does  not  dry  so  soon 
ape  red,  more  of  the  latter  ought 
tc  e  used.  Workmen  do  not  always 
p  luce  a  good  joint  on  the  first 
airnpt,  but  repeatedly  loosen  and 
l,  fa^n  the  parts  of  the  work  till 
tl  at  last  accomplish  their  pur- 

.    When  the  fittings  will  not 

it  the  thickness  of  flannel, 
lii  >  or  even  paper  or  thin  paste- 
bc  d  may  be  substituted. 

lis  cement  answers  well  for 
jo  ng  broken  stones  of  the  largest 
ki  ;  and  stone  joints  never  leak, 
or  ant  future  repairs  :  if  the  stone 
i  luck,  not  more  than  an  inch 
ne  to  the  water  need  be  filled  with 

;nt;  the  rest  may  be  done  with 
M  non  mortar.    Two  ounces  of 
M  mmoniac,  one  ounce  of  flowers 
of  ilphur,  and  sixteen  ounces  of 
1  'ron  filings  or  borings;  mix 
in  a  mortar,  and  keep  the 
poller  dry.    When  this  cement  is 
<»  ed,  take  one  part  of  the  above, 
enty  parts  of  clean  iron  filings 
or  rings,  and  mix  intimately,  and 


beat  to  a  powder  in  a  mortar. 
When  mixed  to  a  proper  consistence 
with  water,  apply  with  wooden  or 
iron  spatula.  This  is  the  cement 
used  in  the  filling  up  and  clasping 
the  joinings  of  South wark  cast-iron 
bridge.  The  chemical  action  of 
these  materials,  on  one  another^ 
causes  the  whole  to  unite  in  a  hard 
and  homogeneous  mass. 

The  roofs  and  floors  of  houses  in 
Venice  are  covered  with  a  cement, 
the  composition  of  which  is  un- 
known in  England;  it  resists  the 
action  of  the  weather,  and  preserves 
itself  from  injury  for  a  long  time. 
It  is  believed  to  be  compounded  of 
plaster  of  Paris,  sulphur,  resin, 
pitch,  and  spirit  of  turpentine  or 
wax,  mixed  hot. 

Walls  and  floors  are  sometimes 
made  of  mortar;  .an  also  the  roofs 
of  houses.  For  plain  country  ha- 
bitations, the  floors  may  be  made  g 
of  two-thirds  of  lime,  and  one  of 
coal  ashes  well  sifted  ;  with  a  small 
quantity  of  loam,  or  clay  ;  mix  the 
whole  together  with  water,  and 
temper  well,  and  make  into  a  heap ; 
which  after  remaining  a  week  or 
ten  days,  temper  over  again,  beat- 
ing it  till  it  be  of  a  proper  tenacity 
and  consistence.  The  ground  being 
made  level,  lay  the  composition 
about  two  inches  and  a  half  or 
three  inches  thick,  making  it 
smooth  with  a  trowel :  if  this  work 
be  done  in  warm  weather,  it  will 
dry  sooner,  which  will  be  an  ad- 
vantage; and  if  a  superior  floor  be 
wanted  for  better  apartments,  cover 
this  first  layer  with  another  made 
of  the  lime  of  ragstones,  well  tem- 
pered with  whites  of  eggs,  and  laid 
on  about  half  an  inch  thick,  before 
the  first  floor  be  too  dry.  When  the 
whole  is  thoroughly  dried,  and  rub- 
bed with  a  little  oil,  it  will  be  as 
smooth  as  polished  marble. 

Mortise  and  Tenon,  a  me- 
thod of  joining  two  timbers  by 

179 


MOS 


MOU 


cutting  a  hollow  prism  or  recess 
from  a  face  near  the  end  of  one 
of  the  timbers,  and  a  correspond- 
ing projection  at  the  end  of  the 
other. 

Mosaic,  (Gr.)  or  Musaic,  a  kind 
of  painting  composed  of  small 
cubes  of  glass,  stone,  wood,  &c. 
and  worked  on  walls,  ceilings, 
pavements,  &c.  A  great  number 
of  these  works  have  been  dis- 
covered amongst  the  ruins  of  an- 
tiquity. Several  copies  of  Mosaic 
ornaments  are  given  in  the  plates 
of  the  article  Roman  Ornament. 
This  kind  of  work  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  in  the  East,  to 
have  been  brought  from  Phoenicia 
to  Greece,  and  from  thence  to  have 
passed  to  Rome.  The  most  curious 
and  valuable  works,  which  contain 
figures  and  explanations  of  antique 
Mosaics,  are  Barthelemy,  Expli- 
cation de  la  Mosaique  de  Palses- 
trine;  Savorelli  and  Capellani, 
Opus  Musivum  erutum  ex  Rude- 
ribus  Villse  Hadriani ;  Hoeffelin, 
Observations  sur  la  Mosaique  des 
Anciens,  a  l'occasion  de  quelques 
Tableaux  eu  Mosaique,  qui  se 
trouvent  a  la  Galerie  des  Pein- 
tures  de  l'Electeur  Palatin,  in  the 
comment.  Hist.  Acad.  Theodoro 
Palatinae,  vol.  v;  Osservazioni  di 
Ennio-Quirino  Visconti,  su  due 
Musaici  antichi  storiati;  Descrip- 
tion de  la  Mosaique,  trouvee  a 
Seville,  published  by  order  of  the 
king  of  Spain  ;  La  Borde,  Mosaique 
dTtalica,  published  in  1802,  and 
the  best  collection  we  know  of ; 
Ciampini,  on  the  Mosaics  of 
Sacred  and  Profane  Buildings,  pub- 
lished in  2  folio  vols,  at  Rome,  in 
1690,1699;  Furietti,on  Mosaics; 
M.  de  Vielle,  Essai  sur  la  Pein- 
ture  en  Mosaique.  Several  other 
works  of  the  same  kind  might  be 
enumerated. 

Mosque,  (Arab.)  a  Mahometan 
temple,  or  place  of  worship.  The 

180 


earliest  Arabian  mosques  enclo? 
in  a  quadrangular  square  an  it 
mense  number  of  columns  rancj 
in  rows,  which  were  often  the  r, 
spoils  of  ancient  edifices.  1; 
mosques  of  the  Turks,  on  | 
other  hand,  are  more  distinguish 
for  the  size  and  elevation  of  lif 
principal  cupolas.  Each  mosci 
has  its  minaret,  and  commonl  i 
fountain  of  water,  with  numenj 
basins  for  ablutions.  See  Arab  t 
Architecture  and  Constantinopl 

Mould,  called  also  Caliber,  \ 
instrument  of  iron  or  of  hard  wo  , 
used  by  masons  as  a  guage  ) 
give  the  dimensions  and  form  f 
carved  stone-work  in  cornice. 

Mouldings,  the  small  proje- 
ing  ornaments  of  columns,  «. 
The  regular  mouldings  are,  e 
fillet,  Intel,  or  annulet;  the  ost- 
gal,  or  bead ;  the  torus  :  the  sco  , 
or  trochilus;  the  echinus,  ovolo  t 
quarter  round ;  the  cyma  rever  , 
inverted  cyma,  or  ogee;  the  cyi 
recta :  the  cavetto,  or  hollow.  I 
more  particular  description  of  e  n 
will  be  found  under  their  sevi  1 
articles.  Their  forms  and  appl  - 
tion  are  exhibited  in  Plates  M 
M  4,  and  M  5.  The  Grk 
mouldings  are  chiefly  distinguish 
from  the  Roman,  by  being  cc  • 
posed  of  ellipses,  and  other  ccc 
sections,  while  the  Roman  e 
formed  of  segments  of  circ*. 
The  Roman  ovolo  and  cavetto  e 
never  found  in  Grecian  architect!1, 
nor  the  Greek  echinus  in  the  h 
man.  In  some  early  specimen  >f 
the  Doric,  a  straight  line  is  ud 
instead  of  the  moulding,  as  in  e 
capital  of  the  portico  of  Philipt 
Delos.  All,  except  the  fillet,  I 
mit  of  decoration  ;  but  in 
richest  profile  it  is  advisable 
leave  some  uncarved,  to  give  a 
repose  to  the  composition,  and  o 
prevent  confusion.  The  fillet  t  y 
be  used  at  all  situations 


MUN 


hchts.  The  torus  is  appropriated 
tc bases.  The  scotia  should  be 
tx  w  the  eye,  and  between  the 
fli  ts  attached  to  the  torus.  The 
e(  nus  serves  for  supports,  and 
si  jld  onlv  occupy  situations  above 
tl  eve.  "  The  inverted  cyma  is 
al  used  as  a  supporting  member. 
T  cvma  recta  and  cavetto  are 
or  fit  for  crowning  mouldings, 
fo  which  their  forms  are  peculiarly 
aoted,  being  incapable  of  hold- 
in  water,  which  must  necessarily 
di)  from  their  extreme  points. 

n  assemblage  of  essential  parts 
ai  mouldings  is  termed  a  profile, 
ai  on  the  choice,  disposition,  and 
pi»ortion  of  these  depends  the 
boty  or  deformity  of  the  profile. 
Ti  most  perfect  are  such  as  are 
ccposed  of  few  mouldings,  varied 
b(,  in  form  and  size,  fitly  applied 
w  regard  to  their  uses,  and  so 
diosed,  that  the  straight  and 
ci  ed  ones  succeed  each  other 
al  nately.  On  every  profile 
th  2  should  be  a  predominant 
m  iber,  to  which  all  the  others 
01  it  to  be  subservient,  and  seem 
m  e  either  to  support,  to  fortify, 
or,)  shelter  it  from  the  injury  of 
th  veather,  as  in  a  cornice  when  the 
cc  na  is  principal,  the  cyma  or  ca- 
vf )  over  it,  and  the  modillions, 
d((ils,ovolo,  and  talon,  support  it. 

oven  aw,  a  small  flat  bastion, 
in  lie  middle  of  a  courtin  of  un- 
u?  I  length ;  intended  to  be  occu- 
pi  by  a  band  of  musqueteers  for 
th  lefence  of  a  fortress. 

ullions,  the  frame-work  of 
I  )thic  window. 

Multilateral,  (Lat.)  having 
m.y  sides. 

uniment-room,  a  little  strong 
ro »  or  apartment  for  keeping 
pl .',  charters,  evidences,  &c. 

LN.NIONS,  another  name  for 
K  lions. 

[ural,  (Lat.)  belonging  to  a 


Museum,  (Gr.)  a  repository  of 
scientific  a«»d  literary  curiosities, 
and  the  works  of  learned  men  and 
of  artists 

This  term  was  originally  ariplied 
to  that  part  of  the  palace  of  Alex 
andria  which  was  appropriated 
solely  to  the  purpose  of  affording 
an  asylum  for  learned  men  :  it  con 
tained  groves,  and  buildings  worthy 
of  royal  majesty,  and  a  temple, 
where  the  body  of  Alexander  was 
deposited  in  a  golden  coffin.  Men 
of  learning  were  here  lodged,  and 
accommodated  with  large  halls  for 
literary  conversations,  and  porti- 
cos and  shady  walks;  and,  supplied 
with  every  necessary,  they  devoted 
themselves  entirely  to  study.  They 
were  divided  into  companies,  or 
colleges,  according  to  the  sciences 
of  which  they  were  professors  ;  and 
to  each  of  these  was  allotted  a 
handsome  revenue.  The  founda- 
tion of  this  establishment  is  attri- 
buted to  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  who 
here  placed  his  library. 

Of  museums,  in  the  modern 
sense,  Professor  Beckman  says, 
that  anciently  natural  curiosities 
were  preserved  in  wax ;  and  dead 
bodies  also,  both  in  wax  and  ho- 
ney. In  the  middle  ages,  particu- 
lar and  extraordinary  articles  were 
dried,  and  kept  in  the  treasuries  of 
emperors,  kings,  and  princes,  which 
gradually  increased  into  menage- 
ries, and  probably  museums.  Such 
collections  were  first  made  by  pri- 
vate persons,  in  places  where  many 
families  had  been  enriched,  with- 
out much  labour,  by  trade  and 
manufactures.  They  appeared  for 
the  first  time  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, and  were  formed  by  every 
learned  man  who  studied  natural 
history. 

Of  Museums  in  this  country,  the 
Ashmolean  at  Oxford  is  a  noble 
pile  of  building,  erected  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  University,  at  the  west 

181 


M  US 


MYC 


end  of  the  theatre,  on  which  side 
it  has  a  magnificent  portal,  sus- 
tained by  pillars  of  the  Corinthian 
order.  The  front,  which  is  to  the 
street,  extends  about  60  feet.  It 
was  begun  in  1'679,  and  finished 
in  1683;  when  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  curiosities  was  presented  to 
it  by  Elias  Ashmole,  Esq.,  which 
were  the  same  day  deposited  there. 
Important  additions  have  been 
since  made  to  this  collection ; 
among  which  are  Egyptian  anti- 
quities, hieroglyphics,  and  mum- 
mies ;  with  Roman  altars,  and  me- 
dals and  lamps,  and  various  natu- 
ral and  antiquarian  curiosities. 

The  British  Museum  occupies 
an  ancient  building  of  great  extent, 
erected  by  the  first  Duke  of  Mon- 
tagu, and  formerly  called  Monta- 
gu House.  This  erection  is  in  the 
French  style  of  architecture,  and 
has  behind  it  a  garden,  consisting 
of  nearly  nine  acres  of  ground.  It 
was  purchased  of  the  Duke's  heirs, 
by  parliament,  for  uniting  together 
the  Royal,  Cottonian,  Harleian, 
Sloanian,  and  other  collections  of 
books,  manuscripts,  coins,  subjects 
of  natural  history,  and  other  arti- 
cles of  great  rarity  and  value. 

On  the  western  side  of  this  build- 
ing is  the  entrance,  under  tall 
arches,  leading  to  the  various 
apartments.  The  staircase  and 
ceilings  are  ornamented  by  the 
artists  Baptiste,  Rousseau,  and  La 
Fosse.  Among  these  works  are 
Caesar,  attended  by  the  chiefs  of 
the  provinces  he  conquered ;  the 
feasts  and  sacrifices  of  Bacchus; 
and  an  emblematical  representa- 
tion of  the  rivers  Nile  and  Tiber. 
On  the  ceiling,  Phaetcn,  accompa- 
nied by  the  Hours,  in  the  ardour  of 
youthful  enthusiasm,  undertaking 
to  guide  the  chariot  of  the  sun ; 
and  the  story  is  continued  to  the 
ceiling  of  the  first  apartment.  A 
fine  portrait  of  Sir  William  Hamil- 

182 


ton  is  placed  over  the  north  or 
leading  to  the  saloon,  and  the  d- 
joining  room  contains  several  \  u. 
able  portraits.    On  the  ceilin 
the  first  room  on  the  first  f 
which  is  a  half-oval,  is  a  very 
painting   of  Jupiter  hurling 
lightning  at  Phaeton.    An  iL. 
merable  variety  of  Egyptian,  Gi  k, 
Roman,  and  Indian  antiquities  re 
deposited  in   the    various  aj  t- 
ments;  and  models,  and  sculpt L 
and  singular  devices,  with  nat  al 
and  artificial   curiosities;  an<nt 
armour;  with  Otaheitan  and  Slth 
Sea  implements;  a  great  varielof 
birds  and  beasts,  with  mine 
fossils,   shells,    petrifactions,  p- 
tiles;  and  in  the  great  Hall,n- 
cient  coffins,  fragments  of  colui  s, 
Roman    statuary,   and  Egypn 
tombs  covered  with  hieroglyp  L, 
The  royal  library,  presented  bin 
late  Majesty,  George  the  Foih, 
occupies  a  magnificent  room  ilt 
for  their  reception. 

MUTATORIUM     CjESARIS,  is, 

according  to  Ruffinus  and  ViLr, 
a  mansion  in  the  first  quarteny 
the  Capene  gate,  which  was  in- 
habited by  Ceesar  during  his  hh- 
pontificate. 

Mutule,  (Lat.)  a  projecting  ir- 
nament  of  the  Doric  cornice,  w:h 
occupies  the  place  of  the  m  il- 
lion in  the  other  order,  and  p- 
posed  to  represent  the  ends; of 
rafters. — As  mutules  had  theirri- 
gin  from  imitating  the  endj of 
wooden  rafters,  they  are  proj  ly 
represented  with  a  declinatioi  o- 
wards  the  front  of  the  corona. 

MycENiE,  a  very  ancient  ci  ot 
Greece,  the  remains  of  whicl  ire 
described  in  the  articles  Acroj.is, 
Arch,  and  Cyclopean  Build ff. 
In  Plate  Acropolis,  Tiryns,  A- 
nee,  jig.  VIII  is  a  view  of  the  as- 
tern gate  of  the  Acropolis,  nd 
Jig.  IX.  the  gate  of  the  Lions.iln 
Plate  History  of  Arch,  are  $  en 


N  A  I 


N  A  K 


5  iew  of  the  interior  of  the  Treasury 
(  Atreus,  a  plan,  and  at  the  bot- 
in  of  the  plate,  a  view  of  the  en- 
tnce  from  the 'outside,  in  which  is 
presented,  on  the  ground,  in  the 


situation  in  which  it  was  found,  a 
very  singular  capital  of  great  anti- 
quity. A  plan  of  the  Acropolis,  and 
other  details,  are  given  by  Gell,  in 
his  "  Itinerary  of  Greece." 


N. 


Mails,  {ncegl,  Sax.)  small  spikes 
r,  metal,  to  fasten  parts  together. 
I  W.  Gell  has  given  figures  of 

I  round  -  headed  bronze  nails, 
Jich  he  found  in  the  treasury  of 
Jreus,  at  Mycenae,  which  were 
ide  of  copper  and  tin,  in  a  pro- 

tion  of  88  to  12.    Bronze  nails 
ire  used,  according  to  Winckel- 
nn,  in  the  bronze  doors  at  Her- 
i  ineum.    The  heads  of  those  in 
i  doors  of  the  Pantheon,  are  five 
ihes  in  diameter.    These  kinds 
( nails  were  called  clavi  capitati : 
islander  and  others  think  they 
c  the  clavi  muscarii  of  Vitruvius. 
h  head  of  a  bronze  nail  in  the 
ninet  of  the  Roman  college  has 
i  rly  the  figure  of  a  parasol,  or 
ishroom  :  the  length  of  the  square 
of  the  nail  is  engraved  with 
ny  characters,  upon  one  side  is 
2ABA6Q.  Winckelmann  men- 
is  a  bronze  nail  with   a  fly 
< Iptured  in  relief.  Some  of  these 
•umstances  must  have  given  rise 
he  term  (muscarii.)  There  were 
()  nails  called  bulla,  from  the 
■mhlance  of  the  head  to  those 
faments,  and   their   large  gilt 
'  (Is  added  much  to  the  grandeur 
<the  doors  of  the  temples,  &c. 
-  m  Plautus  it  appears,  that  they 

II  e  used  in  doors  of  common 
ftises,  and  great  pains  taken  to 
i  p  them  bright.  (Plaut.  Asin.  ii. 
4'iO. — See  Cicero.  inVerr.  iv.  56.) 
I  iy  mentions  a  kind  of  bitumin- 

0  earth,  used  by  the  blacksmiths 
f<  colouring  the  heads  of  nails, 
t|  xxxv.  c.  15.)  Iron  nails,  with 
A  heads,   have  been    found  in 

1  tish  barrows,  from  half  an  inch 


to  five  inches  long.  (Hoare's  An- 
cient Wilts.) 

The  different  kinds  and  names  of 
modern  nails  are  very  numerous. 
Back  nails,  have  flat  shanks,  that 
they  may  not  open  the  wood  : 
clasp  nails,  or  brads,  have  flat 
heads:  clench  nails,  are  principally 
used  by  boat-builders,  &c  :  dog 
nails,  are  used  to  fasten  hinges  to 
doors  :  rose  nails,  are  drawn  square 
in  the  shank  :  scupper  nails,  are 
for  nailing  canvass  to  wood  :  square 
nails,  are  for  hard  wood  :  tacks, 
are  used  for  fixing  paper,  &c.  on 
wood,  and  the  larger  kind,  by  up- 
holsterers, &c.  Other  kinds,  such 
as  deck  nails,  port  nails,  &c.  are 
used  by  ship-builders.  Clout  nails, 
are  generally  used  to  nail  clouts  to 
axle-trees,  and  fixing  iron-work, 
and  have  flat  heads.  See  Adhe- 
sion. 

Naked,  a  term  applied  in  archi- 
tecture either  to  a  column  or  a  wall, 
to  denote  the  face  or  plain  surface 
from  which  the  projections  rise. 

Naked  Flooring,  the  framing 
of  one  or  more  rows  of  equidistant 
beams  of  timber  in  horizontal 
planes,  for  supporting  the  board- 
ing. The  timbers  are  called  joists, 
and  other  strong  beams,  called 
girders,  are  sometimes  introduced. 
The  joists  have  different  names, 
according  to  the  situation  in  which 
they  are  placed.  Single  or  com- 
mon joists,  are  employed  in  the 
construction  of  common  floors, 
which  consist  only  of  one  row. 
Binding  joists,  are  employed  in  the 
best  description  of  floors,  along 
with  other  joints,  called  bridging 

183 


N  AU 


N  A  V 


joists  and  ceiling  joists,  which  alto- 
gether make  a  grated  frame  of  tim- 
ber-work :  the  binding  joists,  which 
are  the  strongest  timbers,  are  placed 
in  the  middle  row,  with  the  bridg- 
ing joists  above,  and  the  ceiling 
joists  below,  and  support  both. 
The  bridging  joists  are  notched  a 
certain  portion  of  thin  depths  upon 
the  binding  joists,  and  the  ceiling 
joists  are  generally  done  in  the 
same  manner :  the  notches,  to  pre- 
serve the  strength  of  the  binding 
joists,  are  only  cut  from  the  edges, 
but  in  the  bridging  joists  the  notch 
is  cut  through  the  entire  thickness. 
In  floors  of  great  extent,  girders  are 
introduced,  and  the  binding  joists 
are  framed  into  each  side  of  the 
girder :  the  top  of  the  girder  is 
generally  below  the  level  of  the 
top  of  the  bridging  joists.  The 
ceiling  joists  are  generally  nailed 
up  to  the  under  side  of  the  binding 
joists,  forming  by  their  under  edges 
a  level  surface  for  nailing  the  lath, 
which  is  to  sustain  the  plastering 
of  the  ceiling.  Binding  joists  are 
placed  at  the  distance  of  about 
four  feet  six  inches  clear,  bridging 
joists  one  foot,  and  ceiling  joists 
about  fourteen  inches.  On  the 
subject  of  Naked  Flooring,  may  be 
consulted  Wallis's  Opera  Mathe- 
matica,  vol.  i.  prop.  x.  chap.  6.  and 
Godfrey  Richards'  Palladio.  It  is 
not  now  in  much  use.  See  Car- 
pentry. 

Naos,  (vcloq,  Gr.)  the  enclosed 
apartment  of  an  ancient  temple, 
before  which  stood  the  pronaosy 
and  behind  it  the  posticum. 

Natural  Beds,  the  surfaces 
of  a  stone  from  which  the  laminae 
were  separated. 

Naumachia,  (Lat.  from  vavg, 
a  ship,  and  /ia^*?,  a  battle,  Gr.) 
originally  a  show  exhibiting  a  naval 
fight,  and  applied  in  a  secondary 
sense  to  the  circus  in  which  this 
kind  of  spectacle  was  exhibited, 

184 


which  was  surrounded  with  seats, ^ 
pit  being  filled  with  water  by  meji 
of  pipes.  At  Rome  were  seve  l 
naumachia,  built  by  Auguhtl 
Claudian,  and  Domitian. 

Nave,  (  naf,  Sax.  from  vao^i 
temple, )  the  middle  part  ofl 
church.  Naves  of  churches  exti 
from  the  west  end  of  the  choir  t 
chancel.  In  great  churches  tl 
contain  numerous  small  alt, 
placed  between  or  against  the  • 
lumns,  very  rarely  monumei. 
The  centre  and  side  aisles  vi 
left  free.  The  top  of  the  mien 
aisle,  with  windows  above  the  arcl 
is  called  the  clerestory.  Soli 
have  compared  the  form  of  i!j 
Christian  churches  with  nave  al 
aisles  to  the  hypaethral  temples  i 
the  ancients,  in  the  cella  of  win 
a  row  of  columns  down  each  si 
separated  the  sides  from  the  cen  . 
The  Egyptian  temples  of  Hermo:  i 
and  Ybsambul,  are  separated  j; 
two  rows  of  piers  or  pillars,  iji 
three  alleys.  A  similar  disposal 
was  observed  in  the  Roman  b  • 
licse.  (  Architectural  Notes  i 
German  Churches.)  In  Eng.i 
churches  the  nave  belongs  to  i 
parishioners,  whose  business  hi 
to  keep  it  in  repair. 

Naval  Architecture.  N| 
gation  is  believed  to  have  been  <• 
ried  on  at  a  very  early  period,  1 
to  a  great  extent,  by  the  Phc- 
cians:  and  the  materials  of  i 
first  ships  were  probably  proci  I 
from  the  woods  of  Libanus.  S(J 
imagine  that  the  first  hint  for 
shape  of  boats,  and  larger  yesg 
was  taken  from  the  flight  of 
kite ;  others,  as  Oppian  (De  Pii 
bus,  lib.  i.)  from  the  nautilus; 
others  assert  that  it  must  have  b 
accidental :  however,  it  seems  n 
probable  that  they  were  made 
imitation  of  that  vessel,  whicbis 
recorded  to  have  saved  Noah  and;;s 
family  from  the  destruction  of  ie 


N  A  V 


N  A  V 


prieval  world.  The  Greeks  were 
m  r  much  celebrated  for  naviga- 
tio!  nor  do  their  vessels  seem  to 
ha  been  in  general  calculated  for 
j0i  voyages. 

lips  were  not  in  use  among  the 
R(  ans  till  the  first  Punic  war, 
AJC.  490.  The  description  of  a 
sh  which  was  sunk  in  a  nau ma- 
civ,  at  Lake  Nemi,  is  given  by  Fos- 
br  ke,  (Encycl.  of  Antiq.)  The 
hi;  was  of  larch,  the  outer  part 
pl.ered  with  bitumen,  and  over  it 
shts  of  lead  fixed  down  with 
bren  nails:  the  inner  part  was 
cored  with  an  incrustation  of  iron 
an  clay,  to  preserve  it  from  fire. 
Tl  seams  of  the  planks  were 
caked  with  tow  and  resinous 
ph;  an  1  the  name  was  inscribed 
u|  i  a  tablet,  (Ptychis,  ofdaXpog) 
n<;d  to  the  prow  between  two 
e\ .  with  strong  beams  or  boards 
(e[.tides)  on  each  side,  to  defend 
it  om  shocks  against  the  shore, 
<£•'  The  prow  of  ancient  ships 
w  of  bronze,  and  had  one  or 
m  2  beaks  {rostra)  to  pierce  the 
fi;'is  of  the  enemy's  ships ;  they 
w !  placed  on  the  embolum, 
f  oXov)  or  lower  part  of  the 
piv.  The  ornament  above  the 
rc  urn  was  called  the  acrosto- 
li  ,  that  at  the  stern  cheniscus, 
oi'iioose's  neck.  The  aplustre 
(flLaora)  was  an  ornament  resem- 
bl ;  two  wings,  with  a  broad  plate 
oi  arasol  frequently  attached,  call- 
e(  laaiceiov  or  affcriciffKr}.  Decks, 
U  (iffTpiof-iara)  the  whole  length  of 
tl  >hip  were  invented  by  the  Thas- 
II  Their  place  was  before  suppli- 
e(  'V  two  scaffolds,  (rrapa/jXrjfxara) 
oi  at  the  stern,  the  other  at  the 
piv.  The  prow  was  generally 
m  e  in  form  of  a  fish,  most  com- 
m  ly  the  dolphin.  The  was  gene- 
W  •  directed  by  a  person  called 
*  v.stes,  who  gave  the  signal  for 
tl  rowers  to  strike,  and  sung  the 
ciusma,  or  song  of  encourage- 
2  A 


ment,  in  which  they  joined.  In  the 
middle  was  the  commander  of  the 
rowers,  called  hortator  remigium, 
pausarius,  or  portisculus.  Sails  are 
said  to  have  been  the  invention  of 
i^olus  or  Daedalus.  According  to 
Pliny,  they  were  placed  at  first  one 
above  another,  on  the  same  mast; 
but  afterwards  at  the  stern  and 
prow.  The  sails  at  the  stern  were 
called  epidromus,  at  the  prow 
dolones,  at  the  top  of  the  mast 
thoracium,  that  put  at  the  end  of 
another  ortkiax,  and  that  on  the 
main  mast  artemon.  Both  sails 
and  oars  were  used  in  the  same 
vessel.  Masts  are  mentioned  by 
Homer,  but  not  fixed.  At  the  prow 
was  a  kind  of  bowsprit.  The 
Kepaiai,  or  asseres,  were  large 
beams,  with  iron  at  both  ends, 
suspended  like  the  yards,  and  in 
battle  were  swung  like  battering 
rams  at  the  enemy's  vessel.  There 
were  tops  as  now  to  the  masts,  call- 
ed corbes,  manned  by  soldiers,  and 
by  corbitoresy  who  were  to  watch 
the  enemy's  motions.  The  ship 
took  its  name  from  the  parasema 
or  symbol,  which  was  placed  at  the 
prow.  At  the  stern,  the  protecting 
deity  had  her  statue  and  altar.  On 
the  edges  was  a  piece  of  wood  call- 
ed chelysma,  to  defend  the  deck. 
Ancient  ships  had  wells,  and  con- 
servatories of  water ;  the  well  was 
emptied  in  some  instances  by  the 
antlia  or  pump,  in  others  by  the 
winding  screw  of  Archimedes.  The 
dock  for  ships  is  the  textrinum  of 
Servius,  Papias,  &c.  The  navalia, 
in  Greece  were  the  towns  built 
about  the  port  of  a  more  important 
town,  when  that  town  was  too  far 
from  the  sea  to  have  a  harbour  of 
its  own :  at  Rome  the  term  was 
applied  to  quays,  where  ships  un- 
loaded their  goods. — The  follow- 
ing are  the  principal  kinds  of 
ships  mentioned  by  ancient  writers. 
Actuarial  naves,  long  and  light, 

185 


N  A  V 


N  A  V 


with  oars  and  sails.  Annotince. 
Frumentarice,  provision  vessels. 
(Pollux.)  Hornotince,  those  built  in 
a  year.  Candicarice,  those  used 
on  the  Tiber,  made  of  thick  planks. 
Constratce,  those  wholly  decked. 
Cubiculatce,  such  as  contained  dif- 
ferent apartments,  like  a  house. 
Len tr ice,  pon tones  fiuviatiles,  those 
employed  only  on  rivers.  Levibus, 
light  and  undecked.  Liburnce,  light 
gallies,  with  sails  and  oars.  Lintres, 
(povot,v\a)  canoes  made  out  of  the 
trunk  of  a  tree,  carrying  three  men. 
Leves,  very  light,  undecked.  Long  a, 
militares,  such  as  carried  a  large 
number  of  men,  with  oars.  Lusoria, 
pleasure  boats.  Moneres,  mono- 
crata,  vessels  with  only  one  rank  of 
oars,  galleys.  Onerarice,  ships  of 
burden,  with  sails  and  oars.  Ora- 
rice,  littorarice,  trabules,  coasters. 
Plicatiles,  made  of  wood  and  lea- 
ther, so  to  be  taken  to  pieces,  and 
carried  about.  Precursor  ice,  such 
as  preceded  the  fleet.  Prcedatonce, 
prcedaticce,  long  swift  pirate  ships. 
Solutiles,  those  intended  to  fall  in 
pieces,  as  that  in  which  Agrippina 
was  exposed.  Stationarice,  such 
as  remained  fixed  at  anchor.  Su- 
tiles,  made  of  staves,  and  covered 
with  leather.  Trabarice, light  barks, 
(Pollux.)  Gauli,  Phoenician,  round 
for  carriage.  Cor  bitce, with  tops  to  the 
mast,  without  oars.  Caudicce,  corn 
vessels.  Cercwn,ships  of  burden,  sails 
and  oars.  Celoces,  celetes,  pirate 
vessels,  without  decks.  Catascopia, 
brigantines,  (  Gellius.  )  Hippa- 
gines,  or  hippagogce,  for  carrying 
cavalry,  (  Liv.  44.  28. )  Orice, 
wherries,  (Plautus.)  Lenunculi, 
small  fishing  boats,  (Nonnus. ) 
Horiolce,  the  same,  Stlatce,  pira- 
tic vessels,  broader  than  high. 
Pontones,  ferry  boats.  Phaselus, 
a  small  vessel  with  oars  and  sails. 
Paro,  parunculus,  a  bark.  Myo- 
para,  a  Corsair's  vessel,  (Plautus, 
Festus,  &c.) 

18G 


Amongst  the  machines  used 
ancient  sea-fights  may  be  enur 
rated  the  dolphin,  ($0\<f>tv)  a  la 
piece  of  lead  or  iron,  in  the  form  f 
that  fish,  which  was  suspended!) 
the  masts,  and  thrown  with  foils 
into  the  enemy's  vessel :  the  a- 
panum,  (Sp£7ravov)  in  form  on 
sickle,  fixed  on  a  long  pole,  to  t 
asunder  the  ropes  of  the  sail-yai [ 
&c. :  the  naval  spears,  (dopa  i 
vavfia^a)  which  were  of  an  ext  . 
ordinary  length,  and  are  called v 
Homer,  (11.  xv.)  paKpa;  the  cira, 
(xtpaiai)  machines  to  throw  la? 
stones :  corvi,  or  grappling-iron,  < . 

The  only  specimens  that  1 
known  of  ancient  British  shippr 
are  the  coracles,  stiil  used  inWa , 
which  are  round  wicker  bask- . 
The  British  ships  are  supposed) 
have  been  of  the  same  form  as 
Phoenician,  which  were  nearly  rou  . 
The  ships  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  we 
often  richly  ornamented  :  the  !•  1 
ran  broader  and  broader  from  e 
stern  to  the  prow,  when  it  a-n 
decreased  gradually  to  a  point,  e 
more  readily  to  cut  the  wa  ■. 
Harold  sent,  as  a  present  to  Atl  - 
stan,  a  magnificent  ship,  witla 
golden  beak  and  purple  sails,  * 
rounded  with  shields,  gilt  in  e 
inside.  The  Anglo-Saxons  1 
also  pleg  -  scips,  i.e.  play-sh;, 
supposed  to  be  pleasure  vesa 
In  Lye,  occur  scip-hlcedder,  (si  - 
ladder,)  scip-hlaford,  (ship  lord»r 
captain,)  scip-rother,  (a  rudd,) 
the  ceola,  (a  ship  with  deck  d 
cabin,)  roge  -  streng,  (cord  w1  h 
bound  the  sail  to  the  mast,)  ma- 
cyst,  (hole  to  receive  the  nn,) 
mcest-rap,  (mast-rope,)  and  J- 
rap,  (  rope  at  the  foot  or  botton)f 
the  sail.)  The  Danish  ships  apdjj 
in  general  to  have  been  only  a  V  d 
of  very  large  barks,  with  sevll 
rows  of  oars  ;  and  the  large  vesBl 
said  to  have  been  built  by  somW 
their  kings,  were  more  for  sijw 


N  A  V 


N  A  V 


t  n  use.  In  the  middle  ages,  the 
t  ii  archiiiale,  called  also  tarse- 
iiis,  was  applied  to  a  place  ap- 
y  priatfd  both  to  the  building  of 
Jjps,  and  keeping  of  arms.  Among 
t  vessels  of  the  middle  ages,  we 
f  1  mentioned  the  alnus  cavata, 
1  Fridesrodusjn  his  Life  of  Wilfrid, 
t  character  of  which  may  be  con- 
j  tared  from  its  name,  the  busse, 
2;hip  made  like  a  wine-cask,  and 
t  abromones,  used  in  rowing 
riches :  the  gondola,  from  the 
I  barous  Greek,  KovvreXac,  aVene- 
t  1  ship,  radce,  ships  with  wooden 
t  ers.  The  lin,  sailed  with  all 
v  ids  without  danger,  the  lymphad 
m  one  mast,  the  letter  of  marque, 
ft  mentioned  in  the  time  of  Rich- 
B  II.  In  the  fifteenth  century, 
svs  of  forecastle,  the  largest  in 
i  ,  carried  about  150  men,  barges 
Jrut  80,  a  balinger  40,  a  spinne 
minnace  25. 

There  are  few  accounts  of  the 
s  ;e  of  the  English  navy  before  the 
te  of  Henry  VIII.  In  Rymer's 
idera,  vol.  viii.  p.  447,  is  an  order 
t  Henry  Somer,  keeper  of  the  pri- 
we  wardrobe  in  the  Tower,  to  de- 
li r  to  Mr.  Loveney,  treasurer  of 
q  en  Philippa  of  Sweden,  (who 
v  then  sent  to  her  husband  by  her 
n  ie,  Henry  IV.  in  the  ship  called 
t  Queen's  Hall,)  the  following 
n  tary  stores  :  —  "  eleven  guns, 
f <  y  libras  pulveris  pro  gunnes, 
ft  ypetras  pro  gunnes,  forty  tam- 
p  s,  four  touches,  one  mallet,  two 
fi  pans,  forty  pavys,  twenty-four 
b-  s,  forty  sheaves  of  arrows,  pro 
siFura  ejusdem  navis,  ordinata 
p  aula  ejusdem  reginee."  This  is 
b  eved  to  be  the  first  document 
o  he  kind,  and  is  curious,  as  it 
n  '.ions  cannon  employed  on  board 
a  ip.  Henry  V.  and  Edward  IV. 
af  *ar  to  have  had  several  ships  of 
tl  r  own,  which  were  sometimes 
u;  I  in  war,  and  sometimes  in 
*)e:   and  in  1481,  the  latter 


issued  an  order  "  dilecto  sibi  Rich- 
ardo  Symondes,  magistro  navis 
nostras  vocatse  Le  Grace  de  Dieu," 
in  which  is  set  forth  "cum  nos 
quandum  armatam  potentiam  ad 
profisciscendum  supra  mare  in  re- 
sistentiam  ill  ins  infidelis  et  antiqui 
inimici  nostri  regis  Scotorum  ordi- 
navimus,  assignavimus  te  ad  tot 
marinarios  quot  pro  gubernatione 
et  conductione  navis  prgedieta?  ne- 
cessarii  fuerint  et  opportuni,  ubi- 
cunque  inveniri  poterunt,  tarn  infra 
libertates  quam  extra,  arestandum 
et  capiendum,  et  eos  in  nave  prae- 
dicta,  nobis  ad  vadia  nostra  deservi- 
turos,  ponendum  etponi  faciendum." 
Similar  orders  were  directed  to  the 
captains  of  five  other  royal  ships,  and 
also  to  five  ships  rot  belonging  to 
the  king,  which  seem  to  have  been 
hired.  At  this  time  the  ships  ap- 
pear to  have  been  built  much  larger 
than  in  the  preceding  reigns,  for  in 
the  famous  armada  of  Edward  III., 
though  it  consisted  of  1 100  vessels, 
the  men  on  board  were  only  11166, 
allowing  very  little  more  than  ten 
men  for  a  vessel. 

Before  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII., 
there  appears  to  have  been  no  re- 
gular navy.  Ships  were  occasion- 
ally hired  from  the  Venetians,  Ge- 
noese, &c.  which  with  those  sup- 
plied by  the  Cinque  Ports,  formed 
the  whole  English  fleet,  and  were 
all  dismissed  as  soon  as  the  service 
was  performed,  for  which  they  were 
hired.  Henry  found  the  incon- 
venience of  having  suddenly  to 
raise  so  large  a  fleet  as  was  requir- 
ed by  his  wars  on  the  continent, 
and,  to  execute  his  plan  of  forming 
an  established  navy,  he  established 
building  yards  at  Woolwich,  Dept- 
ford,  and  Chatham.  The  following 
extract  from  a  report  made  to 
James  I.  in  1618,  will  show  the 
state  of  the  navy  till  the  time  of 
Elizabeth.  "  In  former  times  our 
kings  have  enlarged   their  domi- 

1S7 


N  A  V 


N  EM 


nions  rather  by  land  than  sea  forces, 
whereat  even  strangers  have  mar- 
velled, considering  the  many  advan- 
tages of  a  navy ;  but  since  the 
change  of  weapons  and  fight, 
Henry  VIII.  making  use  of  Italian 
shipwrights,  and  encouraging  his 
own  people  to  build  strong  ships 
of  war  to  carry  great  ordnance, 
by  that  means  established  a  puis- 
sant navy,  which  in  the  end  of  his 
reign  consisted  of  seventy  vessels, 
whereof  thirty  were  ships  of  bur- 
den, and  contained  in  all  10,550 
tons,  and  two  galleys;  the  rest 
were  small  barks  and  row-barges 
from  eighty  tons  downwards  to 
fifteen  tons,  which  served  in  rivers, 
and  for  landing  of  men.  Edward 
VI.,  in  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign, 
had  but  fifty-three  ships,  contain- 
ing in  all  1 1,005  tons,  with  7,995 
men,  whereof  only  twenty  -  eight 
vessels  were  above  eighty  tons  each. 
Queen  Mary  had  but  forty-six  of 
all  sorts."  The  shape,  however, 
of  the  ships  of  these  reigns  were, 
perhaps,  more  contemptible  than 
their  size  and  number.  The  Harry 
Grace  de  Dieu,  the  largest  of  king 
Henry's  fleet,  if  we  may  depend  on 
the  curious  print  given  us  by  Mr. 
Topham,  may  be  fairly  pronounced 
unfit  for  every  purpose  of  naviga- 
tion. Another  print  of  a  large 
ship,  published  by  Mr.  Allen,  and 
supposed  to  have  been  built  in 
James's  reign,  is  less  uncouth, 
though  still  an  unpleasant  picture 
of  the  state  of  ship-building  at  this 
time.  However,  in  a  few  years 
the  art  was  astonishingly  improved, 
and  the  Royal  Sovereign,  built  in 
1639,  gives  us  the  first  idea  of  any 
knowledge  of  the  art,  and  she  con- 
tinued a  useful  and  valuable  ship 
in  our  navy,  until  the  beginning  of 
the  last  century,  being  in  all  the 
actions  at  sea,  during  the  reigns  of 
Charles  II.  and  William  III.,  and 
doing  great  service  in  the  fight  off 

188 


La  Hogue,  in  1692.  The  numb, 
of  the  navy  was  greatly  increase 
by  Elizabeth,  but  declined  durir 
the  reign  of  James  I.  and  his  su< 
cessor  Charles,  and  was  not  muc 
increased  during  the  time  of  Cron 
well  ;  but  the  navy  flourislie 
greatly  in  the  reign  of  Charles  II 
and  has  continued  to  increase  pr< 
gressively  in  number  and  powe 
till  the  present  time,  (See  Willet 
on  British  Naval  Architecture, 
the  eleventh  volume  of  the  Arch? 
ologia.) 

Nebule,  (nebula,  Lat.  a  cloud 
in  Saxon  and  Norman  architectur 
a  zigzag  moulding  without  angles 

Neck,  the  space  between  tl 
cannelures  and  annulets  of  the  D< 
ric  capital,  in  Grecian  example: 
and  in  Roman,  that  between  tl 
astragal  and  the  annulet.  It 
seldom  found  in  the  Ionic,  but 
occurs  in  the  capitals  of  the  ten 
pies  of  Erechtheus  and  Miner 
Polias,  at  Athens. 

Neck-mould,  in  Gothic  Arch 
teeture,  the  moulding  which  sep 
rates  the  capital  from  the  shaft,  • 
that  under  the  finial  of  a  pinnae 
or  canopy. 

Nekfs,  Peter,  an  architectiin  ii 
painter,  born  at  Antwerp  in  157 
He  was  a  disciple  of  Henry  Stee^ 
wick,  and  was  particularly  skilf 
in  perspective,  generally  choosit 
subjects  which  displayed  that  sc 
ence.  His  son  Peter  succeede 
but  never  equalled  him,  in  pra 
tising  the  art.  Peter  Neefs  di< 
at  the  age  of  eighty-one. 

Nemea,  a  town  of  aneie 
Greece,  which  was  celebrated  f 
its  magnificent  temple  of  Jupite 
surrounded  by  a  grove  of  cypres 
In  Pausanias'  time  the  roof  w 
already  destroyed.  The  ruins 
the  temple  of  Jupiter  Nemea  st 
exist.  They  consist  of  three  Dor 
columns,  two  of  which  support  the 
architrave.    The  temple  was  abo 


NEM 


N  I  C 


H  feet  3  inches  long,  if  there 
w  8  fourteen  columns  in  the  flanks, 
as  Mr.  Wilkins  supposes.  The 
bndfh  of  the  upper  step  was  65 
fe  3  inches.  There  were  six  co- 
in ns  in  front.  The  width  of  the 
co  was  30  feet  7  inches.  The 
le  th  of  the  temple  between  the 
co  mn  of  the  pronaos  and  porticus 
w  105  feet  2  inches.  The  dia- 
mers  of  the  columns  of  the 
pstyle  5  feet  2i  inches.  Upper 
d  neter  of  the  columns  4  feet 
3  nches.  Height  of  columns 
3  eet  10f  inches.  Capital  2  feet 
j  <ch.  Diameter  of  columns  of 
pnaos  4  feet  6*  inches.  Whole 
hi  ht  of  entablature  8  feet 
in  es.  Height  of  the  three  steps 
3  :et  6\-  inches.  General  inter- 
c(  niniation  7  feet  I  inch.  Angu- 
la  intercolumniation  5  feet  10.J- 
in  es.  The  columns  are  higher 
imroportion  to  their  diameters 
thi  is  usual  in  the  Doric  order, 
ai  lose  much  of  their  effect :  the 
c;  tal  is  mean.  The  ruins  of  the 
teole  are  heaped  in  confusion 
rend  the  columns  which  remain 
st  ding.  To  the  south  is  a  tumu- 
lu  with  a  Greek  chapel  upon  it, 
in  vhich  are  the  fragments  of  a 
srll  Doric  temple.  Gell  has 
gi.a  a  view  of  the  ruins  of  the 
la  e  temple.  See  Gell's  Itinerary 
ojireece,  p.  22.  Wilkin's  Intro- 
di  ion  to  his  Magna  Grcecia. 

jiMi,  Lake  of,  in  Italy.  Tra- 
i a  erected  a  palace,  or  ship,  in 
th  :entre  of  this  lake,  which  was 
m  ;  than  500  feet  lone:,  270  broad, 
ar  60  high,  built  of  the  most  solid 
wi  I,  fastened  with  bronze  and 
ir' nails,  and  covered  with  plates 
of  ad,  which  were  double  in  places 
e>,»sed  to  the  action  of  the  water. 
It  .is  lined  within  with  marble,  or 
a  imposition  resembling  it.  Its 
ce  ngs  were  supported  by  beams 
of  rass,  and  it  was  supplied  by 
Bins  of  pipes  with  the  pure  water 


of  the  fountain  Egeria.  It  was 
moored  in  the  centre  of  the  lake, 
and  appeared  like  an  enchanted 
castle.  When  it  sunk  is  not  known, 
but  it  was  probably  neglected,  and 
appears  to  have  disappeared  before 
the  invasion  of  the  barbarians. 
Marchi,  a  learned  and  ingenious 
Roman,  descended  in  a  diving  ma- 
chine in  1533,  and  made  such 
observations  as  enabled  him  to  give 
a  long  and  satisfactory  description 
of  it.  It  is  much  to  be  lamented 
that  no  attempt  has  been  made  to 
raise  it.  Many  ancient  ruins  are 
found  on  the  banks  of  the  lake. 
See  Brotier's  Suppl.  to  Tacitus. 
Eustace,  vol.  ii.  p.  272.  Miss 
Knight's  Latium,  87  907. 

Nerves,  the  mouldings  of  the 
ribs  of  Gothic  groins. 

Nessotropiiium,  (Gr.)  a  place 
in  the  Roman  villas  for  breeding 
ducks. 

Net,  or  Rete,  (net,  Sax.  nati, 
Gothic,)  the  covering  of  a  geome- 
trical solid. 

Net  Measure,  a  term  used 
when  no  allowance  is  made  for 
finishing,  in  buildings,  or  for  waste 
of  materials. 

Newel,  the  upright  cylinder  or 
pillar,  around  which  winding  stairs 
turn,  thence  called  newel  stairs. 

Niche,*  (from  the  Ital.  nicchio,) 
a  cavity  or  hollow  in  a  wall,  for  the 
reception  of  a  statue,  &c.  They 
are  found  sometimes  square  in  an- 
cient buildings.  Niches  are  seldom 
found  in  pure  Grecian  buildings, 
except  when  they  have  been  after- 
wards made  by  the  Romans.  Those 
in  the  Pantheon  at  Rome,  are  rect- 
angular recesses,  dressed  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  apertures  of 
doors.  The  exedrae  or  lar^e  niches 
on  the  sides,  have  cylindrical  backs, 
finishing  at  the  top  with  the  soffit 
of  the  architrave  of  the  general 
entablature.  A  niche,  on  a  circu- 
lar plan,  is  observed  in  the  remains 


N  IN 


NOR 


of  the  piazza  of  Nerva,  with  a  rect- 
angular front  and  circular  head. 
Various  kinds  of  niches  are  found 
in  the  ruins  of  Palmyra  and  Balbek, 
many  of  them  richly  decorated. 
An  inscription  published  in  the 
Moaumenti  Gabini,  shows,  accord- 
ing to  Visconti,  that  the  ancients 
called  niches  zothicce.  In  Roman 
buildings,  niches  are  generally  un- 
ornamented,  but  in  the  Gothic 
style  they  are  highly  enriched. 
Niches  are  made  to  partake  of  all 
the  segments  under  a  simicircle. 
Great  care  should  be  taken  to  pro- 
portion them  to  the  size  of  the 
figures  which  are  intended  to  oc- 
cupy them.  An  angular  niche  is 
one  formed  in  the  corner  of  a  build- 
ing; a  ground  niche  has  its  rise 
from  the  ground,  as  in  the  portico 
of  the  Pantheon  at  Rome.  For 
the  construction  of  niches,  see  Car- 
pentry, Constructive  Carpentry, 
Descriptive  Carpentry. 

Nicomedes,  a  Greek  geometri- 
cian, who  flourished,  probably,  near 
the  time  of  Eratosthenes,  and  is 
celebrated  as  the  inventor  of  the 
conchoid. 

Nidged  Ashlar,  is  brought  to 
the  square  by  means  of  a  cavil  or 
hammer  with  a  sharp  point,  and  is 
used  in  Aberdeen  when  the  stone 
is  so  bad  as  to  resist  the  mallet  and 
chisel.    See  Ashlar. 

Nilometer,  an  instrument  used 
in  Egvpt  to  measure  the  increase  of 
the  Nile. 

Nineveh.  Diodorus  and  Stra- 
bo  think  this  to  have  been  the 
largest  town  ever  known.  It  is 
now  entirely  destroyed,  but  is  be- 
lieved to  have  been  situated  on  the 
bank  of  the  Tigris,  opposite  the 
place  where  Mousul  stands.  Jardine 
told  Evelyn  (Evelyn's  Memoirs,  i. 
491)  that  Nineveh  was  a  vast  city, 
now  all  buried  in  ruins,  the  inha- 
bitants building  in  the  subter- 
raneous vaults,  which  were,  as 

190 


appeared,  the  first  stories  of  the  d 
city,  and  that  there  were  frequent 
found  huge  vases  of  fine  eart' 
columns,  and  other  antiques.  ] 
the  "  Description  du  Paehalik  ( 
Bagdad,"  (Paris,  1809,)  ruins  of  il 
old  city  are  said  still  to  remain,  j 

Nismes,  see  Amphitheatre  ar 
Maison  Carree. 

Nodated  Hyperbola,  anar 
given  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton  to  a  h 
perbola,  which  in  turning  roui 
decussates  or  crosses  itself. 

Nogs,  a  term  used  in  Lancashi 
for  wood  bricks. 

Nogging,  a  kind  of  brick  wo 
carried  up  in  panels-  between  qu? 
ters.  The  horizontal  boards  whi. 
are  nailed  to  the  quarters 
strengthen  the  brick  work,  a 
termed  Nogging-pieces. 

Non  agon,  (Gr.)  a  figure  of  ni; 
sides  and  nine  angles. 

Normal  Line,  a  line  which  i 
tersects  another  at  right  angles. 

Norman  Architecture.  Aj 
ter  the  fall  of  the  Roman  pow< 
the  first  people  who  occupied  t 
west  of  Europe  were  the  Gotl 
who,  under  Theodoric,  gained  pc 
session  of  Italy  about  493.  Th< 
buildings  were  principally  cast! 
or  palaces,  and  were  characteriz 
by  excessively  rude  heavy  wal' 
blended  with  the  decorative  mat 
rials  they  robbed  from  the  remai; 
of  the  Roman  edifices,  which  th 
piled  together  without  regard 
order  or  symmetry:  remains  j 
their  buildings  are  still  found 
many  parts  of  Italy.  The  Got; 
were  succeeded,  about  568,  by  t! 
Lo  m  b  a  r  ( !  s ,  w  h  o ,  i  n  t  h  e  i  r  fi  r  st  a  tte  m  f 
at  architecture,  merely  imitated  tl 
works  of  their  predecessors.  The 
edifices  were  merely  composed 
immense  solid  walls,  from  six  j 
nine  feet  thick,  with  narrow  wi 
dows,  or  rather  loop-holes,  f 
discharging  missiles  on  their  assa 
ants,  and  at  the  same  time  to  sere 


NOR 


NOR 


th  besiegers  from  the  aim  of  the 
ar  ers  without.  When  the  Lom- 
Jls  were  united  under  one 
2Cmment  in  590,  their  queen 
Tbdolinda  embraced  the  Catho- 
Hc  'aith,  and  endowed  numerous 
ec3siastical  establishments.  The 
of  their  castles  was  naturally 
referred  to  their  churches,  which 
he  the  same  massive  proportions, 
an  narrow  windows,  though  the 
la  r  were  somewhat  larger,  and 
ro id-arched  at  the  top.  This 
m  e  of  construction  predominated 
ev  after  the  reign  of  Charlemagne, 
v.  expelled  the  Lombards  in  778, 
ar  became,  with  various  improve- 
m  ts,  the  prevailing  style  through 
It/, Germany,  and  France,  under 
th  appellation  of  the  Lombard 
st:.    Bede,  Spondani,  and  Feli- 

i  bil  described  their  religious  build- 
in  as  most  magnificent,  but  it 
w;  only  such  magnificence  as 
aged  with  the  time. 

n  the  cession  of  Normandy, 
(tl  1  called  Neustria,)  to  the  Nor- 
m  s  by  Charles  the  Simple,  in  912, 

I  ar  their  conversion  to  Christianity, 
th  strove  to  exhibit  their  zeal  in  the 
m  faith  they  had  adopted,  by  the 

ill  ex  nt  and  splendour  of  their  eccle- 
si;ical  buddings.  The  Norman 
m  ks  were  so  partial  for  archi- 
te  ire,  that  they  studied  both  the 
th  ry  and  practice  ;  in  their  own 
itkures  they  worked  as  artificers 
ar  masons,  the  most  intelligent 
su  intending  and  directing  the 
^  ution  of  plans,  that  were  de- 
si;  4  by  the  abbots  and  superiors. 
Tl,/  adopted  the  heavy  style  of 
th  Lombards,  but  on  a  grander 
U  more  noble  scale,  adding  nu- 
m  >us  ornamental  accessories  of 
th  own  invention.  The  simila- 
rity the  first  Norman  style  to 
th  of  the  Lombards,  has  caused 
"  be  included  in  France  under 
th  same  name,  and  it  was  not 
UI   the  eleventh  century  that  it 


was  eminently  distinguished.  Re- 
mains of  the  architecture  of  this 
period  are  found  in  abundance  in 
Normandy;  till  at  the  commence- 
ment of  the  twelfth  century  it  gave 
way  to  the  Gothic. 

The  form  adopted  by  the  Nor- 
mans in  their  religious  structures 
was  that  of  all  the  Christian  chur- 
ches of  the  middle  ages,  as  described 
by  Gregory  of  Tours — oblong;  in 
form  of  a  Latin  cross  ;  with  a  semi- 
circular chancel ;  in  the  interior 
was  a  nave  and  two  aisles,  which 
were  separated  by  arcades  of  round 
arches;  and  underneath  was  fre- 
quently a  crypt;  the  whole  exter- 
nally supported  by  small  buttresses. 
The  ornaments  were  chiefly  used  in 
the  doorways  and  windows,  and 
also  in  the  cornices,  which  gene- 
rally consisted  of  ornamental  mould- 
ings :  the  ornaments  are  chiefly 
taken  from  the  architecture  of  the 
different  people  whom  they  suc- 
ceeded, and  differ  only  in  their 
combinations ;  the  most  frequent 
is  the  chevron  or  zig-zag.  A  more 
full  description  of  these  ornaments 
will  be  given  under  the  article 
Saxon  Architecture.  In  the  latter 
periods  of  Norman  building,  the 
pine  cone,  the  simple  and  double, 
astreated,  diamond,  platted,  and 
the  beak  Or  cat-head  mouldings, 
are  of  frequent  use,  the  latter  repre- 
senting the  heads  of  cats  or  birds, 
surmounting  a  plain  thick  semi- 
circular band,  overlapped  by  the 
tongues  of  the  former,  or  by  the 
beaks  of  the  latter.  The  columns 
had  no  diminution,  were  at  first 
but  rude  cylinders,  and  were  after- 
wards ornamented  by  angular 
mouldings,  bands  entwining  from 
the  base  to  the  capital,  smaller  co  - 
lumns grouped  around,  &c.  and, 
like  the  columns  of  many  of  the 
Egyptian  temples,  each  column  of 
an  arcade,  &c;  differed  in  its  shape 
and  ornaments  from  all  the  others : 

191 


NOR 


NOR 


the  capitals  at  first  large,  square, 
and  heavy,  sometimes  ornamented 
with  grotesque  monsters,  ugly  and 
often  obscene  figures  of  animals 
and  human  forms,  were  afterwards 
adorned  with  rude  imitations  of 
Roman  work,  such  as  bands,  vo- 
lutes, and  foliage.  .  The  doorways 
and  windows  were  deep,  on  account 
of  the  excessive  thickness  of  the 
walls,  and  were  always  sur- 
mounted with  a  semicircular  arch. 
They  were  at  first  very  small, 
but  towards  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century  they  began  to 
be  enlarged,  and  to  be  more 
richly  ornamented ;  and  in  the 
latter  end  of  this  century,  and 
the  beginning  of  the  twelfth,  the 
columns,  piers,  arches,  &c.  of  the 
doorways  were  most  elaborately 
worked,  and  ornamented  with  sta- 
tues of  saints,  &c.  and  the  pedi- 
ment commonly  adorned  with 
ecclesiastical  sculptures.  In  the 
first  period,  double  windows,  or  two 
smaller  ones,  included  within  one 
larger  one,  supported  by  plain  short 
rude  pillars,  were  in  use,  and,  in 
the  second  period,  triple  windows, 
or  one  high  central  one  with  a 
smaller  one  on  each  side,  with  or- 
namental and  slender  pillars,  were 
introduced.  The  upper  row  of 
windows  were  much  smaller,  in 
general,  than  the  lower  ones.  False 
windows  were  often  used  for  orna- 
ment in  the  latter  period.  Modil- 
lions  or  corbels  were  much  used  by 
the  Normans  ;  they  were  at  first 
very  clumsy,  and  had  a  very  con- 
siderable projection,  supporting  a 
heavy  flat  cornice,  and  ornamented 
at  the  ends  with  grotesque  figures. 
Afterwards  they  were  made  smaller, 
and  had  heads  only  at  the  ends; 
and  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury they  were  made  plain,  and 
supported  only  one  row  of  arches, 
and  sometimes  only"  a  very  small 
cornice  ledge,  or  a  narrow  band  in 

192 


form  of  the  edge  of  a  saw.  Tow 
were  at  first  square,  plain,  and 
little  elevation ;  but  they  were 
degrees  made    higher,  and  m 
ornamental,  with  false  windows, 
tersecting  arches,  and  pyrami 
pinnacles.    The  best  specimens 
Norman   buildings  are  found 
Caen,  Bayeux,  and  Valognes,  i 
other   parts   of  Normandy;  e 
church  of  Lessay,  in  the  departs  t 
of  La  Manche,  which  was  foun  1 
about  the  period  of  the  conquesif 
England  by  William,  is  the  iu 
perfect  specimen  known,  being 
tirely  unmixed  with  later  Go 
additions. 

When  the  Normans  gained  a  I 
tlement  in  England,  they  at  e 
same  time  secured  their  conq-i  s 
by  building  an  immense  numbex 
fortresses,  and  signalized  their  tl 
in  religion,  by  the  number  and  rr  - 
nificence  of  their  ecclesiastical  i. 
fices.  The  term  Anglo- Norm 
may  be  applied  to  all  huildi  s 
erected  in  the  reigns  of  WiHiaiL 
and  II.,  Henry  I.,  Stephen,  d 
Henry  II.,  or  from  1066*  to  ID. 
Some  writers  have,  from  the  simr 
rity  of  the  two  styles,  included  .ie 
arches  of  the  Saxon  builders  um 
the  same  term ;  and  it  has  \  n 
doubted,  whether  any  genuine 
on  buildings  yet  remain,  m 
Saxon  Architecture.)  The 
mans  either  altered  or  rebuilt  i- 
most  every  ecclesiastical  edifice  t  v 
found.  Perhaps  one  of  the  ear  st 
specimens  is  the  ruins  of  fa 
disfarne,  the  monastery  of  vim 
was  certainly  originally  a  Sa  n 
building. 

Lindisfarne  was  called  by  the 
tons  Jnis  Medicante,  and  by 
English  Holy  Island,  from  b|g 
the  residence  of  several  of  the  i- 
thers  of  the  Saxon  church.  KM 
Oswald,  in  635,  made  it  a  bislx's 
see,  and  Aiden,  a  Scot,  its  first  ]> 
late.    The  church  was  enlarge*  n 


NOR 


NOR 


35  but,  "  more  Scottorum"  only 
nue  of  timber,   and  thatched. 
Ea>ert,  who  was  bishop  about 
Sears,  and  died  in  698,  covered 
all  he  roof  and  walls  with  sheets 
of  ad.     The  Danes  made  their 
sec  id  descent  on  this  island  in 
87,' when  Earduff,  the  seventeenth 
n<  last  of    its    bishops,  with 
Ea  ed,  the  abbot  of  the  monas- 
ter! and  the  inhabitants  of  the 
jali],  took  up  the  body  of  St. 
Cubert,  and  the  most  valuable 
of  ?ir  relics  and  sacred  utensils, 
k  after   wandering   from  one 
hid  %  place  to  another,  for  seven 
yea,  from  fear  of  their  pagan  in- 
vac  s,  they  at  last  settled  at  Ches- 
•  r-  -street,  where  eight  bishops 
pre  led,  till  the  final  removal  of 
thcee  to  Durham.    The  monas- 
teries given  by  William  de  Ca- 
rile  o  to  that  of  Durham.    "  The 
chuh  of  the  monastery,"  say  the 
ri  s  of  the  Beauties  of  England 
andVales,  "  is  now  in  ruins.  Its 
nor  and  south  wall  is  standing, 
tho  h  much  out  of  perpendicular  ; 
part  of  the  west  remains,  but 
ast  is  fallen.    All  the  roof, 
tlof  the  church  and  chancel, 
i  en  arched.    The  columns  of 
be  ive  are  of  four  sorts,  twelve 
feet'igh,  and  five  feet  in  diameter, 
,  and  richer  than  those  of 
Duiim;  the  bases  and  capitals 
ii  are  lain.    Over  each  arch  are 
:  vindows,  in  pairs,  separated 
v  i  hort  column  ;  and  over  these 
if  are  nailer  arches.     One  of  the 
i2  al  ribs  of  the  arch,  that  sup- 
port  the  tower,  is  still  standing, 
h  wrought  with  Saxon  zigzag; 
i  also  the  western  door,  and 
i  seve  other  arches.    The  length 
:  tl  body  is  138  feet,  its  breadth 
I  ,  and,  with  the  two  aisles, 
H;  but  it  may  be  doubted, 
WWr  there  ever  was  a  tran- 
sept, 

Tl  military  buildings  of  the 
2B 


Anglo-Normans  have  been  suffi- 
ciently described  under  the  article 
Castle :  in  the  present  we  shall 
confine  ourselves  principally  to  the 
style  of  their  ecclesiastical  works. 
The  rage  for  building  churches  and 
monasteries  prevailed  to  such  a 
degree  amongst  the  Norman  nobles 
and  gentlemen,  according  to  Wil- 
liam of  Malmsbury,  "  that  a  rich 
man  would  have  imagined  he  had 
lived  in  vain,  if  he  had  not  left 
such  an  illustrious  monument  of 
his  piety  and  munificence;"  and 
Mr.  Bentham  observes,  that  all  our 
cathedrals,  and  most  of  the  abbey 
churches,  were  either  wholly  re- 
built, or  else  greatly  improved, 
within  less  than  a  century  after  the 
Conquest.  The  buildings  of  the 
Anglo-Normans  are  believed  to 
have  differed  from  those  of  the 
Saxons  in  general,  little  more  than 
in  their  increased  grandeur  and 
dimensions.  The  Normans  dismiss- 
ed much  of  the  minute  ornaments 
of  their  predecessors,  but  far  ex- 
ceeded them  in  the  symmetry  of 
their  whole  buildings.  The  general 
character  of  the  Norman  style  is 
the  uniform  prevalence  of  the  se- 
micircular arch, — massy  column* 
standing  on  a  strong  plinth  or  base, 
with  capitals  usually  square,  often 
quite  plain,  but  sometimes  orna- 
mented with  foliage,  and  with 
figures  of  men,  animals,  &c,  as  in 
the  one  represented  in  fig.  8,  (plate 
Castle,  C.  69) ;  massive  contours 
of  the  mouldings  ;  walls  of  great 
thickness,  without  any  very  pro- 
minent buttresses.  The  princi- 
pal buildings  do  not  present 
a  magnitudinous  assemblage  of 
small  parts,  but  a  ponderous  vast 
whole,  from  which  all  ideas  of 
littleness  are  excluded  in  eveiy 
particular. 

The  arches  are  the  primary  sub- 
ject of  investigation  in  an  ancient 
edifice.    Those  of  the  Anglo-Nor- 

193 


NOR 


NOR 


mans  are  characterized  chiefly  by 
plainness  and  simplicity.  Such 
was  not,  however,  always  the  case ; 
for  in  many  instances  ornaments 
were  bestowed  with  a  most  liberal 
hand.  Amongst  the  most  splendid 
Anglo-Norman  arches  of  entrance, 
is  that  at  the  west  front  of  Roches- 
ter castle,  constructed,  as  is  be- 
lieved, after  the  design  of  Gundulph. 
Its  numerous  mouldings  are  all  de- 
corated with  sculptures,  the  princi- 
pal of  them  representing  twisted 
branches  and  curled  leaves,  with  a 
variety  of  small  animals  and  hu- 
man heads,  in  rich  open-work. 
Curious  specimens  are  also  ob- 
served at  Glastonbury,  Malmsbury, 
and  Castle  Acre  priory,  Norfolk. 
Fig.  6,  (plate  Castle,  C.  69,)  re- 
presents the  mouldings  of  an  arch 
to  the  entrance  of  St.  Botolph's 
priory,  at  Colchester,  which  was 
founded  in  the  beginning  of  the 
twelfth  century.  The  mouldings 
are  worked  in  stone,  and  are  in 
good  preservation.  The  angles, 
which  are  stained  red,  are  formed 
with  Roman  tiles,  with  which  a 
great  part  of  this  curious  edifice  is 
built.  They  are  supposed  to  have 
been  taken  from  the  ruins  of  some 
Roman  building  in  the  vicinity. 
The  entrance  is  six  feet  eight  inches 
wide.  Fig.  12,  (plate  Castle, 
C.  66,)  is  a  profile  of  the  mould- 
ings of*  the  arch  to  the  entrances  of 
Colchester  Castle.  Mr.  Millers,  in 
his  description  of  Ely  Cathedral, 
characterizes  the  Norman  arch  as 
of  "  far  greater  amplitude  than 
those  of  the  Saxons — with  less 
minute  ornament,  but  frequently 
bounded  by  a  single  moulding — 
sometimes  indeed  by  more,  but 
often  none  at  all — soffit  always 
plain.  In  the  second  tier,  there 
are  sometimes  two  smaller  equal 
arches  under  one  larger,  with  a 
column  of  moderate  size  (or  even 
romparativley    slender)  between 

194 


them.  In  the  third  tier,  %ttm\ 
three  together,  the  middle 
higher  and  broader  than  the  oth 
and  opened  for  a  window;  and 
the  three  occupying  a  space  ec 
to  the  span  of  a  lower  a;ch." 

The  columns  are  described 
Mr.  Millers,  as  "  huge  mas 
piers,"  consisting  "  sometimes,  it 
seldom,  of  a  simple  shaft,  and  a 
cylindrical,  hexagonal,  or  oL 
gonal;  and,  in  general,  spin  y 
fluted,  or  adorned  with  lozens, 
net- work,  &c.  in  alto  or  basse  - 
lief: — they  are  most  frequentl  y 
a  compound  form ;  the  body  of  ie 
pier  being  sometimes  of  a  red- 
near,  sometimes  of  a  curvili  g 
form  ;  and  on  two  or  more  m 
of  it,  various  portions  of  coltujn, 
or  of  flat  pillars,  applied  to,  id 
worked  up  with  it — sometimes  ur 
stout  round  columns  joined  te- 
ther, with  or  without  angular  m 
appearing  between  each — or  sq>  e, 
with  a  small  round  column  at  ch 
corner — in  short,  the  variet  of 
form  very  great,  and  that  in  he 
same  range — the  capitals  freqm  jy 
plain — the  most  usual  ornamel  is 
a  sort  of  volutes;  in  sonjeinstc.es 
flowers,  leaves,  shells,  human  h  Is, 
or  animals — they  can  scarceijbe 
said  to  have  a  regular  base.iut 
stand  on  a  strong  ninth,  accono- 
dated  to  the  shape  of  the  jr." 
In  plate  Castle,  c.  66,  Jig.  8  »  a 
column  of  hatched  work  in  the 
upper  walk  of  the  north  traept 
of  Norwich  cathedral,  of  the  bj  in- 
ning of  the  twelfth  century;/^  is 
another  near  it,  nine  inches  ii IO- 
meter :  both  with  plain  cajak 
Fig.  10  is  a  capital  to  theentnee 
of  Colchester  castle,  twelve  i  bes 
deep,  and  1 1  is  a  leaf  of  the  lime 
capital,  on  a  larger  scale.  F\> 
6,  on  plate  Carpentry,  xv.are 
four  varieties  of  Norman  ca  a!s, 
from  an  ancient  doorway  alUn- 
coln,  about  A  D.  1180.  | 


N  OR 


NOR 


The  sculpture  of  the  Anglo- 
jirmans  was  very  rude.  Statues 
s  rcely  ever  occur  on  the  exterior 
c  buildings;  but  pieces  of  sculp- 
t  e  in  relief  are  very  frequent, 
j  ticularly  over  doorways.  The 
s>jects  are  generally  scriptural  or 
€  iesiastical  figures,  allegorical  de- 
sks; whole  figures  of  men  and 
amals,  masques,  chimerae,  &c. 
fhe  roofs  were  generally  vaulted 
vh  stone ;  the  groining  strong  and 
pin,  without  tracery,  but  some- 
t  es  laced  on  one  or  both  sides 
vh  a  moulding.  The  chapel  of 
t  White  Tower,  in  the  Tower  of 
Iidon,  is  said  to  be  the  only  ex- 
a  jle  of  original  Norman  vaulting 
ii  England.  It  is  said  to  have 
bn  built  by  Gundulph,  about 

5  1  8.  This  chapel  has  side  aisles 
surated  by  massive  Norman  piers, 
a  covered  with  Roman  vaulting; 
b  the  central  space  is  vaulted 
w  i  a  cylindrical  stone  vault,  rest- 
ir  on  the  walls  of  the  triforium  ; 

*  tl  eastern  termination  being  coved, 
s(  s  to  accommodate  the  form  to 
tl  semicircular  apsis  of  the  cha- 
p<>  The  upper  windows  let  in  the 
lilt  through  the  triforium  ftrches. 
Awm  below  the  chapel  is  vaulted 
in  he  same  manner,  the  spaces 
ui>r  the  side  aisles  being,  in  this 
st  f,  solid  wall. 

he  mouldings  and  other  orna- 
m  ts  of  the  Norman  buildings 
w<   the  same  as   those  in  use 
ng  the  Saxons,  many  of  which, 

I,  he  iver,  were  discontinued.  Those 
pr oipally  used  by  the  former  were 
tli  zigzag,  the  billet  moulding, 
ied  work,  intersecting  arches 
to  dieve  blank  walls,  &c.  See 
Sof'n  Architecture.  The  corbel 
**<!',  consisted  of  a  series  of  small 
«is,  without  pillars,  but  with 
j*  s  of  men  and  animals,  serving 
id  of  corbels,  or  brackets,  to 
s"l  ^rt  them  ;  they  were  placed 
W  /  the  parapet,  projecting  over 


the  upper,  and  sometimes  the  mid- 
dle tier  of  windows. 

The  style  of  architecture  in  Ger- 
many, termed  by  some  writers  By 
zantine  and  Romanesque,  corre- 
sponds with  the  style  in  England 
which  we  term  Norman,  though  in 
some  respects  they  vary  consider- 
ably. Thus  we  never  find  in  the 
German  churches  the  ponderous 
cylindrical  piers  which  occur  in 
English  buildings;  the  piers  are 
not  carved  and  channelled,  except 
in  a  very  few  instances,  as  the 
crypt  of  St.  Gereon  ;  the  German 
buildings  have  not  the  deep  rich 
succession  of  mouldings  to  which 
we  are  accustomed  in  the  door  and 
pier  arches,  the  latter  being  in  Ger- 
many quite  plain.  They  have  not 
there  the  same  extraordinary  multi- 
plicity and  fantastical  variety  of 
mouldings  and  ornaments  which 
so  distinguishes  our  Norman  :  the 
beak-bead,  the  embattled  fret,  &c. 
are  scarcely  known,  but  the  zigzag 
and  the  triple  billet,  are  found  in 
abundance. 

The  towers  of  Anglo -Norman 
structures  are  low,  square,  and  mas- 
sive, and  were  generally  covered  as 
platforms,  with  battlements,  or  plain 
parapet  walls.  Spires  and  pinna- 
cles, when  observed  on  Norman 
buildings,  have  been  more  modern 
additions.  In  Norman  churches, 
where  large  pillars  were  used,  the 
outer  facings  are  generally  com- 
posed of  squared  stones,  laid  in 
regular  courses,  and  the  middle 
filled  with  cement,  as  in  the  pillars 
at  Ely,  Peterborough,  &c. :  the  same 
practice  prevailed  among  the  Sax-» 
ons.  Walls  were  also  sometimes 
built  in  the  same  mode.  The  man- 
ner of  the  Norman  masonry  is  in 
most  cases  an  imitation  of  that  of 
the  Romans.  The  Roman  opus 
reticulatum,  or  net-work,  is  used 
for  filling  up  arches,  and  ornament- 
ing frontons,  as  may  be  seen  at 

195 


NOR 


NUB 


Lincoln,  Rochester,  Peterborough, 
Ely,  &c.  Mr.  Essex,  in  his  Essay 
on  the  Antiquity,  &c.  of  Brick  and 
Stone  Buildings  in  England,  in  the 
fourth  volume  of  the  Archaeologia, 
has  observed,  that  the  Normans 
frequently  raised  large  buildings 
with  pebbles  only,  and  sometimes 
with  pebbles  intermixed  with  rag- 
stones;  the  angles  being  strength- 
ened with  square  stones,  about  two 
feet  high,  and  six  or  seven  inches 
square,  and  tied  into  the  wall  by 
flat  square  stones,  about  six  or 
seven  inches  thick,  laid  on  the  top 
of  them.  This  appears  to  have 
been  the  prevailing  mode  of  build- 
ing in  Cambridgeshire  in  the  time 
of  William  Rufus,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  church  of  St.  Giles,  Cam- 
bridge, and  the  tower  of  St.  Bene- 
dict. In  this  kind  of  buildings, 
the  walls  appears  to  have  been 
generally  covered  with  plaster. 

A  number  of  varied  styles  are  to 
be  observed  in  Norman  buildings  of 
different  ages,  but  not  sufficiently 
distinguished  to  admit  of  a  classi- 
fication. Mr.  Burdon,  in  a  letter 
to  the  author  of  the  Architectural 
Antiquities,  thinks  that  three  dif- 
ferent styles  of  Norman  architec- 
ture may  be  distinguished,  which 
he  terms  the  early,  or  that  which 
began  before  the  Conquest,  and  of 
which  Waltham,  Durham,  &c.  are 
specimens;  the  middle,  observed 
in  Peterborough,  Malmsbury,  &c. ; 
and  the  latter,  which  is  the  style 
of  Lincoln,  the  choir  of  Canterbury, 
&c.  Specimens  of  Norman  build- 
ing may  be  seen  in  most  of  our 
cathedrals :  the  greatest  parts  of 
those  of  Durham,  Carlisle,  Chester, 
Peterborough,  Norwich,  Rochester, 
Chichester,  Oxford,  Worcester, 
Wells,  and  Hereford,  the  tower 
and  transept  of  Winchester,  the 
nave  of  Gloucester,  the  nave  and 
transept  of  Ely,  the  two  towers  of 
Exeter,  the  middle  of  the  west 

196 


front  of  Lincoln,  with  the  loir 
parts  of  the  two  towers,  great  p  t 
of  the  choir  in  Canterbury,  w> 
the  two  towers  called  St.  Oregon 
and  St.  Anselm's,  and  the  nor- 
west  tower,  are  all  of  this  Bti 
A  great  abundance  of  specim  3 
are  found  in  the  parish  church, 
and  monastic  ruins,  in  every  m 
of  the  kingdom. 

Nosings,  the  parts  of  the  tre  - 
board  of  steps,  which  projt 
over  the  riser,  and  are  genenp 
rounded. 

Notch-board,  a  board  wnp 
is  grooved  or  notched  for  the  rec  - 
tion  and  support  of  the  ends  f 
steps  in  a  staircase. 

Notching,  a  hollow  cut  f|f 
one  of  the  faces  of  a  piece  of  t  - 
ber,  generally  of  a  rectarrgir 
form. 

Nubian  Architecture.  ■ 
antiquities  of  Nubia  are  in  reay 
but  a  continuation  of  those  >f 
Egypt,  their  origin  and  style 
ing  decidedly  the  same.  On  e 
island  of  Philae  is  a  magnificat 
temple,  which  occupies  an  arearf 
about  435  feet  in  length,  and  5 
wide.  ^The  propylon  or  pylon,  is 
90  feet  high,  and  resembles  sop 
what  that  of  Edfou.  The  appro h 
is  by  a  long  narrow  court,  at  e 
entrance  of  which  are  substruct  s 
of  a  small  temple,  which  had  x 
columns  on  each  side,  and  fouin 
each  extremity.  From  this  sp  a 
colonnade,  in  continuation  of  e 
columns  of  the  temple,  extend 
for  240  feet  along  the  edge  ohe 
river,  to  the  grand  propylon  ;  thi  - 
two  columns  are  still  standing,  e 
Temple.  Our  plate  represents  n 
elevation  of  the  plan,  elevati, 
and  a  capital,  of  the  temple  it 
Tefah  or  Tafa.  Its  pyramidal  ]i- 
tico  faces  the  south,  and  has  0 
columns  engaged  in  a  wall  alnst 
to  the  bottom  of  their  capits, 
which   represent  the  full -Me 


OAK 


;us,  and  support  an  entablature 
d  cornice.  Between  the  columns 
d  the  sides  are  small  doorways 
th  cornice  and  frieze;  and  above 
Le,  a  second  and  third  cornice, 
i  each  of  which  is  the  winged 
pbe.  The  frieze  has  a  bead  and 
If  worked  on  it.  The  front  is 
, out  27  feet  long.  The  inside  is 
jffect,  having  a  roof  supported  by 
hr  clumsy  columns  standing  on  a 
|to  circular  base;  their  capitals, 
i!  full-blown  lotus.  The  depth 
('the  building  is  not  more  than 
l?ntv  feet.  Other  magnificent 
i  ns  are  found  at  Kalabshe  ;  Gyr- 
*\  Dakke,  Dehr,  Ebsambul,  &c. 
Nucleus,  (Lat.)  the  middle  part 
(the  flooring  of  the  ancients,  con- 
s  ing  of  cement,  which  they  put 
I  ween  a  lay  or  bed  of  pebbles, 


OAK 

cemented  with  mortar  made  of  lime 
and  sand. 

Nuel,  see  Newel. 

Nymph aum,  (Gr.)  a  name  given 
by  the  ancients  to  picturesque  grot- 
toes in  rocky  and  woody  places, 
supposed  to  be  dedicated  to,  and 
frequented  by,  the  nymphs.  The 
Romans  often  constructed  Nym- 
phgea  in  their  gardens.  One  of  the 
most  celebrated  amongst  these  an- 
cient grottoes,  was  the  Corycian 
cave  on  mount  Parnassus,  which 
was  very  extensive,  and  enclosed  a 
spring  of  unusual  size  and  clear- 
ness. In  Attica  may  still  be  seen 
the  remains  of  a  nyphseum,  adorned 
with  many  inscriptions  and  bassi 
relievi,  from  the  rude  workmanship 
of  which,  it  may  be  presumed  that 
the  grotto  is  exceedingly  ancient. 


O. 


Dak,  (ac,  aec,  Sax.)  from  its 
(pgth,  hardness,  and  durability, 
r  v  be  considered  as  the  most 
i  ful  of  all  timbers.  It  is  found 
i  almost  every  climate  of  the 
f,he.  The  oak  sometimes  grows 
t  in  extraordinary  magnitude.  In 
v .  xviii.  of  the  Gentleman's  Maga- 
z  ?,  are  given  the  dimensions  of  a 
Iff,  which  was  12  inches  long 
a) I  7  inches  broad,  and  all  the 
c  er  leaves  of  the  same  tree  were 
c  cental  size.    An  oak  was  felled 

0  the  estate  of  Woodball,  which 
v  24  feet  round,  and  sold  for 

1  3.  Several  very  remarkable  oaks 
I  described  in  Hunter's  edition 
o^velvn's  Sylva.  In  the  Gentle- 
"  i'a  Magazine  for  1773,  we  have 
a  account  of  a  species  of  oak 
e  ntially  differing  from  the  com- 
jjji  one,  which  grows  about  St. 
1  mas,  in  Devonshire,  and  is 
tl  e  called  Lucomb  oak :  it  grows 
a  straight  and  handsome  as  a  Hr; 
•t  leaves  are  evergreen,  and  its 
*  d  as  hard  as  that  of  the  com- 


mon oak ;  its  growth  is  so  quick  as 
to  exceed  in  twenty  or  thirty  years 
the  altitude  and  g>rth  of  the  com- 
mon one  in  a  hundred.  It  is  cul- 
tivated in  Cornwall,  Somersetshire, 
&c.  M:  de  Buffon  tried  experi- 
ments with  barked  and  un barked 
tiees,  and  proved  that  timber 
barked  and  dried  standing,  is  al- 
ways heavier,  and  considerably 
stronger,  than  timber  kept  in  its 
bark.  The  best  time  for  felling 
oak  is  in  winter,  when  it  is  most 
free  from  sap,  but  it  is  considered 
most  profitable  to  the  owner  to  cut 
it  down  in  spring,  as  the  sap 
loosens  the  bark,  which  is  sold  to 
the  tanner.  The  best  way  to  sea- 
son oak  is  to  immerse  it  in  water; 
when  in  logs,  it  should  be  done  for 
twelve  months,  first  soaking  it, 
then  drying  it  in  a  shade,  and  then 
soaking  it  again  ;  but  for  planks,  a 
much  shorter  time  is  sufficient. 
The  oak  was  anciently  a  symbol  of 
Jupiter,  and  the  Druids  selected 
the  fairest  and  tallest  tree  of  the 

197 


OliE 


O  B  L 


wood,  cut.  off  all  its  side  branches, 
and  then  joined  two  of  them  to  the 
highest  part  of  the  trunk,  like  the 
arms  of  a  man  or  cross;  and  they 
inscribed  above  and  below  the  in- 
sertion of  these  branches  the  word 
Thau  (God).  Under  this  tree  they 
performed  their  most  sacred  rites. 
—  (  Borlase.) 

Obelisk,  (Lat.)  lofty  pillars  of 
stone,  of  a  rectangular  form,  di- 
minishing towards  the  top,  and  ge- 
nerally ornamented  with  inscrip- 
tions and  hieroglyphics;  amongst 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  generally 
placed  in  the  space  before  a  tem- 
ple. The  period  of  their  first  ori- 
gin is  unknown,  but  we  often  read 
in  ancient  historians  of  their  being 
erected  by  the  Egyptian  kings,  ami 
the  Arabs  still  term  them  Pha- 
raoh's needles.  The  Romans  moved 
many  of  them  into  Italy,  and  erect- 
ed them  in  the  public  places  of 
Rome,  and  several  are  still  pre- 
served at  Constantinople.  See  Con- 
stantinople. Several  have  also  been 
found  in  England.  The  famous 
obelisks,  denominated  the  Devil's 
Arrows,  stand  in  the  fields  about 
half  a  mile  to  the  south-west  of  the 
town  of  Boroughbridge,  200  feet 
asunder,  and  situated  on  high 
ground.  Stukely  and  Plot  affirm 
them  to  be  British  monuments,  but 
Mr.  Drake  urges  many  arguments 
to  prove  them  Roman.  Dr.  Gale 
supposed  them  to  have  been 
Hermes,  which  had  lost  their 
heads  and  inscriptions ;  but  in  a 
MS.  note  to  his  Antoninus,  he 
confesses  himself  to  be  mistaken, 
there  being  no  cavity  whatever  to 
receive  a  bust.  Two  square  obe- 
lisks, of  a  single  stone  each,  are 
found  in  the  churchyard  of  Pen- 
rith :  they  are  about  12  feet  high, 
one  about  12  inches  in  diameter, 
and  12  by  8  at  the  sides ;  the 
highest  about  18  inches  diameter, 
with  something  like  a  transverse 

198 


piece  to  each,  and  mortised  int  i 
round  base.  They  are  14  ft 
asunder,  and  between  them  \L 
grave  enclosed  by  four  semicireir 
stones  of  unequal  lengths.  3a 
is  called  the  Giants  grave,  \ 
ascribed  to  Sir  Ewan  Caesar 
who  is  said  to  have  been  as  tall  \ 
one  of  the  columns,  and  able  > 
stretch  his  arms  from  one  to 
other.  —  Holinshed,  speaking; 
the  ancient  Scots,  says,  "the  gra s 
and  sepulchres  of  our  nobler  i 
had  commonlie  so  many  obeli  j 
and  spires  pitched  about  them,  j 
the  deceased  had  killed  enens 
beforetime  in  the  field  ;"  and  ac , 
"  they  used  not  to  write  with  cr  • 
mon  letters  as  other  nations  it 
but  rather  with  ciphers,  and  figu 
of  creatures,  made  in  manner  f 
letters,  as  their  epitaphes  upon  tlr 
toomes  and  sepulchres  remain  j 
amongst  us  doe  hitherto  declai" 
That  the  Runic  obelisks  of  2 
northern  nations  were  sepulchral  a 
have  decided  proofs  in  Olan'sW- 
mius,  (Monum.  Danic.  p.  91  —  1) 
The  monstrous  figures  on  tin 
were  hieroglyphics,  by  which,  e 
says,  they  characterized  the  q- 
lities  of  the  deceased.  The  tin 
Runes  is  applied  to  magical  in- 
scriptions upon  lea\es,  &c.  ■ 
the  inscriptions,  it  is  remark;  e 
that  the  most  ancient  are  the  ht 
engraved  :  -hey  are  commcv 
written  from  top  to  bottom,  (1 
are  said  to  have  been  introdud 
by  Woden.  Works  on  Qbelfa 
have  been  published  by  MenJ, 
Bargarai,  Fontana,  Pouehl, 
(Acad,  des  Inscript.)  Bandinii.  /i- 
ga,  Kircher,  &c.  The  works  of  m 
of  the  travellers  in  Egypt  may  be  ( ir 
suited.  See  Abyssinian  Buildi  s. 

Oblique  Angle,  one  quair, 
or  less  than  a  right  angle. 

Oblique  Arches,  such  as  ess 
a  river,  canal,  &c.  in  an  oblige 
direction. 


OCT 


ODE 


)blong,  (Lat.)  a  rectangle  of 
u  qual  dimensions. 

)bservatory,  (Lat.)  a  build- 
ii  erected  on  an  elevated  spot  of 
gund,  for  making  astronomical 
oiervations.  The  Observatory  of 
Oenwich  was  erected  in  1676,  by 

0  er  of  Charles  II.,  at  the  solici- 
t  on  of  Sir  Jonas  Moore  and  Sir 
(ristopher  Wren.  The  Observa- 
|L  of  Paris  is  one  of  the  finest  in 

1  rope,  and  was  constructed  be- 
t  en  1667  and  1672,  from  the 
dfwings  of  M.  Claude  Perrault. 
Tk  Observatory  at  Oxford  was 
lit  after  the  designs  of  James 
watt,  at  an  expense  of  nearly 
J  3,000 ;  that  at  Cambridge  has 
t  n  latelv  erected  at  an  expense 
c  £60,000.  Father  Le  Compte 
ccribes  a  very  magnificent  obser- 
vory,  erected  and  furnished  by 
ti  emperor  of  China,  at  Pekin,  at 
t  instigation  of  the  Jesuit  mis- 

;      snries.    Tycho  Brahe's  Observa- 
t  f%  called  Uranihurg,  in  the  little 
i:  iid  Huen,  between  the  coasts  of 
if     fc'ionen  and  Zealand,  was  built, 
h     a<l  furnished  with  instruments,  at 
\  own  expense. 

Obstructions  to  currents  of 
ver,  are  produced  by  square- 
e  ed  piers,  abrupt  projections,  &c. 
T'  Tables  in  the  next  page  exhibit 
t  rise  of  water  they  produce  :  we 
!  1)  e  carefully  calculated  them  ;  and 
We  placed  them  both  on  the  same 
P  e,  that  they  may  be  inspected  at 
o  view. — See  next  page. 

)btuse  Angle,  one  greater 
i     tin  a  right  angle. 

)btuse  Section  of  a  Cone,  a 
n  ie  given  by  the  old  geometers 
tche  hyperbola. 

')cTA(iON,  (oktii),  eight,  ywvia, 
a  angle,  Gr.)  a  figure  of  eight 
8i  s  and  angles. 

Jctaiifdron,  (Gr.)  one  of  the 
r'  »lai  solids,  consisting  of  eight 
eai  an(j  equilateral  triangles, 
W  ch  may  be  conceived  to  consist 


of  two  quadrilateral  pyramids  join- 
ed at  the  base,  and  consequently 
its  solidity  may  be  found  by  multi- 
plying the  quadrangular  base  (or 
the  square  of  one  of  the  sides)  by 
one- third  of  the  perpendicular 
height  of  one  of  the  pyramids,  and 
doubling  the  product. 

Octostyle,  (Gr.)  a  temple  with 
eight  columnson  its  principal  facade. 

Odeum,  or  Odeon,  (Greek,) 
a  species  of  theatre  among  the 
Greeks,  in  which  the  poets  and 
musicians  submitted  their  works  to 
the  approval  of  the  public.  It 
resembled  other  theatres  in  form, 
but  was  of  less  extent.  The  Odeon 
at  Athens,  was  probably  the  first 
building  of  this  kind  erected  in 
Greece.  The  Odeon  of  Pericles, 
was  to  the  south-east  of  the  Acro- 
polis, between  the  extremity  of  the 
street  of  tripods,  and  the  theatre  of 
Bacchus.  The  second  Odeon  was 
denominated  Pnix,  and  served  as  a 
place  of  public  meeting  for  the 
Athenian  citizens.  The  third  Athen- 
ian Odeon  was  that  of  He  rod  i  us 
Atticus,  at  the  foot  of  the  Acro- 
polis, on  the  south  -  west  side. 
Pococke,  Le  Roy,  and  Stuart,  all 
describe  magnificent  remains  in 
this  direction,  which  they  suppose 
to  be  those  of  the  theatre  of  Bac- 
chus, but  they  appear  in  reality  to 
be  those  of  the  Odeon  of  Herodius, 
and  the  ruins  to  which  Stuart  ap- 
plies that  name,  are  more  probably 
those  of  the  theatre  of  Bacchus. 
Other  cities  of  Greece  and  Asia 
Minor  had  also  their  Odeons.  That 
of  Corinth  was  built  by  Herodius 
Atticus;  and  the  splendid  Odeon  of 
Patrae  was  erected  with  the  trea- 
sures acquired  in  a  war  between 
the  iEtolians  and  Gauls.  In  its 
later  times,  Rome  had  also  its 
Odeons.  And  relics  of  an  Odeon 
have  been  found  at  Catania  in 
Sicily,  and  at  Pompeii.  See 
Theatre. 

199 


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O  L  Y 


O  P  I 


Jrcus,  the  banquetin^-room  of 
a  oman  house.    See  House. 

:>kfice,  (Lat.)  in  general,  an 
ailment  for  the  discharge  of  any 
m  icular  duty  or  employment. 

Offsets.  When  the  face  of  a 
;v  is  not  one  entire  or  continued 
si. ace,  or  when  it  is  formed  by 
tv  or  more  continued  surfaces, 
e»i  rising  from  the  horizontal  base 
w .  h  forms  the  top  part  of  the 
w  below;  the  part  thus  connect- 
in  the  two  surfaces  is  called  an 
ojset. 

)gee,  a  moulding  the  same  as 
tl  cynia  reversa.  See  Mould- 
v 

)give,  an  arch  or  branch  of  a 
G  hie  vault,  which,  instead  of  be- 
ii  circular,  passes  diagonally  from 
o  angle  to  another,  forming  a 
c  ;s  with  the  other  arches.  The 
eitre  where  the  ogives  cross  is 
c  ed  the  key,  and  is  cut  in  the 
ftn  of  a  rose,  &c.  The  members 
o  nouldings  of  the  ogives  are  call- 
e  nerves,  branches,  or  reins,  and 
t  arches  which  separate  them, 
a  ble  arches. 

)lym pi  a,  a  city  of  Greece,  cele- 
b  ed  for  being  the  scene  of  the 
C  mpic  games,  and  for  its  once 
s]  ndid  temples.  The  temple  of 
J, iter  Olympius  has  been  explored 
b  Gel  I,  and  his  measurements 
p  lished  in  the  Appendix  to  Wil- 
li Magna  Grsecia.  The  propor- 
ti  s  observed  in  the  several  parts 
o  he  front  of  the  temple  appear 
tdiave  been  nearly  the  same  as 
tl  >e  of  the  temple  of  Theseus  at 
A  ens.  The  diameter  of  the  an- 
?  ir  columns  at  the  base  of  the 
ll  ft  were  found  to  be  7  1".  There 
is  However,  some  little  difference 
'i  he  proportion  of  the  intervals 
b'veen  the  columns,  which  is  ac- 
C  nted  for  by  considering  that  this 
t(  pie  required  a  greater  extent,  to 
a  lit  staircases  in  the  transverse 
*  Is  of  the  cella.    Had  the  length 


of  the  cella  been  88  feet,  double 
the  width,  the  extent  of  the  cella 
and  staircase  walls  together,  ac- 
cording to  the  proportions  of  the 
temples  at  Agrigentum,  would  have 
been  99',  which  deducted  from 
Gell's  dimension  of  127',  leaves  28 
feet  for  the  extent  of  the  pronaos. 
The  distance  between  the  axes  of 
the  angular  columns  was  44  feet. 
This  temple  may  be  added,  Mr. 
Wilkins  observes,  to  the  list  of 
those  in  which  the  number  of  co- 
lumns in  the  flanks  exceeded  the 
double  of  those  in  the  fronts  by 
one.    See  Temple. 

Ol v mpius,  Jupiter,  Temple  of, 
see  Athenian  Architecture.  In 
the  plan  of  this  temple  given  in  our 
plates  to  that  article,  A  marks  the 
south-east  angle  of  the  peribolus, 
B  the  south-west  angle,  C  the  re- 
mains of  the  west  end,  D  the  arch 
of  Hadrian,  E  a  column  whose 
base  being  similar  to  those  in  the 
external  row  in  the  south-east  an- 
gle, proves  it  to  have  been  one  of 
the  external  range,  and  conse- 
quently that  the  temple  had  twenty 
columns  in  flank. 

Onerari^,  see  Naval  Archi- 
tecture. 

Opx,  (o7rrj,  Gr.)  the  cubilia,  or 
beds  of  the  beams  of  a  roof,  on 
which  rest  the  metopae. 

Openings,  (Sax.)  those  parts  of 
the  walls  of  a  building,  which  are 
left  unfilled  up,  for  admitting  light, 
air,  &c. 

Opera  House,  a  theatre  for  per- 
forming musical  dramas.  Amongst 
the  most  celebrated  buildings  of 
this  description,  is  that  entitled  La 
Scala,  at  Milan,  and  that  of  San 
Carlos,  at  Naples.  The  next  to 
these  are  the  Italian  Opera-house, 
at  Vienna,  and  the  King's  Theatre, 
in  London. 

Opistiiodomus,  the  same  as 
the  Roman  posticum,  a  term  ap- 
plied to  the  hinder  part  of  a  tem- 

201 


ORC 

pie,  when  there  is  a  regular  en- 
trance, and  a  facade  of  columns  as 
in  front.  It  was  a  custom  with  the 
ancients  to  preserve  their  treasures, 
public  records,  &c.  in  this  part  of 
the  temple,  which  was  often  exten- 
sive, and  situated  immediately  be- 
hind the  cella.  Doubts  have  lately 
existed,  whether  the  treasury  of  the 
state  in  the  Parthenon,  was  not  a 
distinct  building  separate  from  the 
opisthodomus  or  treasury  of  the 
temple.  See  Wiikins'  Atheniensia, 
p.  99. 

Opposite  Cones,  two  similar 
cones,  which  have  the  same  com- 
mon vertex,  and  the  same  axis. 

Opposite  Sections,  hyperbolas 
made  by  cutting  opposite  cones  by 
the  same  plane. 

O hanger y,  (Fr.)  a  kind  of  hot- 
house for  orange  trees. 

Oratory,  (Fr.)  a  closet  for 
private  devotion,  near  a  bed-cham- 
ber, in  Roman  Catholic  families, 
with  altar,  crucifix,  &c. 

Oiib,  (orbis,  Lat.  a  sphere,)  a 
knot  of  flowers  or  herbs,  placed  at 
the  intersection  of  several  ribs  in 
a  Gothic  ceiling,  to  conceal  the 
mitres  of  the  adjoining  ribs. 

OitciiEsTK  a,  (Gr.  from  op^t-opai, 
to  dance,)  ihe  place  in  the  ancient 
theatres  where  the  chorus  used  to 
dance:  in  modern  theatres  the 
name  is  given  to  the  place  where 
the  musicians  sit. 

OncuoMENOs,  an  ancient  city 
of  Bceotia,  in  Greece.  Traces  of  the 
former  strength  and  magnificence 
of  this  city  still  exist.  At  the  east 
foot  of  the  acropolis  are  the 
small  remains  of  the  treasury  of 
Mmyas,  which  Pausanias  describes 
as  one  of  the  wonders  of  Greece. 
The  entrance  is  entire,  though 
a  great  part  of  it  lies  buried  in 
the  accumulated  earth,  only  six 
large  blocks  of  regular  masonry 
remaining  above  the  ground.  The 
whole  of  the  building  was  of  white 
202 


O  R  D 

marble:  the  lintel  orarchitravs 
flat,  and  composed  of  a  single  bl< 
15  feet  4  inches  long,  6  feet  3  inc  s 
broad,  and  3  feet  3  inches  th  . 
It  bore  a  great  resemblance  o 
the  treasury  at  Mycense.  Si - 
lar  edifices,  called  noragis,  thot i 
smaller,  still  exist  in  Sardi ... 
Part  of  the  acropolis  is  built  in  e 
Tirynthian  style.  Dodwell  has  L 
graved  a  very  curious  sun-dial  foi  j 
there.    See  Geil's  Itin.  of  Gree< 

Order,  (Lat.)  The  five  ores 
of  Architecture,  as  transmitter 
us  from  antiquity,  are,  the  Do-, 
the  Ionic,  the  Corinthian,  the  7  - 
can,  and  the  Composite  ;  of  L 
peculiarities  and  origins  of  wli 
an  account  will  be  found  urr 
those  heads. 

The  application  of  the  Doriis 
particularly  commendable  in  la e 
and  majestic  edifices.  The  I  I 
of  Aberdeen  truly  observes,  1 1 
"the  remains  of  a  dipteral  terni, 
with  columns  composed  of  e 
purest  marble,  more  than  six  t 
and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  s  y 
feet  in  height,  cannot  be  descrid 
in  any  terms  commensurate  \h 
the  sensations  excited  by  the  vv 
of  the  original." 

Mr.  Wiikins,  in  his  Introduce 
to  theAntiquities  of  Magna  Greei, 
supposes  the  temple  of  Solomoio 
have  been  the  prototype  of  e 
early  Grecian  temples,  particul; y 
those  of  Magna  Groecia.  In  s 
investigation  he  has  thrown  m  h 
light  on  its  architecture  and  bm 
portions.  He  supposes  its  colut  s 
to  have  been  Doric,  and  gives  e 
following  scale  of  the  heights 'f 
Doric  columns,  supposing  tl  r 
diameter  to  be  unity. 

S  4.71: 

Temple  of  Solomon  ^  ^gg 

Jupiter  Panbellenius  5.3C 

Jupiter  Nemseus  6  51 

At  Corinth  40,: 

;EResta  443 

Paestura   4.3C 


O  R  D 


O  RD 


f  Minerva  at  Syracuse  4.410 

ano  at  Atfrigei.tum  4.695 

,„er*a  at  Aibens  o.566 

inena  ai  Suniura  5.809 

Wseus  at  Athens  5.669 


Aikin,  in  his  "Essay  on  the 
Doric  Order,"  has  given  the  follow- 
ing Table  of  Proportions  : — 


irtico  cf  the  Agora,  Athens  .  . 
mple  of  Minerva,  Sunium  .  . 

Jupiter  Nemaeus  .  .  . 

Jupiter  Panhellenius . 

Theseus  

Minerva,  Athens   .  . 

at  Corinth  

rtico  of  Philip  

mple  of  Apollo  

Minerva,  Syracuse  . 

Juno  Lucina  

Concord  

■eudodipteral  Temple,  Paestum 
■xastyle  Temple,  Paestum  .  . 
,  paethral  Temple,  Paestum  .  . 

ner  Peristyle  of  ditto  

upper  Columns 
'  mple  of  Selinus  

Jupiter,  Selinus  .  .  . 

/Eiiesta  

'■eatre  of  Marcellus  


i  a  Doric  architrave,  of  which 
a  ,rure  is  given  by  Stuart,  are 
ol  rved  four  guttae,  without  the 
taia.  A  similar  departure  from 
ar  ilectural  propriety  has  been 
diwered  in  one  of  the  temples  at 
St  his,  where,  under  the  mutules 
be  een  the  triglyphs,  three  guttse 
ar  observed,  corresponding  with 
th. narrow  width  of  the  mutules 
ov  the  metopes. 

ie  few  specimens  of  the  Ionic 
or  r,  now  remaining  at  Rome,  are 
ofio  little  merit,  that  Palladio, 
^ 1  ola,and  other  modern  authors, 
'  been  chiefly  resorted  to  as 
-  lards  in  this  order,  as  well  as 
th  Doric,  till  the  discovery  of  the 
annuities  of  Greece  by  Messrs. 
St  rt  and  Revett,  brought  into 
no  e  the  admirable  specimens  of 
io architecture,  which  have  ever 


Bot. 

Top 

Height  of 

Archi 

Frieze 

Cor- 

interco 

Diain. 

Diam 

Column. 

trave. 

nice. 

luiuma 



lion. 

min. 

min. 

dia. 

min. 

min. 



min. 

min. 

dia.  min. 

60 

47 

6 

2A 

2 

40 

42 

21 





60 

45f 

5 

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m 

since  met  with  so  much  attention 
from  the  best  informed  architects, 
as  well  as  connoisseurs.  The  Cho- 
ragic  monument  of  Lysicrates  has 
been  supposed,  by  some,  to  be  the 
most  ancient  known  example  of 
the  Corinthian  order.  But  the 
capitals  of  the  columns  attached 
to  the  interior  of  the  cella  of  the 
temple  of  Apollo  Didymcus,  neat 
Miletus,  may  claim  a  greater  anti- 
quity, for  it  was  rebuilt  by  Peonius, 
after  its  destruction  by  Xerxes, 
479  B.C.;  perhaps  even  previous 
to  the  time  of  Callrmachus.  The 
capitals  of  this  temple  bear  a  con- 
siderable resemblance  to  those  of 
the  monument  of  Lysicrates,  in 
their  single  row  of  leaves,  their 
central  honeysuckles,  and  in  the 
channel  at  the  springing  of  the 
leaves.    The  flower  expanding  itself 

203 


O  R  D 


O  RN 


between  the  leaves,  reminds  us  of 
the  Egyptian  lotus,  and,  with  other 
considerations,  tends  to  induce  us 
to  adopt  the  supposed  Egyptian 
origin  of  this  order,  and  reject  the 
claim  of  Cailimachus  to  its  inven- 
tion, although  he  may  have  given 
it  a  new  form.  Three  singular 
Corinthian  capitals  are  engraved  by 
Wilkins,  in  the  Appendix  to  his 
Antiquities  of  Magna  Grsecia  :  they 
were  found  in  the  Archipelago,  and 
in  Sicily.  The  Corinthian  order 
may  be  seen  in  great  perfection,  in 
what  remains  to  us  of  the  anti- 
quities both  of  Greece  and  Rome. 
Another  Athenian  edifice,  of  the 
Corinthian  order,  is  the  arch  of 
Hadrian.  The  antae  at  this  build- 
ing have  a  very  sensible  diminu- 
tion, while  in  structures  of  the  age 
of  Pericles  they  were  never  per- 
ceptibly diminished.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  Ionic  echini,  also, 
beneath  the  foliage  of  the  capitals 
of  the  antae,  savours  of  the  declen- 
sion of  pure  Grecian  art. 

Of  the  Tuscan  order  there  is  no 
ancient  specimen,  unless  a  small 
tomb  near  the  Trajan  column  at 
Rome,  is  to  be  so  considered. 

The  Composite  order  is  peculiar 
to  Italy.  The  Composite  order 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  con- 
sidered by  the  Romans  as  a  distinct 
one;  but  the  name  has  been  given 
to  it  by  the  Italians,  and  it  is  con- 
sidered as  combining  the  entabla- 
ture and  dentils  of  the  Ionic,  with 
the  mutules  of  the  Doric,  and  en- 
richments of  the  Corinthian.  It  is 
heavy  without  grandeur,  and  rich 
without  beauty ;  and  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  has  made  so  much  use  of  it 
about  St.  Paul's.  The  base  com- 
monly given  to  it  consists  of  two 
tori,  the  lowest  considerably  the 
largest,  with  two  scotise  enclosing 
aD  astragal.  The  attic  base  is, 
however,   more  commonly  used. 


The  proportions  of  this  order 
given  in  the  plate  Composite  j 
Roman  Order,  which  is  a  ear  [ 
from  the  arch  ofVespasianandTn. 

Ordi nates,  (ordinatim  ap  . 
catce,  in  Lat.)  in  Conies,  pan  l 
lines  terminating  in  a  curve,  ;i 
bisected  by  a  diameter.  The  oL 
nate  of  an  Ellipse,  is  a  strai  t 
line  drawn  perpendicularly  to  e 
axis  major,  from  any  point  in  it  a 
meet  the  curve. 

Ordonance,  the  giving  to  i 
parts  of  a  building  the  just  dim. 
sions,  &c.  which  they  ought  to  hie 
according  to  the  model. 

Ouganical  Description  f 
Curves,  the  description  of  th 
upon  a  plane  by  means  of  inst- 
ments. 

Oui£,  (Lat.)  wherries,  see  Nal 
Architecture. 

Oriel  Window,  a  project; 
angular  window,  commonly  oil 
triagbnal  or  pentagonal  form,  a 
divided  by  mullions  and  transcs 
into  different  bays  and  comp;- 
ments. 

Original  Point,  Line,  or  Pla , 
in  perspective,  a  point,  line,  r 
plane,  referred  to  the  object  its  . 
See  Perspective. 

Orillon,  in  fortification,asirl 
rounding  of  earth  lined  with  a  w, 
which  is  raised  on  the  shouldeif 
those  bastions  that  have  caserne; 
to  cover  the  cannon  in  the  reti  i 
flank,  and  to  prevent  their  be; 
dismounted  by  the  enemy. 

Orle,  (orlo,  Ital.  to  hem,)\ 
fillet  or  band  under  the  ovolo  of  2 
capital.  Palladio  applies  the  tti 
also  to  the  plinth  of  the  base  oi 
column  or  pedestal. 

Ornaments,  (Lat.)  the  sma;r 
and  more  detailed  parts  of  a  vrom 
art,  which  are  not  essential,  t 
only  serve  to  enrich  it.  The  or- 
ments  of  the  architecture  of  p 
most  ancient  people  are  confined) 
the  representations  of  nature,  rl<  - 


P  JE  S 


P  MS 


ers  laves,and branches;  afterwards 
the  ijures  of  men  and  animals  were 
intifuced.  Amongst  the  Greeks 
ornnent  was  at  first  confined  to 
the'iterior  of  the  edifices,  and  it 
robot  till  a  later  period  that  they 
ben  to  ornament  the  exterior 
)ik<  ise.  An  architect  ought  to  pos- 
ses some  general  knowledge  of 
sailing  and  sculpture,  in  order  to 
be  )le  to  direct  the  application  of 
err nents  with  advantage ;  and  it 
haibeen  observed  with  great  jus- 
tici  that,  in  order  to  preserve  har- 
mc'and  consistency  throughout, 
om  eye  should  superintend  the 
wh te  of  the  workmen  employed. 
it  hog  on  a  l,  (Gr.)  rectangular. 

RT  HOGRAPIIICAL  Pll«>JEC- 

TH  of  the  Sphere,  the  drawing 
th(  superficies  of  the  sphere  on  a 
ph;  which  cuts  it  in  the  middle, 
thrye  being  placed  at  an  indefinite 
disnce  vertically  to  one  of  the 
he  spheres. 

hThograpii y,  (Gr.)  the  ele- 
ven of  a  building  at  any  of  its 
pacular  parts.  In  geometry,  it 
is  -plied  to  the  art  of  delineating 
tli'lforeright  plan  of  any  object, 
an  of  expressing  the  heights  or 
eh  tions  of  each  part.  In  per- 
Ipltive,  orthography  is  the  fore- 
rit>  side  of  any  plane,  that  is,  the 
sic  or  plane  that  lies  parallel  to  a 
stiiht  line,  which  may  be  ima- 
giii  to  pass  through  the  outward 


convex  points  of  the  eyes,  continued 
to  a  convenient  length.  In  fortifi- 
cation, it  is  the  profile  or  represen- 
tation of  a  fortress  made  after  such 
a  manner,  that  the  length,  breadth, 
and  height  of  its  several  parts  may 
be  represented. 

Osculating  Circle,  the  circle 
of  Curvature. 

Ova,  (Lat)  an  ornament  in  form 
of  an  egg. 

Oval,  a  geometrical  figure, 
bounded  by  a  curve  line  returning 
to  itself,  including  the  ellipsis,  or 
mathematical  oval,  arid  all  figures 
resembling  it,  though  with  different 
properties. 

Oviculum,  the  diminutive  of 
Ova  ;  a  little  egg. 

Ovolo,  (Ital.)  see  Echinus. 

Outline,  an  exterior  or  bound 
ing  line. 

Out  of  Winding,  perfectly 
smooth  and  even,  or  forming  a 
true  plane. 

Out  to  Out,  to  the  extremities 
or  utmost  bounds. 

Outfall,  a  canal  or  drain  to 
carry  off  waters. 

Out-works,  in  fortification,  all 
works  raised  without  the  enclosure 
of  a  place,  to  cover  it  from  the 
enemy. 

Oxygon,  (Gr.)  an  acute-angled 
triangle,  from  o^yy,  acute  or  sharp, 
and  yw^ia,  an  angle. 


P. 


ace,  a  measure  of  five  feet. 

addle,  (pattal,  Welsh,)  a 
snr  I  sluice  :  Paddle  holes  are  the 
p^nges  which  conduct  the  water 
fa  the  upper  pond  of  a  canal  into 
th  ock,  and  out  of  the  lock  into 
th  ower  pond.  They  are  called 
al:  dough  arches. 

ffisTUM,  or  Posidonia,  a  town 
of  :aly,  sixty  miles  from  Naples. 
Oi  he  origin  of  Poestum,  ancient 


authors  have  left  us  no  account,  and 
its  history  is  very  obscure.  The 
Saracens  crossed  over  from  Sicily 
about  A.D.  840,  and  took  posses- 
sion of  this  tract  of  territory,  and 
when  they  were  obliged  to  abandon 
it,  they  plundered  the  city  and  de- 
stroyed the  dwellings.  And  in  1080 
Robert  Guiscard  stripped  its  tem- 
ples to  decorate  the  church  he  had 
founded  at  Salernum.    It  has  since 

205 


P  M  S 

gone  entirely  to  decay,  and  the 
present  town,  called  la  Citta  di 
Pesto,  consists  of  a  few  scattered 
cottages  within  the  ancient  walls. 
The  principal  ruins  of  the  ancient 
city  consist  of  the  walls,  the  remains 
of  three  temples,  vestiges  of  the 
amphitheatre,  and  two  spots  dis- 
tinguished by  heaps  of  stones,  the 
site  of  some  important  buildings. 
The  only  Grecian  building  is  the 
great  temple,  supposed  to  have 
been  dedicated  to  Neptune,  and 
distinguished  by  its  solidity,  simpli- 
city, and  grace.  It  is  characterized 
by  low  columns,  with  a  great  dimi- 
nution of  the  shaft,  bold  projecting 
capitals,  a  massive  entablature,  and 
triglyphs  placed  at  the  angles  of 
the  Zophorus.  The  shafts  of  the 
columns,  although  at  first  sight 
they  appear  to  swell  in  the  middle, 
are  diminished  in  a  straight  line. 
The  temple  is  hypsethral,  has  six 
columns  in  the  fronts,  and  fourteen 
in  the  flanks,  including  those  at  the 
angles.  The  upper  step  of  the 
stylobate  is  a  parallelogram,  195x  4" 
long,  and  78'  10"  broad.  The 
columns  have  twenty-four  flutings, 
but  the  number  on  the  columns  of 
the  lower  range  within  the  cella  is 
only  twenty,  the  regular  number  in 
the  Doric  order  :  in  those  of  the 
upper  range  they  have  only  sixteen. 
The  plan  of  the  flutes  at  the  base 
is  the  segment  of  a  circle,  below 
the  capital  that  of  an  ellipse.  The 
drops  are  conical,  and  the  mutules 
appear  to  have  been  of  the  same 
form,  but  none  remain.  The  cella 
was  separated  into  three  divisions 
by  a  double  range  of  columns,  two 
tiers  in  height;  the  cella  was  ap- 
proached both  by  the  posticum  and 
the  pronaos,  and  in  the  transverse 
wall  of  the  latter  were  inserted  the 
staircases  leading  to  the  roof  and 
the  apartments  over  the  vestibule. 
The  columns  are  in  diameter 
6'  10"  36;  in  height  28'  11"  5,  in- 

200 


P  jES 

eluding  the  capitals ;  height  of  er . 
blature  12'  2"  2 ;  height  ofcolur, 
of  interior  range,  19'  9"  ;  diamtr 
4'  8"  1.  The  diameter  of  the  L 
lumns  in  the  upper  range  \5 
determined  by  the  diminution  t 
those  in  the  lower,  since  each  . 
per  and  lower  column  may  | 
considered  as  a  frustum  of  the  sa ; 
cone,  continued  through  the  c- 
stylia.  All  the  lower  columns  s 
remain,  and  seven  of  the  upp, 
The  lateral  walls  have  fallen,  exc . 
those  parts  contiguous  to  the  ar  > 
of  the  vestibules. 

The  second  temple  was  pseiu 
dipteral,  and  has  nine  columns 
the  fronts,  thus  differing  from  ev 
other  in  existence.  The  pron; 
has  three  columns  between  the  j 
tee,  three  columns  of  a  range  wh 
divided  the  cella  are  still  rema 
ing.  The  similarity  of  its  colutr 
to  those  of  the  third  and  less 
temple,  proves  them  to  be  nea 
coeval.  Its  length  measured  up 
the  upper  step  is  176'  9",  its  breac 
80'.  It  has  1 8  columns  in  each  flan 
diameter  of  the  columns  at  the  bf 
of  the  shafts  4' 9"  75;  height  i 
eluding  capitals  21'.  The  sha 
diminish  in  a  curve,  and  ha 
twenty  flutings,  which  terminate 
a  semicircle  at  the  top.  The  lov 
part  of  the  ovolo  of  the  capital 
ornamented  with  sculpture,  whi 
is  not  alike  in  all  the  capitals ; 
some  it  is  omitted.  The  antae 
the  pronaos,  contrary  to  the  prsj 
tice  of  the  Greeks,  diminish  li 
the  columns,  and  are  crowned  w 
a  singularly  formed  capital.  T 
lesser  tern  pie  is  hexastyle-peripter 
having  six  columns  in  the  fron 
and  thirteen  in  the  flanks,  reckc 
ing  those  at  the  angles.  T 
temple  within  the  peristyle  appes - 
to  have  consisted  of  an  open  ves 
bule,  a  cella,  and  an  opisthodomi 
or  sanctuary.  Instead  of  a  contin 
ation  of  the  walls  of  the  cella,  t 


PAG 


pr<aos  was  a  portico,  open  in 
fro  and  sides,  and  terminated  by 
thetransverse  wall  of  the  cella. 
!  h  columns  appear  to  have  been 
clunelled  into  twenty-four  shallow 
fluids,  but  all  that  remain  are 
t0i  bases,  with  a  small  portion 
of  eir  shafts.  Length  of  temple 
on  pper  step  107'  9"  93;  breadth 
47  "  9 ;  diameter  of  columns  at 
ba(4'2"  9;  height  of  columns, 
im  ding  capital,  20'  4"  25.  The 
co  nns  are  diminished  in  a  straight 
]m  and  terminate  at  the  astragal 
be  v  the  necking ;  they  have 
tw  ty  flutings,  of  a  circular  plan 
bo  at  top  and  bottom.  The  up- 
pe  >art  of  the  epistylium  is  formed 
by  course  of  stone  11.5  inches 
de  .  The  epistylia  at  the  angles 
amoined  diagonally.  The  cor- 
i  K  does  not  resemble  the  Grecian 
D<,c;  instead  of  mutules,  it  has 
pa  Is  sunk  in  the  soffits  of  the 

r  i pal  member.    There  are,  be- 

ic  these  temples,  several  other 
trcs  of  edifices,  but  in  such  a 
ru/d  state,  as  to  leave  it  totally 
M  uulrtain  of  what  kind.  In  plate 
J£:sa,  fig.  V.  is  a  section  through 
thi  cella,  and  outer  porticoes 
of  he  hypaethral  temple.  Be- 
sic  Mr.  Wilkins*  work,  the  reader 
m;  consult  Dumont,  Vues  et 
D(  ils  de  Psestum  —  Morghen,  Sei 
veite  delle  Ruine  di  Pesto — Mi7- 
ferTie  Ruins  of  Psestum  or  Posido- 
nij  -Major's  Ruins  of  Psestum — 
Pi  nesi,  Vues  de  quelques  Restes, 
&(  le  l'ancienne  ville  de  Pesto — 
P(,  i,  Paest.  quod  Posidoniam  es- 

a  dixere,  rudera — Delagardette, 
Le  Ruines  de  Psestum — Fran- 
's Chalcography — Antoni?ii, 
Di  stations  sur  la  Lucanie, — Rie- 
de. ,  Voyage  en  Sicilie,  &c. — 
D'rville,  Sicula — Pancrazi,  Le 
IP  hita  Siciliane  spiegate — Wine- 

t<ann,  Remarques  sur  1'Archi- 
tec  re — Lalande,  Voyage  en  Italie 
—  wsyth's  Italy. 


Pa  getting,  a  name  given  to 
rough  plastering,  especially  to  that 
in  the  interior  of  chimney  flues. 

Pagoda,  (a corruption  of poutg- 
had,  Pers.  a  house  of  idols,)  the 
name  given  to  the  temples  of  India, 
China,  &c.  See  Hindu,  and  Chi- 
nese. 

Pagodas,  Seven,  a  remark- 
able monument  of  Hindu  antiquities 
at  Mavalipuram,  close  to  the  sea, 
a  few  miles  north  of  Sadras.  They 
are  described  by  Mr.  Chambers  in 
a  paper  in  the  Asiatic  Researches : 
when  visited  in  1776,  there  was  still 
a  village  adjoining  to  them,  which 
retained  the  ancient  name,  and  was 
inhabited  by  a  number  of  Bramins, 
who  seemed  well  acquainted  with 
the  subjects  of  the  sculptures  to  be 
seen  there.  The  rock,  or  rather 
hill  of  stone,  on  which  great  part 
of  these  works  are  executed,  rises 
abruptly  out  of  a  level  plain  of 
great  extent,  and  at  a  distance  has 
the  appearance  of  an  antique  and 
lofty  edifice.  Proceeding  by  the 
foot  of  the  hill,  on  the  side  facing 
the  sea,  there  is  a  pagoda  rising  out 
of  the  ground,  of  one  solid  stone, 
about  eighteen  feet  high,  which 
seems  to  have  been  cut  on  the  spot 
out  of  a  detached  rock,  that  had 
been  found  of  a  proper  size  for  that 
purpose.  The  top  is  arched,  and 
its  style  of  architecture  differs 
much  from  any  now  used  in  those 
parts.  Beyond  this  is  a  numerous 
group  of  colossal  figures  in  basso 
relievo,  much  defaced.  The  ascent 
of  the  hill  is  rendered  easy  by  arti- 
ficial steps.  A  winding  stair  leads 
to  a  kind  of  temple  cut  out  of  the 
solid  rock,  with  figures  of  idols 
in  high  relief  on  its  walls,  well  fin- 
ished, and  in  good  preservation. 
This  temple,  Mr.  Chambers  con- 
siders to  have  been  a  place  of 
worship  appertaining  to  a  palace, 
of  which  some  remains  still  ex'st, 
and  to  which  there  is  a  passage  by 

207 


PAG 


P  AI 


another  flight  of  steps.  This  con- 
jecture is  also  favoured  by  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  Bramins.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  hill,  a  flight  of 
steps  leads  to  another  excavation 
near  the  summit,  which  contains 
various  sculptures  of  Hindu  deities, 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  a 
gigantic  figure  of  Vishnou,  asleep 
on  a  kind  of  bed,  with  a  huge  snake 
wound  about  in  many  coils  by  way 
of  pillow.  About  a  mile  and  a 
half  to  the  south  of  the  hill,  are 
two  pagodas,  of  about  thirty  feet 
long  by  twenty  wide,  and  about  as 
many  in  height,  cutout  of  the  solid 
rock,  and  each  consisting  of  a  sin- 
gle stone.  Near  them  stand  an 
elephant  full  as  large  as  life,  and 
a  lion  considerably  exceeding  the 
natural  size,  well  executed  out  of  a 
single  stone  each.  The  architec- 
ture of  these  works  resembles  our 
Gothic,  be'ng  surmounted  by  arched 
roofs  or  domes,  which  are  composed 
of  two  segments  of  a  circle  meeting 
in  a  point  at  the  top.  The  lion  in 
this  group,  as  well  as  one  on  a 
stone  couch,  in  what  he  took  to  be 
the  royal  palace,  are  very  exact 
representations,  and  the  natives 
here  give  them  the  name  of  sing, 
which  is  always  understood  to  mean 
a  lion  in  the  Hindu  language,  but 
the  figures  which  they  have  made 
to  represent  that  animal  in  their 
idoi  temples  for  centuries  past, 
though  it  bears  the  same  appella- 
tion, is  a  distorted  monster,  so  much 
unlike  the  original,  that  it  has  been 
hence  supposed  that  the  lion  was 
not  anciently  known  in  this  country, 
and  that  sing  was  a  name  given  to 
a  monster  that  existed  only  in  Hin- 
du romance.  In  the  neighbourhood 
there  are  found  various  other  re- 
mains of  buildings  and  sculptures, 
and  our  author  conjectures  from 
these  and  other  circumstances,  that 
the  magnificent  city,  of  which  these 
appear  to  have  been  part  of  the 

208 


ruins,  has  been  destroyed,  parti',  v 
an  earthquake,  and  partly  by  a  s . 
den  inundation  of  the  sea,  oc . 
sioned  by  this  commotion  of  e 
earth. 

Painting,  see  Fresco,  Stu 
&c.  Painting  in  fresco  is  \!y 
common  in  the  remains  of  EgL 
tian  buildings.  It  is  also  tracer 
the  architectural  remains  of  Ink 
In  the  middle  ages,  the  placAf 
painting  on  the  walls  was  supp  1 
by  embroidery  and  tapestry.  ]  s 
practice  appears  to  have  bn 
brought  from  the  East,  and  01  - 
nated,  perhaps,  from  the  coy 
hangings  of  the  palaces  of  the  ki  s 
of  Persia  and  Phoenicia.  M  i 
information  concerning  the  pa  - 
ings  which  enriched  the  walls  f 
royal  and  noble  castellated  str- 
tures  in  the  middle  ages,  is  c- 
tained  in  Wal pole's  Anecdotes  f 
Painting,  and  in  the  second  volte 
of  Warton's  History  of  Poe . 
From  the  41  Dream,"  of  Chauceit 
would  appear  that  such  circi- 
stances  of  embellishment  were  t 
confined  to  the  castles  of  b 
sovereign  and  the  nobility,  but  we 
adopted  also  in  the  chambers  f 
dwellings  belonging  to  private  g- 
tlemen.  The  poet,  when  roul 
from  his  dream,  found  all  the  jf 
images  of  fancy  vanished,  and  k 
nothing : — 

"  Save  on  the  wals  old  portraiture 

Of  horsemen,  haulsis,  and  houndis. 
And  hurt  dtre,  all  full  of  woundi»." 

Ceilings,  stair-cases,  and  wcs 
which  require  no  great  care  ;1 
preparation,  are  generally  pain d 
in  common  water  colours,  that;, 
with  earths  infused  in  water,  ;d 
diluted  in  size.  All  kinds  of  >• 
lours  may  be  ground  in  water  oir, 
when  the  tint  is  made :  and  w  n 
they  have  been  infused  in  war, 
they  must  be  mixed  up  with  s.j. 
If  on  new  plaster,  the  colours  - 
quire  more  size.    Spanish  whl', 


P  AI 


PAL 


poi-ded  in  water,  mixed  with  a 
pirer  quantity  of  the  black  of 
{.hi:oal,  according  to  the  tint  you 
Vaj,  makes  a  good  common  white. 
Th  white  des  carmes  is  a  manner 
hitening  interior  walls,  which 
>rs  them  extremely  beautiful, 
lantity  of  the  very  best  lime 
mi.  be  passed  through  fine  linen, 
armoured  into  a  large  tub,  with  a 
Kit  just  as  high  as  the  lime 
coles;  fill  the  tub  with  clear 
Br  water,  beat  it  with  a  piece  of 
wo  ,  then  allow  it  to  settle  for 
Ely  -  four  hours,  and  let  the 
v  a  r  off,  supplying  the  tub  with 
ire  water,  and  continuing  the 
opction  for  several  days,  till  the 
i  rr  attains  the  greatest  degree  of 
wh-ness;  then  turning  off  the 
the  ater,  the  lime  will  be  found 
of  ie  consistence  of  paste,  and 
m  d  when  used  be  mixed  with 
s'zinade  of  fine  glove-leather  and 
a  1  ie  alum  with  a  little  Prussian 
blnbr  indigo,  and  a  small  quantity 
of  ligo.  Since  the  discovery  of 
N  aiming,  and  the  knowledge 
ink'ood  is  preserved  by  it,  and 
m  tally  since  the  discovery  of  a 
vari>h  without  smell,  and  which 
eve  takes  away  that  of  oil,  the 
paiing  of  apartments  with  oil  has 
bet  justly  preferred. 

I  the" 26th  volume  of  the  Re- 
pet  ry  of  Arts,  a  specification  of 
I  lit  is  given,  which  was  grant- 
H  Mr.  Joseph  Braham,  for  the 
Irapation  of  Parkers  Roman  ce- 
me.  of  the  consistence  of  white- 
El  to  timber,  to  preserve  it  from 
the  Iry-rot ;  and  for  using  the 
8an  composition  or  cement  mixed 
Mjoil,  to  form  a  very  good  and 
HI  paint,  for  floor-cloths,  or 
H  or  outside  house-painting. 
Thdmixture  of  Parker's  cement 
w<t  oil,  forms  a  very  cheap  and 
effi':ious  paint  for  out-door  work. 
JV'ollowing  receipt  is  not  gene- 
rallknowu — 
2  D 


Potatoes   1  lb. 

Spanish  White  2  lbs. 

Water  4  quarts. 

The  potatoes,  boiled  first,  and 
well  tempered, and  strained  through 
a  sieve;  the  Spanish  white,  pre- 
viously mixed  up,  is  then  added. 
The  colour  is  a  fine  milk  white  ren- 
dered grey  by  charcoal ;  dries  soon 
and  well :  use  two  coats.  A  kind  of 
paint  or  stucco  formed  of  tar  and 
chalk,  was  put  over  the  planks  placed 
under  the  carriage  way  of  the  Iron 
Bridge,  at  Sunderland. 

Palace,  (palatium,  Lat. )  the 
dwelling  house  of  a  king,  prince, 
or  bishop.  In  China  it  is  custom? 
ary  to  build  palaces  in  honour  of 
celebrated  ancestors,  and  in  the 
year  1263,  Hu  -  pi  -  lay,  of  the 
Mogul  empire,  built  one  for  his 
ancestors,  after  the  example  of 
those  of  China.  Ther^  is  an  ac- 
count in  the  Ancient  Universal 
History,  of  a  magnificent  palace  in 
Upper  Egypt,  not  far  from  Assuan, 
(the  ancient  Syene)  the  ruins  of 
which,  by  their  vast  extent  and 
magnificence,  impress  the  mind  of 
the  spectator  with  amazement. — 
Egyptian  palaces  consisted  of  moles 
or  causeways,  courts  surrounded 
by  a  colonnade,  porticos,  and  other 
assimilations  of  temples.  The  pa- 
lace of  Thebes,  at  Medinet  Abou, 
is  the  only  remain  which  was  evi- 
dently not  a  temple,  though  it  was 
contiguous  to  one.  It  has  an  up- 
per story,  windows,  small  doors,  a 
staircase,  very  solid  balconies,  sup- 
ported by  a  kind  of  caryatides 
and  crenellations,  of  which  no  other 
specimen  is  known.  Near  the  peri- 
style are  five  apartments,  two  of 
which  appear  to  have  been  the 
treasury:  the  stone  coffers  yet  re- 
main. The  interior  view  of  this 
edifice  is  extremely  superb.  The 
plan  of  this  palace  is  given  at  fig. 
12,  on  plate  Temple,  in  which  a  a 
represents  the  first  pylone  or  pro- 

209 


PAL 


PAL 


pylon,  forming  the  entrance  :  c  the 
first  court :  b  caryatic  pillars,  form- 
ing; the  gallery  of  the  north  side  : 
the  colonnade  on  the  opposite  side 
are  regular  round  columns :  d  the 
entrance  to  an  edifice  now  buried 
in  the  fallen  ruins :  I  I  second  py- 
lone  :  e  e  portals  of  granite :  f  f 
doors  to  the  stairs  which  lead  to 
the  top  of  the  second  pylone :  g 
the  peristyle;  the  galleries  of  the 
peristyle  are  formed  on  the  north 
and  south  by  columns,  on  the  east 
and  west  by  caryatic  pillars,  behind 
the  west  range  of  which  is  another 
range  of  columns  :  the  building 
sdoes  not  exactly  correspond  with 
the  cardinal  points  :  h  rooms  con- 
cealed under  the  ruins,  which  were 
entered  by  a  passage  forced  through 
the  wall  at  k.  The  whole  of  the 
interior  part  of  the  building  i,  which 
would  appear  to  have  contained 
the  principal  apartments,  was  so 
completely  choked  up  and  buried 
in  its  ruins,  as  to  render  it  quite 
impossible  to  explore  it.  The  co- 
lumns in  the  peristyle  have  Corin- 
thian capitals,  but  are  not  fluted. 
(See  the  Grande  Description  de 
l'Egypt.)  The  details  which  Homer 
gives  us  of  the  palaces  of  the  kings 
in  the  heroic  ages  are  curious  and 
authentic.  Some  remains  of  these 
very  ancient  buildings  still  remain. 
See  Acropolis  of  Tyrins,  &  Mycenae. 
The  Romans  applied  the  name  of 
domus,  for  a  long  time  both  to  the 
houses  of  the  poor  and  the  great; 
and  even  as  late  as  the  time  of 
Nero,  his  sumptuous  palace  was 
termed  domus  aurea  Neronis,  Nero's 
golden  house.  The  palace  of  Dio- 
clesian,  at  Spalatro,  though  in  ruins, 
is  a  remarkable  relict  of  ancient  art. 
Its  shape  was  that  of  a  parallelo- 
gram, 630  feet  long,  and  510  broad. 
Its  principal  facade  fronted  the  sea, 
and  was  decorated  with  a  superb 
colonnade,  which  was  composed  of 
fifty  columns,  forty -two  still  re- 

210 


maining  :  this  colonnade  form, 
gallery  25  feet  broad,  reaching  a 
the  whole  of  the  front.  See 
Voyage  Pittoresque  of  M.  Cat 
in  Istria  and  Dalmatia.  M. 
rand,  in  his  Paralele  des  Edijm 
de  tout  genre,  has  given  a  co  - 
tion  of  designs  of  palaces  of  dik 
ent  eras. 

Palestra,  (from  7ra\a«w,  r. 
to  wrestle,)  that  part  of  the  Greji 
Gymnasium,  more  particularly  > 
propriated  to  wrestling  and  o  ir 
gymnastic  exercises.  The  term  13 
sometimes  applied  to  the  wle 
building.  The  palaestra  conta 
also  baths,  which  were  thrown  ( 
for  the  use  of  the  public.  Vitnis 
asserts  positively,  that  there  1  L 
never  any  palcestrce  at  Rome. 

Palatine  Bridge,  a  bridgit 
Rome,  which  is  now  called  r. 
Mary's  bridge,  and  passes  In 
the  present  church  of  St.  Mar\  ie 
Egyptian,  at  the  lower  end  of  ie 
Forum  Boarium  to  the  Via  Trs- 
tiberina. 

Pale,  (derived,  according  to  u 
Cange,  from  yalla,  Lat.  a  lin- 
ing, or  tapestry,)  a  pointed  ste, 
and  piece  of  board,  used  in  ma.i? 
enclosures.  See  Post  and  ty- 
ing. 

Palenque,  a  town  of  Gift 
mala,  in  America,  near  whicr  re 
found  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
which  were  explored  by  Ant! io 
del  Rio,  and  a  translation  of  lis 
Report  published  at  London  in 
4to.  1822.  The  site  of  the  run! 
city  is  called  Casas  de  Picds; 
the  stone  houses,  and  the  rem  is, 
and  particularly  the  figures,  prent 
a  wide  field  for  investigation,  lie 
largest  building  occupies  a  mod 
twenty  yards  high,  in  the  midd  of 
the  plain,  and  is  surroundeton 
every  side  by  other  buildings  he 
ruins  extend  about  seven  or  <  fit 
leagues,  but  their  breadth  is  nch 
less.     The  interior  of  the  i:ge 


I 

PAL 

buying  is  in  a  style  of  architec- 
tu:  strongly  resembling  the  Gothic, 
an  from  its  rude  and  massive  con- 
str.tion  promises  great  durability. 
Th entrance  is  on  the  eastern  side, 

v  portico  or  corridor  thirty-six 
vas  or  yards  in  length,  and  three 
in  eadth,  supported  by  plain  rect- 
amlar  pillars,  without  bases  or 
pe  stals,  with  architrave  formed  of 

,j  re  smooth  stones,  a  foot  thick, 
an  over  them  another  plain  rect- 
anilar  block,  five  feet  long,  and 
Abroad,  extending  over  two  pil- 
lar In  the  walls  is  a  range  of 
m  ows  like  niches,  some  square, 
an  others  in  form  of  a  Greek 
en!;. 

a  ling  for  Trees,  a  sort  of 
fewng  for  separate  trees,  formed 
v  hree  small  posts,  connected 
wi  wi|  cross  bars. 

\ lisades,  pales  or  stakes  set 
up  or  an  enclosure.  Palisades, 
«  or  trong  sharp  -  pointed  wooden 
ill 'is,  sometimes  armed  with  iron 
sp  ;s,  fixed  in  the  ground,  are  used 
in  rtification. 

alladto,  Andrea,  an  Italian 
At  itect  of  Vicenza,  born  in  1518. 
Hi  received  his  first  instructions 
fire  the  poet  Trissino,  whom  he 
ftc  mpanied  to  Rome,  and  there 
Iti  ed  the  ancient  edifices  of  that 
eel  .rated  city.  His  first  great 
wc  was  the  palace  Foscari,  which 
he  lilt  in  the  pure  antique  style. 
Hevas  afterwards  invittd  to  the 
of  Emanuel  Philibert,  duke 
of.avoy,  where  he  met  with  a 
m<  flattering  reception.  The 
1   pic  theatre  at  Vicenza,  which 

lilt  in  imitation  of  that  of  Mar- 
tth  at  Rome,  is  considered  to  be 
his iaster-piece.  He  died  at  Vi- 
Cetli,  in  1580.  His  Treatise  on 
Ar  itecture,  which  was  first  pub- 
"il  I  at  Venice  in  1570,  has  gone 
wi  ?h  many  e  iitions.  He  also 
ttiiosed  a  small  work  entitled 
Le\lntickit(i  di   Roma,  and  he 


PAL 

illustrated  Badelli's  Translations  of 
Csesar,  by  a  preface  on  the  military 
system  of  the  Romans,  with  copper 
plates,  chiefly  designed  by  his  two 
sons,  Leonida  and  Orazio.  Lord 
Burlington  published  a  volume, 
with  the  title  Idisegni  delle  Terme 
Antiche  di  Andrea  Palladio,  Lon- 
don, 1730. 

Pallier,  or  Paillier,  a  French 
term,  which  signifies  a  landing- 
place  in  a  staircase,  which  is 
broader  than  the  rest  o  the  stairs, 
and  serves  as  a  resting-place.  Vi- 
truvius  calls  the  palliers,  or  landing 
peaces  of  theatres,  diazomata. 

Pallification,  or  Piling,  the 
act  of  piling  ground  -  work,  or 
strengthening  it  with  piles. 

Palm,  a  measure  of  length 
among  the  Italians,  often  used  in 
the  works  of  Winckelmann,  in  the 
Antiquites  d'Herculanum,  by  Vis- 
conti,  &c.  The  palm  of  Genoa  is 
nine  inches  nine  lines — that  of 
Naples,  eight  inches  seven  lines — 
that  of  Palermo,  eight  inches  five 
lines — the  modern  Roman  palm, 
eight  inches  three  and  a  half  lines. 

Palmyra,  or  Tadmor,  ajcity  of 
ancient  Syria,  said  to  have  been 
originally  founded  by  Solomon, 
the  ruins  of  which  are  found  in  the 
middle  of  the  desert,  between  Da- 
mascus and  the  Euphrates.  The 
verdant  tract  on  which  it  is  situated 
was  perhaps  formerly  far  more  ex- 
tensive than  at  present,  and  the 
city  was  probably  enclosed  among 
palms  and  fig-trees,  from  the  former 
of  which  it  appears  to  have  taken 
its  name.  The  ruins  were  discovered 
in  an  accidental  manner,  in  1678, 
by  some  English  travellers  from 
Aleppo.  Dr.  Halley,  soon  after 
this  period,  published  Observations 
on  the  state  of  Palmyra.  Seller 
also  published  a  work  on  the  anti- 
quities of  Palmyra  at  London,  in 
1696,  and  Halifax's  Voyage  to  Tad- 
mor appeared  in  1705.     But  the 

211 


PAL 

most  important  work  is  that  by 
Wood  and  Dawkins :  The  Ruins 
of  Palmyra,  otherwise  Tadmor  in 
the  Desart,  fol.  London,  1753. 
The  most  magnificent  ruin  is  the 
temple  of  the  sun,  the  remains  of 
which  spread  over  a  square  of  two 
hundred  and  twenty  yards,  and 
which  was  surrounded  by  a  stately 
wall,  built  of  large  square  stones, 
and  ornamented  with  pilasters  both 
within  and  without.  In  the  court 
two  rows  of  noble  pillars  appear  to 
have  supported  a  double  piazza  all 
round;  fifty-eight  of  them  still  re- 
main entire  and  are  thirty-seven  feet 
high,  with  capitals  of  the  most  ex- 
quisite workmanship.  The  walls  of 
this  piazza  on  that  side  opposite  the 
temple  were  evidently  the  most  ele- 
gant. At  each  end  of  this  line  are 
two  niches  for  statues,  most  beauti- 
fully carved,  with  their  borders, 
supporters,  canopies,  and  pedestals. 
In  the  middle  of  the  court  stands 
the  temple,  which  was  encompassed 
by  a  row  of  columns  fifty  feet  high, 
of  which  sixteen  remain.  The  tem- 
ple is  thirty-three  yards  long,  and 
thirteen  or  fourteen  broad,  and 
points  to  the  north  and  south.  In 
the  middle  of  the  west  side  is  the 
entrance,  on  which  are  remains  of 
the  most  beautiful  sculptures.  The 
windows  were  not  large,  and  were 
narrower  at  the  top  than  at  the  bot- 
tom. In  the  centre  is  a  dome  about 
ten  feet  in  diameter,  which  appears 
either  to  have  been  hewn  out  of  the 
rock,  or  made  of  some  composition 
which  time  has  rendered  equally 
hard.  The  north  end  of  the  temple 
is  ornamented  with  curious  fret- 
work and  bassi  relievi.  Several 
obelisks  are  found  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  temple :  about 
a  hundred  paces  from  the  middle 
obelisk  is  a  grand  entrance  to  a 
piazza,  which  is  more  than  half  a 
mile  long,  and  forty  feet  broad, 

and  the  pillars  which  border  it  on 
212 


PAL 

each  side  are  twenty-six  feet  hj 
and  eight  or  nine  in  circumferes;;' 
Their  number  is  supposed  to  l|e 
been  five  or  six  hundred,  and  L 
hundred  and  twenty-nine  yet  p 
main.  To  the  left  of  the  pi;ia 
are  the  remains  of  a  magnified 
building,  which  appears  to  hie 
been  a  banqueting  house ;  it  is  m 
of  fine  marble,  and  most  exquisi  v 
finished,  and  its  pillars  are  eacp 
one  single  stone,  so  strong,  that 
of  them,  although  it  has  fallen  do 
has  received  no  injury  ;  it  is  twei 
two  feet  long,  and  eight  feet  i 
inches  in  compass.  In  the  west  e 
of  the  piazza  are  several  apertis 
for  gates  into  the  court  of  the  pal  i, 
each  one  adorned  with  fourporpby 
columns,  placed  by  couples  in  fi  t 
of  the  gate  facing  the  palace;  cy 
two  of  these  columns  remain  enij:, 
which  are  thirty  feet  long  and  rje 
in  circumference.  On  the  east  I 
of  the  piazza  stand  a  numbe  f 
marble  pillars  together,  and  aja 
small  distance  the  remains  oa 
lesser  temple,  with  a  piazza  be  e 
it  supported  by  six  pillars.  1 
pedestals  of  those  in  front  have  - 
scriptions  in  Greek  and  Palmyi  e 
characters,  but  much  defaced,  t 
the  north  part  of  the  city,  ran  d 
on  each  side  of  a  hollow  way,  n  e 
than  a  mile  in  extent,  are  ■ 
ruins  of  the  ancient  sepulclw, 
which  are  square  towers,  foui!>r 
five  stories  high,  varying  in  ma;ii- 
tude  and  splendour.  The  outjie 
is  of  common  stone,  but  the  flti 
and  partitions  of  each  story  arj)f 
marble;  a  walk  runs  across  jie 
building  in  the  middle,  and  jie 
space  on  each  side  is  divided  to 
partitions  for  the  reception  of  ie 
corpses.  There  have  been  js- 
covered  at  Palmyra  twenty 
inscriptions  in  Greek,  thirteer 
Palmyrene,  and  one  in  Latin, 
subject  of  the  Palmyrene  characlrs 
and  language,  has  given  rise  to 


PAN 


PAN 


mrh  dispute,  and  has  been  dis- 
cued  by  Scaliger,  Petit  Galand, 
Spd,  Norris,  and  the  Abbe  Bar- 
th  »my,  but  Georgius  (de  Inscrip- 
tic  bus  Palmyrenis)  has  shewn 
th  )  with  tolerable  satisfaction  to 
,p  vro-chaldaic.  Some  fine  views 
of  ie  ruins  of  Palmyra  are  given 
Cassas,  in  his  Voyage  pitto- 
re"  ne  en  Syrie.  On  the  language, 
se  he  explanation  of  the  Medals 
ot^almvra,  published  in  London 
in  78*2. "  The  Researches  of  M. 
Si :ster  de  Sacy,  published  in 
Vu,  and  the  Memoire  of  Barthi- 
le  i,  surl'Alphabet  et  stir  laLangue 
d( ;  on  se  servait  antrefois  a  Pal- 
m  e,  in  the  twenty-sixth  vol.  of 
thMemoires  de  l'Academ.  des  In- 
sertions. 

a  mp  re,  (Fr.)  an  ornament 
cc  posed  of  vine  leaves  and  bunches 
of  rapes,  with  which  the  hollow  of 
th  circumvolutions  of  twisted  co- 
lli ns  are  sometimes  decorated. 

ancarpi,  (Gr.)  garlands  and 
foons  of  fruit,  flowers,  and  leaves, 
a(  ning  altars,  doors,  vestibules, 

B 

an droseium,  see  Athenian 
Ahitecture  and  Acropolis. 

an  el,  (panelleum,  Lat.)  a  thin 
bed  having  all  its  edges  inserted 
in  e groove  of asurrounding  frame. 
A  inely  in  masonry,  is  one  of  the 
fa  s  of  a  hewn  stone.    See  Abaci. 

\ ntameter,  see  Bevel  gra- 
d\  *ed. 

a  nth  eon,  (Gr.  a  temple  dedi- 
'  d  to  all  the  Gods.)  one  of 
th  most  magnificent  temples  of 
a*  ent  Rome,  and  the  only  one 
•  h  has  been  preserved  entire 
It  now  converted  into  a  Christian 
crlch,  and  is  dedicated  to  the 
V  nn  Mary  and  all  the  Martyrs. 
Oahe  frieze  of  the  portico  is  the 
'n  iption,  M.  Agrippa,  L.  F. 
C  Tertium  fecit.  It  is  of  the 
C  nthian  order.  The  form  of  this 
b<  iing  is  round,  with  a  spherical 


dome,  and  its  diameter  within,  and 
its  height  from  the  pavement  to  the 
grand  aperture  at  the  top,  are  each 
one  hundred  and  forty-four  feet. 
The  inner  circumference  is  divided 
into  seven  grand  niches,  worked  in 
the  thickness  of  the  wall,  of  which 
six  are  flat  at  the  top,  and  the  se- 
venth, opposite  the  door,  arched. 
Before  each  niche  are  two  fluted 
columns,  each  of  one  single  block 
of  antique  yellow  marble.  As  high 
as  the  grand  cornice  the  whole  wall 
is  cased  with  different  kinds  of 
valuable  marble  in  compartments, 
and  the  frieze  is  entirely  of  por- 
phyry. Above  the  cornice  arises 
an  attic,  in  which  are  fourteen  ob- 
long niches,  between  each  of  which 
are  four  marble  pilasters,  and  be- 
tween these,  tablets  of  various  kinds 
of  marble.  Immediately  from  the 
cornice  of  the  attic  springs  the 
spherical  roof,  which  is  divided  by 
bands  crossing  each  other  like  the 
meridians  and  parallels  of  a  globe  ; 
between  these  bands  and  the  open- 
ing at  the  top,  a  space  of  consider- 
able width  is  left  plain.  To  lighten 
the  roof,  the  space  between  the  bands 
was  formed  of  nothing  but  lime  and 
pumice  stones.  The  roof  was  co- 
vered on  the  exterior  with  plates 
of  gilded  bronze.  The  walls  were 
decorated  with  lead  and  brass,  over 
which  were  carvings  in  silver.  A 
flight  of  seven  stairs  led  from  the 
spring  of  the  roof  to  the  summit. 
The  superb  portico,  which  was  as- 
cended by  eight  or  nine  stairs,  con- 
sists of  sixteen  Corinthian  columns 
of  granite,  fourteen  feet  in  diameter, 
eight  standing  in  front,  and  hav- 
ing an  equal  intercolumniation  all 
along.  The  tympanum  was  adorned 
with  bassi  relievi  in  brass,  and  the 
cross  beams  which  supported  the 
ceiling  of  the  portico,  as  well  as  the 
doors,  were  covered  with  the  same 
metal.  In  the  course  of  ages  this 
building  has  been  often  embellished 

213 


PAN 


PAR 


and  repaired.  It  suffered  by  fire 
in  the  reign  of  Titus,  but  was  re- 
paired by  Trajan,  Adrian,  Anto- 
ninus Pius,  Marcus  Aurelius,  and 
Severus.  On  the  architrave  is  the 
following  inscription: — Imp.  C;es. 
Septimivs.  Severvs.Pivs.  Per- 
tinax  Arabicvs.  Parthicvs. 
Pontif.  Max.  Trib.  Pot.  xi. 
cos.  in.  p.p.  et  Imp.  C;es.  Mar- 
cvs.  Avrelivs.  Antoninvs. 
Pivs.  Felix.  Avg.Trib.  Pot.  v. 
cos.  procos.  Panthevm.  vetvs- 
tate.  obrvptvm.  CVM.  OMNI. 
cvltv.  restitivervnt.  The  sta- 
tues and  chief  ornaments  of  the 
interior,  with  the  vast  quantity  of 
bronze  which  adorned  it,  and  the 
external  plating  of  the  roof,  were 
carried  away  by  Alaric  and  by  Con- 
stantine  II.  Emperor  of  Constanti- 
nople. Benedict  II.  and  Nicholas 
V.  covered  the  roof  with  lead. 
Raffarelle,  whose  tomb  it  contains, 
and  several  other  artists,  left  sums 
of  money  for  its  reparation.  Urban 
VIII.  did  some  repairs  in  a  bad  taste, 
but  he  carried  away  the  brass  which 
covered  the  cross-beams,  and  other 
robberies  were  committed  to  adorn 
the  palaces  of  his  family,  the  Bar- 
berini,  and  it  was  said,  "  quod  non 
fecerunt  barbari  fecere  Barberini." 
There  was  anciently  another  pan- 
theon at  Rome,  in  the  form  of  a 
decagon,  dedicated  to  Minerva,  and 
measuring  from  angle  to  angle  about 
twenty-two  feet  and  a  half ;  between 
the  angles  were  nine  round  chapels, 
each  dedicated  to  a  different  deity, 
and  a  statue  of  Minerva  was  over 
the  gate.  The  Pantheon  of  Athens 
was  first  changed  into  a  Christian 
church,  and  afterwards  into  aTurk- 
ish  mosque. 

Pantiles,  see  Tiles. 

Pantograph,  (Gr.)  an  instru- 
ment for  copying,  and  diminishing 
or  enlarging  drawings.  It  was  in- 
vented in  the  seventeenth  century, 
and  a  description  of  it  appeared  at 

214 


Rome,  in  1631,  under  the  tit)  3f 
"  Pantographice,  seu  ars  define  }j 
Res  quaslibet  per  Parallelogr 
mum  lineare,  seu  Cavum.  Mech 
cum,  Mobile,  &c."  4to.  The 
ventor  of  the  instrument,  and 
author  of  this  work,  is  suppose  o 
have  been  Christopher  Scheine 
Suabian  Jesuit.    Various  impr 
ments  have  since  been  made  t 
The  figure  of  the  pantograph 
in  use  is  shewn  in  Plate  P.  3. 
7.    It   consists  of  four  brass 
wooden  rules,  two  of  them  fron 
to  18  inches  long,  the  other 
half  that  length.    On  the  e: 
fixing  of  the  holes  or  joints,  ch< 
depends  the  perfection  of  this  - 
strument.    Those  in  the  middl  >f 
the  long  rulers,  at  eandrf,  ar  o 
be  at  the  same  distance  from  tl  e 
at  the  ends  of  the  longer  one  t 
b,  and  those  of  the  short  ones  ar, 
so  that  when  put  together  they  i  v 
make  an  exact  parallelogram,  e 
joint  at  b  must  have  a  little  pi;  , 
round  at  the  end,  underneath,  r 
the  instrument  to  slide  upon;>f 
the  two  parts  of  the  long  rui 
which  extend  beyond  the  parall  i- 
gram,  one,  c,  should  have  ape 
of  lead,  or  some  other  heavy  s  i- 
stance,  attached  to  it  by  a  m<  - 
able  socket,  so  as  to  keep  the  i- 
strument  firm  whilst  in  use,  am  t 
/and  a  should  be  sockets  for  n- 
cils  and  points;  that  at  /  bag 
moveable.    The  mode  of  usin  it 
is  evident  from  the  figure.   A  \  - 
tograph  on  an  improved  consti  > 
tion  has  lately  been  manufactu  i, 
and  may  be  procured  at  the  ma 
matical  instrument  makers. 

Parabola,  (Gr.)  a  conic  see  n 
formed  by  a  cone  being  cut  I  a 
plane  which  is  parallel  to  a  tanf  t 
plane  to  the  curved  surface  ot  < 
cone.  Any  line  parallel  to  W 
base  is  called  a  double  ordink 
A  line  which  bisects  a  numbe 
double  ordinates  is  their  abscn, 


PAR 


PAR 


al  the  point  where  it  meets  the 
c've  is  the  vertex.  To  find  the 
a  a  of  a  parabola,  between  a  dou- 
h  ordinate  and  the  vertex,  when 
t  abscissa  and  double  ordinate 
a  given,  we  have  only  to  multiply 
t  ether  the  double  ordinate  and 
t  abscissa,  and  two-thirds  of  the 
pduct  will  be  the  area  required, 
lus  if  the  double  ordinate  be  36, 
;  a  I  the  abscissa  24:  36  x  24  = 
m  x  §  =  466  the  answer.  The 
(rtesian  Parabola  is  a  curve  of 
t  second  order,  made  use  of  by 
Iscartes,  to  find  the  roots  of  equa- 
tis  of  six  dimensions,  by  its  inter- 
stions  with  a  circle.  Newton 
els  it  a  trident. 

a r abolic  Asymptote,  a  pa- 
r  olic  line  approaching  to  a  curve, 
A  never  meeting  it,  yet  both  be- 
i  produced  indefinitely,  their  re- 
1  ve  distance  becomes  less  than 
w  given  line.  A  Parabolic  pyra- 
tloid,  is  a  solid  figure,  which  was 
t's  named  by  Dr.  Wallis.  Para- 
1      lie  space,  is  the  area  contained 
it     Iween  the  curve  of  the  parabola 
iel(     al  a  whole  ordinate.    A  Para- 
lie  spindle,  is  a  solid  made  by 
t  rotation   of  a  semi-parabola 
;      a>ut  one  of  its  ordinates.  The 
i  rabolic  spiral  or  Helicoid,  is  a 
e  ve  arising  from  the  supposition 
c  he  axis  of  the  common  parabola 
xks    tit  into  the  periphery  of  a  circle, 
at  al    t  ordinates  being  portions  of  the 
r  ii  next  the  circumference. 

3akaboloid,  (Gr.)  a  solid  form- 
<  by  the  revolution  of  a  parabola 
i     aiut  its  axis. 

'aradigrammatice,  (Gr.)  an 
i      o  term  signifying  the  art  of  form- 
if  figures  in  plaster. 

\arados,  (Gr.)  the  grand  en- 
t  ice   in   the  Grecian  theatres, 
v eh  conducted  into  the  orchestra, 
upon  the  stage. 

'aradromides,  (  Gr.  )  bypae- 
•  tl  walks  attached  to  the  Greek 
paestra.    See  Xystus. 


Parallel,  (Gr.)  in  Geometry, 
lines,  surfaces,  &c.  which  are  every 
where  equidistant  to  each  other. 

Parallel  Rules,  see  Instru- 
ments. 

Parallel  Copings,  have  their 
upper  surface  parallel  to  the  bed 
of  the  stone,  as  those  which  cover 
a  gable. 

Parallel  Cut,  a  counter 
drain. 

Parallelogram,  (  Gr.  )  any 
four-sided  rectilinear  figure  whose 
opposite  sides  are  parallel. 

Parallelopipedon,  or  Paral- 
lelopiped,  (Gr.)  a  solid  which  has 
six  faces,  each  parallel  to  its  oppo- 
site face,  and  all  its  faces  parallelo- 
grams. Its  contents  may  be  always 
found  by  multiplying  the  breadth 
and  length  of  its  base  and  its 
height  together.  Half  of  a  paral- 
lelopiped  upon  the  same  base  is  a 
rectangular  prism. 

Parameter,  ( Gr.  from  napa, 
through,  and  perpeio,  to  measure,) 
a  constant  right  line  in  each  of  the 
three  conic  sections,  called  also 
latus  rectum*.  The  rectangle  form- 
ed by  the  parameter  and  an  ab- 
scissa, in  the  parabola,  is  equal  to 
the  square  of  the  correspondent 
semi-ordinate ;  and  in  the  ellipsis 
and  hyperbola,  the  parameter  makes 
a  third  proportional  to  a  conjugate 
and  transverse  axis. 

Para  pet,  (parapetto,\ta\.  breast- 
work,) a  small  wall  of  masonry  or 
earth  for  support  or  railing  to  a 
quay,  bridge,  terrace,  &c. 

Parangon,  a  species  of  black 
marble,  which  the  ancients  pro- 
cured from  Egypt  and  Greece, 
and  which  they  called  also  ba- 
saltes. 

Parascenium,  another  name 
for  the  Postscenium  in  the  ancient 
theatres. 

Parastades,  (  Trapaarafoc,  Gr.) 
the  name  by  which  the  Greeks  dis- 
tinguished the  anted  of  their  tem- 

215 


PAR 


PAR 


pies:  a  temple  thus  constructed 
was  termed  vaoQ  sv  irapavTaaiv. 

Parastatice  Imagines,  a 
name  given  to  the  statues  of  the 
emperors  placed  at  the  gates  and 
entrances  of  temples. 

Par  erg  a,  (Gr.)  a  word  some- 
times used  to  signify  the  orna- 
mental additions  made  to  a  prin- 
cipal work. 

Parget,  (from  Lat.  parcet,)  a 
name  applied  in  a  general  sense  to 
the  several  kinds  of  gypsum,  which 
when  slightly  calcined,  forms  plas- 
ter of  Paris,  but  more  particularly 
applied  to  the  gypsums  brought 
from  Derbyshire  and  Montmartre. 

Pargeting,  the  plastering  of 
walls.    See  Pageting. 

Parlour,  (Fr.)  in  the  old  mo- 
nasteries, was  a  room  for  conversa- 
tion, and  adjoined  the  buttery  and 
pantry  at  the  lower  end  of  the 
hall. 

Parquetry,  or  Marquetry,  a 
kind  of  joinery  or  cabinet  work,  for 
which  the  French  are  famous,  and 
which  attained  perfection  in  the 
seventeenth  century. *  A  parquet, 
is  an  inlaid  floor  composed  of  small 
pieces  of  wood,  either  square  or 
triangular,  which  are  capable  of 
forming  by  their  disposition  various 
combinations  of  figures.  Two  sorts  of 
wood  are  generally  employed,  differ- 
ing very  little  in  shade.  The  library 
of  St.  Paul's,  the  floor  of  the  British 
Museum,  and  some  of  the  new  apart- 
ments at  Windsor,  &c.  exhibit  fine 
examplesof  its  use  in  England.  When 
Carlton-house  was  fitted  up,  about 
forty  years  ago,  the  throne-room, 
and  several  others,  were  laid  with  a 
species  of  parquetry,  like  that  in 
fig.  5.  pi.  P.  3.  It  was  prepared 
at  Paris,  and  was  sent  to  London, 
in  compartments  of  about  three  feet 
square.  It  was  laid  on  joists  of  the 
common  description  ;  the  compart- 
ments were  joined  together  by 
groove  -  and  -  tongue,  wrought  with 

216 


what  are  usually  called  m;;h 
planes,  and  were  fastened  to  U 
joists  by  oblique  nailing  through  ie 
tongued  edges,  so  that  no  rife 
appeared  on  the  surface,  ask 
shown  in  fig.  6.  The  narrow 
gonal  pieces  and  square  fratnAn 
the  outside  are  put  together  vh 
mortise  and  tenons,  and  groove*1  o 
receive  flush  panels. 

Parsonage  Houses,  were  m 
merly  embattled  and  fortified,  & 
had  numerous  offices  and  appe  - 
ages,  and  sometimes  a  chapel.  ,t 
Bucknor,  in  Kent,  however,  tl  e 
is  an  example  of  one,  being  a  n  e 
hovel,  built  on  the  church. 

Parthenon,  see  Athenian 
chitecture.  Mr.  Wilkins,  (Atlu- 
ensia,  p.  99,)  has  rectified  sev.  1 
errors  which  occur  in  Stuart's  - 
scription  of  the  temple  of  Mine  a 
Parthenon.  Vitruvius,  in  a  passe 
manifestly  corrupt,  has  pointed  t 
the  Parthenon  as  an  hypvetl.l 
temple,  having  two  interior  ran  s 
of  columns;  and  has  been  cc- 
monly  followed  by  modern  writ  . 
"  It  is  certain,  that  in  later  tiis 
there  was  a  double  order  of  colurs 
within  the  cella  of  the  temple  ; 
circles  made  to  mark  the  situates 
of  the  lower,  still  remain  in 
pavement.  From  these  circles i. 
appears,  that  the  columns  w: 
nearly  two  feet  two  inches  in  d 
meter:  the  lower  portion  of  o, 
whose  diameter  corresponded  vk 
this  dimension,  was  lying  within  I 
cella.  The  method  observed  i 
fluting,  proves  this  column  to  h; 
been  of  the  Doric  order,  but  its 
to  be  observed,  that  the  lower  pi 
of  the  shaft  was  planed  and  it 
fluted,  a  circumstance  which  ten 
in  some  measure  to  invalidate  ? 
claim  to  the  high  antiquity  of  u 
other  parts  of  the  building.  Ba  - 
soning from  the  examples  of  r- 
paeth'ral  temples,  these  columns  | 
not  commensurate  with  those  of  t' 


i ristyle,  but  considerably  less  in 
pportion.  It  will  be  easily  shown, 
M  this  want  of  proportional  bulk 
fan  argument  against  the  proba- 
cy that  the  temple  was  hypse- 
t  al.  In  temples  of  this  description, 
|  height  of  the  upper  and  lower 
iicres  of  the  interior  columns  toge- 
it,  reached  from  the  floor  to 
iihin  a  certain  distance  of  the 
m.  In  the  temple  at  Psestum, 
i  entablature  of  the  upper  co- 
l-nns  ranged  very  nearly  with  the 
i  per  member  of  the  external 
(ier.  No  probable  extension  of 
I !  proportionate  height  could  bring 
;  double  range  of  columns,  the 
i  meter  of  the  greatest  of  which 

•  s  only  two  feet  two,  within  a 
liited  distance  of  the  external 
.  nice  of  the  Parthenon,"  &c.  In 
ciflrmation  of  these  arguments  of 
ilkins  against  the  antiquity  of 
■  interior  columns,  Mr.  Walpole 
|s  a  memorandum  made  from  the 
lormation  he  obtained   from  a 
2nch  artist  of  great  merit,  who 
d  resided  many  years  at  Athens, 

•  itaining  a  positive  assertion,  that 
n  interior  columns  of  the  Parthe- 
m,  of  which  there  were  then  re- 
ining several  portions,  were  of 
!  lower  Greek  empire. 

'The  particulars  given  inWheler's 

•  iCription  prove,  that  the  interior 
istyle  was  a  modern  work,  es- 

iitially  differing  from  that  of  the 
;  3  of  Pericles.    In  the  disposition 

•  the  interior  columns,  as  given  by 

•  lart,  some  great  errors  are  ob- 
ived,  both  in  their  number,  posi- 
fn,  and  dimensions.  The  floor  of 
I  cella  around  the  wall  is  a  little 
'  >ed ,  but  this  is  not  a  proof  of  the 

<  stence  of  an  hypaethral,  for  in  the 
bsethral  temple  of  Psestum,  the 
br  next  the  walls,  instead  of  be- 
i  raised,  is  sunk. 

The  pavement  of  the  opistho- 

<  nus  has  the  marks  made  by  the 
1  ges  of  the  ancient  doors,  and  it 

2E 


is  so  little  above  that  of  the  posti- 
cum,  that  the  rise  of  the  step  has 
been  frequently  overlooked.  In 
conformity  with  Wheler's  descrip- 
tion, Stuart  has  introduced  six  co- 
lumns, in  two  ranges,  within  the 
opisthodomus,  although  he  says  no 
traces  remain.  Now  the  walls  of 
the  opisthodomus  are  still  existing, 
very  nearly  of  their  primitive  height; 
the  original  pavement  remains  in  a 
very  entire  state,  and  is  formed  of 
large  marble  slabs,  a  foot  thick, 
but  exhibits  no  appearance  what- 
ever of  columns  having  been  placed 
upon  it;  it  appears  unaccountable, 
therefore,  that  six  columns  "  equal 
in  bulk"  to  those  of  the  exterior 
peristyles,  should  have  perished, 
and  left  no  trace  behind.  Wilkins 
expresses  his  conviction,  that  no 
columns  ever  existed  in  this  situa- 
tion, and  that  Wheler  alludes  to 
the  columns  of  the  posticum,  which 
are  six  in  number,  and  nearly  equal 
in  size  to  those  of  the  peristyle. 
By  supporting  the  roof,  he  mereiy 
meant  that  they  upheld  the  marble 
ceiling  between  them,  and  the  co- 
lumns of  the  western  front. 

The  roof  of  the  Parthenon  was 
unquestionably  of  timber;  it  was 
covered  with  marble  sculptured  so 
as  to  represent  large  tiles,  after  the 
mode  observed  in  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  at  Olympia,  as  described 
by  Pausanias,  (v.  10.)  and  some  are 
yet  to  be  seen  among  the  ruins. 

Party  Walls,  partitions  of 
brick  between  buildings,  in  several 
occupations. 

Parvis,  formerly  a  room  over 
the  church  porch,  where  schools 
used  to  be  held. 

Passages,  the  parts  of  a  build- 
ing which  lead  from  one  room  to 
another.  When  there  is  only  one 
series  of  rooms  in  breadth,  the  pas- 
sage must  run  along  on  one  side  of 
the  building,  and  may  be  lighted  by 
apertures  through  the  exterior  walls. 


PAT 


P  A  V 


If  there  be  more  than  one  room  in 
breadth,  it  must  run  along  the  mid- 
dle, and  may  be  lighted  at  one  or 
both  ends.  When  the  building  is 
very  long,  cross  passages  should  be 
made,  which  will  allow  of  giving 
additional  light.  In  the  upper 
stories  of  buildings,  passages  may 
be  introduced  in  any  direction  which 
is  convenient,  as  light  may  gene- 
rally be  admitted  from  above. 

Pastas,  (7raorac,  Gr.)  a  vesti- 
bule. In  the  expedition  of  the 
Argonauts,  when  Jason  arrives  at 
the  palace  of  Hypsipyle,  the  ser- 
vants throw  open  the  folding  doors, 
and  conduct  him  through  the  vesti- 
bule, Sia  KaXrjg  iraaTahoq.  ( Apol. 
Rhod.  i.  789.)  Herodotus  uses  the 
word  Traorac  to  signify  the  vesti- 
bule, or  pronaos,  of  a  temple  of 
Minerva,  ii.  169.  Pollux  makes 
exedra  and  pastas  synonymous 
terms. 

Pastophori,  ( Gr.  7raoro£,  a 
couch,  and  <f>ep(ot  to  bear,)  priests 
of  an  inferior  order  among  the 
Egyptians,  who  carried  the  statues 
of  the  gods  in  solemn  processions, 
and  are  often  found  sculptured  and 
painted  on  Egyptian  temples.  The 
apartments  where  the  pastophori 
lodged,  were  termed  pastophoria. 
Clemens  of  Alexandria,  describing 
the  Egyptian  temples,  observes, 
"After  having  passed  through  mag- 
nificent courts,  you  are  conducted 
to  a  temple,  which  is  at  the  farther 
end  of  these  courts,  and  there  a 
pastophorus  gravely  lifts  up  the 
veil,  which  is  the  door,  to  shew 
you  the  deity  within;"  and  Apul- 
lius  speaks  of  the  pastophori  that 
carried  the  Syrian  goddess. 

Pate,  in  fortification,  a  kind  of 
platform  in  shape  of  a  horse-shoe, 
encompassed  only  with  a  parapet, 
and,  having  nothing  to  plank  it, 
usually  erected  in  marshy  grounds 
to  cover  a  gate  of  a  town. 

Patera,  (Lat.)  a  vessel  used  in 

218 


the  Roman  sacrifices,  in  shape  L 
dish,  sometimes  introduced  as  n 
ornament  in  friezes,  &c. 

Paternosters,  rows  of  be  L 
carved  on  mouldings. 

Pavement,  (pavimentum,  IM 
a  path  or  road  paved  with  stones, 
The  Carthaginians,  according  o 
Isidorus,  were  the  first  people  \ 
adopted  the  practice  of  paving  tl  r 
streets  with  stone.  It  was  in  - 
duced  into  Rome,  in  imitatiorf 
them,  by  Appius  Claudius  Coec, 
who  constructed  the  road  ca'j 
after  him  the  Appian  way.  Af  - 
wards  the  Roman  roads  were  i 
versally  paved,  and  remains  of  tl  k 
are  found  in  every  country  win 
formed  a  part  of  the  empire,  fa 
Road.  The  pavements  in  the  - 
terior  of  the  Roman  houses  wg 
often  constructed  upon  stages  r 
timber  work,  when  they  were  call 
contignata  pavimenta:  the  pay- 
ments which  they  called  cvas- 
tiones,  were  made  of  oaken  pla  s 
of  the  quercus  cesculus,  wh  i 
were  considered  to  be  least  subjt 
to  warp.  In  some  churches  on  e 
continent,  the  pavement  is  of  ni- 
ble,  and  in  others  mosaic,  as  ink 
Mark  at  Venice.  In  France,  s 
roads,  streets,  courts,  &c.  are  pa  1 
with  gres  or  grit-stone;  and  fl- 
stones,  as  in  England,  are  nol\ 
use.  In  Amsterdam,  and  the  cH 
cities  of  Holland, the  carriage  to  , 
or  middle  of  the  street,  is,  as  vu 
us,  paved  with  flint  or  stone,  ;1 
the  foot  path  at  the  sides  \u 
brick,  and  distinguished  by  E 
name  of  the  burgher-masters. 

The  pavements  of  great  strcs 
in  England  are  usually  of  flint  r 
rubble  stones.  Pavements  of  ft  - 
stone,  flint,  and  flags,  are  laid  i  a 
bed  of  sand  ;  but  in  courts,  or  e 
interior  of  buildings,  the  pavem  f 
is  usually  laid  in  mortar  made'f 
sand  and  lime,  or  in  cement.  1j 
chief  kind  of  paving  are  brk 


P  A  V 


P  A  U 


wing,  with  bricks,  either  edgways 
flat.      Granite,  which  is  uni- 
rsally  used  in  London,  and  gene- 
ilv   brought    from    Scotland — 
uernsey  stone,  which  is  now  much 
USe— Marble,  often  variegated, 
,d  inlaid  with  mosaic— Newcastle 
Lsj  about  two  feet  square,  and 
e  and  a  half  or  two  inches  thick 
\  pebbles,  which  when  about  three 
hi  s  deep  are  called  holders,  or 
u:jcrs — Portland     stone — Pur- 
.ck  pitchers,  squared  siones  from 
e  Isle  of  Purbeck,  used  *  in  foot 
iys,  generally  from  six  to  ten 
hes  square,  and  five  deep — rag 
■me,  dug  in  the  vicinity  of  Maid- 
Mie  in  Kent,  and  formerly  used 
London — Ryegate  or  fire  stone, 
ed  for  hearths,  stoves,  ovens,  and 
ief  places  which  are  liable  to 
»at  heat — squared  paving,  first 
ed  in  Scotland — Sweedland  pav- 
/,  a  black  slate  dug  in  Leices- 
shire,  and  used  in  halls,  &c. — 
nkshire  paving,  a  stone  of  great 
and  about  the  same  thickness 
the  Purbeck,  which  is  not  affected 
frost,  or  penetrated    by  wet. 
amond pavements  have  the  stones 
flags  laid  diagonally. 
Pavement,  Tessellated,  a  pave- 
nt  of  mosaic  work  used  by  the 
intents,  made  of  square  pieces  of 
s  ne,  &c.  called  tessera.  The 
,mans  greatly  delighted  in  this 
1  d  of  ornamental  floor,  which 
f  ceeded,  Pliny  tells  us,  to  the 
(  painted  pavements  which  ori- 
[  ated  in  Greece.     Many  speci- 
l  ns  have  been  found  in  various 
)  ts  of  England,  as  well  as  in  every 
I  t  of  the  continent  which  was 
i  ler  the  Roman  dominion.  The 
t  <erae  (or  small  dies)  which  com- 
|  e  the  majority  of  such  pavements 
I  lave  been  found  in  Britain,  are 
leral  nearly  cubes,  of  about 
a  inch  square ;  but  they  are  by 
r  means  invariably  of  that  size, 
ne  which  are  of  mere  brick,  and 


were  used  for  the  coarse  work  of 
ordinary  apartments,  were  much 
larger;  while  others,  which  were 
employed  in  filling  up  the  minute 
parts  of  such  pavements  as  were 
worked  with  great  labour  and  deli- 
cacy, are  exceedingly  small.  They 
were  embedded  in  cement,  and 
placed  on  prepared  strata  of  differ- 
ent kinds,  as  rubble  stones,  or 
blended  clay,  sand,  and  loose  pieces 
of  brick,  with  brick-work  for  the 
foundation  of  the  whole.  The  tes- 
seree  are  of  various  colours,  and  in 
many  instances  appear  to  have 
been  formed  of  stones  dug  from  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  building  in 
which  they  were  placed,  with  the 
addition  of  small  dies  of  brick  to 
produce  a  red  shade,  and  a  hard 
calcarious  stone,  of  a  bright  white 
hue,  resembling  Palombino  marble. 

Pavilion,  (paviglione,  Ital.)  a 
turret  or  small  building  generally 
insulated,  and  comprised  beneath 
a  single  roof.  This  name  is  also 
given  to  the  projecting  parts  in 
front  of  a  building  which  mark  the 
centre,  and  which  sometimes  flanks 
a  corner,  when  it  is  termed  an  an- 
gular pavilion. 

Paul's,  St.  Cathedral,  the  me- 
tropolitan church  of  the  diocese  of 
London.  Its  site  is  believed  to 
have  been  occupied  in  the  time  of 
the  Romans  by  a  temple  dedicated 
to  Diana,  and  horns  and  skirls 
have  often  been  dug  up,  which  are 
supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the 
animals  sacrificed  to  the  divinity. 
One  of  the  earliest  Anglo-Saxon 
churches  was  erected  here  by  Ethel- 
bert  in  610,  after  his  conversion, 
and  large  sums  were  expended 
upon  it  by  Erkenvvald,  the  fourth 
bishop  of  London,  who  died  in  685. 
The  church  was  destroyed  by  fire 
ill  961,  and,  when  rebuilt,  fell  a  vic- 
tim to  the  same  element  in  1087, 
when  Mauritius,  bishop  of  London, 
conceived  the  design  of  erecting  the 

219 


P  A  U 


PED 


magnificent  building  which  pre- 
ceded the  present  cathedral.  It 
was  not,  however,  entirely  com- 
pleted till  1240,  having  suffered 
severely  from  an  accidental  fire  that 
happened  in  1135,  during  the  pro- 
gress of  its  erection.  It  was  repaired 
in  1633  by  Inigo  Jones,  and  after 
its  destruction  by  the  great  fire  in 
1666,  the  present  edifice  was  erected 
under  the  direction  of  Sir  Christo- 
pher Wren.  The  ancient  cathedral 
was  one  of  the  grandest  works  of 
the  architects  of  the  middle  ages. 
The  general  plan  was  a  simple  cross 
with  a  long  choir,  and  rather  a 
short  transept.  The  body  of  the 
church  was  a  perfect  specimen  of 
Norman  architecture ;  the  nave 
was  divided  from  the  aisles  on  both 
sides  by  huge  clustered  pillars, 
which  supported  large  semicircular 
arches  ;  above  them  was  an  open 
gallery,  with  arcades  resembling 
those  below,  but  of  much  shorter 
proportion.  Above  the  gallery  was 
more  modern  work,  with  pointed 
windows  and  simple  groins,  with 
soffits  and  diagonal  ribs  only,  like 
the  transept  of  Westminster  abbey. 
It  was  the  opinion  of  Sir  Christo- 
pher Wren,  that  this  Norman 
building  had  been  erected  upon 
the  remaining  foundations  of  the 
more  ancient  Saxon  church,  as  he 
found  them  composed  of  Kentish 
rubble-stone,  cemented  with  ex- 
tremely hard  mortar,  both  greatly 
superior  to  the  materials  of  the 
superstructure.  The  choir  and 
lady's  chapel  were  of  the  Gothic 
style,  and  were  fine  specimens  of 
the  architecture  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIII.  At  the  intersection 
of  the  nave  with  the  transept,  four 
massy  pillars  supported  the  tower, 
which  was  of  great  height,  and 
built  in  the  early  Gothic  style  ;  and 
various  masses  of  building,  in  the 
shape  of  enormous  buttresses,  had 
been  added  at  different  periods,  to 

220 


secure  it  from  falling.  At  tl 
western  front,  Inigo  Jones  hi 
erected  a  portico  of  the  Coriathia 
order,  so  that  the  whole  building  di 
played  a  varied  pile  of  the  archite 
ture  of  different  ages  and  countrie 
Dependent  on  it  were  the  chapte 
house,  a  beautiful  octagonal  built 
ing  of  the  pointed  style,  and  tl 
clocher,  or  bell-tower,  a  very  ai 
cient  building  at  the  east  end  | 
the  church-yard. 

The  design  of  Sir  Christophf 
Wren  Was  at  first  restricted  to 
moderate  size,  consisting  of  achoij 
vestibule,  porticos, and  a  lofty  dom 
in  the  Roman  style  of  architecture 
This  being  not  univerally  liked,  I 
formed  another  design,  of  which 
highly  finished  model  was  made  i 
wood,  which  has  been  deposited  i 
a  room  over  the  morning-pray* 
chapel  of  the  present  cathedra 
The  third  design  was  produced  i 
its  present  form,  and  the  work  wa 
begun  on  the  first  of  May  167,: 
the  first  stone  being  laid  on  th 
twenty-first  of  June  following.  I 
1710,  the  last  stone  at  the  top  ( 
the  lantern  was  laid  by  Mr.  Chrif 
topher  Wren,  the  son  of  the  arch 
tect.  A  large  plan  of  this  edific 
was  published  by  Gwyn,  and  de 
scriptions,  plans,  and  drawings 
may  be  found  in  various  archite( 
tural  publications.  See  Domt 
and  St.  Peters. 

Pautre,  Antony  l%e,  a  Frenc 
architect,  who  was  born  in  1614  a 
Paris,  and  died  in  1691.  His  chit 
works  are  the  wings  of  St.  Clouc 
the  church  of  the  nunnery  of  Poi 
Royal,  and  the  hotels  of  Gevrci 
and  Beauvais.  The  first  edition  d 
"  Les  (Euvres  oV  Architecture  d' At, 
toinele  Pautre,"  appeared  in  165^ 

Pectin  atom  Tectum,  a  kin, 
of  roof  among  the  Romans,  whic 
was  shaped  like  a  comb,  and  thre1 
off  the  water  in  two  ways. 

Pedestal,  (Fr.  from  pes,  La 


FED 


P  ED 


{foot,)  the  square  support  of  a 
,!umn,  statue,  &c.  and  the  base 
,  lower  part  of  an  order  of  co- 
nns. When  the  height  and  width 
|>  equal,  is  termed  a  square  pedes- 
[•  one  which  supports  two  co- 
nns, is  a  double  pedestal;  and 
t  support  a  row  of  columns  with- 
jt  any  break,  it  is  a  comtinued 
■iestal.     The  lowest  and  most 
i  iple  kind  of  pedestal,   is  the 
tscan.    Palladio  and  Scamozzi 
ire  it  three  modules  in  height: 
gnola,  five.     According  to  the 
ter  writer,  it  consists  of  a  plinth 
a  base,  the  die,  and  a  talon 
owned  for  a  cornice.    The  Doric 
lev  has  in  antiques  no  pedestal 
<  base :  Palladio  gives  it  a  pedes- 
,  four  modules  five  minutes  high, 
ich  is  increased  by  Vignola  to 
e  modules  four  minutes.    In  the 
nple  of  Fortuna  Virilis,  the  Ionic 
'iestal  is  seven  modules  twelve 
nutes:  Scamozzi  makes  it  five, 
d  Vignola  six  modules.  Its  mem- 
ts  and  ornaments,    as  well  as 
)se  of  the  Doric,  differ  little  from 
)se  given  to  the  Tuscan.    In  the 
!loseum,   the  Corinthian  order 
?  a  pedestal  four  modules  two 
nutes  in  height:  Palladio  gives 
b  height  of  the  Corinthian  pedes- 
at  five  modules  one  minute; 
^nola,  seven  modules  ;  and  Ser- 
t  six  modules  five  minutes.  The 
mposite  pedestal  has  much  the 
tjne  dimensions  as  the  Corinthian : 
!  imozzi  makes  it  six  modules  two 
mutes,  and  Palladio  six  modules 
!  en  minutes.     Pedestals  should 
i  cr  be  employed  with  detached 
(  umns  forming  porticos,  but  they 
I  frequently  applied  to  columns 
1  ich  divide  arches,  and  are  neces- 
I  y  in  churches,  where  the  pews 
fluid  otherwise  conceal  the  base, 
:1  great  part  of  the  columns. 
■  ey  may  be  introduced  with  pro- 
]  ety,  likewise,  in  all  edifices  built 
1  the  reception  of  crowded  assem- 


blies. The  best  method  of  arrang- 
ing pedestals  is  that  employed  by 
Vignola,  who  makes  them  in  all 
three  orders,  one  third  of  the  height 
of  the  columns. 

Pediculus,  in  the  middle  ages, 
a  kind  of  prison,  in  which  the  feet 
were  bound  in  chains. 

Pediment,  (from  pes,  Lat.  a 
foot,)  an  ornament  generally  of  a 
low  triangular  form,  which  crowns 
the  ordonnances,  finishes  the  fronts 
of  buildings,  and  is  used  as  a  deco- 
ration of  windows,  doors,  &c.  A 
pediment  is  more  properly  speaking 
the  angular  end  of  a  building  which 
surmounts  a  portico.  The  entabla- 
ture, in  this  case,  is  covered  by 
two  straight  inclined  cornices,  the 
mouldings  of  which  are  similar  to 
the  horizontal  one  :  the  space  en- 
closed is  called  the  tympanum. 
This  was  the  original  pediment, 
and  the  only  form  found  in  Greece; 
but  the  Romans,  to  vary  the  form, 
employed,  in  smaller  works,  a  seg- 
ment of  a  circle,  instead  of  the 
triangle.  This  form,  however,  is 
heavy,  and  is  only  used  as  a  cover- 
ing to  gates,  doors,  windows,  and 
such  smaller  architectural  works, 
where,  by  reason  of  its  minuteness, 
it  produces  variety,  without  being 
disagreeable  to  the  eye.  The  fol- 
lowing method  of  determining  the 
height  of  a  pediment  has  been 
given  in  a  French  pamphlet.  From 
the  summit  of  an  equilateral  tri- 
angle, of  which  the  base  is  the  up- 
per fillet  of  the  horizontal  cornice, 
with  one  side  of  the  triangle  as  a 
radius,  describe  an  arc.  With  the 
point  of  intersection  between  this 
arc  and  the  centre  line  of  the  com- 
position as  a  centre,  and  with  the 
depth  of  the  horizontal  cornice  as  a 
radius,  describe  a  part  of  a  circle  : 
a  line  drawn  from  the  extreme 
boundary  of  the  upper  moulding  of 
the  horizontal  cornice,  making  a 
tangent  to  the  circle,   gives  the 


PEN 


PEP 


inclination  of  the  pediment.  See 
Mtoma,  Eagle,  Fastigium,  Gable, 
Tympanum. 

Pegmata,  see  Antepagmenta. 

Pelecoides,  (Gr.)  a  mathema- 
tical figure  in  form  of  a  hatchet, 
contained  under  two  inverted  quad- 
rantal  arcs  and  a  semicircle. 

Pend,  in  Gothic  architectures 
vaulted  roof  without  groining. 

Pendant,  a  hanging  ornament 
in  very  rich  Gothic  groined  roofs. 
See  Gothic  Architecture. 

Pendent  Bridge,  a  wooden 
bridge,  with  butments  only  at  the 
ends,  and  supported  by  posts  and 
pillars. 

Pendentive,  the  whole  body  of 
a  vault,  suspended  out  of  the  per- 
pendicular of  the  walls. 

Pendentive  Bracketing,  or 
cove  bracketing,  springing  from  the 
rectangular  walls  of  an  apartment 
upwards  to  the  ceiling,  and  form- 
ing the  horizontal  part  of  the  ceil- 
ing into  a  circle  or  ellipse. 

Pendentive  Cradling,  the 
timber-work  for  sustaining  the  lath 
and  plaster  in  vaulted  ceilings. 

Penetrale,  (Lat.)  the  most  sa- 
cred part  of  a  temple,  which  gene- 
rally contained  an  altar  dedicated 
to  Jupiter  Hercaeus,  who  derived 
his  appellation,  according  to  Festus, 
from  kpscog,  an  enclosure,  and  was 
the  supposed  protector  of  its  sanc- 
tity. And  thus  Ovid  alludes  to  the 
death  of  Priam,  who  was  slain  at 
the  altar  of  Hercuean  Jupiter,  (in 
Ibin.  283:)— 

Nec  tibi  subsidio  sit  praesens  numtn  :  ut  illi, 
Cui  nihil  Herceei  profuit  ara  Jovis. 

And  from  Virgil  it  appears  that 
this  altar  was  in  an  hypsethral 
atrium,  and  shaded  by  a  laurel  tree, 
(Mn.  ii.  512.)  There  was  an  altar 
of  Hercsean  Jove  in  the  temple  of 
Minerva  Polias  at  Athens,  (Dionys. 
Halicarn.  in  Dinarcho.  p.  113.)  and 
it  was  under  an  olive-tree,  (v-n-o  ttj 
i\ai<})  and  consequently  must  have 


been  in  that  part  exposed  to  t1 
open  air.  Diodorus  Siculus  spea 
of  a  fiufjioQ  vTraidpioQ,  hypaethr 
altar,  in  the  midst  of  the  peristV 
of  a  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Thelx! 
and  the  Iliac  table  represents  Pria; 
slain  at  an  hypaethral  altar  in  t!1 
midst  of  an  internal  peristyle. 

Penetralia,  (  Lat. )  small  ch 
pels  in  the  innermost  part  of  t! 
Roman  houses,  dedicated  to  tl: 
penates  or  household  gods, 
which  they  used  to  deposit  wha 
ever  was  held  most  valuable. 

Penetentiaries,  amongst  tit 
monks,  were  small  square  house 
in  which  the  penitent  shut  himse 
up,  sometimes  in  a  grove  near 
river,  and  at  a  distance  fro 
towns. 

Pent  Roof,  see  Roof. 

Pentadoron,  (Gr.)  a  kind  J 
bricks  among  the  Greeks,  whic 
were  five  palms  long,  and  whic 
they  employed  in  their  publ 
edifices. 

Pentagon,  (Gr.)  in  Geometr; 
a  figure  of  five  sides  and  hv 
angles. 

Pentagraph.  See  PanU 
graph. 

Pentapastos,  (Gr.)  a  maoliii 
mentioned  by  Vitruvius,  which  w<| 
used  to  raise  great  weights,  sucj 
as  stones,  to  a  certain  height,  ii 
building. 

Pentastyle,  (Gr.)  having  fh 
columns  in  front. 

Peperino,  (Ital.)  a  kind  of  stoi 
found  in  the  environs  of  Rome.  Th 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ai! 
is  generally  known  by  this  nam 
whilst  that  found  near  Tivoli 
called  travertino.  Both  sorts,  d 
account  of  their  fine  quality,  we; 
much  used  by  the  ancient  Roman 
The  first  is  found  in  an  anciei 
tomb  near  Albano,  and  the  latt< 
in  the  great  cloaca  of  Rome,  in  tr 
foundations  of  the  Capitol,  and  i 
the  column  termed  rostrata. 


PER 

>erambulator,  (Lat.)  an  in- 
st  ment  for  measuring  distances  in 
Jelling,  by  being  attached  to  the 
wel  of  a  coach,  &c. 

erclose,  or  Parclose,  in  the 
ai  n'tecture  of  the  middle  ages,  sig- 
ns d  a  closet. 

ergula,  (Lat.)  the  name  given 
aung  the  Romans  to  that  part  of 
a  )use  now  called  the  gallery.  By 
\Mscus  it  is  termed  magistralis. 
h  Mautus,  the  term  is  used  for  the 

:     b;  ony  of  a   house,  where  the 

!  crtezans  were  accustomed  to 
p  e  themselves,  more  readily  to 
a  act  notice.  The  pergula  was 
soetimes  a  portico  for  training 
vi  s  and  creepers,  ranged  along 
tl  back  front  of  the  windows  of 
tl  triclinium,  (Pompeiana.)  Winc- 

t  k  nann  says,  that  in  its  most  cus- 
fr  ary  sense,  it  meant  a  bower 

itfc  el  antly  formed  of  reeds  fastened 
aoss.  It  was  also  a  short  walk- 
ir  place,  where  artificers  exhibited 
tl  r  goods. 

eriacti,  (  from  7repiay£iv,  Gr. 
U evolve,)  the  revolving  scenes  of 
tl  theatre,  called  by  the  Romans 

!     skee  versatiles. 

'eribolos,  (Gr.)  a  court  or  en- 
c  ure  within  a  wall,  sometimes 
si  ounding  a  temple.  It  was  com- 
n.i'.y  adorned  with  statues,  altars, 
a;  monuments,  and  often  contain- 
d  other  smaller  temples,  or  a  sa- 
c|  grove.  The  peribolos  of  the 
t(  pie  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at 
Aens,  was  four  stadia  in  eircum- 
fcjjnce.  The  temple  of  Apollo 
I  ymaeus,  near  Miletus,  was  sur- 
H  ided  by  a  peribolos  and  a  sacred 
g  e,  some  of  the  trees  of  which 
st  exist.  Round  temples  had 
scetimes  also  their  peribolos,  as 
see  by  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
8  •  pis,  at  Puzzuolo,  orPuteoli. 
i  ri drome,  (Trepi,  around,  and 
oc,  a  course,  or  parade,)  that 
p  of  the  periptere,  which  was  left 
b'  veen  the  columns  and  the  walls, 


PER 

and  which  served  among  the  Greeks 
as  a  promenade. 

Perimeter,  (Gr.)  the  bounds 
of  any  figure. 

Periphanes,  or  Prostypon, 
(Gr.)  a  term  by  which  are  some- 
times designated  figures  and  orna- 
ments sculptured  in  very  high 
relief. 

Periphery,  (Gr.  from  Trzpityepio, 
I  surround,)  the  circumference  of 
a  circle,  ellipsis,  parabola,  or  other 
regular  curvilinear  figure. 

Periptere,  ( Gr.)  a  range  of 
insulated  columns  distant  from  the 
wall  an  intercolumniation,  which 
surrounded  the  exterior  of  a  tem- 
ple. 

Peripteral,  a  temple  sur- 
rounded with  a  periptere,  which 
is  the  fourth  kind  in  the  classifi- 
cation of  Vitruvius.  They  were 
occasionally  both  round  and  square. 
See  Temple. 

Perirriianterion,  (Gr.  from 
irepipaivh),  to  sprinkle,)  a  kind  of 
vases  placed  at  the  entrances  of 
ancient  temples,  which  were  filled 
with  pure  water,  with  which  the 
priests  both  washed  their  own 
hands,  and  sprinkled  such  as  en- 
tered. In  the  Pitture  d'Ercolano, 
vol.  v.  pi.  69,  are  seen  two  lustral 
vases  at  the  gate  of  a  religious  edi- 
fice, in  each  of  which  is  a  branch 
of  laurel. 

Peristyle,  ( Gr.)  a  range  of 
columns  within  a  court  or  building, 
as  the  internal  colonnade  of  an  hy- 
paethral  temple.  One  of  the  courts 
of  the  Roman  villas,  which  was 
defended  from  the  rays  of  the  sun 
by  a  colonnade,  was  called  a  peri- 
style. See  House.  According  to 
Vitruvius,  it  should  have  in  length 
one  and  a  half  its  breadth. 

Peristylium,  (  Gr.  )  a  large 
rectangular  space  in  the  middle  of 
the  Athenian  gymnasia,  for  walking, 
and  performing  the  exercises  not 
peculiar  to  the  palaestra. 


PER 


PER 


Peritrochium,  (Gr.)  a  term  in 
Mechanics,  given  to  a  wheel  or 
circle,  concentric  with  the  base  of 
a  cylinder,  and  together  with  it 
moveable  about  an  axis. 

Perpendicular,  (Lat.)  a  right 
line  standing  on  another,  so  as  to 
make  right  angles  with  it,  or  to 
make  the  angles  on  each  side  the 
same.  One  plane  is  perpendicular 
to  another,  when  a  line  in  it  is  per- 
pendicular to  the  other  plane.  A 
perpendicular  to  a  curve,  is  a  right 
line  which  cuts  the  curve  in  a 
point,  where  another  right  line,  to 
which  it  is  perpendicular,  makes  a 
tangent  with  the  curve. 

Perpent  Stone,  Perpender,  or 
Perpin,  (Fr.)  a  long  stone,  intended 
to  reach  through  a  wall,  so  as  to 
be  visible  on  both  sides,  and  there- 
fore wrought  and  smoothed  at  the 
ends. 

Perpeyn-walls,  a  term  ap- 
plied in  the  Monasticon  to  two 
walls  in  Fotheringhay  church,  which 
divided  the  body  from  the  aisles : 
probably  it  meant  walls  finished 
alike  on  both  sides. 

Perrault,  Claude,  born  at 
Paris  in  1613,  was  at  first  brought 
up  to  the  medical  profession,  and 
took  his  degree  as  doctor  in  1641  : 
but  he  was  afterwards  led  by  his  taste 
to  turn  his  attention  to  the  study 
of  architecture,  and  in  1666,  was 
appointed  to  select  a  spot,  and  gave 
a  plan,  for  the  erection  of  the  Obser- 
vatory of  the  Academy  of  Sciences, 
of  which  he  was  one  of  the  first 
members.  His  master-piece  was 
the  facade  of  the  Louvre,  executed 
under  Louis  XIV.  He  also  fur- 
nished a  design  for  a  grand  trium- 
phal arch,  which  was  begun,  but 
never  furnished.  Amongst  his 
other  works  are  the  chapel  at 
Sceaux,  that  of  Notre  Dame,  in 
the  church  of  the  Petits  Peres, 
in  Paris,  &c.  Perrault  published 
a   translation   of  Vitruvius,  with 

224 


notes,  in  1673.    He  also  publis 
"  Ordonnance  des  Cinq  Espece?  e 
Colonnes,  selon  la  Methode  L 
Anciens,"  and  several  works  L 
other  subjects.    He  died  at  P 
in  1688,  at  the  age  of  75. 

Perron,  (Fr.)  a  staircase  ijL 
open,  or  without-side  the  buildii ; 
more  properly  the  steps  in  e 
front  of  a  building  which  lead  h 
the  first  story,  where  it  is  r  - 
ed  a  little  above  the  level  of  e 
ground. 

Perronet,  John  Rodolpih 
a  French  architect,  born  in  17 
In  1745,  he  was  made  inspecto  f 
the  school  of  engineers,  and  at  - 
wards  director  of  the  bridges  ! 
roads  of  France.  His  services  we 
rewarded  by  honouring  him  vjh 
the  order  of  St.  Michael,  and  e 
was  admitted  a  member  of  e 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  f 
the  Royal  Society  of  London,  n 
of  the  Academy  of  Stockholm,  e 
published  a  description  of  e 
bridges  which  he  had  construe!  , 
in  2  vols.  12mo.  and  Memoirs  n 
the  Method  of  constructing  git 
Arches  of  Stone,  from  twohundl 
to  five  hundred  feet  in  span,  s 
death  took  place  in  1794,  at  Pai 

Persepolis,  the  ancient  capj.l 
of  Persia,  of  which  now  only  a 
ruins  remain  ;  which  are  supped 
to  be  chiefly  those  of  a  pal 
The  great  plain  of  Merdasht(M 
dasht)  or  Istakhr,  in  which 
ruins  are  situated,  is  one  of 
most  fertile  in  Persia,  being  wated 
in  all  directions  by  rivulets 
artificial  drains,  which  ultima^ 
unite  in  the  Bundemir,  the  anc 
Araxes.    The   artificial  plain 
which  the  ruins  of  the  immfse 
royal  citadel  or  palace  stand,  i 
a  very  irregular  shape.   The  ex 
of  each  face  is,  that  to  the  sc 
eight  hundred  and  two  feet,  to 
north  nine  hundred  and  twenty- 
to  the  west  one  thousand  four  1) 


PER 


PER 


(»d  and  twenty  five.  The  level 
|  become  exceedingly  uneven  by 
I  accumulation  of  fallen  ruins, 
j  the  north  -  west  considerable 
i  sses  of  the  native  rock  shew 
tmselves,  still  bearing  the  marks 
c  the  original  implements  with 
Ich  the  higher  pieces  had  been 
}vn  down  to  the  level  required. 
I  deeper  cavities,  the  progress  of 
iuarry  is  visible,  part  of  the  rock 
i  some  places  being  half  hewn 
t  nigh,  and  in  others,  lying  in 
ripieted  slabs  ready  for  removal. 
I>  steep  faces  of  the  rocky  terrace 
a  formed  of  dark  grey  marble, 
c  into  gigantic  square  blocks 
eluisitely  polished,  and,  without 
tl  aid  of  mortar,  fitted  to  each 
o  -t  with  closeness  and  precision. 
A  a  spot  near  the  group  of  co- 
h  ns,  its  present  perpendicular 
li  is  thirty  feet;  but  there  can 
bno  doubt  that,  might  we  clear 
a  y  all  that  hides  this  beautiful 
ui,  we  should  find  an  additional 
d  ih  of  twenty  feet.  This  spa- 
c  s  art  ficial  platform  consists  of 
ti  e  separate  terraces.  The  first, 
o  lowest,  embracing  the  whole 
If  fh  of  the  southern  face,  is  one 
h  .1  red  and  eighty-three  feet  wide, 
i  A  lg  the  edge,  large  masses  of 
i  st  e  remain  in  different  spots,  with 
foments  of  a  parapet.  On  the 
efof  the  third  or  highest  south- 
er terrace,  are  marks  of  a  strong 
ra  e  of  railing  or  palisadoes.  At 
th:op  of  the  steps  which  connect 
th  terrace  with  the  one  beneath, 
ar  found  two  large  holes,  cut 
ieUv  in  this  stone,  which  received 
th  pivots  of  the  gates  that  an- 
ci(  ly  closed  this  ingress.  The 
if  are  composed  of  immense 
blus  of  marble,  each  block  being 
so  rge  as  to  allow  ten  or  fourteen 
Rt(  to  he  cut  into  its  solid  mass. 
Oieaching  the  platform,  the  first 
ob.  ls  that  strike  the  astonished 
W  Her,  are  the  lofty  sides  of  an 


enormous  portal,  the  interior  faces 
of  which  are  sculptured  into  the 
forms  of  two  colossal  bulls.  A 
pedestal  elevates  them  five  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  platform. 
At  a  considerable  height  above 
their  backs  are  three  small  com- 
partments filled  with  inscriptions 
in  the  arrow  -  headed  character. 
Proceeding  onward  to  the  east, 
twenty-four  feet  from  the  portal, 
was  a  fine  group  of  columns  : 
they  were  all  erect  in  Chardin's 
time,  but  when  Sir  Robert  Ker 
Porter  visited  Persepolis,  two  only 
remained,  and  not  a  relic  of  their 
companions.  They  were  placed 
equidistant  from  each  other,  at 
twenty-two  feet.  Their  bases  are 
buried  in  the  ruins :  their  capitals 
are  singular  and  beautiful,  consist- 
ing, as  it  were,  of  three  combined 
in  one.  The  shaft  gradually  nar- 
rows toward  the  top,  varied  by 
thirty-nine  flutings  near  the  cinc- 
ture; each  of  which  is  four  inches 
in  width.  A  space  of  twenty-four 
feet  separates  them  from  a  second 
portal,  resembling  the  former  both 
in  shape  and  dimensions,  except 
that  its  length  is  eighteen  feet  in- 
stead of  twenty-one.  The  inner 
sides  are  sculptured  in  like  manner, 
but  the  animals  represented  have 
the  body  and  legs  of  a  bull,  an 
enormous  pair  of  wings  projecting 
fiom  the  shoulders,  and  the  heads, 
looking  to  the  east,  showing  the 
faces  of  men.  On  the  head  is  a 
cylindrical  diadem,  on  both  sides  of 
which  horns  are  clearly  represented 
winding  from  the  brows  upwards 
to  the  front  of  the  crown ;  the 
whole  being  surmounted  with  a 
sort  of  coronet,  formed  of  a  range 
of  leaves  like  the  lotus,  and  bound 
with  a  fillet  beautifully  carved  in 
roses.  An  agate  seal,  brought  by 
Niebuhr  from  Basrah,  and  sup- 
posed to  be  of  the  highest  antiquity, 
exhibits  the  winged   bull  with  a 


PER 


PER 


human  bead.     A  similar  device 

appears  upon  a  cornelian  brought 
from  Shiraz  by  Sir  W.  Ouseley, 
as  well  as  on  many  Greek  medals, 
gems,  and  bronzes ;  but  this  is  the 
only  instance  in  which  such  a  re- 
presentation is  known  to  exist  in 
Persia  in  marble.  Mons.  Anquetil 
du  Perron  advances  very  cogent 
reasons  for  supposing  it  to  be  a 
symbolic  representation  of  Noah  ! 
Sacy  thinks  it  the  emblem  of  Kaia- 
murs,  the  Hrst  sovereign  of  the 
Paishdadian  dynasty,  and  he  de- 
rives his  name  from  Gaw-i-mird, 
bull  and  man.  Three  compart- 
ments of  inscriptions  are  cut  in 
the  wall  over  the  figure.  At  the 
distance  of  one  hundred  and  sixty- 
two  feet  from  this  portal  is  the 
magnificent  terrace  which  supports 
the  multitude  of  columns  from 
which  it  takes  its  name.  44  On 
drawing  near  the  Chehel-minar,  or 
Palace  of  Forty  Pillars."  says  Sir 
Robert  Ker  Porter,  "  the  eye  is 
riveted  by  the  grandeur  and  beau- 
tiful decorations  of  the  flight  of 
steps  which  lead  up  to  them.  This 
superb  approach  consists  of  a  dou- 
ble staircase,  projecting  consider- 
ably before  the  northern  face  of  the 
terrace,  the  whole  length  of  which 
is  two  hundred  and  twelve  feet: 
at  each  extremity,  east  and  west, 
rises  another  range  of  steps ;  and 
again,  about  the  middle,  project- 
ing from  it  eighteen  feet,  appear 
two  smaller  flights  rising  from  the 
same  point.  Here,  the  extent  of 
the  range,  including  a  landing- 
place  of  twenty  feet,  amounts  to 
eighty-six.  The  ascent,  like  that 
of  the  great  entrance  from  the 
plain,  is  extremely  gradual ;  each 
flight  containing  only  thirty -two 
steps  (none  exceeding  four  inches 
in  height,  )  in  breadth  fourteen 
inches,  and  in  length  sixteen  feet. 
The  whole  front  of  the  advanced 
range  is  covered  with  sculpture. 

226 


The  eye  at  first  roves  over  it,  5t 
and  bewildered  by  the  multiti :  s 
of  figures."  Amongst  these  sctih 
tures  the  bull  and  the  lion  o  a 
occur,  and  not  unfrequentlv 
flower  of  the  lotus.  This  flo 
was  alike  sacred  in  Persia,  In  i, 
and  Egypt.  The  Egyptians  in  - 
duced  it  into  the  architecture  >f 
their  temples.  It  is  the  Jieur-  - 
luce  of  the  arms  of  France ;  1 
Sir  R.  K.  Porter  remarks,  thai 
all  pictures  of  the  salutation  of  e 
Virgin,  this  flower  is  introduced 

'*  On  ascending  the  platform  ri 
which  the  palace  of  Forty  Pil  s 
once  stood,  nothing  can  he  n  e 
striking  than  the  view  of  its  riMt 
so  vast  and  magnificent,  so  falL 
mutilated,  and  silent, — the  cm 
of  Cyrus,  the  pavilion  of  Alex 
do's  triumph,  and  the  memorial 
the  wantonness  of  his  power !"  1  j 
immense  upper  platform  stretcs 
north  and  south  350  feet,  and  fun 
east  to  west  380.  The  greater  n 
is  covered  with  broken  capil 
shafts  of  columns,  and  innumer;  e 
fragments  of  buildin<r,many  of  ti  n 
richly  sculptured.  The  distribu  n 
of  the  columns  comprised  fouii- 
visions,  consisting  of  a  centre  jp 
lanx  of  six  feet  deep  every  way  n 
advance  body  of  twelve  in  o 
ranks,  and  the  same  number  fly- 
ing the  centre.  The  form  of  ie 
columns  which  compose  the  ti  e 
distinct  colonnades,  is  the  sam  it 
all.  The  total  height  of  each  - 
lumn  is  sixty  feet;  the  circun  r- 
ence  of  the  shaft  sixteen  feet;  M 
its  length  from  the  capital  to  the  W 
forty-four  feet.  At  its  lower  x- 
tremity  begin  a  cincture  and  ate  h 
the  former  two  inches  deep,  lie 
latter  one  foot;  whence  devc|es 
the  pedestal  in  the  form  of  thel'P 
and  leaves  of  a  pendent  lotus.  It 
rests  upon  a  plinth  of  eight  vn&9t 
and  in  circumference  measu&g 
twenty-four  feet  six  inches;  he 


PER 


PER 


iole  from  the  cincture  to  the 
inlh,  comprising  a  height  of  five 
2t  ten  inches.  The  capitals  which 
main,  though  much  injured, 
;how  that  they  were  all  sur- 
-uinted  with  the  double  demibull." 
ie  columns  of  the  central  pha- 
ix  are  only  fifty-five  feet  high, 
d  differ  considerably  from  the 
hers ;  the  shafts  are  fluted,  and 
out  thirty-five  feet  in  length  ;  the 
pitals  resemble  those  of  the  great 
rtal,  of  which  a  figure  is  given  in 
.  Castle,  C.  70.  fig.  5.  The  two 
ver  divisions  are  evidently  con- 
ucted  of  the  hallowed  lotus  ;  the 
per  compartment  has  only  two 
lutes.  The  nearest  building  now 
nding  to  this  palace,  appears  on 
.  elevation  about  seven  or  eight 
t  above  the  level  of  the  plane  of 
t  colonnades,  and  measures  one 
ndred  and  seventy  feet  by  ninety- 
e.  It  is  approached  from  the 
st  bv  a  double  flight  of  stairs, 
1  ich,  from  the  fragments  that  re- 
1  in,  appear  to  have  been  sculp- 
i  lied  like  those  of  the  great 
]  tform  ;  the  eastern  side  is 
l  ied  in  fallen  ruins;  to  the  south 
t  whole  face  of  the  terrace  is  oc- 
oied  by  another  superb  flight,  the 
1'ding  place  of  which  embraces 
r  rly  forty-eight  feet  by  ten.  The 
|  iform  around  the  building  is 
c  ered  with  ruins  of  walls,  majes- 
t  portals,  with  colossal  statuary, 
<^  From  the  western  landing- 
p  :e  two  portals  lead  into  a  room 
f<iy-eight  feet  square  ;  it  has  two 
(1  rs  on  the  north,  two  to  the  west, 
0  to  the  south,  and  originally 
ti  to  the  east.  On  three  sides  of 
tl  room  are  several  niches,  each 
8  nated  in  one  solid  stone,  to  a 
d  )th  of  three  feet,  five  feet  high, 
;«  six  feet  wide;  they  appear  to 
;  been  exquisitely  polished  with- 
in 'hile  upright  lines  of  cuneiform 
cl  acters  run  along  their  edges. 
F  r  windows,  ten  feet  high,  open 


to  the  south.     There  is  another 

apartment  of  the  same  building, 
thirty  feet  by  forty-eight,  open  to 
the  south. 

Another  elevation  occurs  at 
about  ninety  -  six  feet  to  the 
south  of  the  preceding;  but  its 
buildings,  which  appear  to  have 
been  of  a  similar  description,  are  in 
a  more  dilapidated  state  even  than 
the  former.  Immediately  beyond 
this  terrace  rises  a  fifth,  and  a  much 
more  extensive  elevation,  on  which 
stand  the  remains  of  one  of  the 
most  regularly  planned  structures 
of  the  whole  platform.  Of  the  vast 
edifice  which  once  stood  upon  it, 
the  principal  doorways  and  huge 
marble  window-frames  are  yet  in 
their  places;  their  lofty  sides  and 
ponderous  lintels  resemble,  though 
with  the  finest  workmanship,  our 
druidical  monument,  at  Stonehenge. 
The  windows  and  portals  are  co- 
vered with  bas-reliefs.  Amid  the 
ruins,  beneath  the  pavement,  may 
be  traced  a  subterraneous  aque- 
duct. At  the  sides  of  the  open 
court  stand  the  remains  of  its  once 
magnificent  approaches.  About 
sixty  feet  farther  to  the  north,  ap- 
pear several  colossal  masses  of 
stone,  forming  the  sides  of  large 
portals,  leading  into  a  square  edi- 
fice, which  appears,  from  the  situ- 
ations of  the  doors  on  each  side,  to 
have  been  of  but  small  dimensions. 
About  one  hundred  and  sixty  feet 
to  the  south-east  of  it  is  another 
pile  of  ruins,  which  marks  the 
site  of  a  once  magnificent  building, 
only  now  to  be  traced  by  the  foun- 
dations, portals,  and  parts  of  the 
walls.  Other  buildings  of  the  same 
character  are  traced  in  every 
direction. 

The  foregoing  account  is  abridged 
from  the  description  given  by  Sir 
Robert  Ker  Porter.  Immediately 
behind  the  Takht-i-Jemshced%  or 
seat  of  Jemsheed,  the  name  given 

227 


PER 


PER 


by  the  modem  Persians  to  the 
whole  platform,  are  two  tombs  ex- 
cavated in  the  mountain,  between 
three  and  four  hundred  yards 
apart,  the  front  of  each  finely  sculp- 
tured. Each  contains  a  chamber 
about  thirty  feet  wide,  fifteen  or 
eighteen  deep,  and  ten  or  twelve 
high.  About  three  quarters  of  a 
mile  southward  i3  a  third  tomb, 
which  has  never  been  finished,  al- 
though apparently  the  most  ancient. 
About  a  mile  and  a.  half,  or  two 
miles,  to  the  north  in  another  cham- 
ber in  the  rock,  which,  from  the 
supposed  reference  to  its  sculptures, 
has  obtained  the  appellation  of 
Naksh-i  Rajah  (the  portrait  of 
Rajab  :)  and  four  miles  from  the 
platform  are  the  sculptured  tombs 
called  by  the  natives  Naksh-i-Rus- 
tam  (the  portrait  of  Rustam.)  Be- 
sides the  work  of  Sir  Robert,  the 
reader  may  consult  the  works  of 
Ouseley,  Morier,  Niebuhr,  le  Brun, 
Chardin,  Kaempfer,  and  della 
Valle.  See  Persian  Architec- 
ture. 

Persians,  or  Caryatides.  See 
Caryatides.  The  authenticity  of 
Vitruvius'  story  about  the  origin  of 
the  term  Caryatides,  and  the  his- 
tory of  the  Caryatic  war,  were  first 
questioned  by  Lessing,  the  German 
antiquary,  (Kleinere  Antiquarische 
Aufsatz,  band  x.  p.  369.)  The  use 
of  similar  supporters  in  Egyptian 
buildings  convince  us  of  the  antiqui- 
ty of  the  practice.  A  bas-relief  found 
near  Naples,  representing  two  Ca- 
ryatides about  three  feet  high,  bears 
this  inscription :  —Till  EAAAAI  TO 
TPOIIAION  E2TA0H  KATANIK- 
HGENTflN  TON  KAPYATON. 
"This  trophy  has  been  raised  to 
to  Greece,  on  the  conquest  of 
the  Caryates."  But  it  is  not  of 
sufficient  antiquity  to  afford  any 
more  authentic  argument  than  the 
passage  of  Vitruvius.  In  the  Athe- 
nian inscription,  (see  Minerva  Po- 


lias,)  the  Caryatides  of  the  terrr 
of  Minerva  Polias,  are  cal! 
KOPAI,  virgins,  which  tacitly  d 
proves  the  story  of  Vitruvius :  a 
in  the  description  of  this  temple 
Vernadae,  the  Venetian  engineer 
the  siege  of  Athens  in  1687  ;  i;, 
said  to  be  "  sostenute  da  quat 
statue  di  marmo,  quale  rappresc 
tano  le  Grazie  che  Socrate  fece  • 
vestire  per  burlarsi  di  quelli,  c 
le  hanno  rappresentate  nudo,"  (1 
nelli,  Atene  Attici,)  sustained 
four  statues  of  marble  which  rep 
sented  the  Graces,  who  were  rep 
sented  by  Socrates  clothed.  Vt 
few  examples  have  been  known 
the  use  of  Caryatides  or  Persia 
by  Grecian  architects.  Of  the  i 
of  Persians,  or  male  figures,  call 
also  Telambnes  and  Atlantes.wehc 
an  example  in  the  temple  of  Ju 
ter  at  Agrigentum,  (see  Agrirjt. 
tumt)  where  they  resembled  t 
attached  Colossi  in  the  Memnonii 
temples  of  Thebes ;  they  m 
twenty-five  feet  high,  and  appe 
to  have  supported  the  roof  in  I 
interior  of  the  temple.  The  P 
sian  portico  at  Sparta,  descri! 
by  Pausanias,  was  decorated  w 
figures  of  Persians,  amongst  wh 
was  Mardonius,  on  columns,  a 
they  are  called  by  Vitruvius  "  caj| 
vorum  simulachra,"  statues  of  a 
tivas.  This  portico  has  h 
likened  to  an  edifice  now  known  ' 
the  name  of  the  Incantada,  |t 
Thessalonica,  but  in  this  buildt 
the  statues  represent  mythologi  1 
personages,  as  Ganymede,  Le«, 
Telephus,  &c.  The  statues  r 
canephorse  of  the  Pandrose  \ 
resemble,  in  costume,  the  A|! 
virgins  in  the  Panathenaic  frie, 
and  have  no  characteristics  f 
degradation  in  their  compositi . 
Details  of  these  statues  will  be  foil 
among  the  plates  of  Atkeni 
Architecture. 

The  dress  of  the  Persians  up 


PER 

t  frieze  of  the  temple  of  Victory, 
T  v  in  the  British  Museum,  consists 
5a  very  full  tunic,  and  of  a  pair 
f  Jloose  pantaloons  enveloping  the 
f  t.    It  appears  from  Persius,  that 

i  y  were  represented  in  the  same 
r  jnner  in  the  Poecile,  for  the  sa- 
tjist  calls  that  Sioa,  braccatis  iilita 

e,il    Jldis  porticus. 

1  Persian  Architecture.  The 
r hcd  monuments  #f  the  architec- 
ts of  the  ancient  Persians,  cannot 

*  t regarded  as  models  of  the  art, 
b  they  are  important  to  the  anti- 

1  q try,  and  the  artist.  The  style 
ders,  though  it  bears  at  the  same 
tje  a  great  resemblance  to  that  of 
t|  Egyptians  and  Indians.  The 
3;mbiance  is  particularly  traced 
h  he  massive  proportions,  in  the 
aence  of  arches,  in  the  pyramidal 

ii  inat;on  of  many  of  the  buildings, 
v  a  more  particularly  in  the  vast 
j     a'ficial  excavations  that  are  found 

ii  the  mountains.      They  differ 
1     n  ;t  particularly  in   the  order  of 
tl  columns,  &c.    For  the  sake  of 
c;parison,we  have  given,  in  plate 
Vitlc  C.  ~0,Jig.  5  and  6,  capitals 
a  fig-  7  a   base,   from  Perse- 
p  s;  A,  B,  and  C,  are  details  of 
1     fi  5.    In  these  columns  are  traced 
«     n  only  the  lotus  capitals  of  Egypt, 
m    b'  the  scroll,  so  characteristic  of 
tl  Ionic,  and  the  fluting  of  the 
1     I  ic  and  Corinthian    orders  of 
wl    G;ece.    But  the  buildings  of  the 
rl    ci's,  it  may  be  supposed,  were 
»     c<  paratively  more  modern  works, 

*  ai  it  is  in  the  excavated  works  of 
'     a  moter  age  that  we  might  expect 

id  the  most  striking  similitude 
!     to  ie  very  ancient  architect  tire  of 
h  a  or  Egypt.    The  chief  remains 
Oi  Persian  architecture  are  found 

0  W?eisepolis,  which  have  been 
al  id)  described  under  that  article. 
^  shall  here  describe  such  other 

1  re  tins  as  may  combine  with  them 
in  ving  some  idea  of  the  ancient 

fi*    bi  lings  of  the  Persians. 


PER 

Amongst  the  ruins  called  Takht 
Taous,  the  peacock  throne,  stands 
a  solitary  column,  surrounded  by 
the  broken  shafts,  bases,  and  capi- 
tals of  others,  all  resembling  those 
at  Persepolis.  The  column  is  fluted 
like  the  Doric,  but  with  lines  more 
closely  connected ;  it  is  one  foot 
eight  inches  in  diameter  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  six  inches  less  at  the  t.>p, 
a  hi  tie  above  seventeen  feet  in 
height,  and  the  base,  including  a 
torus,  two  feet  more.  The  capital 
is  in  the  form  of  the  heall,  breast, 
and  bent  fore-legs  of  a  bull,  richly 
ornamented  with  collars  and  trap- 
pings, united  at  the  back  to  the 
corresponding  bust  of  another  bull, 
but  leaving  a  cavity  between,  suffi- 
cient to  admit  the  end  of  a  square 
beam.  On  the  site  of  Pasargadae  a 
pillar  still  erect  is  described  by  Mr. 
Morier,  as  a  plain  shaft  without  a 
capital,  ten  feet  five  inches  in  cir- 
cumference. In  the  interior  of  a 
modern  bath  at  Kermanshah,  given 
by  Mr.  Buckingham,  are  columns 
with  capitals  exactly,  and  bases 
very  nearly,  resembling  those  at 
Persepolis,  but  the  shafts  are  fluted 
spirally.  (Travels  in  Assyria,  &c. 
p.  98.)  The  modern  columns  of 
the  royal  palace  of  Shah  Abbas  at 
Ispahan,  are  also  spirally  fluted. 

Sir  W.  Ouseley  observed  amongst 
the  ruins  of  the  site  of  Darabgerd, 
walls  and  arches,  still  twenty  feet 
high,  the  remains  of  an  ancient 
aqueduct. 

An  extraordinary  building  amongst 
the  ruins  of  Pasargadae  is  described 
by  Mr.  Morier.  "  It  rests  upon  a 
square  base  of  large  blocks  of  mar- 
ble, which  rise  in  seven  layers,  py- 
ramidically.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a 
parallelogram  ;  the  lowest  range  of 
the  foundation  is  forty-three  feet 
by  thirty-seven  :  and  the  edifice 
itself,  which  crowns  the  summit, 
diminishes  to  twenty-one  feet  by 
sixteen  feet   five   inches.     It  is 

229 


PER 


PER 


covered  with  a  shelving  roof,  built 
of  the  same  massy  stone  as  its  base 
and  sides,  which  are  all  fixed  toge- 
ther by  clamps  of  iron.  Around 
it,  besides  a  great  profusion  of 
broken  marbles,  are  the  shafts  of 
fourteen  columns,  once,  perhaps, 
a  colonnade,  but  now  arranged  in 
the  square  wall  of  mud  which  sur- 
rounds the  whole  remains."  In 
the  interior  was  a  small  chamber, 
but  not  at  all  remarkable.  lie 
thinks  it  to  be  the  tomb  of  Cyrus. 
The  Mahometan  writers  call  it  the 
tomb  of  the  mother  of  Solomon. 
Hafiz  Abru  says  There  is  like- 
wise another  place  in  the  district  of 
Jstakhr,  on  the  road  to  Aberkuh, 
called  the  Meshehd-i-Mader-i-Su- 
lieman,  on  whom  be  peace  !  Here 
also  are  stones  of  considerable  size, 
and  sculptured  in  a  wonderful  man- 
ner; the  work,  as  it  is  related,  of 
those  jins  (genii)  who  were  subser- 
vient to  Solomon,  on  whom  be 
peace  !" 

The  entrances  to  the  excavations 
of  the  Naksh-i-Rustam  are  near  60 
feet  from  the  level  ground.  Sir  W. 
Ouseley  thinks  them  coeval  with  the 
palaces  of  Persepolis,  though  much 
of  the  sculpture  has  been  added 
during  the  Sassanian  dynasty. 
The  tomb  least  difficult  of  access, 
being  the  last  to  the  left,  was  ex- 
plored by  Sir  W.  Ousely,  and  is 
described  as  a  chamber,  thirty-five 
feet  long,  seven  broad  at  each  end, 
and  eight  in  the  middle.  "This 
measurement  does  not  include  the 
depth  of  three  arched  recesses,  hol- 
lowed like  the  chamber  itself,  in 
the  solid  rock,  and  forming  sepul- 
chral vaults  nine  feet  long  by  five 
feet  and  a  half  broad.  Immense 
slabs  of  the  same  rock  cover  the 
vaults;  these  it  would  be  impossible 
to  lift,  or  even  move,  without  the 
assistance  of  several  men.  There 
is  a  fracture  in  one  vault,  made 
probably  by  the  violators  of  these 

230 


tombs  wbo,  we  may  suppose,  w] 
taking  out  the  body  in  search  f 
treasure,  raised  and  propped  L 
stone  cover,  until  having  accc^ 
plished  their  object,  they  let  it  l| 
into  its  original  situation.  Thron 
the  aperture  it  was  easv  to  asc- 
tain  that  this  vault  contained 
thing  more  than  some  pieces 
stone.    Within  this  chamber, 
which  the  ceiling  is  arched  I 
the  recesses,  and  about  ten  it 
where  highest,  all  parts  are  of 
plainest  execution."    In  the  sa 
range  of  mountains,  near  the 
lage  of  Hajji-abad,  other  cave 
and  sculptured  rocks  are  fou 
The  place  is  called  Zendau  J,- 
sheed,  the  prisons  of  JemshA 
The  first  cave  is  apparently  natu  . 
The  second  is  a  deep  indentah 
into  the  mountain,  at  the  entra 
of  which  the  rock  has  been  smoot 
and  cut  inio  five  tablets,  each  cL 
taining  Puhlavi  inscriptions.  % 
third  is  celebrated  for  its  grk 
depth,  but  "  has  nothing  artiful 
about  it."     Opposite  the  Nak- 
i-Rustam  is  a  square  buildinll 
about  twenty-four  feet  broad,  ft 
nearly  thirty -five  feet  high,  c- 
structed  of  white  marble  "  ina 
most    substantial    manner."  \ 
small  doorway,  about  eleven  t 
from  the  ground,  leads  into  a  ch«- 
ber,  twelve  feet  three  inches  sqn 
and  about  twenty  feet  high, 
ceiling  is  composed  of  two  imme  e 
marble  slabs.     'fhe  walls  are 
tirely  destitute  of  ornament, 
the  walls,  externally,  are  m 
small  oblong  perpendicular  nich, 
but  none  sink  deep  into  the  st( 
Some  of  the  natives  assure 
traveller  that  it  was  *'  the  Kaa 
of  Zaratusht,"  (Zoroaster.) 
Morier  and  Sir  R.  K.  Porter  tl 
that  it  was  a  fire  temple,  and 
scribed  the  interior  as  exhibit 
signs  of  fire  and  smoke.    A  cor 
enriched  with  dentils,  passes  roi 


PER 


PER 


Pfl     re  summit:   the  cornice,  on  the 
)rthern  face,  is  formed  by  one 
ngle  slab,  which  is  twenty-two 
el  six  inches  long.     Not  far  dis- 
nt,  following  the  abrupt  turn  of 
u'j      e  rocks  towards  the  east,  are 
o  fire  altars,  four  feet  and  a  half 
ii       uare,  and  between  five  and  six 
a  high,  narrowing  upward,  and 
4      rmed  from  a  protuberance  of  the 
,.i      -k.    On  the  top  of  each  is  a 
IMtl     fuare  cavity,  eight  inches  deep, 
pposed  to  be  the  receptacle  of  the 
l      cred  fire.      The   eminence  on 
lich  they  stand  is  called  Sang-  i- 
J(|(!      dieman,  Solomon's  stone.    At  a 
v  miles  from  Servistan  is  a  ruined 
7       tress  called  the  Kalaa  atesh  ka- 
li, (Castle  of  the  Fire-temple.) 
e  fire-altar,  which  gives  name  to 
;  castle,  and  which  is  a  few  hun- 
t       ?d  yards  from  it,  is  described  by 
■  W.  Ouseley  as  a  single  upright 
tine,  between  ten  and  eleven  feet 
:h,  and  three  feet  and  a  half 
:'tare  at  the  bottom,  diminishing 
:* little  towards  the  top.    On  the 
jth  and  western  sides  are  traces 
t  Pahlavi  inscriptions.     On  the 
>  is  a  deep  hollow,  designed  to 
1      reive  the  vessel  containing  the 
i  red  fire.     A  rude  low  wall  or 
I  ce  of  large  stones  encloses  the 
:  ar,  having  a  narrow  entrance  on 
1  south.    The  first  view  brought 
ipngly   to   his   recollection  the 
uidical  remains  he  had  seen  in 
1  ties  and  Ireland  ;   and  a  few 
(  trees  seemed  to  represent  one 
( those  sacred  groves  which  were, 
3arly  ages,  attached  to  religious 
Pictures.     At  four  miles  from 
hsa,  the  same  writer  observed, 
1  n  the  right,  and  crowning  the, 
8  unit  of  a  hill,  an  object  which 
r  'mbled,  on  a  distant  view,  one 
c  »ur  British  Druidical  cromlechs." 
1  "  is  called  Khaneh-i-Gabran, 
t  mansion  of  the  fire- worshippers. 
I  s  a  mass  of  stone,  or  rather  of 
1  harder  cement,  in  which  stones 


of  different  kinds  and  colours  are 
thickly  incrusted,  of  an  irregular 
oblong  form,  about  fifty  feet  long, 
and  twelve  or  thirteen  feet  high, 
with  a  passage  through  it  "  Sir 
W.  Ouseley  observed,  on  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Darabgerd,  an  irre- 
gular cluster  of  large  rude  stones, 
on  a  rising  ground  in  a  part  of  the 
enclosed  area,  which,  from  its  ap- 
pearance, he  says,  "  a  British  anti- 
quary might  be  almost  authorized 
to  pronounce  Druidical."  Some 
of  them  are  from  twenty  to  twenty- 
five  feet  high.  One,  very  tall, 
stands  nearly  in  the  middle;  an- 
other, towards  the  west,  resembles 
a  table  or  altar,  being  flat  at  the 
top;  and  under  two  or  three  are 
recesses  or  small  caverns. 

The  modern  architecture  of  Per- 
sia, which  resembles  that  of  most 
Mahommetan  countries,  will  be  best 
understood  by  a  description  of  the 
principal  buildings  of  Ispahan,  or 
Isfahan  n,  the  former  capital.  The 
college  called  Medresst  Shah  Sul- 
tan Hossein,  is  on  the  right  of  the 
Meidan.  Its  entrance  is  hand- 
some :  a  lofty  portico,  enriched 
with  fantastically  twisted  pillars, 
and  intermixed  with  the  beautiful 
marble  of  Tabreez,  leads  through 
a  pair  of  brazen  gates,  finished 
with  silver,  and  their  whole  surface 
highly  carved  and  embossed  with 
flowers  and  verses  from  the  Koran. 
The  gates  lead  to  an  elevated  semi- 
dome,  which  opens  at  once  into  the 
square  of  the  college.  The  right 
side  of  this  court  is  occupied  by  the 
mosque,  which  is  still  a  beautiful 
building,  covered  with  a  cupola, 
and  faced  with  two  minarets.  The 
interior  of  the  dome  is  richly  spread 
with  variegated  tiles.  The  other 
sides  of  the  square  are  occupied, 
one  by  a  lofty  and  beautiful  por- 
tico, and  the  remaining  two  by 
rooms  for  the  students,  twelve  in 
each  front,  arranged  in  two  stories. 

231 


PER 


PER 


"The  quiet  and  retirement  ef  this 
college,"  says  Mr.  Morier,  "  the 
beauty  and  serenity  of  the  climate, 
and  the  shrubbery  and  water  in  the 
courts,  would  have  combined  to 
constitute  it  in  my  eyes  a  sanctuary 
for  learning,  and  a  nursery  for  the 
learned,  if  it.  had  been  in  any  other 
country."  The  palaces  of  the  kings 
are  enclosed  in  a  fort  of  lofty  walls, 
which  have  a  circumference  of  about 
three  miles.  The  palace  of  the 
Chehel  Sitoon  (forty  pillars)  is  in 
the  middle  of  an  immense  square. 
The  first  saloon  is  open  towards  the 
garden,  and  is  supported  by  eigh- 
teen pillars,  all  inlaid  with  mirrors. 
Each  pillar  has  a  marble  base, 
carved  into  the  figures  of  four 
lions.  The  walls  are  also  covered 
with  mirrors?-  and  the  ceiling  is 
painted  in  gold  flowers.  From  this 
saloon,  an  arched  recess,  studded 
in  the  same  manner  with  glass, 
leads  into  an  extensive  hall,  the 
ceiling  of  which  is  arranged  in  a 
variety  of  domes  and  figures.  From 
the  garden  of  this  palace,  an  intri- 
cate passage  leads  under  an  octa- 
gonal tower  into  the  harem,  called 
Amaroot  Noo,  the  new  palace, 
which  is  in  the  same  style  of  build- 
ing. From  the  interior  of  the  pa- 
laces we  ascend  the  Ali  Capi  gate, 
which  forms  the  entrance.  "  This 
gate,  once  the  scene  of  the  magni- 
ficence of  the  Sen*  family,  the 
threshold  of  which  was  ever  revered 
as  sacred,  is  now  deserted;  and 
only  now  and  then  a  solitary  indi- 
vidual is  seen  to  pass  negligently 
through.  The  remains  of  that 
splendour  so  minutely  and  accu- 
rately described  by  Chardin,  are 
still  to  be  traced  ;  the  fine  marbles 
remain,  and  the  grandeui  and  ele- 
vation of  the  dome  are  still  unde- 
molished."  The  houses  of  Ispahan 
are  only  one  story  high,  but  are 
composed  of  so  many  compart- 
ments, that  the  meanest  of  them 

232 


occupy  a  considerable  area.  Th 
are  built  of  earth  or  brick,  and  th. 
uniformity  in  height  and  co!o 
produces  a  dull  appearance.  Tl 
Shah  Meidan,  or  royal  square,  wi 
its  bazaars  and  religious  edifices 
rivals  any  in  Asia.  Its  length 
four  hundred  and  forty  paces  ! 
one  hundred  and  sixty  in  breach 
On  the  south  side  stands  the  rov 
mosque,  a  magnificent  buiidii 
erected  by  Shah  Abbas,  in  tl 
sixteenth  century.  It  is  enten 
by  a  gate  twelve  feet  wide,  clos< 
by  two  leaves,  covered  with  plat 
of  solid  silver,  partly  gilt  and  scul 
tured.  The  whole  edifice  is  co 
structed  of  massy  stone,  coven 
with  highly  varnished  bricks  at 
tiles.  Within  are  fountains  flowir 
into  jasper  basins,  spacious  court 
and  extensive  porticoes,  of  whit 
that  in  the  centre  is  surmounted  I 
a  vast  dome  and  gilt  crescent. 

In  Plate  Castle,  C.  71,  fig. 
is  shown  the  dome,  minarets,  ar 
style  of  architecture,  of  the  mosqi 
of  the  college  of  Ispahan.  Fig. 
is  a  sketch  from  one  of  the  stree 
of  Ispahan,  showing  the  gener 
appearance  of  the  Persian  house 
Fig.  2.  is  the  fire  altars  of  the  Sam 
i-Sulieman. 

Amongst  the  buildings  of  tl 
eastern  countries,  not  the  lea 
conspicuous  are  the  caravanserai 
or  public  edifices  for  the  receptic 
of  strangers.  Many  fine  builclin< 
of  this  kind  are  found  in  Persi 
They  are  generally  of  a  squai 
form,  with  porticoes  surrounding 
court;  the  former  to  shelter  ti 
horses  and  camels,  with  rooms  f( 
the  travellers,  and  warehouses  f( 
the  merchandise,  &c.  These  buik 
ings  are  in  some  instances  formed ci 
more  ancient  edifices.  The  Can 
vunserai-i- Doob,  is  thus  describe; 
by  Ouseley :  "  It  is  a  spacious  chan! 
ber,  hollowed  with  admirable  ingj 
nuity,  and  by  means  of  prodigioif 


PER 


PER 


]aiur,  into  the  very  heart  of  the 
m,ntam.  Its  roof  seems  formed 
of.irches,  supported  on  square 
pi  rs,  of  large,  but  not  ungraceful 

;  prLrtions ;  the  roof,  however,  the 
pi  rs,  the  arches,  and  the  walls, 
ar  all  of  the  solid  rock.  It  receives 
a  Ltle  light  at  the  entrance,  an 
11  ie  and  handsome  doorway  in 
th side  of  the  mountain,  and  from 
a  juare  aperture  in  the  centre  of 
th  roof,  where  the  rock  is  ten  or 
el?n  feet  thick.  The  chamber 
its  r  is  a  square  of  seventy  feet, 
re  larly  divided  into  four  parts  by 
th.rows  of  pillars  intersecting  one 

fid  ar:her.  Near  the  door  were  in- 
sotions  carved  in  the  Arabic 
chacter,  not  very  ancient  (  about 
A  ).  1305,  or  1350.)  In  the  wall 
inating  the  main  aisles  on  the 
lei  and  right,  and  opposite  the 
dc ,  were  niches  not  unlike  the 
fir  places  in  European  houses,  and 
<c  jtured  with  some  degree  of 
elunce."  To  the  right  is  another 
sn  1  square  elevation.  The  in- 
sertions and  pointed  doorways 
ir  n  the  modern  Saracenic  style, 
bi  the  excavation,  he  thinks,  can 
sc  ;ely  have  been  the  work  of 
M  sulmans,  or  have  been  origin- 
al designed  for  the  purpose  which 
itnodem  name  indicates.  It  may 
h:  been  a  place  consecrated  to 
M  iratic  rites,  as  other  caverns 
in  he  neighbourhood  are  of  un- 
doted  antiquity. 

brspective,  (Lat.)  is  defined 
as  ie  science  which  teaches  us  to 
di  Dse  the  lines  and  shades  of  a 
mite,  so  as  to  represent,  on  a 
pt  e,  the  image  of  objects  ex- 
as  they  appear  in  nature. 
P<  pective  in  its  widest  sense  em- 
bres  throe  subjects  :  lines,  which 
If  rrnine  the  outline  ;  the-  ctair- 
olure,  which  shows  the  relief;  and 
th  olour,  which  gives  the  true  ap- 
pf  ance.  The  lines,  from  what 
Wi  all  the  design,  and  the  colour- 
;  2G 


ing  in  conjunction  with  the  de- 
sign, constitute  the  art  of  paint- 
ing ;  consequently,  we  may  divide 
perspective  into  linear  and  aer- 
ial. Linear  perspective,  is  a 
branch  of  the  mathematics,  and  as 
such  is  subject  to  principles  that 
are  rigorously  demonstrated  :  it 
shows  how  the  lines  which  define 
figures  appear  to  the  eye  of  the 
spectator,  according  to  the  point 
on  which  the  eye  is  fixed,  and  the 
distance  of  the  objects.  Aerial 
perspective,  is  so  named,  because 
it  is  the  effect  of  the  vaporous  air, 
which  is  interposed  between  the 
different  objects  :  this  air  diminishes 
by  its  colour  the  tones,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  greater  or  less  quantity 
and  distance  of  the  plans  of  the 
picture,  in  relation  to  the  eye. 

Perspective  is  generally  divided 
into  projection,  ichnography,  ortho- 
graphy, seriography,  and  stereo- 
graphy. The  first  delineates  ob- 
jects in  a  plane  by  means  of  right 
lines,  called  rays,  supposed  to  be 
drawn  from  every  angle  of  the  ob- 
ject to  particular  points.  Ichno- 
graphy,  or  ichnographic  projection, 
is  described  by  right  lines  parallel 
among  themselves,  and  perpendi- 
cular to  the  horizon  from  every  an- 
gle of  every  object,  on  a  plane 
which  is  parallel  to  the  horizon, 
the  points  where  the  perpendicular 
lines  cut,  that  plane  being  joined 
by  right  lines.  Orthography,  re- 
presents the  vertical  position  and 
appearance  of  an  object,  exhibiting 
either  the  front  or  elevation,  or  the 
•side  or  profile.  Scenography,  shows 
us  how  to  direct  the  visual  rays  to 
every  point  or  part  of  a  picture, 
and  stereography,  enables  us  to 
represent  solids  on  a  plane,  from 
geometrical  projection. 

The  definitions  of  perspective 
will  be  best  understood  by  the 
figure,  {Jig  4.  Chinese  Architec- 
ture, C.  29,)  where  we  must  imagine 


PER 


PER 


the  plane  ABC  to  represent  the 
plane  of  the  picture,  O  the  point  of 
sight,  the  plane  ODE  the  directing 
plane,  F  and  G  original  points,  FG 
an  original  line,  and  FGH  an 
original  plane ;  let  the  original 
line  GF  meet  the  picture  in  Bl  and 
the  directing  plane  in  DE,  B[  is  the 
intersecting  line,  B  is  the  intersect- 
ing point,  and  D  the  directing  point. 
Again,  let  OAC  be  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  original  plane;  FGH  meet- 
ing; the  picture  in  the  line  AC; 
AC  is  the  vanishing  line  of  the 
plane  FGH.  If  the  line  OV  be 
parallel  to  the  original  line  FG,and 
meet  the  picture  in  V;  V  is  the 
vanishing  point  of  the  line  FG.  Let 
FG  be  produced  and  meet  the  pic- 
ture in  B,  and  the  directing  plane 
in  D  ;  B  is  the  intersecting  point 
of  the  line  FG,  D  its  directing  point, 
and  OD  the  director.  If  OS  be 
perpendicular  to  AC,  meeting  it  in 
S,  S  is  the  centre  of  the  vanishing 
line  AC. 

The  question  has  often  been  dis- 
cussed, whether  the  ancients  really 
knew  and  observed  the  rules  of  per- 
spective, in  the  practice  of  the  arts. 
That  they  knew  it,  none  can  deny. 
Euclid  has  left  a  distinct  treatise  on 
it,  and  Vitruvius  tells  us  that  Aga- 
tharchus,  the  disciple  of  iEschylus, 
was  the  first  who  wrote  upon  this 
subject ;  and  that  subsequently  the 
principles  of  the  art  were  more 
clearly  elucidated  by  his  followers 
Democritus  and  Anaxagoras.  Of 
the  nature  of  their  descriptions  we 
are  in  total  ignorance,  but  what 
Euclid,  so  disting  uished  as  a  mathe- 
matician, has  written  on  the  subject, 
shows  us  evidently  that  they  had 
not  made  great  progress  in  it ;  and 
the  remains  that  have  come  down 
to  us  of  the  works  of  the  ancient 
painters,  &c.  are  not  calculated  to 
make  us  think  that  they  thought 
proper  to  conform  to  the  little  that 
was  known.    That  the  Arabians 

234 


were  not  ignorant  of  perspec1  ^ 
appears  from  the  optical  writinoLf 
A!  Hazen,  who  flourished  aiL 
1100;  his  work  is  cited  by  Rc 
Bacon,  who  himself  treated 
subject  very  accurately,  if  we  o 
sider  the  age  in  which  he  wr 
M.  Fiorillo,  in  his  Kliene  Schrif , 
(8vo.  1803,)  has  traced  the  L 
tory  of  perspective  amongst  e 
ancients,  and  since  its  revjfl 
amongst  the  moderns.  Jo-har  s 
Tzetzes,  in  the  twelfth  centl 
speaks  of  perspective  as  thoujA 
were  well  acquainted  with  its  . 
portance  in  painting:  and  e 
Greek  painters,  who  wereemplod 
by  the  Venetians  and  Florent  s 
in  the  thirteenth  century,  seemo 
have  brought  some  knowledge^ 
its  principles  with  them,  for  e 
disciples  of  Giotto  are  commen  d 
for  observing  perspective  more  - 
gularly  than  any  of  their  predfi;- 
sors  in  the  art  had  done,  and  t  v 
lived  in  the  beginning  of  the  ft  - 
teenth.  Danti,  in  his  work  "  Sc  a 
la  prima  regola  del  Vignola,"  p. !, 
says  that  Pedro  del  Borgo  was  e 
first  who  published  the  true  r  s 
of  perspective,  and  that  he  left n 
manuscript  three  books  on  the  - 
ence,  which,  he  adds,  were  com 
in  great  part  by  Daniel  Barb; ». 
Pedro  is  said  to  have  died  in  14 <. 
In  1440,  Bartolemeo  Bramantj), 
of  Milan,  published  his  book,  "  - 
gole  di  Prospettiva,  e  misure  d  e 
Antichita  di  Lombardia."  Bait  - 
zar  Peruzzi,  of  Sienna,  who  '1 
studied  diligently  the  writing; >f 
Borgo,  discovered  the  points  of  fa 
tance  to  which  every  line  that  mai  s 
an  angle  of  45°  with  the  grow 
line  is  drawn.  Soon  after,  Guo 
Ubaldi  discovered  that  all  the  li 
parallel  to  each  other,  if  they 
inclined  to  the  ground  line,  conve  e 
to  some  point  in  the  horizontal  1 
and  that  a  line  drawn  from 
eye  parallel  to  them  will  also 


PER 

f"  t  ough  this  point.  Ubaldi's  work 
c  perspective  was  printed  at  Pes- 
?  in  1600,  and  may  be  said  to 
ehtain  the  first  principles  of  the 
rthod  afterwards  established  by 
J  Brook  Taylor. 
Phe  following  are  the  principal 
O'the  numerous  works  published 
(^Perspective.  In  Latin — Johan- 
n  Cantuariensis,  Perspectiva,  fol. 
Fa,  1508;  an  Italian  version  of 
wch  was  published  bv  Galucci, 
f,  Venice,  1593.— C.  Vittelionis, 
dflNatura,  Ratione,  et  Projectione 

I  Fliorum  Visus,  Luminum,  Colo- 

i  i,  atque  Formarum,  quam  vul^o, 
w     Iispectivam  vocant ;  libri  x.  fol. 

N-imb.  1551. — Joa.  Fr.  Niceroni, 

'  ijjmaturgus  Opticus  studiosissi- 
nh  Perspective,  fol.  Paris,  1638: 
a  'rench  translation  of  which  was 
p  lished  under  the  title  of  Per- 
s  tive  Curieuse,  fol.  Paris,  1663. 

is     -iuido  Ubalclus,  Perspectiva,  fol. 

i  I  0. — Em.  Maignan,  Perspectiva 
(  aria,  Rom.  1648.— Andrea  Pu- 
tt (surnamed  Pozzi,)  Perspectiva 

.  itorum  et  Architectorum,  two 
\  .  folio,  Rome,  1693,  1700,  with 
i\  hundred  and  twenty-six  en- 
l  in^s :  this  edition  was  in  Latin 
a    Italian,  and  it  was  published 

ii  atin  and  German  by  J.  Box- 
blh  and  G.  C.  Bodenner,  fol. 
A';shurg,  1706-9;  an  edition  was 

I I  li  wise  published  in  Latin  and 
E  lish  by  Strutt,  fol.  London, 
13-1707. —  Ram.  Rampinelli, 
L  iones  Opticae,  Brix.  4to.  1760. 
L  iv's  !)ook  appeared  in  1701,  and 
;>  ravesandisin  1711,  both  in8vo: 
tl  Utter  was  translated  into  Eng- 
li  by  Stone,  in  1724.  De  Breuil, 
P  spectiva  Practica,  is  also  wor- 
1  of  notice. — In  Italian — Bern. 

[,]  Z-nle  da  Trefigi,  Tratteto  di  Pros- 
f  p<  iva,  fol.  Milan,  1524.— Barbaro, 
f  P:.ica  del  la  Prospettiva,  Venice, 
ijij  fo  1559,  1568,  1669.— Dispareri 
in  fateria  d'Architettura  e  di  Pros- 
P<'va,  4to.  Bresc.  1572.— Vigno- 


PER 

la,  le  due  Regole  della  Prospettiva 
prattica,  con  i  comment,  del  P.  E. 
Danti,  fol.  Rom.  1583,  1611, 
1644.— Bol.  1682,  Ven.  1743.— 
Serigati  la  Prattica  di  Prospet- 
tiva, fol.  Ven.  1596,  1626.— Ac- 
colto,  Discorso,  interno  al  Diseirno 
con  gl'  fnganni  del  Occhio,  Pros- 
pett.  Prat.  fol.  Firenza,  1625. — 
Contino,  Prospettiva  Prattica,  fol. 
Ven.  1645,  1684.— Giul.  Troili, 
Paradossi  per  praticar  la  Prospet- 
tiva, senza  saperla,  fol.  Bol.  1672, 
1683. — Paolo  Amato,  Nuovo  Prat- 
tica di  Prospettiva, fol.  Pal.  1736. — • 
Zanotti,  Trat.tato  Teoretico  Prattico 
di  Prospettiva,  4to.  Bol.  1766. — 
Orsini,  della  Geometrie  e  Prospet- 
tiva Prattica,  3  vols,  12mo.  Rome, 
1774. — In  Dutch  we  have  Het 
Perspectiv  Conste  van  J.  F.  Vre- 
demann,  fol.  Lond.  1559.  Amst. 
1633,  a  French  transition  of  which 
was  published  hyMarolois.fol.  Amst. 
1662  — Onderwysinge  in  der  Per- 
spectiv Conste,  door  Hen.  Hondius, 
La  Hague,  fol.  1622,  1647,  a  trans- 
lation of  which  appeared  in  1647. 
—  In  German,  treatises  on  Per- 
spective have  been  published ;  of 
perspective  as  it  regards  the  Arts, 
fol.  1509. — by  Rivius,  fol.  Nuremb. 
1547;  by  Lantensak,  fol.  Franc. 
1567  ;  by  Jamitzer,  fol.  Nur.  1564; 
by  Bruns,  Leips,  fol.  1615;  by 
Lenkart,  fol.  Augs.  1616;  bv  Al- 
berti,  fol.  Numb,  1623-7;  Scbab- 
ler,  2  vol.  fol.  Nurnb.  1719-20; 
Heinecken,  fol.  Augs.  1727,  1753; 
Bischof,  8vo.  Halle,  1741;  Lam- 
bert, 8vo.  Zurich,  1759,  1774; 
Werner,  8vo.  Erfort,  1764  :  Jacobz 
8vo.  Amst.  1767;  Voch,  8vo. 
Augs.  1780;  Burja,  8vo.  Berlin, 
1793. — In  French  the  following 
authors  have  written  on  perspec- 
tive: Cousin,  fol.  Par.  1560,  1587; 
Cerceau,  fol.  Par.  1576 ;  Caux, 
fol.  Lond.  1612;  Josse,  fol.  Par. 
1635  ;  La  Perspective  Pratique,  &c. 
par  un  de  le  Com.  de  Jesus,  4to. 

235 


PER 


PER 


Par.  1642,  1663,  1679.  English 
translations  by  Prike,  4to,  1672,  by 
Chambers,  fol.  1726.  German  by 
Rembold,  4to  Augs.  1710;  Bossa, 
1648,  a  very  extensive  and  useful 
work;  Huret,  fol.  Par.  1675;  La- 
mi,  12mo.  Par.  1701,  8vo.  Amst. 
1734.  English  translation.  London, 
1702;  Bretetz,  fol.  Par.  1706, 
1746,1752;  Courtonne,  fol.  Par. 
1710,  1725;  Ozanam,  8vo.  Par. 
1711;  Jeaurat,  4to.  Par.  1750; 
Le  Roy,  12mo.  Par.  1757;  Peti- 
tot,  fob  Parma,  1758;  Curel,  8vo. 
Stras.  1766;  Michel,  8vo.  Par. 
1771;  Morien,  8vo.  Par.  1789; 
Valenciennes,  4to.  Par. — The  prin- 
cipal works  in  English  are,  Mason, 
Practical  Perspective,  fol.  1670; 
Halfpenny,  4to.  1731  ;  Peake,  Ar- 
chitectural Perspective,  fol. ;  Ha- 
milton, Stereography,  fol.  1738, 
1749;  Ditton,  fol.  1712;  Brook 
Tavlor,  1715,  1719;  Oaklev,  fol. 
1730;  Kirby,  4to.  1755,  '1768; 
Perspective  of  Architecture,  on  the 
Principles  of  B*ook  Tavlor,  2  vols, 
fol.  1755,  1761  ;  Ferguson,  8vo. 
1755,  1778;  Highmore,  4to.  1784; 
Cowley,  2  vols.  4to.  1766;  Priest- 
lev,  8vo.  1770;  Noble,  8vo.  1771  ; 
Malton,  fol.  1776;  Ware's  Com- 
plete Body  of  Architecture,  folio, 
1760;  a -new  Treatise  on  Perspec- 
tive, 4to.  1810;  Cresswell,  8vo. 
1811;  Milne,  in  his  Elements  of 
Architecture,  4to.  1812;  Hayter, 
8vo.  1812;  Martin,  Muller,  and 
Emerson,  in  their  courses  of  Ma- 
thematics; Nicholson,  in  his  Archi- 
tectural Dictionary,  &c. 

Pkkticje,  beams  in  the  ancient 
churches,  behind  and  about  the 
altar,  ornamented  at  the  great 
feasts  with  reliquaries  of  ivory, 
silver,  &c. 

Peruzzi,  Baldassare,  an  Ital- 
ian artist,  born  in  1481,  at  Acca- 
jano,  in  the  territory  of  Sienna,  in 
mean  circumstances :  his  father 
had  been  reduced  by  the  civil  wars, 

236 


in  the  territory  of  Florence,  m 
a  state  of  comparative  affluer  , 
Young  Peruzzi  began  to  exhibit  s 
abilities  in  painting  at  an  early  a 
and  he  was  afterwards  emplo  1 
by  pope  Alexander  VI.  He  e| 
studied  architecture,  and  was  d 
noted  for  his  knowledge  of  pcrsp  . 
tive,  that  the  works  he  producec'i 
imitation  of  architectural  proj- 
tions,  excited  the  admiration  f 
Titian.  But  he  was  chiefly  - 
nowned  for  his  paintings  in  fret 
and  oil.  He  died  by  poison,  i 
1536,  and  left  in  manuscriptk 
treatise  on  the  Antiquities  of  Roi 
and  a  Commentary  on  Vitruvius 

Pf.st  House,  a  lazaretto. 

Peter  of  Colechurch,  an  Ei. 
lish  priest  and  architect,  A 
built  the  old  London  bridge,  in  A 
reigns  of  Henry  II.,  Richard  , 
and  John. 

Peter's,  St.  the  principal  chm. 
of  Rome,  founded  originally  by  C(- 
stantine  the  Great,  over  the  repui. 
j?rave  of  St.  Peter,  on  the  Vatic 
hill,  on  the  site  of  the  circus 
Caius,  or  Nero.    It  is  also  call 
the   Basilica  Vaticana.     It  1 
since  sustained  a  great  number ' 
alterations  and  repairs,  and  n 
surpasses  all  the  most  celebrat 
buildings,  ancient  or  modern,  in 
size,  and  in  the  beauty  of  its  stn 
ture.    The  portico  is  ornament 
with  statues  of  the  first  popes,  w 
suffered  martyrdom,  the  work 
Algardi,  surrounded  by  angels,  f< 
toons,  gilt  stucco,  &e.   The  mart 
columns  are  of  surprising  magi 
tude.  The  entrance  is  by  five  dooi 
that  in  the  middle,  of  metal,  t 
work  of  Filarcto,  of  Constantinop 
in  the  time  of  pope  Eugenius  1 
sculptured  with  the  martyrdom 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  soi 
events  of  the  life  of  the  pope 
whose  order  it  was  made.  Tj 
porta  santa  (holy  door)  the  fifth, 
only  opened  in  the  jubilee  yea 


PET 


PET 


uler  the  portico,  near  it,  is  in- 
stbed  on  marble,  the  first  papal 
b  for  the  jubilee,  the  work  of 
Biiface  VIII.  The  splendour  of 
tl interior  is  minute:  it  does  not 
cisist  in  a  grand  ensemble,  but  in 
tt  extraordinary  magnificence  of 
e  v  part.  The  sculptures  are  of 
gkntic  proportions,  and  have  in 
g  eral  a  grand  effect.  The  mar- 
b  doves  with  olive  branches,  ap- 
p.r  at  first  as  if  they  might  be 
tched  with  the  hand,  but  on  a 
n  rer  approach  they  prove  to  be 
w  high,  and  appear  as  though 
t\f  were  flying  higher  every  step 
v  approach.  To  the  middle  aisle 
ti  e  is  a  magnificent  marble  pave- 
n  it,  and  its  ceiling  is  ornamented 
m  gilt  stucco  worked  in  grotesque. 
T  altar,  called  the  confessional 
o  he  apostles,  is  situated  in  the 
otre  of  the  cross  ais'e,  under  the 
g  id  cupola  :  under  it  are  said  to 
b  aid  half  the  body  of  St.  Peter, 
a  half  that  of  St.  Paul.  This 
w  the  site  of  the  ancient  Vatican 
ci  etery.  The  shrine  has  over  it 
a  :anopy,  that  was  erected  by 
pe  Urban  VIII.  at  an  expense 

0  100,000  crowns  for  the  vvork- 
rr  iship  alone. 

he  grand  cupola  is  said  by  some 
tcqual,  and  by  many  to  exceed, 
tl  of  the  Pantheon.  The  ball  is 
tvve  palms  in  diameter,  and  the 
ci  s,  cast  in  bronze,  is  twenty-five 
fe  high.  The  inside  is  covered 
W;  mosaic  work.  If  we  compare 
tr  cupola  of  St.  Peter's,  with  that 

01  St.  Paul's,  in  London,  it  will 
apar,  that,  though  the  one  is 
dtdedlyan  imitation  of  the  for- 
01 .  there  is  a  material  difference 
in  le  decorations.  The  buttresses 
ol  he  dome  tower  in  St.  Peter's, 
thigh  each  decorated  with  two 
er  tired  columns  and  pilasters,  by 
piecting  from  the  cylindric  wall, 
hii  a  disagreeable  effect.  The 
d<  e  is  pierced  with  three  rays  of 


little  dormer  windows,  which  add 
little  to  the  effect  of  the  exterior, 
and  only  serve  to  light  the  interior 
staircases.  The  following  is  a  com- 
parative scale  of  the  dimensions 
of  St.  Paul's  at  London,  and  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome,  in  English  feet. 

HEIGHT. 


the  cross  

The  turrets  as  they  are  at  St. 
Paul's,  and  were  at  St.  Peter*!. 

To  top  of  statues  in  front  

First  columns  (Corinthian ) .  .  .  . 

The  ir  bases  and  pedestals 

Capitals   

Diameter  

Composite  pillars  at  Si.  Paul's, 
and  Tuscan  at  St.  Peter's. 

Triangle  of  mez/o-reliev  >,  with 
its  cornice  

Bases  of  the  cupoia  to  the  pedes 
tals  of  the  pillars  

Pillars  of  the  cupola.  

Pedestals  and  bases  

Capitals,  architrave,  frieze,  and 
cornice   

Cornice  to  outward  slope  of  cu- 
pola   

Lantern  

Diameter  of  ball   „ 

Cross  

Oulward  slope  of  cupobi  

Cupola  and  lantern  from  cornice 
to  top  of  cross  

Height  of  niches  in  front  

First  windows  

LENGTH. 

Whole  length  of  church  anil 
porch   

Porch  within   

Square  b^  the  cupola   

From  the  door  within  to  the  cu- 
pola   

From  cupola  to  end  of  tribune.  . 
BREADTH. 

Church,  within  the  doors  of  the 
poxtjcoa  

Front  with  the  turrets  

without  the  turrets  

Church  and  their  naves  

Church  and  widest  chapels  .... 

Porch  within   

Nave  at  the  door  

At  the  third  pillar  and  Iribuna.  . 

Side  aisles   

Outward  diameter  of  the  cupola 

Inward  diameter  

Square  by  cupola  

Turrets  

Outward  diameter  of  the  lantern 
237 


*8 

370 

4;i7£ 

222 

2S9£ 

135 

175 

33 

74 

13 

19 

5 

10 

4 

9 

25 

25£ 

18 

38 

28 

3  J 

5 

4 

12 

M 

40 

25» 

50 

03 

9 

;; 

u 

50 

£9 

240 

280 

14 

20 

14 

20 

500 

729 

50 

2 18 

328 

190 

313 

17  0 

1(37 

510 

I8CJ 

3G4 

1  10 

.118 

130 

255 

180 

301 

20 

40 

40 

67 

40 

73 

17 

29 

145 

189 

100 

138 

43 

35 

77 

18 

36 

P  H  A 

Pevensey  Castle,  in  Sussex, 
from  the  quantity  of  Roman  bricks 
employed  in  it,  is  believed  to  have 
been  constructed  out  of  the  ruins 
of  some  Roman  fortress.  The  ex- 
ternal walls  enclose  an  area  of 
seven  acres.  The  towers  are  toler- 
ably high,  to  the  height  of  twenty 
to  twenty-five  feet.  The  principal 
entrance  is  from  the  west,  between 
two  round  towers,  in  which  are 
considerable  layers  of  Roman  brick, 
about  twenty  feet  from  the  ground, 
and  four  or  rive  asunder.  There 
are  no  Roman  bricks  in  the  interior 
works,  and  they  are  only  found  in 
the  north  and  west  sides  of  the 
outer.  It  is  related,  that  in  1710, 
a  workman  having  to  make  his  way 
under  the  wall  in  the  moat,  dis- 
covered the  foundation  to  consist 
of  piles,  planked  over  with  slabs  of 
an  extraordinary  substance,  which 
appeared  to  be  not  in  the  least 
decayed. 

Phalange,  (Or.)  or  Scutulce, 
a  name  given,  by  Vitruvius,  to  a 
kind  of  wooden  rollers,  which  were 
used  to  transport  heavy  burdens 
from  one  place  to  another. 

Pharos,  (Gr.  from  ^wc,  light, 
and  opau,  to  see,)  amongst  the 
ancients,  a  light-house.  The  name 
was  first  given  to  a  celebrated  light- 
house on  an  island  opposite  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt.  It  appears  to 
have  been  a  magnificent  building, 
but  the  accounts  of  the  ancients  are 
evidently  much  exaggerated.  The 
Rhodian  colossus  also  served  as  a 
light  house.  See  Light-house,  and 
Eddystone.  The  pharos  of  Alex- 
andria is  represented  on  many 
medals  of  that  city,  and  on  some 
we  observe  Isis,  with  the  surname 
Pharia,  entering  the  port  in  a  ship 
with  full  sail.  There  were  many 
of  these  buildings  in  Italy.  Sue- 
tonius speaks  of  one  in  the  isle  of 
Caprsea.  Stephanus  of  Byzantium, 
mentions  a  celebrated  pharos  at 

238 


P  H  E 

the  mouth  of  the  river  Chrv- 
rhoas,  on  the  Thracian  Bosphois. 
A  celebrated  pharos  was,  in  lA 
still  in  existence  at  Boulogne; 
mer,  Bononia,  which  was  also  kmk 
by  the  name  of  Gessoriacum.  rj!S 
is  supposed  to  have  been  the.  s:  e 
that  is  mentioned  by  Suetoniusn 
the  life  of  Caligula,  who  built  :. 
This  tower  was  an  octagon,  and  ejh 
side  was,  according  to  Bucher 
twenty-four  or  twenty-five  feet,  t 
had  twelve  galleries,  one  above  e 
other,  each  worked  in  the  thicki  g 
of  the  wall,  about  a  foot  arua 
half  wide,  thus  diminishing  by  - 
grees  towards  the  summit.  It  \  \ 
been  known  for  ages  by  the  n?  e 
of  turris  ordans  or  turris  ordenk 
and  it  was  called  by  the  people  f 
Boulogne  tour  d'ordre,  all  win 
names  are  supposed  to  havebi 
derived  from  turris  ardens,  or  > 
burning  tower,  from  the  fire  whi 
was  kept  burning  all  night  at  i 
top.  A  plate  of  this  tower,  frori 
design  which  was  preserved  t 
Boulogne,  is  given  by  Montfauc, 
Supplem,  a  l'Antiq.  expl.  torn. . 
pi.  50,  and  he  has  given  anotheif 
a  similar  construction  on  plate  .. 
On  pi.  50,  he  has  presented  us  wi 
an  engraving  from  a  medal  f 
Apamea,  with  the  representati 
of  a  pharos  upon  it,  and  anot: 
from  a  medallion. 

PiiA  itiLLON,  a  little  pharos.  \ 

Phatnomata,  (^ori'^/mra,)  i 
name  given  by  the  Greeks  to  arc!  I 
or  vaulted  ceilings. 

Pheasantry,  a  building  r 
rearing  pheasants  in. 

Phengites,  (Gr.)  a  firm  ?1 
brilliant  marble  discovered  in  Ci- 
padocia,  in  the  reign  of  Nero,  ?1 
still  found  there.  Specimens  ! 
also  found  in  Germany  and  Fran  , 
and  in  England,  in  Derbyshire  al 
other  counties.  It  was  used  amc,r 
the  ancients  in  the  construction  f 
windows;  and  it  was  employed \ 


P  H  E 


P  H  I 


th  construction  of  Nero's  golden 
hc;e,  and  of  the  temple  of  For- 
tu  :  this  temple,  which  was  en- 
tity built  of  it,  had  no  windows, 
arl  yet  the  interior  was  quite  light 
Jn  the  doors  were  shut,  owing  to 
transparency.  Pliny  says,  that 
it  is  customary  to  construct  bee- 
hiis  of  this  material,  for  the  pur- 
pc  of  overlooking  the  work  of  the 
be  .  Domitian  had  a  portico,  in 
;  h  he  was  in  the  constant  habit 
of  promenading,  enclosed  with 
p|  igites,  that  he  might  be  en- 
attl  to  see  every  thing  that  was 
pn'ng  on  without-side.  Phen- 
yl ;  bears  the  semblance,  when 
di  up,  of  a  rude  irregular  mass, 
ve  shattery  and  friable,  but  excel- 
In  most  marbles  in  brightness, 
ai  far  surpassing  them  in  trans- 
pt  ncy.  The  colour  is  a  pale 
st  .v  colour,  inclining  to  a  rich 
e,  the  yellow  tint  more  deeply 
ted  in  some  places  than  others, 
uai 1  (speakingof  the  Erictheion) 
jines  that  the  windows  were 
1  ;d  with  transparent  windows, 
or  ihengites  :  that,  stoae,  however, 
se  is  not  to  have  been  known  until 
tbkime  of  Nero.  They  were,  per- 
h; ciosed  with  lapis  specularis, 
w  I),  though  a  general  term,  is 
cc'monly  supposed  to  signify  talc, 
orhica.  Glass  might  even  have 
bd  employed,  but  this  was  not 
lily;  for  though  in  many  parts 
ol  Greece  I  discovered  fragments 
otiiass  vases,  and  several  glass 
bdes,  in  the  Athenian  sepulchres, 
yt  I  never  found  any  fragments 
pt  ectly  flat,  as  the  glass  used  in 
w  lows  must  be.  It  is  said  that 
a  ass  window,  almost  entire,  was 
di'Dvered  many  years  ago  amongst 
th  ruins  of  Pompeii ;  and  it  would 
aj'rar  from  Pliny,  that  it  was  used 
b]  he  Greeks  as  well  as  the  Ro- 
ws; but  probably  not  in  early 
tu  s."  Mica,  phengites,  and  horn 
w  ■>  according  to  the  best  evi- 


dence, (see  Vopiscus,  Seneca,  and 
Tertullian,)  the  earliest  sorts  of 
glazing.  The  invention  of  glass 
mirrors  is  also  of  uncertain  date. 
The  representations  of  metallic  mir- 
rors are  found  in  the  most  ancient 
female  sepulchres,  and  are  even 
mentioned  in  Exodus.  They  were 
of  bronze  or  mixed  metals;  but 
specula  of  glass  are  first  mentioned 
in  a  work  attributed  to  Alexander 
Aphrodisius,  who  lived  about  the 
end  of  the  second  century.  (Dod- 
weli.) 

Phials,  or  vases,  u  sed  by  the  an- 
cients  in  building  vaults,  to  render 
them  as  strong  as  possible.  The 
apertures  were  placed  at  the  top,  and 
within  and  around  them  they  pour- 
ed small  stones  and  cement.  Denon 
thus  describes  arches  of  this  con- 
struction, which  he  found  at  Vianisi 
in  Sicily.  A  sort  of  phials,  eight 
inches  long  by  three  wide,  without 
bottoms,  and  filled  with  mortar, 
having  their  necks  introduced  into 
each  other,  in  a  row,  covered  over 
again  with  a  general  coat  of  plaster, 
on  which  a  brick  was  laid  flat,  then 
a  fresh  bed  of  mortar,  and  another 
brick  upon  this,  like  the  former. 
It  was  scarcely  possible  ever  to  de- 
stroy semicircular  arches  fabricated 
in  this  manner,  and  it  was  with  the 
utmost  difficulty  that  he  could 
wrench  off  a  few  fragments.  Ac- 
cording to  Alberti,  the  phials  were 
used  to  ease  the  weight,  and  they 
were  made  without  bottoms,  to 
hinder  the  possibility  of  water  col- 
lecting in  them,  and  thus  rendering 
them  heavy  :  and  he  says  that  the  ce- 
ment was  very  light,  but  extremely 
tenacious,  •*  et  cemcnta  super  infu- 
dereex  lapide  minime  gravi  sed  alio-f 
quin  tenaci  "  (See  Denon's  Sicily, 
p.  317.  Alberti,  de  re  sedifieatoria, 
f.  xlv.) 

Philo,  a  Grecian  mentioned  by 
Valerius  Maximus  and  Cicero,  as 
the  architect  of  the  Peiraean  docks, 

239 


P  H  R 


PI  A 


and  celebrated  also  for  his  elo- 
quence. V.  Max.  viii.  12.  Cic.  de 
Orat.  i.  14. 

Piiocicum,  an  edifice  among  the 
ancient  Greeks,  in  which  were  held 
assemblies  of  the  deputies  from  all 
the  Phocaean  towns.  It  was  situ- 
ated near  the  city  of  Daulis,  in 
Phocis,  and  is  described  by  Pau- 
sanias  in  the  fifth  chapter  of  his 
tenth  book. 

Phoenicians.  The  Phoenicians 
were  one  of  the  most  polished  and 
industrious  nations  of  antiquity. 
Almost  all  the  arts  flourished 
among  them,  as  is  attested  by  the 
so  much  boasted  magnificence  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon.  Solomon  em- 
ployed the  Phoenician  artists  in  the 
construction  of  the  temple  at  Jeru- 
salem. Strabo  and  Appian  speak 
of  the  beauty  and  prodigious  height 
of  the  houses  of  Tyre  and  Carthage. 
The  temples  were  enriched  with 
statues  of  gold.  The  grandeur  of 
the  city  of  Tyre  is  described  in  the 
twenty-seventh  and  twenty-eighth 
chapters  of  Ezekiel.  The  Phoeni- 
cians built  several  cities  distinguish- 
ed for  their  magnificence.  Hiram, 
king  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  the 
friend  and  ally  of  Solomon,  is 
mentioned  as  the  founder  of  many 
palaces  and  cities.  Some  have 
conjectured  that  the  Phoenician  ar- 
chitects constructed  the  principal 
part  of  their  edifices  with  timber, 
as  the  mountains  of  Lebanus  sup- 
plied them  with  it  in  great  quan- 
tities, and  its  cedar  is  much  cele- 
brated. 

Phryctorion,  (  Gr.  )  a  tower 
among  the  Greeks,  on  which  was 
placed  a  sentinel,  who  gave  notice 
of  the  approach  of  an  hostile  force 
by  means  of  fire.  Thus  in  the 
Agamemnon  of  iEsehylus,  a  sen- 
tinel watches  from  the  top  of  the 
palace  of  that  hero  over  the  country 
in  the  direction  towards  Troy,  and 
at  length  he  perceives  the  fire  on  a 

240 


ce 


tower,  which  announces  the  ft  0f 
the  city.    A  machine  of  this  n  ie, 
for  the  same  purpose,  was  usi 
ancient  theatres. 

Phrygian  Marble,  see  1 
ble. 

Phrygian  Stone,  a  subst  vc 
employed  by  the  ancients  in  he 
process  of  dyeing.  ■ 

Phygalia,  a  city  of  Arc  ia, 
where  are  still  found,  among  <;er 
ruins,  fine  remains  of  the  tempi  of 
Apollo  Epicurius,  which  was  o  he 
Doric  order,  has  six  columns  ii  he 
fronts,  and  fifteen  in  the  h\;$. 
There  was  also  a  range  of  sii- 
columns,  abutting  against  th<ia- 
teral  walls  of  the  cella,  and  im 
their  being  in  it  some  parallel  th 
the  columns  of  the  peristyles,  a- 
ny  of  the  blocks  of  stone  \m 
formed  the  roof,  are  to  be  fnd 
within  the  limits  of  the  cella, v,z\\ 
are  of  sufficient  breadth  to  exid 
'  from  centre  to  centre  of  two  ad  ri- 
ms: columns.  Ictinus  was  the  r- 
chitect  of  this  temple,  and  it  as 
considered  as,  next  to  the  tole 
of  Minerva  at  Tegea,  the  m 
beautiful  in  the  Peloponnesus,  he 
greater  part  of  it  still  remains,  its 
length  is  one  hundred  and  twty- 
five  feet,  breadth  forty  eight  k, 
length  of  the  celia  fifty-three 
breadth  twenty  feet,  and  leng  of 
the  hypsethral  or  unroofed  palof 
the  cella  thirty-five  feet.  The  o- 
lumns,  including  the  capitals,  re 
about  twenty  feet  high.  It  st  ds 
in  a  position  nearly  north  pi 
south.  The  capitals  resemble  t>se 
of  the  Parthenon  in  form.,  he 
sculptures  of  the  frieze  are  W 
preserved  in  the  British  Musam. 
The  substance  of  which  the  te  )le 
is  built,  is  a  fine  close-grained  stpe 
or  litharge,  which  is  found  ir  he 
vicinity :  its  colour  a  light  br 
with  a  suffusion  of  yellow.  (P 
well,  Stuart,  Chandler.) 

Piazza,  (Piache,  Ital.)  a  P 


the 
•id 
H 


PIC 


P  I  c 


med  archway,  or  vaulting,  sup- 
rted  by  pillars;  a  portico. 
Picket,  in  fortification,  a  stake 
Lrp  at  one  end,  to  mark  out  the 
bund  and  angles  of  a  fortirlca- 
,  where  the  engineer  is  laying 
Jjwn  the  plan  of  it,  to  hold  toge- 
i  r  fascines  or  faggots  in  any  work 
1st  up  in  haste,  and  for  several 
jier  purposes. 

Pict's  House,  or  Burgh's  Cas- 
is,  a  name  given  to  some  singular 
mains  of  the  ancient  inhabitants 

cob  (,  North  Britain,  which  are  found 
lquent  in  the  Scottish  Islands. 

!.  ^metimes  they  stand  in  little  holms 
i  the  midst  of  lochs,  with  a  road 

eli,  lined  of  stones  to  connect  them 
a  h  the  island  ;  sometimes  on  high 

Mi  1  d  by  the  sea,  near  the  brink  of 
]  cipitous  rocks,  but  much  oftener 
(  the  skirts  of  sandy  bays,  and  in 
t  vicinity  of  landing  places.  They 
i  to  be  found  in  the  countries 
Km  which  the  Picts  originally 
tine.  There  is  a  remarkable  one 
j.Sualsburg,  near  Drontheim  ;  and 
other  called  the  Castle  of  Yms- 

I  g,  in  Westrogothia.  (Dalberg, 
Vicia  Antiqua  et  Hod.)  Many  of 
tin  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the 
s  res  of  Caithness,  of  Sunderland, 

1r  si  of  East  Ross,  and  the  vale  of 
(  p.elg,  near  Bernera,  contains 
f|r,  (Pinkerton.)  The  founda- 
t  is  of  several  have  been  dis- 
c  ered  on  a  plain  near  Perth  ;  and 

I I  of  Dornadilla,  in  Strathnaver, 
i:  o  less  distinguished  for  its  struc- 
t  than  the  very  large  one  at 
T  nrobin  castle.  But  they  are 
nut  frequent,  and  in  the  best  pre- 
station, m  the  northern  isles. 
%y  are  almost  without  exception 
0  a  circular  base,  rising  in  the 
■ foe  of  a  cone,  with  its  top  some- 
»yt  blunted.  Stones  of  a  conve- 
rt form,  and  of  a  large  size, 
*  lout  cement,  are  the  materials 
o  hich  they  are  constructed.  They 
a  of  two  kinds.    The  smaller, 

2H 


which  seem  to  be  the  oldest,  con- 
sist of  one  thick  circular  wall,  in 
the  inside  of  which  there  are  some- 
times places  which  might  have 
served  for  beds.  The  larger  kind 
is  far  more  complicated  in  its  in- 
ternal structure.  Besides  the  outer 
wall,  which  it  has  in  common  with 
the  former,  it  has  also  an  inner  one, 
concentric  with,  and  distant  about 
two  feet  from  the  former.  The 
walls  sometimes  meet  at  no  great 
height.  In  others  they  ascend 
parallel  to  each  other,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  little  more  than  two  feet, 
and  this  space,  which  is  entered  by  a 
door  of  two  feet  high  from  without,  is 
occupied  by  a  stair  of  a  winding 
spiral  form,  from  the  bottom  to  the 
top  of  the  building.  The  largest 
kind  are  surrounded  by  a  broad 
deep  ditch,  and  a  sort  of  rampart. 
One  of  the  finest  that  has  been 
examined  is  at  Quanterness,  under 
the  brow  of  the  hill  of  Wideford,  a 
little  more  than  a  mile  west  from 
the  road  or  harbour  of  Kirkwall. 
Its  external  form  is  that  of  a  trun- 
cated cone,  in  height  about  four- 
teen feet,  in  circumference  at  the 
base  three  hundred  and  eighty-four 
feet.  It  is  probable  that  it  was 
surrounded  by  two  walls,  but  the 
quantity  of  rubbish  rendered  this 
circumstance  difficult  to  ascertain. 
Internally  it  consists  of  several  cells 
or  apartments,  the  principal  one  of 
which  is  in  the  centre,  built  with 
large  flat  stones,  without  cement, 
the  one  immediately  projecting  over 
that  below,  so  as  gradually  to  con- 
tract the  space  within  as  the  build- 
ing rises,  till  the  opposite  walls 
meet  at  the  top,  when  they  are 
bound  together  by  large  stones  laid 
across.  Six  other  apartments,  of  a 
similar  form  and  construction,  but 
of  little  more  than  half  the  dimen- 
sions, communicate  with  the  central 
one,  each  by  a  passage  of  about  two 
feet  square,  on  a  level  with  the 

241 


PIC 


P  I  E 


floor.  There  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  any  contrivance  for  the 
admission  of  light.  The  earth  at 
the  bottom  of  the  cells,  as  deep  as 
could  be  dug,  was  of  a  dark  colour, 
of  a  greasy  feel,  and  of  a  fetid 
odour,  plentifully  intermingled  with 
bones,  both  of  men,  of  birds,  and  of 
some  domestic  animals.  In  one  of 
the  apartments  an  entire  human 
skeleton,  in  a  prone  attitude,  was 
found ;  but  in  the  others,  the  bones 
were  not  only  separated  from  one 
another,  but  most  of  them  divided 
into  small  fragments.  From  their 
appearance  some  have  conjectured 
the  inhabitants  to  have  been  can- 
nibals. Fig.  7,  (in  Plate  Castle, 
C.  65.)  is  a  ground  plan  of  this 
Pict's  House,  fig.  8  is  an  eleva- 
tion of  the  principal  room.  The 
dimensions  of  the  apartments  are 
as  follows.  Largest  apartment  : 
length  21  feet  6  inches;  breadth 
6:6;  height  11  :  6.  Apartment 
No.  1.:  1.  8:11;  b.3:6;  h.6:ll; 
No.  2.:  I.  7:2;  b.  3:9;  h.8:7; 
No.  3.:  1.10:0;  b.  4:1;  h.  8:6; 
No.  4.:  1.  9:9;  b.  4:4;  h.  8  :  1 ; 
No.  5.:  1.10:7;  b.  4:1;  h.  7:6; 
No.  6.:  1.  9:5;  b.  4:5;  h.  7:0; 
Passage  into  the  great  room  No.  7  : 
L  22:  0;  b.  1  :  9  ;  h.  2  :  0.  The 
passages  from  the  great  room  to 
the  small  ones,  were  in  breadth  and 
height  about  the  same  as  No.  7, 
and  their  length  about  3  three  feet 
7  inches.  (Barry's  Orkney  Islands ; 
Pennant's  Tour.) 

Picts' Wall,  see  Adrian's  Wall, 
and  Severus's  Wall. 

Picturesque,  "  It  is  said  of 
every  object  in  general,  which  pro- 
duces, or  can  produce,  by  a  striking 
singularity,  a  fine  effect  in  a  pic- 
ture." (Millin.)  Perhaps  the  most 
correct  definition  that  can  be  given 
of  the  picturesque  in  architecture 
would  be,  the  agreement  of  the 
style  of  a  building,  with  the  situa- 
tion in  which  it  is  placed.    A  cot- 

242 


tage  may  be  extremely  picturesqu, 
but  a  cottage  by  the  side  of  a  p 
lace  would  have  as  ridiculous  ; 
effect,  as  a  fine  smooth  building 
a  rustic  situation.  On  this  subjc 
the  reader  may  consult  Gilpii 
work,  and  the  useful  little  boc 
Fosbrooke's  Tourist's  Grammar. 

Piedouche,  (Fr.)  a  little  squa! 
base,  smoothed  and  wrought  wj 
mouldings,  which  serves  to  suppi 
a  bust  or  statue  drawn  half  way, 
any  small  figure  in  relief. 

Piedroit,  (Fr.)  a  square  pii 
partly  hid  in  the  wall,  differing frd 
a  pilaster  in  having  no  regular  be 
or  capital. 

Pier,  (pierre,  a  stone,  Fr.) 
mass  of  stone,  &c.  opposed  to  t 
force  of  the  sea,  or  of  a  great  riv. 
or  supporting  a  heavy  vault,  t 
arches  of  a  bridge,  &c.  See  Ca 
son. 

Pierres  levees,  and  Pier! 
debout,  (Fr.  horizontal  and  uprii 
stones,)  the  name  given  in  Fran 
to  the  cromlechs,  circles,  and  otl 
monuments  of  the  ancient  Dru 
which  are  found  in  various  par 
particularly  in  Poitou    and  B 
tagne.    The  pierres  debout  are  j 
upright  stones,  and  the  transve 
stone  the  pierre  levee.  Caylus, 
the  fourth  and  sixth  volumes  of 
Recueil  d'Antiquites,  has  given  I 
gravings  of  several  of  these  antiq 
ties.    The  pierre  levee  of  the  T 
bauchere,  in  the  department  of 
Vendee,  is  one  of  the  largest  tH 
has  been  described.    M.  Mazer. 
Poitiers,  measured  it  in  1785,  wh 
it  was  twenty-five  feet  long,  sev  - 
teen  broad,  and  more  than  lb 
thick.     It  is  supported  by  rje 
pierres  debout,  each  about  six  1 1 
high,  forming  a  grotto  twenty-f  it 
feet  long  by  sixteen.    From  ex  - 
vations  made  by  the  learned  Be- 
dictine  Dom  Fonteneau,  and  by  . 
Mazet,  under  many  of  these  stoi p« 
they  appear  very  commonly  to  b  e 


PIE 

oeen  places  of  sepulture.  In  Poi- 
ou  there  are  pierres  debout,  which 
ise  perpendicularly  from  nine  to 
wenty-six  and  twenty-seven  feet. 

There  are  found  Druidical  monu- 
ments at  no  great  distance  from 
Uontmorillon ;  one  described  by 
Uillin,  (torn.  iv.  p.  730)  consists  of 

horizontal  stone,  more  inclined  to 
•val  than  square,  eighteen  feet 
ong,  fourteen  wide,  and  three 
hick.  It  had  four  supports,  but 
nlv  one  remains  at  present  in  its 
pright  position. 

The  most  remarkable  monument 
f  this  kind  is  found  near  the  little 
D\vn  of  Carnac,  three  leagues  from 
ie  town  of  Auray,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Morbihan.    It  is  described 
y  De  Cambry  in  his  "  Monumens 
eltiques."    The  road  from  Auray 
)  Carnac  is  extremely  difficult ;  it 
traversed  by  hills  and  cross  roads, 
hich  are  almost  impassable.  There 
•innot  be  a  wilder  or  more  deserted 
'  strict.    Some  long  stones,  placed 
!i  the  hills  and  on  the  hillocks  of 
!md,  precede  the  great  theatre  of 
hich  you  are  in  quest.    On  the 
ft  and  afar  off  we  saw  in  the  ho- 
zon  heaps  of  stones,  which  we 
oided,  taking  them  for  parts  of 
alls  or  some  ruined  fortress :  we 
ached  at  length  one  of  the  bounds 
the  monument  towards  the  west, 
'will  not  attempt  to  describe  to 
'U  my  surprise  at  the  sight  of 
ese  wonderful  masses  stretching 
wards  the  horizon,  in  the  midst 
the  desert  which  surrounds  them  ; 
this  monument,  so  simple  and 
ijestic,  so  prodigious  from  its  ex- 
it, and  time  labour  it  must  have 
;t."    These  stones  are  placed  in 
1  ven    straight    lines,  which  are 
m  thirty  to  thirty-three  feet  dis- 
it;  and  M.  de  Cambry  supposes 
1  m  to  have  been    erected  for 
i  ronomical  purposes.    "  I  have 
»  asured,"  he  says,  "the  largest 
I  nes  at  Carnac.    The  most  ele- 


P  I  L 

vated  are  twenty-one  or  twenty-two 
feet  above  the  ground.  Their 
breadth  and  thickness  vary  as  well 
as  their  height,  but  some  of  them 
are  enormous,  especially  in  that 
part  near  Kervario,  near  the  mill 
of  Kerner.  One  of  them  is  twenty- 
two  feet  high,  twelve  broad,  and 
six  thick,  exclusive  of  what  is  con- 
cealed by  the  sand  ;  it  must  weigh 
256,800  lbs.,  supposing  the  cubic 
foot  of  granite  at  2001bs."  They 
are  all  of  this  material.  There  are 
now  about  4,000,  and  a  great  num- 
ber have  been  destroyed.  They 
are  also  described  by  Caylus,  in  the 
sixth  volume  of  his  Antiquites. 
M.  Boulay,  an  enlightened  inhabi- 
tant of  Auray,  told  Cambry  that 
they  extended  formerly  nearly-three 
leagues  along  the  coast.  Several 
views  of  this  monument  are  given 
in  "  the  Celtic  Druids,"  by  Godfrey 
Higgins,  which  are  copied  from 
Cambry 's  work.  A  description  of 
the  monument  of  Carnac  is  also 
given  in  the  Archseologia,  volume 
xxii. 

PiLiE,  square  blocks  placed  upon 
the  ancient  epistylia,  immediately 
over  the  columns,  for  supporting 
the  timbers  of  the  roof.  The  term 
was  also  given  to  buttresses  built 
against  the  walls  of  a  mole. 

Pilaster,  (Fr.)  a  kind  of  square 
column,  which  has  its  proportions 
and  ornaments,  such  as  flutings, 
&c.  like  those  of  the  columns  of  the 
order  from  which  it  is  named.  It 
is  generally  engaged  in  the  wall, 
having  a  projection  of  the  third, 
fourth,  fifth,  or  even  only  the  sixth 
of  its  breadth.  The  pilaster  must 
not  be  regarded  as  an  imitation  of 
the  columns;  it  owes  its  origin  to 
the  necessity  of  giving  more  solidity 
to  the  walls  of  the  cella  of  temples, 
where  it  was  first  used  under  the 
name  of  antce.  These  antae  or  pi- 
lasters served  to  strengthen  the 
corners  of  the  cella  and  the  pro- 

243 


PIL 


PIL 


jeeting  walls  of  the  pronaos.  To 
give  them  more  elegance,  and  to 
serve  at  the  same  time  for  orna- 
ment to  the  walls  of  the  cella,  they 
gave  them  a  base  and  capital.  In 
Doric  temples,  the  pilasters  as  well 
as  the  columns  were  generally  with- 
out base :  this  was  not,  however, 
always  the  case,  as  we  see  in  the 
temple  of  Minerva  Sunias.  In 
Ionic  and  Corinthian  temples,  the 
pilasters  had  always  a  base  and  ca- 
pital; both,  however,  differing  from 
the  bases  and  capitals  of  the  co- 
lumns of  the  same  temple.  These 
pilaster  bases  consisted  of  several 
members,  sometimes  plain,  and  at 
others  ornamented  with  leaves,  &c. 
In  Ionic  temples,  the  capitals  of 
the  pilasters  were  sometimes  richly 
charged  with  ornaments  which  bore 
a  great  resemblance  to  what  we  de- 
nominate Arabesque.  In  the  ruins 
of  the  temple  of  Apollo  Didymceus, 
near  Miletus,  we  find  these  capitals 
adorned  with  flowers  and  leaves  ele- 
gantly interlaced,  and  others  where 
genii  are  seen  rising  among  the 
foliage.  The  capitals  of  the  pilas- 
ters of  the  portico  at  Psestum  have 
a  different  form.  Their  profile  con- 
sists of  a  line  which  reaches  to  the 
abacus,  where  it  forms  a  kind  of 
volute.  Vitruvius  says  expressly, 
that  pilasters  ought  to  be  the  same 
breadth  as  the  columns  with  which 
they  range,  and  that  they  ought  not 
to  be  diminished;  and  amongst  all 
the  monuments  of  Grecian  archi- 
tecture, the  portico  of  Psestum  is 
the  only  one  which  offers  us  an 
example  of  pilasters  with  any  dimi- 
nution. It  was  not  till  a  much 
later  period,  perhaps  among  the 
Romans  only,  that  pilasters  were 
made  to  bear  the  same  capitals, 
bases,  and  ornaments,  as  the  co- 
lumns behind  which  they  stood. 
The  Pantheon,  the  temple  of  Anto- 
ninus and  Faustina,  that  of  Mars, 
the  basilica  of  Antoninus,  and  other 

244 


edifices  at  Rome,  afford  example; 
In  the  age  of  Augustus,  the  pilasteJ 
were  sometimes  almost  entirelv  d( 
tached  from  the  wall  against  whic! 
they  were  placed,  an  example  J 
which  may  be  seen  in  the  portio 
of  Octavia :  and  about  the  sam 
period  began  the  practice  of  usin| 
pilasters  without  any  columns  bf 
fore  them  ;  of  this  the  Pantheo 
furnishes  us  with  an  example.  Th 
pilasters  of  these  edifices  havi 
however,  no  diminution.  The  trj 
umphal  arch  of  Trajan,  which  beai 
at  present  the  name  of  Constantim 
exhibits  pilasters  diminished  in  th 
same  proportion  as  the  columr 
behind  which  they  stand.  Th 
example,  however,  was  rarely  fo 
lowed  by  the  ancients.  In  moder 
times  some  few  architects  hav 
given  diminution  to  pilasters.  Pj 
lasters  are  distinguished  by  variou 
names,  according  to  their  orde 
their  figure,  their  ornaments,  appl 
cation,  &c. 

Pilaster,  Demi,  or  MembretU 
a  pilaster  supporting  an  arch. 

Pilaster  Masses,  in  Gothi 
architecture,  rectangular  pillars  c 
portions  of  wall,  with  impost  mould 
ings. 

Pile,  a  stake  or  beam  of  timbe 
driven  firmly  into  the  ground,  ti 
form  the  foundation  of  building: 
piers  of  bridges,  &c.  In  founds 
tions  they  are  only  employed  whe 
the  foundation  is  suspected  of  b< 
ing  unsound.  Amsterdam,  an, 
some  other  cities  which  have  beej 
built  in  similar  situations,  are  who:!; 
built  upon  piles.  They  make  tl 
foundation  solid,  by  reaching  dee 
into  the  earth,  to  a  firmer  stratur 
than  that  of  the  surface.  Piles  aj 
sometimes  driven  in  rows,  to  fori; 
the  faces  of  wharfs,  banks  of  river 
piers  for  the  sea,  &c.  for  whic 
purpose  they  are  sometimes  drive 
in  rather  an  inclined  position.  Th( 
are  also  used  in  the  formation 


PIL 


P  I  L 


coffer  dams,  as  a  temporary  defence 
gainst  the  water,  in  laying:  the 
oundations  of  bridges,  &c.  (see 
Coffer-dam.)  The  breach  in  the 
>anks  of  the  Thames  at  Dagen- 
iam,  was  stopped  by  means  of 
love-tailed  piles,  or  piles  mortised 
nto  each  other  by  a  dove-tail  joint, 
^iles  are  generally  formed  of  squared 
imber,  but  for  laying  foundations, 
nd  in  other  cases,  when  they  are 
o  be  driven  quite  into  the  ground, 
,mall  trees  may  be  used  without 
quaring.  The  pointed  end  should 
ie  shod  with  iron  to  enter  the 
;round,  and  the  other  end  bound 
vith  a  iron  hoop,  to  prevent  it  from 
ieing  split  by  the  blows  of  the 
)ile-driver.  In  forming  a  tank,  or 
offer-dam,  pile-planks  are  gene- 
ally  used,  which  have  grooves 
ormed  in  their  adjacent  edges,  to 
eceive  tongues  or  slips  of  wood, 
/hich  make  their  joints  quite 
;ght. 

The  practice  of  laying  founda- 
ions  on  piles  was  common  among 
he  ancients.  Some  authors  ima- 
ine  also,  that  they  trace  the  use 
f  the  caisson  in  laying  foundations 
jp  rivers,  &c.  in  the  ninth  book  of 
he  iEneid,  ver.  710  et  seq.,  where 
rirgil  speaks  of  the  piles  which 
are  the  moles  of  the  famous  bridge 
ff  Baiae,  and  in  the  twelfth  chapter 
f  the  fifth  book  of  Vitruvius. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  eighth 
entury,  the  monastery  of  Croy- 
md,  in  Lincolnshire,  was  erected, 
'his  is  described  by  the  historian, 
ngulphus,  to  have  been  a  stone 
uilding,  succeeding  the  wooden 
ratory  of  Sr.  Guthlac  ;  and  as  the 
larshy  soil  on  which  it  was  situ- 
ted,  made  it  necessary  to  form  an 
"tificial  foundation,  that  was  done 
y  driving  into  the  ground  a  vast 
umber  of  oaken  and  ashen  piles, 
id  bringing  from  a  distance,  in 
^ats,  earth  and  sand  to  compose 

solid  surface.  (Ingulphus,  Hist. 


i 


Croyland,  in  the  Script,  post  Be- 
dam.)  This  circumstance  is  men- 
tioned, by  a  manuscript  poem  on 
the  life  of  St.  Guthlac,  cited  by 
Camden,  and  preserved  in  the 
British  Museeum. 

"  Nunc  exercet  ibi  se  munificentia  regis, 
Et  magnum  teniplum  magno  innlitnitie  con- 
dit, 

At  cum  tain  mollis,  tarn  lubrica,  tarn  male 

constans 

Fundamenta  pnlus  non  ferret  saxea,  palos 
Praecipit  itifigi  quercino  robore  caesos, 
Leucarunique    novem     spatioiate  feitur 
arena  ; 

Inqne  solum  mutatur  humus,  sulTultaque 
tali 

CeJJa  basi  multo  stat  consummata  labore." 

Pile  Engine,  or  Pile-driver, 
a  machine  invented  by  M.Vauloue, 
to  drive  in  the  piles  for  the  founda- 
tions of  Westminster  Bridge.  A 
great  improvement  has  been  made 
in  it  by  Mr.  S.  Bunce. 

Pile  Planks,  have  their  ends 
sharpened  to  drive  into  the  ground, 
and  form  a  dam  in  a  canal,  &c. 

Pillage,  a  word  sometimes 
used  for  a  square  pillar,  with  a 
round  base  and  capital  standing 
behind  a  column,  to  bear  up  the 
arches. 

Pillar,  (pilar,  Span,  pilier, 
Fr.)  an  irregular,  and  rude  column. 
The  supporters  in  Saxon,  Norman, 
and  Gothic  architecture  are  pillars, 
not  columns.  The  form  and  di- 
mensions of  pillars  are  guided  by 
no  rules  :  they  have  generally  a 
kind  of  foot  or  base,  and  a  sort  of 
cornice  above;  but  are  sometimes 
without  either.  Amongst  the  peo- 
ple of  remote  antiquity,  particularly 
those  of  the  north  and  west,  large 
pillars,  or  rough  single,  often  pyra- 
midal stones  were  erected  as  me- 
morials, as  sepulchres,  sometimes 
for  religious  purposes,  and  many  of 
them  were  objects  of  worship: 
after  the  introduction  of  Chris- 
tianity, this  reverence  was  trans- 
ferred to  crosses,  erected  in  various 

245 


Y  1  S 

places,  and  the  ancient  pillars  of 
their  pagan  ancestors  were  often 
adorned  with  the  addition  of  the 
same  symbol.  These  monuments, 
perhaps,  bear  affinity  to  the  Egyp- 
tian obelisks,  and  had  probably  the 
same  origin.  They  are  supposed  to 
have  had  at  first  some  symbolical 
analogy  with  the  Indian  ling  ham. 
At  the  earl  of  Pembroke's  mansion 
at  Wilton,  near  Salisbury,  is  pre- 
served a  pillar  formed  of  one  piece 
of  white  Egyptian  granite,  nearly 
fourteen  feet  high,  and  twenty-two 
inches  in  diameter.  It  was  brought 
from  the  temple  of  Venus  Genetrix 
at  Rome,  and  bears  an  inscription 
to  Astarte.  In  common  language, 
the  terms  pillar  and  column  are 
often  used  as  synonymous. 

Pinacotheca,  (Gr.  from  nival, 
a  picture,  and  drjKt],  a  repository,) 
amongst  the  Romans  and  Greeks, 
a  picture  gallery. 

Pine,  (  ttlvoq,  Gr.  )  This  tree 
was  well  known  to  the  ancients. 
Its  leaves  were  employed  by  the 
Greeks  to  decorate  their  Pans, 
Bacchanals,  &c.  The  species  call- 
ed pinus  cedrus,  or  cedar,  was  much 
used  in  buildings.    See  Cedar. 

Pinion,  in  mechanics,  a  lesser 
wheel  which  plays  in  the  teeth  of  a 
larger. 

Pinnacle,  (from  the  Lat.)  the 
top  or  roof  of  a  house  terminating 
in  a  point,  most  frequently  used  in 
Gothic  architecture.  Amongst  the 
ancients  it  was  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  temples.  Pinnacles  with 
vanes  mark  the  fifteenth  century. 

Pinning,  fastening  tiles  toge- 
ther with  oak  pegs. 

Pir^us,  see  Port. 

Pisa,  a  city  of  Etruria,  of  con- 
siderable antiquity,  and  some  cele- 
brity in  the  arts.  One  of  its 
churches,  called  Santa  Maria  delta 
Spina,  from  the  report  that  among 
its  relics  are  preserved  part  of  our 
Saviour's  crown  of  thorns,  is  a  very 


PIS 

singular  edifice :  it  is  situated  c 
the  banks  of  the  Arno,  is  suppose 
to  have  been  built  about  1231 
was  repaired  in  1300,  and  is 
square  low  building,  of  rather 
whimsical  and  grotesque  appea 
ance,  being  of  that  style  of  arch 
tecture,  which  is  named  in  Ital 
Gotico-Moresco,  which  was  intn 
duced  in  the  eleventh  century,  aj 
parentiy  from  the  East.  The  oth< 
kind  or  Gothic,  the  Gotico-Tedesa 
or  German  Gothic,  which  is  h 
some  supposed  to  be  an  improve 
ment  of  the  former,  is  exhibited  i 
the  cathedral  of  Pisa,  which,  wit 
the  edifices  pertaining  to  it,  thi 
baptistry,  belfry,  and  cemetery, 
perhaps  one  of  the  finest  piles  ( 
buildings  of  the  kind  in  the  work 
Its  erection  dates  in  the  elevent 
century.  Its  campanile,  or  belfn 
is  better  known  as  the  leanin, 
tower  of  Pisa,  (consisting  of  eigh 
stories,  divided  by  cornices,  an 
each  surrounded  by  pillars  an] 
arches,)  and  which  inclines  fourtee: 
feet  from  the  perpendicular  in  ai 
elevation  of  one  hundred  and  eight 
feet.  There  are  several  other  mag 
nificent  churches  at  Pisa,  beside 
the  cathedral.  The  remains  of  a; 
ancient  aqueduct  is  found  in  th 
vicinity,  and  a  modern  one,  sup 
ported  by  one  thousand  arches,  i 
carried  to  Leghorn.  See  Cam 
panile. 

Pi  say,  see  Pise. 

Piscina,  among  the  Romans 
was,  (1)  a  fish-pond,  (2)  a  shallov 
reservoir  for  persons  to  bathe  n 
who  did  not  know  how  to  swim,  o! 
(3)  a  place  for  watering  horses  am 
washing  clothes.  In  ecclesiastics 
architecture,  the  piscina  was  a  bow 
for  water,  generally  in  a  niche  i 
the  wall  of  the  church,  in  which  th; 
priest  laved  his  hands.  Piscinai 
or  remains  of  them,  may  be  foun 
in  almost  all  our  ancient  churches: 
as  there  was  generally  one  attache 


P  I  s 


P  I  s 


0  every  altar.  Properly  speaking, 
t  was  a  basin  or  sink,  in  which 
be  priest  washed  his  hands  while 
)erforming  the  sacred  rites  at  the 
iltar,  in  allusion  to  the  text,  "  I  will 
•/ash  my  hands  in  innocency,"  (Ps. 
;xvi.  6.)  and  where  all  consecrated 
i-aste,  or  impure  water,  &c.  that 
ould  be  so  disposed  of,  was  emp- 
led  out.  There  is  a  great  variety 
a  their  form,  and  some  were  as 
emarkable  for  plainness  and  sim- 
)licity  as  others  were  for  their  taste- 
ul  elegance  of  design,  and  richness 
>f  sculptural  execution.  The  latter 
;ind  are  found  chiefly  in  buildings 
»f  the  Gothic  style.  Fig.  12,  PI. 
?astle,  C.  71,  is  a  Piscina  from 
trinity  church,  Coventry.  In  PI. 
Carpentry,  C.  44,  is  given  a  figure 
f  a  Piscina  at  St.  Alban's.  Pis- 
inae  were  sometimes  doubled. 

Pise,  or  Pisay,  (Fr.)  a  very  use- 
ul  and  economical  kind  of  build- 
lg,  which  has  been  long  practised 

1  the  district  of  Lyons,  in  France, 
t  was  known  and  practised  at  a 
ery  early  period  of  antiquity,  as 
ppears  from  a  passage  in  Pliny's 
Natural  History,  (lib.  xxxiv.  c.  14,) 
hich  is  an  exact  description  of  this 
Tanner  of  building.  M.  Goiffon, 
ho  published  a  treatise  on  Pise,  in 
772,  believes  that  the  art  was 
jractised   by   the    Romans,  and 

v  pinks  that  by  them  it  was  intro- 
uced  into  France;  and  the  Abbe 
lozier,  in  his  Journal  de  Physique, 
ivslhat  he  discovered  some  traces 
f  it  in  Catalonia ;  so  that  Spain, 
ke  France,  has  a  single  province 
i  which  this  ancient  mode  of 
lilding  has  been  preserved.  We 
lail  abridge  the  account  of  M. 
rancois  Cointereaux,  who  pub- 
ihed  a  work  at  Paris,  in  1791, 
lly  describing  this  mode  of  con- 
duction. Its  value  may  be  appre- 
ated  from  his  assertion  of  "  the 
)ssibility  of  raising  the  walls  of 
)uses  two  or  even  three  stories 


high,  with  earth  only,  which  will 
sustain  floors  loaded  with  the  hea- 
viest weights,  and  of  building  the 
largest  manufactories  in  this  man- 
ner.1" It  has  been  of  late  years  in- 
troduced into  England,  and  speci- 
mens may  be  seen  at  Woburn  ab- 
bey, and  some  other  places.  Its  du- 
rability is  fully  shown  by  the  state- 
ment of  the  Rev.  Mr.  Jancour,  who 
resided  at  Montbrison,  where  he 
says  the  church  was  a  remarkable 
specimen  of  this  kind  of  building  : 
it  is  about  eighty  feet  long,  forty 
broad,  and  fifty  high;  the  walls  are 
built  en  pise,  eighteen  inches  thick, 
and  crepe  or  rough -cast  on  the 
outside  with  lime  and  sand.  Soon 
after  his  arrival,  the  church,  by 
some  accident,  was  burnt,  and  re- 
mained unroofed  for  about  twelve 
months,  exposed  to  rain  and  frost. 
As  it  was  suspected  that  the  walls 
had  sustained  much  damage  by 
the  fire  and  the  inclemency  of  the 
season,  and  might  give  way,  it  was 
determined  to  throw  them  down 
partially,  and  leave  only  the  lower 
parts  standing ;  but  even  this  was 
not  done  without  much  difficulty, 
such  was  the  firmness  and  hard- 
ness these  walls  had  acquired  :  the 
church  had  stood  above  eighty 
years,  and  all  the  repairs  it  requir- 
ed, were  only  to  give  it,  every  twelve 
or  fifteen  years,  a  new  coating  of 
rough-cast  on  the  outside. 

The  word  pise,  or  en  pise,  is  a 
technical  term  used  first  in  the 
country,  where  this  kind  of  building 
is  in  common  practice.  The  man- 
ner of  operation  is  merely  by  com- 
pressing earth  in  moulds  or  cases, 
that  we  may  arrive  at  building 
houses  of  any  size  or  height.  All 
earths  are  fit  for  the  purpose,  when 
they  have  not  the  stillness  of  clay, 
or  the  lightness  of  poor  lands;  all 
earths  which  are  fit  for  vegetation  ; 
brick  earth  ;  and,  more  particularly, 
strong  earths  with  a  mixture  of 


PIS 


PIS 


small  gravel.  The  following  are 
given  as  indications  that  the  earth 
is  fit  for  this  purpose  :  (1)  when  a 
spade  or  plough  brings  up  large 
lumps  of  earth  at  a  time  ;  (2)  when 
arable  land  lies  in  clods  or  lumps; 
(3)  when  field-mice  have  made  their 
abode  in  it ;  (4)  when  the  roads  of 
a  village,  having  been  worn  away 
by  the  water  continually  running 
over  and  through  them,  are  lower 
than  the  contiguous  lands,  and  the 
sides  of  these  roads  support  them- 
selves almost  upright ;  (5)  when  we 
find  a  difficulty  in  breaking  the  little 
clods  of  earth  in  the  road  with  the 
finger ;  and  (6)  wherever  deep  ruts 
are  observed  in  the  road.  In  digging 
cellars  and  trenches  for  building,  it 
most  commonly  happens  that  what 
comes  out  of  them  is  fit  for  this 
purpose.  When  the  earth  that  is 
near  at  hand  is  not  of  the  proper 
kind,  it  may  very  often  be  rendered 
so  by  mixing.  The  principle  of 
mixing  it  is  very  simple ;  strong 
earths  must  be  mixed  with  light, 
those  in  which  clay  predominates 
with  others  that  are  composed  more 
of  sand,  those  of  a  rich  glutinous 
substance  with  others  poorer  and 
more  barren.  The  proportion  of  the 
mixture  must  be  determined  by  the 
degree  in  which  these  different 
qualities  prevail,  and  must  be  learnt 
by  practice.  With  the  earth  may  be 
mixed  some  small  pebbles,  gravel, 
rubbish  of  mortar,  &c.  but  all  ani- 
mal or  vegetable  substances,  or  any 
thing  liable  to  corruption,  must  be 
carefully  excluded.  Well-worked 
earth,  in  which  there  is  a  mixture 
of  gravel,  in  about  two  years'  time 
becomes  so  hard,  that  a  chisel  must 
be  applied  to  break  it,  as  though  it 
were  freestone.  •  The  following  is 
one  of  the  experiments  recommend- 
ed, to  ascertain  the  goodness  of  the 
earth.  Take  a  wooden  tub  without 
a  bottom,  dig  a  hole  in  the  ground, 
fix  a  flat  piece  of  stone  level  at  the 

248 


bottom,  place  the  tub  on  it,  a> 
ram  it  tight  all  round  with  eartl 
then  ram  into  the  tub  the  earth  y< 
intend  to  try  (which  must  be  di 
from  a  little  below  the  surface 
the  ground,  that  it  may  not  be  tj 
dry  or  too  moist,)  putting  in 
each  time  about  the  thickness 
three  or   four  fingers'  breadth, 
ramming  it  well  in,  till  it  is  filled  > 
to  the  brim  ;  make  the  earth  at  ti 
surface  of  the  tub  perfectly  smoo 
and  even  ;  then  take  up  the  ti 
from  out  of  the  ground,  with  tl 
earth,  or  pise,  in  it;  turn  the  ti 
upside-down,  and  let  the  pise  oi 
or,  if  it  should  stick  fast,  let  it  d: 
in  the  air  for  twenty-four  hour 
when  you  will  find  it  loose  enoue 
to  drop  out  of  itself;  keep  th 
lump  of  pise  exposed  to  the  ai 
but  sheltered  from  any  rain  th; 
might  chance  to  fall,  and  if  it  cor 
tinue  without  cracking  or  cruml 
ling,  and  increase  daily  in  densit 
and  compactness,  it  is  a  certai 
proof  that  it  is  fit  for  building, 
the  earth  be  not  well  pressed  roun 
the  outside  of  the  tub  while  filling 
the  pressure  of  that  which  you  at 
ramming  in  the  inside  will  assu: 
edly  burst  it,  even  though  the  hooj. 
be  of  iron.    The  earth,  as  dug  u 
for  pise,  should  be  well  raked  witi 
a  rake  of  about  an  inch  and  a  ha 
between  each  tooth,  so  as  to  leav. 
in  it  the  small  stones  and  pebbles 
which  are  no  larger  than  a  wall 
nut,  as  they  will  add  to  the  strengt 
of  the  mass.    In  mixing  differer 
kinds  of  earth,  a  portion  of  eac 
should  be  thrown  alternately  on  th 
heap,  in  the  proportions  found  re 
quisite,  whilst  another  person  mixe 
them  together.     No  more  eart; 
should  be  prepared  at  once  than  J 
sufficient  for  one  day  s  work,  an; 
if  rain  be  expected,  you  must  hav 
at  hand  planks  or  mats  to  cover 
with,  the  moment  it  begins;  1c 
the  earth  cannot  be  used  whe 


PIS 


PIS 


J  e||5r  too  dry  or  too  wet :  if  the 
,     Ijir,  the  workmen  will  be  obliged 
to  ait  till  it  has  gained  its  proper 
cc  istency;  if  the  former,  it  may 
,    ea  v  be  moistened  by  sprinkling  it 
,     wl| '  a  little  water ;  when  wet  in 
ai  considerable  degree,  the  work- 
<l    ml  bad  better  stop  the  work. 

he  implements  used  in  building 
ei,  ise,  which  are  few  and  of  very 
sinle  construction,  are  shown  in 
Y'Tools,  fig.  4,  a  is  the  head  of 
th'mould  seen  withoutside ;  b,  the 
ot  r  side  seen  withinside ;  c,  d, 
th|oists  in  which  the  upright  post 
s  cured  by  the  wedges  e,  e :  /,  a 
r0 id  piece  of  wood  called  the 
w  '  gauge :  g,  one  of  the  upright 
pes,  with  its  tenon  to  enter  the 
miise  in  the  joist.  In  our  figure 
th  parts  are  shown  both  sepa- 
ra.y  and  connected  in  their  places 
fojse. 

d  make  good  walls  of  pise,  the 
1     ea  i  must  not  only  be  well  beaten, 
bi  they  must  be  well  united  toge- 
th.    in  this  mode  of  construc- 
'     ti<'  in  place  of  the  angles  or  bin- 
"    aV  of  freestone  used  in  buildings, 
1     or  a  few  thin  pieces  of  wood  are 
lie  ssary,  with  a  few  cramps  and 
1    no,  to  give  the  greatest  solidity.  In 
or  single  day  three  courses,  each 
at'  t  three  feet  high,  may  be  rais- 
ed ne  over  another,  forming  a  wall 
'S    of  )out  eight  or  nine  feet ;  and  it 
a    ha  been  proved  by  experience,  that 
as  oon  as  the  builders  have  raised 
th  walls  to  a  proper  height  for 
th  flooring,  the  heaviest  beams 
ai  rafters  may  be  placed  on  the 
when  newly  made,  and  that 
th  hickest  timber  of  the  roof  may 
beilaeed  on  the  gables  the  very 
in;  nt  they  are  completed.  "When 
th  irst  course  is  laid  on  the  front 
an  inner  walls,  and  before  the  se- 
co  course  is  begun,  the  evenness 
an  strength  of  the  whole  will  be 
'in  ased,  l>y  placing  at  the  bottom 
of  e  mould  a  board  about  five  or 
21 


six  inches  long,  and  an  inch  thick, 
resting  on  the  opposite  angle,  and 
so  broad  that  there  may  remain  on 
each  side,  four  or  five  inches  of  the 
earth  of  the  wall,  which  should  be 
about  eighteen  inches  thick;  and 
the  board,  being  concealed  in  the 
body  of  the  pise,  will  be  out  of  the 
reach  of  the  air  or  of  damp,  and  of 
course  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
its  decaying.  The  board  should  be 
rough  from  the  saw.  These  boards 
need  only  be  placed  at  the  angles 
of  exterior  walls,  and  in  those  parts 
where  the  partition  walls  join  it.  It 
is  also  advisable,  particularly  where 
the  earth  is  not  of  a  very  good 
quality,  to  put  ends  of  planks  into 
the  pise,  after  it  has  been  rammed 
to  about  half  the  height  of  the 
mould  :  they  should  be  only  ten  or 
eleven  inches  long,  to  leave,  as  be- 
fore, a  few  inches  of  the  earth  of  the 
wall  on  each  side.  Having  deter- 
mined the  height  of  each  story, 
boards  three  or  four  feet  long  should 
be  placed  beforehand  in  the  pise 
where  the  beams  are  to  be  fixed, 
and  the  beams  may  be  laid  on  for 
each  story,  as  soon  as  the  mould  is 
moved  for  the  place,  the  pise  being 
continued  as  high  as  the  place  you 
intend  for  the  roof.  The  openings 
for  the  doors  and  windows  must  be 
left,  as  you  build  the  walls,  by  plac- 
ing within  the  mould  one  or  two  of 
the  heads  of  the  mould,  as  may  be 
required,  where  the  opening  is  to 
commence.  They  should  be  made 
sloping  a  little,  to  leave  room  for 
the  frames  and  sashes.  The  chim- 
ney pieces  are  laid  in  the  same 
manner  as  in  common  building, 
and  the  flues  are  made  of  brick- 
work, and  firmly  connected  with 
the  walls.  The  apartments  may  be 
very  handsomely  finished  without 
making  any  jambs  to  the  inside 
doors,  as  the  facings  of  wood  to 
the  earthen  wall  will  render  them 
unnecessary.    In  making  very  long 

249 


P  I  s 


P  L  A 


walls,  as  for  parks,  &c.  it  will  be 
found  requisite  to  set  several 
moulds  to  work  at  the  same  time 
in  different  places,  for  the  sake  of 
speed. 

The  rich  traders  of  Lyons  have 
no  other  way  than  this  of  building 
their  country  houses,  and  many  are 
known  to  have  lasted  for  upwards 
of  a  hundred  and  sixty  years.  An 
outside  covering  by  painting  in 
fresco,  the  way  most  commonly 
used,  entirely  conceals  the  nature 
of  the  building,  and  many  of  these 
edifices  are  extremely  handsome. 
The  plaster  for  the  outside  of  pise 
walls  differs  from  that  used  on  other 
walls,  and  it  requires  to  be  laid  on 
at  a  proper  time.  When  a  house 
is  begun  in  February,  and  complet- 
ed in  April,  the  covering  may  be 
laid  on  in  autumn,  that  is,  five  or 
six  months  after  it  is  finished  ;  if 
finished  in  the  beginning  of  Novem- 
ber, it  may  be  laid  on  in  the  ensu- 
ing spring.  If  it  be  laid  on  before 
the  dampness  of  the  wall  is  gone 
off,  it  will  be  liable  to  come  off. 
To  prepare  the  walls  for  plastering, 
they  should  be  notched  with  the 
point  of  a  hatchet  or  a  hammer, 
the  little  dents  thus  made  being 
very  near  each  other.  The  wall 
should  afterwards  be  run  over  with 
a  stiff  brush,  to  detach  all  loose 
particles.  A  scaffold  may  be  quick- 
ly erected  in  the  holes  which  the 
joists  of  the  mould  have  left.  Two 
kinds  of  plaster  may  be  used — 
rough-cast,  or  stucco.  The  former 
consists  of  a  small  quantity  of  mor- 
tar, diluted  with  water  in  a  tub, 
to  which  a  trowel  of  pure  lime  is 
added,  so  as  to  make  it  about  the 
thickness  of  cream.  Stucco  is  only 
poor  mortar,  made  in  a  clean  place 
near  the  lime-pit,  and  carried  to 
the  masons  on  the  scaffold.  The 
rough-cast  is  laid  on  by  first  sprink- 
ling the  wall  with  a  brush,  and 
then  dipping  another  brush,  made 

250 


of  bits  of  reed,  box,  &c.  intc  he 
rough-cast,  which  is  throwr!as 
equally  as  possible  against  the  4|; 
as  he  lowers  the  scaffold,  the  Jfc! 
man  can  fill  up  the  joist-holes  th 
stones,  or  old  plaster,  &c.  In  <  c_ 
coing,  one  man  sprinkles  the  ill 
with  a  brush,  and  lays  on 
stucco  with  a  trowel,  while  am  er 
follows  him,  sprinkles  water  er 
the  mortar  thus  laid,  and  srnchs 
it  with  a  wood  flout.  It  ma 
whitened  with  lime  as  it  is  laid 
Pit,  (cavea,  Lat.)  the  part 
theatre  between  the  galleries  id 
the  stage. 

Pitch,  the  vertical  angle  a 
roof;  the  proportion  between  ie 
height  and  span.  When  the  le  th 
of  the  rafters  is  equal  to  the  bre  th 
of  the  building,  it  is  denominat  a 
Gothic  pitch. 

Pitch ing-Piece,  a  horizc  al 
timber,  with  one  of  its  ends  wei 
into  the  wall,  at  the  top  of  a  nh( 
of  steps,  to  support  the  upper  id 
of  the  rough  strings. 

Pix,  in  the  architecture  of  ie 
middle  ages,  a  box  or  shrine,  sCe- 
times  called  a  tabernacle,  anci- 
tended  to  contain  the  host,  or  b* 
secrated  wafer,  suspended  u  i 
the  cibarium,  or  canopy  of  ie 
altar. 

Placard,  the  decorations  | 
chamber  door. 

Place,  an  open  piece  of  grc id 
surrounded  with  buildings,  gp 
rally  decorated  with  a  statue,  » 
lumn,  or  some  other  ornanien  B 
the  middle.  Two  terms  were  p 
by  the  Romans  to  designate 
lie  place : — area,  which  meai  a 
wide  unappropriated  space  ;  id 
forum,  which  was  a  place  destpi 
for  carrying  on  public  business 

Place,  in  geometry,  is  a  ceiM 
extent  wherein  each  point  mayn- 
differently  serve  for  the  solutioiof 
an  indetermined  problem,  whe  it 
is   to  be  resolved  geometric.)'. 


P  L  A 

'[  Sivte  place,  is  when  the  point 
tin  serves  tor  the  problem  is  found 
in   line,  whether  right  or  curved, 
that  by  reason  of  the  want  of 
o  condition  only,  to  render  the 
ir,|lem    determinate  altogether. 
So  I  place,  is  when  three  condi- 
[  o  are  wanting  to  the  determina- 
te of  the  point  sought,  and  so  it 
vibe  found  in  a  solid;  and  this 
ma  be  included  under  either  a 
/  pU:?,  curve,  or  mixed  superficies, 
anithose  either  determinate  or  in- 
itely  extended.  Superjicial 
/  ,  is  when,  there  being  two  con- 
ins  wanting  to  determine  any 
that  resolves  any  problem, 
point  may  be  taken  through- 
u  the  extension  of  superficies, 
whher  plane  or  curve. 

,ace  of  Arms,  the  body  of  a 
!  i  ss.    The  place  of  arms  of  a 
,  h,  or  of  an  attack,  is  a  post 
net  it,  sheltered  by  a  parapet,  or 
epf'ment. 

.  a  fond,  (Fr.)  or  platfond,  the 
cei  *  of  a  room ;  the  bottom  of 
it  theuojection  of  the  larmier  of  the 
3ii  corjche ;  a  soffit. 

a  in  Tiles,  or  Plane  tiles , 
tilt  :hat  have  their  surface  planes. 

an,  (Fr.)  the  draught  of  a 
ui  ng,  taken  on  the  ground  floor, 
she  ng  the  distribution,  form,  and 
i\  t,  of  its  several  rooms,  passages, 
c  In  plans  of  buildings,  the 
nia-ve  parts,  as  walls,  &c.  are 
^rer  ally  distinguished  by  a  dark 
sha- .    In  a  geometrical  plan,  the 
par  are  represented  in  their  na- 
-    tur;  proportions;   a  perspective 
si:  pfoi  is  exhibited  with  diminution, 
I:    acc  iing  to  the  rules  of  that  sci- 
•nc'f  The  raised  plan  of  a  build- 
ing the  elevation. 

I  ^hip-building,  a  plan  is  the 
secli  of  a  ship  as  designed  upon 
pap,  previously  to  the  actual 
"Ming,  of  which  there  are  three 
Fir  pal  ones,  the  plan  of  the  eleva- 
tion called  sheer-plan,)  the  hori- 


P  L  A 

zontal  or  half-breadth  plan,  and 
the  plan  of  projection  or  body 
plan. 

Plan  of  a  bastion,  the  same  as 
the  face  of  a  bastion. 

Plancere,  the  under  part  of 
the  roof  of  a  corona,  which  is  the 
superior  part  of  the  cornice,  be- 
tween two  cymatia. 

Plane,  in  geometry,  a  surface 
which  coincides  every  where  with  a 
right  line,  which  is  every  where 
perfectly  true  and  level. 

Plane,  Geometrical,  in  per- 
spective, a  plane  surface,  parallel 
to  the  horizon,  placed  lower  than 
the  eye,  wherein  the  visible  objects 
are  imagined  without  any  altera- 
tion, except  that  they  are  some- 
times reduced  from  a  greater  to  a 
lesser  size.  A  horizontal  plane,  is 
a  plane  parallel  t«o  the  horizon, 
which  passes  through  the  eye,  or 
has  the  eye  supposed  to  be  placed 
in  it.  A  vertical  plane,  is  a  plane 
surface  which  passes  along  the 
principal  ray,  and  consequently 
through  the  eye,  and  is  perpen- 
dicular to  the  geometrical  plane. 

Plane,  a  carpenter's  tool.  Mont- 
faucon  has  engraved  an  ancient 
carpenter's  plane,  nearly  of  the  same 
form  as  the  modern.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  carpenter's  plane  is 
known  to  every  one.  The  broad 
chisel,  or  steel  cutter,  is  called  the 
plane  iron;  it  is  fixed  in  a  hole 
through  the  plane  stock,  projecting 
a  very  little  beyond  the  face  of  the 
plane,  which  must  be  perfectly  true. 
The  iron  is  fixed  by  a  wedye,  which 
leaves  an  aperture  before  it  called 
the  mouth  of  the  plane.  There  is 
a  great  variety  of  planes,  known  by 
their  different  names  and  uses. 
The  first  is  the  jack  plane,  which 
is  generally  about  seventeen  inches 
long,  and  is  used  for  rough  woik, 
and  for  redncin*-  the  surface  of 
large  pieces  of  wood.  The  iron 
makes  an  angle  of  forty-five  de- 

25L 


P  L  A 


P  L  A 


grees  with  the  face  of  the  plane, 
and  is  a  thin  metal  plate,  one  side 
iron,  the  other  steel;  the  lower  part 
is  ground  off  the  iron  side  to  an 
acute  tingle,  and  the  sloping  part  is 
termed  the  basil;  the  edge  should 
be  sharpened  to  a  regular  aud 
slight  curvature.  A  handle,  fixed 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  stock,  im- 
mediately behind  the  iron,  is  called 
the  tote.  A  great  improvement  has 
been  made  of  late  years,  by  the 
introduction  of  the  double  iron, 
consisting  of  a  second  iron  with  a 
reversed  basil,  screwed  against  the 
front  side  of  the  iron,  its  edge  lying 
against  the  iron  at  a  very  small  dis- 
tance from  the  cutting  edge.  Its 
use  is  to  prevent  the  cutting-iron 
from  splitting  the  shaving  deeper 
than  it  will  afterwards  cut,  and 
thus  leaving  an  uneven  surface. 
The  long  -plane,  is  in  length  gene- 
rally about  twenty-six  inches,  and 
is  set  fine,  and  used  for  finishing 
work  intended  to  be  very  straight. 
The  trying  plane,  is  of  nearly  the 
same  length,  and  differs  only  from 
the  jack  plane,  in  having  two  han- 
dles. The  shooting  plane  ox  join- 
ter, is  the  most  correct,  as  well  as 
the  longest  plane  in  use,  being  ge- 
nerally about  thirty  inches  long. 
The  smoothing  plane,  is  not  above 
seven  inches  and  a  half  long,  has 
sides  curved  in  the  form  of  a  coffin, 
and  no  handle,  and  is  principally 
used  for  finishing  work  when  put 
together.  The  foregoing  planes  are 
all  denominated  bench  planes,  as 
in  their  use  the  work  is  always  laid 
on  the  work-bench.  The  straight 
block,  is  a  plane  used  for  straight- 
ening short  edges.  Rebating  planes, 
are  used  for  cutting  out  rebates  or 
semi  -  grooves  on  the  edge  of  a 
board,  and  sometimes  for  orna- 
menting mouldings,  &c. ;  they  are 
of  different  kinds,  some  having  the 
cutting  edge  at  the  side,  called 
side  rebating  planes,  others  on  the 

252 


face,  and  others  again  on  b- 
Fillisters,  are  used  for  sinking 
cutting  away  the  edge  of  a  piee 
wood  to  form  the  rebate,  the  otl 
smoothing  it  afterwards.  The  n 
ing  fillister,  has  a  wooden  ru 
named  the  fence,  fixed  by  scr 
along  its  face,  and  covering  par 
the  length  of  the  cutting  edge,  id 
which  may  be  moved  so  as  to  le 
more  or  less  of  the  cutting  e 
exposed,  as  the  breadth  of 
rebate  may  require.    In  this  pi 
the  cutting  edge  has  an  obliq; 
of  about  forty- five  degrees, 
iron  called  a  tooth,  is  placed  s« 
to  precede  the  other  iron,  and  t 
off  the  shaving  from  the  side,  'e 
sash  fillister,  differs  from  the  t 
in  several  particulars;  the  fenc% 
not  fixed  by  screws,  but  adapi 
for  removal  to  a  considerable  L 
tance,  and  fastened  by  two  Is 
attached  to  it;  the  breadth  of  e 
iron  is   rather   broader  than  c 
stock,  so  that  the  cutting  edge  }- 
jects  a  little  at  the  side.  Rebate 
planes  are  all  about  nine  inches ;  1 
a  half  long.    The  plough,  is  a  \ 
narrow  plane,  and  hasanappe- 
tus  to  guide  it  in  ploughing  a  groe 
at  any  required  distance  from 
edge  of  a  board.    The  dado  grc 
ing  plane,  is  also  used  for  makfe 
grooves.    The  toothing  plane,  i  I 
fluted  iron,  with  teeth  in  its  ec  , 
and  is  used  in  planing  woods  r 
veneering.    There  are  other  tcs 
of    this    kind    called  moiddq 
planes,  which   have  curved  fcs 
and  cutting  edges,  so  as  to  mi 
various    ornamental  monldin; 
they  are  known  by  the  names 
snipe's  bills,   side   snipes  6fc 
beads,  hollows,  and  rounds,  ovos, 
ogees,  &c. 

Plane,  Inclined,  see  Inclid 
Plane. 

Plane  Surface,  a  surl'e 
which  lies  evenly  between  its  bo>i- 
dary  lines. 


PLA 


P  LA 


Fane  Table,  a  rectangular 
boa  for  finding  the  position  and 
dist'ice  of  points  which  are  situ- 
ates n  the  same  plane. 

Eanjmetry,  the  part  of  geo- 
mi  which  treats  only  of  lines 
andurfaces. 

Ianing  Machine,  a  machine 

r  ianing  wood,  which  was  in- 

]<i  to  give  greater  expedition, 
v.  tl  less  trouble  than  by  manual 
]ab(T.  The  first  machine  of  this 
kin  .vas  invented  by  General  Ben- 

a  in  1791,  and  consisted  of  a 
pla  put  in  motion  by  means  of  a 

i  .     Mr.  Bramah  invented  a 
lg  machine  on  an  improved 

.n  ruction  in  1802,  which  may 
;ed  for  planing  timber  at  a 
mi  expense.  "The  cutting  tools," 
,ys,  in  his  description  of  it, 

e  /loved  to  reduce  the  wood,  in- 
iei  of  being  worked  by  hand,  are 
to  3  fixed  on  frames,  some  of 
h  i  are  moved  in  a  rotatory  di- 
rec  n  round  an  upright  shaft,  and 
otfcs  have  a  common  shaft  lying 
in  horizontal  position,  like  a 
'  Oi  ion  lathe.  In  other  instances, 
thnols  are  fixed  on  frames,  which 
sl'u  in  stationed  grooves,  to  be 
drin  also  by  machinery."  In 
18  ,  Mr.  Bevans  obtained  a  pa- 
ter for  a  machine  for  planing  all 
kir  >of  mouldings,  grooves,  rebates, 
&c  the  machinery  of  which  con- 
sis  in  a  crank,  passing  through  a 
mcise  in  a  box  in  which  it  slides, 
fix  on  an  axis,  the  motion  of 

h  is  regulated  by  a  fly-wheel. 
fk  planes  are  connected  with  a 
»tr  g  heavy  beam. 

anisphere,  (LaO  a  project- 
Iwof  the  sphere,  and  its  several 
.    cir;!sf  on  a  plane. 

•AN K,  (Fr.)  a  name  given  ge- 
ne ly  to  al!  timber,  but  fir,  which 
'8  iss  than  four  inches  thick, 
an  thicker  than  a  board,  which  is 
an  nch  and  a  half,  and  down- 
wj  .g. 


Flank  Sheers,  or  covering 
boards,  planks  which  are  placed 
horizontally  over  the  heads  of  the 
timbers  of  the  forecastle,  quarter- 
deck, and  round-house  of  a  ship. 

Planting,  layingthefirstcourses 
of  stone  on  a  foundation. 

Plaster,  a  composition  of  lime, 
with  sand,  &c.  to  cover  the  walls  of 
a  building.  See  Mortar,  Stucco, 
and  Alabaster. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  a  prepara- 
tion of  a  species  of  gypsum  or  ala- 
baster, dug  near  Montmartre,  a 
village  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Paris.  It  is  calcined  by  fire  into  the 
fine  plaster,  which  is  so  valuable  for 
modelling,  &c.  When  diluted  with 
water  to  a  thin  paste,  plaster  of 
Paris  quickly  sets,  and  has  its 
bulk  increased  at  the  instant  of  set- 
ting, and  Mr.  Boyle  found,  by  ex- 
periment, that  a  glass  vessel  filled 
with  this  paste,  and  close  stopped, 
bursts  while  the  mixture  sets,  a 
quantity  of  water  sometimes  issuing 
through  the  cracks.  Hence  this 
substance  becomes  a  valuable  ma- 
terial for  filling  cavities,  &c.  when 
other  earths  would  shrink.  Two  or 
three  spoonfuls  of  burnt  alabaster, 
mixed  up  with  water  to  a  thin  sub- 
stance, when  thrown  into  a  vessel 
full  of  water,  quickly  coagulate  into 
a  hard  lump  at  the  bottom. 

Plaster  Floors,  are  exceed- 
ingly useful  in  cottages,  &c.  where 
they  may  be  constructed  at  no 
great  expense,  and  afford  a  great 
security  against  fire.  The  plaster 
must  be  composed  of  lime  of  a 
strong  binding  quality,  and  is  laid 
on  a  kind  of  strong  reed,  or  on 
laths  nailed  to  the  joists,  which 
must  be  laid  in  the  usual  manner. 
These  kinds  of  floors  are  in  general 
use  in  Nottinghamshire  and  Rut- 
landshire. 

Platband,  any  square  mould- 
ing with  little  projection ;  the  fas- 
ciae of  an  architrave ;  the  list  be- 

253 


P  LU 


P  N  Y 


tween  flutings,  &c.  The  platband 
of  a  door  or  window  is  the  lintel, 
when  it  is  made  square,  and  not 
much  arched. 

Platform,  a  row  of  beams, 
which  support  the  timber  work  of 
a  roof,  lying  at  the  top  of  the  wall; 
a  terrace,  or  open  walk  at  the  top  of 
a  building. 

Platte,  Plat,  or  Plot,  in  old 
church  architecture,  a  model  or 
plan. 

Plinth,  (irkivQoi;,  Gr.  a  brick,) 
the  lower  member  of  a  base. 
Every  body  placed  in  an  unright 
position  ought  to  have  its  base  or 
foot,  and  the  part  inferior  to  this  is 
the  plinth,  by  which  the  place  of  the 
former  is  often  supplied.  In  a  wall, 
the  term  plinth  is  applied  to  two  or 
three  rows  of  bricks  which  project 
from  it,  to  any  flat  moulding  in  a 
front  wall,  to  mark  the  floors,  sus- 
tain the  eaves,  or  the  larmier  of  a 
chimney.    See  Abacus. 

Plotting,  the  art  of  laying 
down  on  paper  the  angles  and  lines 
of  a  plot  of  land,  by  any  instrument 
used  in  surveying. 

Plotting  Scale,  see  Instru- 
ments. 

Plotting  Table,  an  improve- 
ment by  Mr.  Beighton  on  the  plane 
table. 

Plug  and  Feather,  or  Key 
and  Feather,  a  mode  of  dividing 
hard  stones,  by  means  of  a  long 
tapering  wedge  called  the  key,  and 
wedge-shaped  pieces  of  iron,  called 
feathers,  which  are  driven  into 
holes  previously  drilled  into  the 
rock  for  the  purpose,  and  thus 
forcibly  split  it. 

Plugs,  pieces  of  timber  driven 
perpendicularly  into  a  wall. 

Plumbing,  (from  theLat.  plum- 
bus,  lead,)  the  art  of  casting  and 
working  in  lead,  and  using  it  in 
building,  principally  in  roofs,  win- 
dows, pipes,  &c. 

Plummet,  a  weight   of  lead 

254 


hung  to  a  string,  to  sound  dehs 
or,  on  a  level,  to  mark  the  pei|;n- 
dicular.    See  Level. 

Pluteus,  a  term  used  by  "V 
vius  in  different  significations, 
the  description  of  the  pronaos, 
in  that  of  the  scene  of  the  the 
it  means  the  walls  between  the0- 
lumns,  like  what  is  observed  irthe 
flanks  of  the  temple  of  For  , 
Virilis,  and  in  the  front  of  the  L 
ple  of  Saturn,  described  by  Labi  o, 
In  the  description  of  the  basia, 
he  uses  it  to  signify  the  contiied 
pedestal,  intervening  between  he 
upper  and  lower  ranges  of.  o- 
lumns. 

Plyers,  in  fortification,  a  a 
kind  of  balance,  or  timber  levs, 
for  raising  or  letting  down  a  d  v- 
bridge. 

Plymouth  Marble,  a  n 
fine  species,  which  is  dug  uliti 
great  abundance  in  various  par  of 
Devonshire,  particularly  about  v- 
mouth,  from  whence  it  is  shipd 
to  London.  It  is  of  a  bluish  wte 
ground,  varied  with  veins  of  ill 
red,  with  some  of  brown  and  1- 
low,  an^  it  is  capable  of  recei  iig 
a  good  polish. 

Pnyx,  (Gr.)  the  spot  where  le 
citizens  of  Athens  assemblecito 
choose  their  magistrates.  It 
pears   from    Plutarch,  that 
Pnyx  was  near  the  Museum.  Fm 
a  passage  of  Lucian,  it  appears 
dent  that  it  faced  the  Areopa 
Harpocration  says,  it  was  wi 
sight  of  the   Propyleeum.  F 
Aristophanes  we  learn,  that  it 
a  place  of  assembly  on  a  roc 
the  open  air,  with  a  stone  bcnh 
oratory,  and  near  the  city  \ 
Pollux  says,  it  was  constructed 
ancient  simplicity,  not  with 


magnificence  of  a  theatre. 


these  particulars  join  in  provir  it 
to  be  the  ruins  called  by  Sti  t, 
the  Odeum  of  Regilla.  The  Pm 
is  said  to  have  been  first  ap  > 


POD 

pited  by  Solon  "to  assemblies  of 
ft  citizens,  but  it  is  supposed  by 
Jay,  that  it  was  tbe  scene  of  po- 
jar  convocations  long  atecedent 
t, the  time  of  the  great  Athenian 
It  slator.    The  name  Hpv£  is  re- 
ijd  to  be   derived   from  nvKa, 
!      (Jse,  and  Stephanus  Byzantinus 
ik  that  it  was  so  called  from  tbe 
[    disity  of  habitations  formerly  built 
1     tie,  a  fact  which  the  indented 
r<;s  at  present  testify. 

'odium,  (Lat.)  a  continued  pe- 
d  :al ;  a  projection  from  the  wall 
w  ch  surrounded  the  arena  of  the 
*  aient  amphitheatre,  and  which 
f( ned  a  kind  of  gallery;  it  resem- 
«l  bl  a  continued  pedestal,  in  the 
p  th  and  kind  of  cornice  with 
wch  it  was  ornamented  on  the 
s  of  the  orchestra.  In  this 
T  g  ery  were  placed  the  principal 
st  iters  and  magistrates  sit- 
t  •  in  their  curule  chairs;  here 
a  was  the  suggestus  of  the 
i  e  >eror,  and  the  place  allotted 
to  the  vestals,  the  priests,  the 
e  as,  &c.  It  was  defended  by  a 
B  ng  railing  of  iron  bars,  &c. 
fi  a  the  wild  beasts  that  were  let 
1<  e  in  the  arena ;  and  Caesar,  far- 
l\  to  secure  it,  caused  a  canal 
cied  the  Euripus,  to  be  dug,  and 
fi  d  with  water  between  the  po- 
dln  and  the  arena:  see  Amp  hi- 
tiitre. 

)uring  the  middle  ages,  the  word 
p  ium  was  employed  to  signify 
a  lace  on  the  top  of  a  mountain, 
p  icularly  when  the  mountain  was 
s<>teep  on  one  of  its  sides  near 
tl  place,  that  it  could  not  be 
c  ibed.  Many  cities,  towns,  and 
v  iges  of  France,  particularly  on 
II  side  of  Provence  and  Langue- 
(1  .  where  the  Latin  language  was 
(jj  «j;er  preserved,  the  name  has 
ruined.  From  this  word  podium, 
my  have  derived  the  word  puy, 
*:h  signifies  the  same  thing,  and 
*  used  in  the  same  manner,  as 


POL 

Le  Puy-en  Velay,  Podium,  Puy- 
Sainte-Marie,  Podium  Sanctee  Ma- 
rise  ;  Puy-Laurent,  Podium  Lau- 
rentii,  &c. 

Poecile,  or  Poikile,  (Gr.)  The 
Poikile  was  the  principal  stoa  or 
portico  at  Athens;  it  was  adorned 
with  a  great  variety  of  excellent 
paintings,  and  with  shields  taken 
by  the  Athenians  from  their  ene- 
mies. It  was  first  called  the  pisi- 
atiactic  portico,  and  received  its 
name  of  Pcecile  after  it  had  been 
embellished  with  the  paintings  of 
Polynotus  and  Mycon. 

Point,  (Lat.  punctum,)  in  Geo- 
metry, that  which  has  neither 
length,  breadth,  nor  thickness.  An 
accidental  point,  in  perspective,  is 
a  term  used  by  the  old  writers  fpr 
what  is  now  called  the  vanishing 
point,  which  is  in  the  horizontal 
line,  and  is  found  by  drawing  a 
straight  line  through  the  eye,  pa- 
rallel to  an  original  line,  which 
serves  likewise  for  the  vanishing 
point  of  all  its  parallels.  A  con- 
jugate point,  is  that  into  which,  in 
some  curves,  the  conjugate  oval 
vanishes.  An  objective  point,  in 
perspective,  is  a  point  on  the  geo- 
metrical plane,  of  which  the  situa- 
tion on  the  perspective  plane  is 
required.  The  point  of  distance, 
is  the  distance  of  the  picture  trans- 
ferred from  the  centre  to  the  van- 
ishing line.  The  point  of  sight,  or 
point  of  view,  the  place  of  the  eye 
whence  the  picture  is  viewed  ;  the 
old  writers  gave  this  term  to  the 
centre  of  the  picture.  The  point 
of  reflection,  in  geometry,  is  syno- 
nymous with  the  point  of  rcirogra- 
dation.  The  point  of  contrary 
flexures,  is  a  point  in  a  curve  where 
it  bends  to  a  contrary  part  to  that 
where  it  originally  tended. 

Pointed  Style  of  architecture, 
a  name  given  by  some  writers  to 
the  Gothic. 

Polishing,  see  Marble. 

255 


POL 


POL 


Pola,  an  ancient  city  cf  Istria, 
of  which  numerous  ruins  still  re- 
main. Its  amphitheatre  has  already 
been  described  under  the  article 
Amphitheatre.  Of  its  two  temples, 
one  is  dedicated  to  Rome  and  Au- 
gustus ;  it  is  of  the  Corinthian  or- 
der, the  intercolumniations  of  its 
prostyle  being  two  diameters,  ex- 
cept that  in  the  centre,  which  is 
two  and  a  half.  The  pediment  is 
supported  by  four  columns,  form- 
ing, with  two  lateral  ones,  an  open 
portico,  which  leads  to  the  interior 
of  the  edifice.  The  bases  of  the 
columns  have  no  plinths ;  the  capi- 
tals are  formed  with  olive  leaves, 
and  the  volutes  are  invested  with 
foliage  of  oak.  The  foliage  round 
the  circumference  of  the  frieze  is 
exquisitely  sculptured,  and  the  me- 
dallions and  cornices  are  rich  and 
delicate.  The  other  temple,  of 
which  there  are  small  remains, 
exactly  resembled  this  in  its  orna- 
ments and  dimensions,  the  two 
porticoes  being  ranged  in  the  same 
line.  (See  Allason's  Picturesque 
Views  of  the  Antiquities  of 
Pola.) 

Pole,  (Gr.)  a  point  ninety  de- 
grees distant  from  the  plane  of  any 
circle,  in  a  line  perpendicular  in 
its  centre,  which  line  is  called  the 
axis. 

Polia,  a  beautiful  species  of 
stone,  much  employed  by  the  an- 
cients in  building  ;  called  also 
Amiantus  and  Corsoides. 

Pollard,  a  tree  which  has 
been  frequently  lopped  or  polled 
of  its  head  and  branches.  It  is 
a  practice  that  does  great  injury  to 
good  timber. 

Polygon,  (Gr.)  a  geometrical 
figure  of  many  sides.  To  find  the 
area  of  a  regular  polygon,  (1)  mul- 
tiply one  of  the  sides  of  the  poly- 
gon by  the  perpendicular  from  the 
centre  upon  that  side,  and  multiply 
half  the  product  by  the  number  of 

256 


sides;  or  (2)  multiply  the  sq-re 
of  the  given  side  of  the  polygeny 
the  number  opposite  its  nam.  in 
the  followng  table,  under  the  \M 
Area.  In  this  table  the  side  of  ie 
polygon  is  one. 

Table  of  Polygons. 


ti  umb. 

of 
Sides. 

is  anjfes 
of 

Polygons. 

Area 
of 

Polygons. 

Ferpen  'J. 

)ars| 
Polygii. 

3 

Triton 

.433013 

.2R8-,1 

4 

Tetragon 

1.000000 

.500  !0 

5 

Pentagon 

1.720477 

.688110 

G 

Hexagon 

2.59*076 

.866|",4 

7 

Heptagon 

3.633912 

1.03b  17 

8 

Octagon 

4.S28427 

1 .2071)8 

9 

Enneagon 

6.181824 

1  373k 

10 

Decagon 

7.094209 

1  538118 

11 

Hendecagon 

9.36:>640 

1.702  17 

12 

Dodecagon 

11.196152 

1.860  54 

Polygon,  in  fortification,  n 
exterior  polygon,  is  the  distance 
one  point  of  a  bastion  from  ie 
point  of  another,  reckoning  II 
round  the  works  :  an  interior  p<i- 
gon,  is  the  distance  between  te 
centres  of  the  bastions,  reckoi  g 
round  as  before. 

Polygram,  (Gr.)  a  figure  o 
sisting  of  many  lines. 

Polyhedron,  (  Gr.  )  a  sid 
contained  unaer  many  sides.  A 
cylindric  polyhedron,  is  a  sd, 
such  that  all  sections  made  y 
planes  perpendicular  to  a  cer  n 
straight  line  within  the  solid,  e 
similar  and  regular  polygons;  d 
that  a  plane  passing  along;  si 
straight  line,  may  cut  a  side  i 
each  of  these  polygons  perpend  i- 
larly,  and  the  surface  of  the  sid 
in  the  semicircumference  of  a  r- 
cle,  the  diameter  of  which  is  e 
straight  line.  Hence,  the  surle 
of  a  cylindric  polyhedron  consls 
of  as  many  cylinclric  surfacesis 
the  horizontal  polygons  have  sic;; 
thus,  when  the  horizontal  sectiis 
are  squares,  it  is  a  cylindric  teii- 
hedron,  when  pentagons  a  pen- 
hedron,  when  hexagons  a  het- 
hedron,  &c.  The  lines  where  tip 
surfaces  meet  are  called  the  ea:s 


\ 


POL 

^     1'  the  solid.    The  common  dia- 
ler of  all  the  semicircles  is  the 
■is.    The  semicircles  are  called 
e  right  vertical  sections,  while 
e  regular  polygons  are  called  the 
nzontal  sections.    The  pole  of 
e  segment  of  a  cylindric  poly- 
dron  is  that  point  which  is  corn- 
on  to  the  axis  and  the  surface  of 
ie  solid.    A  segment  is  a  part  cut 
•  by  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the 
is.    The  sectorial  radius  of  a 
^ment,  is  the  straight  line  per- 
ndicular  from  the  pule  to  one  of 
e  sides  of  the  polygonal  base. 
frustum,  is  the  portion  of  the 
lid  contained  between  two  hori- 
ntal  polygons.    The  apothem  of 
e  of  the  polygons,  is  the  radius 
the  inscribed  circle.    In  plate 
me\,Jig.  1,  let  A  BC  D  EFG  H  A 
a  cylindric  octahedron,  P' p  the 
les,  then  the  edges  are  P'  r  i  C, 
Is  k  /3  D,  P '  *  I  y  E,  P  u  m  a  F, 
v  n  e  G,  &c.     The  horizontal 
tions  are  fiyd  e,  i  k  I  m  n  o,  p  q  r 
I  u  v  v;,  and  one  of  the  vertical 
ht  sections  is  P'  x  y  z.  This 
nical  section  divides  all  the  sides 
),  i  k,  r  s,  of  the  horizontal  sec- 
ns  into  two  equal  parts.    If  this 
lyhedron  be  cut  by  the  plane 
'  r  s  t  u  v  w,  and  if  P'  x  be  drawn, 
■x  will  be  the  sectorial  radius, 
J  if  it  be  cut  by  the  plane  i  k  I  m 
>,  then  the  sectorial  radius  will  be 
y.    Fig.  2,  is  a  hemicylindric 
1  .ahedron,  or  one  of  the  segments, 
en  the  whole  solid  is  cut  into 
)  equal  segments ;  Jig.  3,  is  a 
;ment  less  than  haif:  (4)  a  seg- 
nt  cut  by  a  plane  parallel  to  the 
1  >e,  or  the   greatest  horizontal 
ygon  ;  (5)  an  interior  view  of  a 
!  ment;  (6)  a  segment  cut  by  a 
]  ne  parallel  to  the  base  of  the 
'jre. 

Polystyle,   (  Gr.  )  a  build- 
i ;  surrounded    by  so  many  co- 
1  nns,  that  we  cannot  readily  cal- 
<  ate  the  number  at  a  first  view. 
2  K 


POM 

Pomcerium,  (Lat.)  a  space  near 
the  walls  of  the  city,  amongst  the 
Romans,  which  was  considered  as 
sacred,  and  not  to  be  touched 
either  by  the  plough  or  the  buikh  r, 
but  had  altars  within  its  enclosure 
dedicated  to  the  gods.  Authors 
are  not  agreed  as  to  its  exac  t  situ- 
ation. 

Pomel,  (from  pomum,  Lat.  an 
apple,)  a  globular  protuberance  ter- 
minating a  pinnacle,  &c. 

Pompeii,  a  city  of  Campania, 
which  was  anciently  a  flourishing 
place,  but  it  suffered  the  same  fate 
as  Herculaneum,  and  was  buried 
under  the  lava  and  cinders  of  Vesu- 
vius. It  is  about  three  miles  dis- 
tant from  this  mountain.  At  a 
mile  from  the  Torre  dell  Annon- 
ziata,\ve  leave  the  road  to  Salerno, 
and  turn  to  the  right  to  arrive  at 
the  ruins  of  Pompeii.  The  first 
object  that  draws  attention,  is  what 
is  called  the  country  house :  it  has 
been  so  called,  because  it  is  situ- 
ated without  the  walls  of  the  city, 
but  it  is  not  seen  till  we  are  close 
by  it.  The  same  is  the  case  with 
the  other  edifices  of  Pompeii,  which 
are  all  concealed  behind  the  heaps 
of  cinders  which  have  been  thrown 
up  from  the  excavations  that  have 
made  since  its  discovery.  For 
the  same  reason  an  exact  idea 
cannot  readily  be  formed  of  the 
true  extent  of  the  city,  and  this 
difficulty  is  increased  by  the  small 
elevation  of  the  houses.  This 
country  house  had  two  divisions, 
the  one  more  elevated  than  the 
other.  The  columns,  or  rather 
square  pillars,  formed  a  covered 
gallery,  which  extended  round  the 
court,  and  round  six  other  columns, 
which  perhaps  sustained  a  kind  of 
portico.  These  columns,  or  square 
pillars,  were  covered  with  a  yellow- 
ish stucco,  and  the  pedestals  were 
black,  and  adorned  with  arabesques. 
The  second  division  of  the  building 

257 


POM 


POM 


was  decorated  with  several  columns, 
which  formed  a  rich  portico,  al- 
though of  too  diminutive  propor- 
tions.  In  general  every  part  of  this 
country  house  was  extremely  close 
and  narrow.    On  the  road  which 
passes  before  the  entrance  door,  we 
still  see  the  tracks  of  carriages. 
Near  the   door  were   found  two 
skeletons ;  one  of  them  held  a  key 
in  one  hand,  and  in  the  other  a  purse 
full  of  medals  and  precious  stones. 
It  is  supposed  that  the  other  was 
carrying  a  box,  full  of  different  valu- 
able things,  which  was  found  near 
it.    Perhaps  it  was  the  master  of 
the  house  and  his  slave,  who,  in 
flying,  had  carried  with  them  their 
most  valuable  articles,  but  who, 
when  arrived  at  the  door,  found  it 
already  encumbered    beneath  the 
cinders  under    which    they  were 
buried.    The  court  of  the  house 
formed  a  square  of  ninety-four  feet. 
The  two  corners  of  the  side  on 
which  you  enter,  were  occupied  by 
two  chambers,  of  which  one  pro- 
bably served  to  lock  up  the  corn, 
and  the  other  to  thresh  it.    In  en- 
tering the  court,  an  open  portico 
was  perceived,  supported   by  six 
columns;  on  two  sides  it  was  sur- 
rounded by  trees,  of  which  the 
trunks  and  branches  are  still  seen. 
Before  this  portico  was  a  basin,  the 
lead    pipes   of  which  were  also 
found  on  the  spot.    At  the  extre- 
mity of  the  gallery  was  a  stone 
vault,  which  appears  to  have  served 
as  a  cellar,  because   there  were 
found  there  many  of  those  kinds  of 
vases  in  which  the  ancients  kept 
their  wine  :  and  they  say  even  that 
in  several  of  these  vases  was  still 
found  the  remains  of  the  wine, 
which  was  thickened,  and  had  be- 
come by  length  of  time  as  hard  as 
stone.    Near  this  is  another  stone 
cellar,  very  dark,    and  plastered 
with  stucco;  it  has  remained  en- 
tirely uninjured,  but  was  blocked 

258 


up   by  the    cinders.     Near  t; 
staircase  which  conducts  to  tj 
cellar  were  found  seven  skeletc; 
of  females,  whom  terror  had  dou  - 
less  driven  at  the  moment  of  |j 
volcanic  eruption  to  seek  shelter;: 
this  remote  place,  where  they  h'[ 
perished.     They  had  all  press i 
into  a  corner  by  the  door,  and  whi 
their  bones  were  discovered,  it  vjj 
observed  that  the  image  and  fob 
was  preserved  in  the  cinders,  whi 
even  portions  of  their  clothing  JL 
preserved.    These  impressions  I 
still  shown  in  the  Museum  of  P 
tici  ;  and  among  other  curiositi . 
the  impression  of  the  breast  of  c 
of  these  women,  which  is  so  v 
preserved,  that  we  discover  the  i 
pression  of  a  very  delicate  lace  :  \ 
also  also  see  the  form  of  the  rin , 
bracelets,  necklaces,  and  ear-rin, 
with  which  these  ladies  were  adoi 
ed.    Hamilton,  in  his  account 
the  discoveries  at  Herculaneum,  ■ 
marks  on  this  circumstance,  tit 
the  volcanic  cinders,  mixed  witht 
great  quantity  of  water  during  l: 
eruption,  formed  a  kind  of  cl , 
which  would  produce   the  sa 1 
effect  as  the  materials  which 
used  in  making  casts.    Near  1 1 
cellar  was   a   dark   chamber,  f 
which,  as  well  as  of  five  other  sml 
chambers  which  follow  in  succ 
sion,  no  one  has  been  able  to  cj- 
cover  the  use.     None  of  them  H 
windows.    At  the  extremity  of  i 
gallery,  we  descend  by  a  flight  f 
steps  to  the  second  division  of  12 
house,  which  contains  several  ap£- 
ments  of  different  sizes,  beh  1 
which  was  the  garden,  into  wh  1 
we  descend  also  by  a  great  sU- 
case.      In    the    whole    of  t 
part  of  the  house,  there  has  it 
been  discovered  as  yet  a  sin  3 
place  which  can  be  regarded  aia 
bed   chamber,  except  a  kind  f 
alcove  and  circular  wardrobe,  h  - 
ing  three  windows,  which  look  ip 


POM 


P  M 


he  garden.    In  the  garden  we  still 
listinguish  the  compartments,  as 
veil  as  the  different  shrubs  and 
tushes,  which  have  probably  been 
oses.    This  second  division  of  the 
ouse  was  the  most  elegant;  the 
.aintings  with  which  it  was  deco- 
cted were  finished  with  great  care, 
year  the  chamber  which  we  have 
jst  mentioned,  which  may  be  re- 
arded  as  a  bed-chamber,  was  the 
iting-room,  and  by  the  side  of  it 
ie  pantry,  from  which  we  enter  a 
hamber  which   appears  to  have 
erved  the  purpose  of  a  dressing- 
torn,  as  various  articles  of  clothing 
ere  found  in  it.    Another  smaller 
:>urt,  embellished  with  a  basin  and 
blumns  of  different  proportions, 
as  near  the  high  road,  and  led 
to  the  great  court  of  the  interior, 
here  was  the  gate  which  led  out 
to  this  road.    Near  the  garden 
Ie  the  cold  and  vapour  baths. 
At  a  short  distance  from  this 
>use,  we  discover  near  the  high 
ad  a  little  sepulchral  monument, 
Sorned  merely  with  fasces.  An 
scription  informs  us,  that  a  cer- 
in   Diomedes,   a    freed-man  of 
ria,  had  consecrated  this  monu- 
?nt  for   his    mistress   and  her 
nily,  as  well  as  for  himself  and 
>.  The  fragments  of  the  columns 
lich  were  near  the  tomb  of  the 
^h-priestess  Mammia,  lead  us  to 
opose  that  it  was  formerly  more 
vated  than  it  is  at  present.  On 
square  base  was  a  circular  sub- 
ucture   adorned   with  columns 
:1  marble  statues.     A  gate  leads 
o  the  first  enclosure,  or,  we  may 
! ',  into  the  fore  court  of  the 
:  >ulchral  monument;  the  tomb, 
I'perly  so  called,  was  surrounded 
1  a  terrace  ;  some  steps  conduct- 
<  to  the  stylobate,  on  which  are 
si  found  some  columns.  From 
t  nee  an  opening  conducts  into  the 
t  ib,  where  there  are  many  niches, 
i  he  principal  of  which  is  an  urn, 


that  contained  probably  the  ashes 
of  Mammia.  In  the  fore  court 
were  two  open  excavations,  leading 
into  two  vaulted  caves,  which  could 
have  no  other  destination,  but  to 
serve  as  sepulchres.  On  the  wall 
of  the  sepulchral  monument,  and 
near  these  excavations,  were  found 
masks  of  colossal  magnitude.  They 
do  not  appear  to  have  properly  be- 
longed to  the  tomb  of  Mammia, 
which  was  of  too  small  propor- 
tions. They  are  those  called  scenic 
masks,  which  renders  probable  the 
opinions  of  several  learned  men, 
who  have  considered  this  spot  as 
the  place  of  sepulture  for  the  come- 
dians of  the  city. 

The  entrance  to  Pompeii  is  small, 
and  not  striking,  nor  announcing  a 
city  of  great  importance.  The  remains 
consist  of  fragments  of  columns,  of 
which  several  considerable  portions 
have  been  found  lying  about,  with 
fine  capitals  of  the  Ionic  order; 
perhaps  these  columns  have  once 
supported  buildings.  On  two  sides 
are  arcades  and  porticos,  which 
form  the  entrance  to  the  foot- 
paths, that  extend  along  the  sides 
of  the  high  road.  This  path  is 
extremely  narrow,  not  being  more 
than  three  feet  broad ;  but  this  is 
only  proportionate  to  the  high 
road,  which  is  not  more  than  ten 
or  twelve  feet  broad,  although  it 
may  be  traced  for  a  distance  of 
fifty  or  sixty  toises.  In  the  ancient 
level  of  the  street,  we  still  see  very 
distinct  traces  of  the  carriage 
tracks,  which  prove  that  there  was 
a  distance  of  four  feet  between  the 
wheels.  At  the  entrance  rises  a 
square  pedestal,  which  appears  to 
have  supported  a  column  of  con- 
siderable size.  Many  tumulary 
monuments  which  are  found  in  its 
neighbourhood,  as  well  as  the 
inscriptions  on  the  pedestals  itself, 
induce  us  to  consider  it  as  a  sepul- 
chral monument.    Still  nearer  the 

259 


POM 


gate  are  found  two  circular 
benches,  about  twenty  feet  long, 
of  which  one  only  is  well  preserved, 
bearing  an  inscription,  which  in- 
forms us  that  this  was  the  place 
of  sepulture  of  the  priestess  Mam- 
miay  which  was  granted  her  by  a 
decree  of  the  decurions.  This  last 
circumstance,  of  the  place  of  her 
burial  being  assigned  by  a  decree 
of  the  decurions,  proves  that  the 
family  of  this  priestess  had  great 
influence  at  Pompeii. 

As   we   follow   their  principal 
street,  we  still  discover  the  form 
of  different  shops,  notwithstanding 
the   ravages   committed  by  time 
and  earthquakes.      If  we  judge 
from  a  kind  of  balustrade  or  wire 
lattice,  which  is  seen  at  one  of 
them,  it  was  the  shop  of  a  dealer 
in  perfumes  and  spirituous  liquors: 
below  there  is  a  kind  of  pipe  or 
excavation  in  marble,  but  it  would 
be  difficult  to  ascertain  its  use. 
In  the  same  street,  near  the  gate 
of  the  city,  occurs  a  very  singular 
sign,  which  has  by  chance  been 
perfectly  well  preserved :   it  is  a 
Phallus  or  Priapus,  sculptured  in 
bas-relief  on  the  stone  post  of  a 
house.    The  common  opinion  is, 
that  it  was  the  sign  of  a  house 
consecrated   to  Venus,  and  this 
opinion  is  supported  by  a  remark- 
able inscription  found  at  Pompeii, 
and  published  by  Winckelmann, 
in  his  lettre  au  comte  de  Bruhl 
sur    les    decouvertes  d'Hercula- 
num,  page  62,  of  the  French  trans- 
lation of  M.  Jansen.    Others  have 
thought  that  it  was  the  sign  of  a 
warehouse  or  manufactory  of  those 
figures  which  we  call  obscene,  but 
to  which   the   credulity  of  past 
times  attached  religious  ideas,  and 
which  were  carried  by  ladies  as 
amulets.      Mr.   Hamilton  thinks 
that  it  was  more  probably  the  sign 
cf  a  particular  worship,  offered 
to  the  god  of  the  gardens,  as  we 

260 


see  at  the  present  time  hou; 
having  sometimes  for  a  sign  t 
figure  of  some  saint.  Accordi 
to  Mr.  Hirt,  the  distribution 
the  house,  which  has  this  Priap 
for   a   sign,  proves  that  it  w 
rather  a  tavern  than  a  place  co 
secrated  to  Venus.    He  thinks 
probable  that  many  of  the  she 
in  this  street  were  taverns,  wh( 
they  provided  the  guest  with  e; 
ables,  and  where  at  the  same  tii 
they  prepared  warm  drinks,  tr 
is,  that  they  were  thermopotia, 
a   kind   of  coffee-houses.  T 
same   style   of  architecture  a 
the  same  distribution  universa 
occurs :    several  are  handsonv 
adorned  with  marbles.     In  the 
houses  were  found  only  the  mc 
necessary  utensils,   but  all  we 
well    worked,   and    had  elega 
forms  :    they  were  lamps,  cane 
labra,  vessels  and  kitchen  utensi 
weights,  statues,  vases  of  all  siz. 
in  earth,  in  bronze,  and  in  gla, 
many  fragments  of  glass-windov 
little  idols,  ladies'  jewels  of  g( 
and   silver,  mirrors,  wax,  tabl, 
for  writing  upon,  chirurgical  a 
musical  instruments,  colours  of  I 
kinds,  medals  in  gold,  silver,  a  1 
bronze  ;   children's    play  -  thin , 
dice,  tooth-picks,  boxes  of  colo, 
eatables,  corn,  fruits  of  differc 
kinds,  &c.    Neither  statues  if 
busts   of  great  dimensions  w  \ 
found.     The  best  paintings  h'<; 
been  found  at  Herculaneum,  it 
at  Pompeii.    The  wooden  uteris 
were  in  general  either  decayed,  r 
carbonized  by  the   heat  of  1 
burning  cinders. 

The  temple  of  Isis  is  witfot 
doubt  the  most  remarkable  of  fi 
ruins  discovered  at  Pompeii.  1i 
columns  which  surrounded  it  e 
almost  entirely  preserved.  Hi 
of  those  which  composed  the  p- 
style  have  been  broken,  as  wells 
the  capitals  and  the  fronton.  1e 


POM 


POM 


inple  itself  was  entirely  built  of 
lcks,  and  on  the  outside  covered 
|h  a  very  solid  stucco,  of  which 
I  ancients  made  very  frequent 
£,  The  style  of  the  architecture 
i  more  agreeable  than  severe. 
re  orders  are  of  a  small  propor- 
m,  which  diminishes  the  effect 
L  the  edifice  would  have  had, 
i  t  had  been  of  a  more  imposing 
:  le.  In  this  temple  have  been 
jUd  all  the  instruments  which 
;  pertained  to  the  religious  cere- 
nnies,  and  even  the  skeletons  of 
I  priests  who  had  been  surprised 
;d  buried  by  the  shower  of  cin- 
<rs,  in  the  middle  of  the  occupa- 
ns  of  their  ministry.  Their 
.tments,  the  cinders  and  the 
t  ils  on  the  altars,  the  candelabra, 
nps,  the  sistrums,  the  vases 
ich  contained  the  lustral  water, 
i;  paterae  employed  in  the  liba- 
i.ns,  a  kind  of  kettles  to  preserve 
|  intestines  of  the  victims, 
lihions  on  which  they  placed  the 
:  tue  of  the  goddess  Isis,  when 
v  offered  sacrifices  to  her,  the 
;  ributes  of  the  divinity  with 
ich  the  temple  was  every  where 
;orned,  &c,  are  still  shown, 
my  of  these  vases  have  the 
ure  of  an  ibis,  of  a  hippopota- 
iis,  of  a  lotus,  and  what  renders 
if;m  still  more  important,  they 
're  found  exactly  in  the  situations 
i  which  they  were  used,  so  that 
i  re  can  now  be  no  doubt  as  to 
I  ir  reality,  or  their  use.  The 
1  lis  of  this  temple  were  adorned 
J  h  paintings,  relating  to  the 
uship  of  the  goddess:  there 
ire  figures  of  priests  in  the  cos- 
ine of  their  order:  their  vest- 
i.nts  were  of  white  linen,  the 
lids  of  the  officiating  priests 
'  e   shaved,  their  feet  covered 

I  h   a   fine   thin   lace,  through 

II  ich  the  muscles  might  be  dis- 
t^uished.  It  appear*  that  in  the 
i  ctuary  of  this  foreign  divinity, 


places  were  assigned  for  the  other 
divinities,  for  there  were  found 
the  statues  of  Bacchus,  of  Venus, 
and  of  Priapus,  chiefly  of  wood, 
with  feet  and  hands  of  marble. 
All  these  different  objects,  that 
could  be  carried  away,  have  been 
deposited  in  the  museum  of  Por- 
tici.  The  temple  had  the  form  of 
a  long  square,  and  was  not 
covered.  A  covered  gallery,  sup- 
ported by  columns,  surrounded  it, 
and  served  for  a  shelter  in  bad 
weather.  Some  steps  in  the 
middle  lead  to  a  small  chapel, 
which  appears  to  have  been  the 
sanctuary  of  the  goddess.  At 
the  bottom  was  probably  the  place 
where  the  initiated  assembled,  and 
at  the  side  is  another  cell  in  which 
the  three  statues  of  Venus,  Bac- 
chus, and  Priapus,  were  found 
together  in  a  niche.  The  principal 
entrance  of  the  temple  was  on  the 
side  of  the  street  of  Pompeii,  and 
on  each  side  of  it  is  seen  an  altar 
before  a  figure  of  the  goddess, 
worked  in  bas-relief.  The  grand 
altar  on  which  the  sacrifices  were 
offered,  is  three  feet  and  a  half 
high.  The  principal  door  of  the 
interior  sanctuary  consisted  of  two 
win<rs :  the  brass  hinges  were 
found,  and  carried  to  Portici. 
Above  the  gate  is  an  inscription, 
which  sets  forth  that  "  Nonius 
Popidius  Celsinus  has  rebuilt,  at 
his  own  expense,  and  from  the 
foundations,  this  temple  of  Isis, 
which  had  been  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake,  and  that,  in  return  for 
this  liberality,  he  had  been,  at  the 
age  of  sixty,  received  gratis  into 
the  college  of  the  decurions." 
This  inscription,  as  well  as  the 
pavement  of  lava,  prove  that  this 
district  had  been  already  often 
exposed  to  volcanic  eruptions. 
On  a  fine  mosaic  pavement  was 
found  another  inscription,  from 
which  it  appears  that  this  pave- 

261 


POM 


POM 


ment  was  made  at  the  expense  of 
Corel ia  Celsa,  the  wife,  daughter, 
or  parent  of  Popidius  Celsinus, 
who  built  the  temple.  The  skele- 
ton of  a  priest  which  was  found 
on  this  pavement,  has  led  people 
to  suppose  that  it  was  destined  for 
the  priests,  and  for  the  initiated 
of  the  first  degree.  This  skeleton 
was  near  a  marble  table ;  and  it 
appears  that  he  was  surprised,  by 
the  volcanic  eruption,  at  the  mo- 
ment he  was  eating  some  fish,  for 
in  digging  they  found  some  relics 
dispersed,  and  some  of  the  vessels 
which  were  used  to  prepare  this 
kind  of  food.  We  know  from 
Plutarch  that  the  priests  of  Isis 
were  allowed  to  feed  only  on  fish. 
The  statue  of  the  goddess,  formed 
of  white  marble,  was  found  in  the 
sanctuary,  placed  on  a  square 
base.  Near  it  was  found  a  stone 
covered  with  hieroglyphics.  The 
statue,  as  well  as  the  great  altar, 
are  of  good  workmanship.  The 
roof  of  the  gallery,  from  the  frag- 
ments of  these  ornaments  found 
scattered  about,  was  probably 
ornamented  with  masks,  the  water 
running  through  their  opened 
mouths.  There  were  also  found 
censers,  or  acerrce,  of  thin  iron, 
for  burning  perfumes. 

Near  the  wall,  in  an  elevated 
situation,  are  the  remains  of  a 
temple  of  Grecian  architecture : 
the  remains  resemble  those  of  the 
ruins  at  Passtum.  The  pavement, 
which  still  remains,  forms  an  ob- 
long square,  and  is  raised  on  steps 
which  surround  it  on  all  sides. 
There  was  a  colonnade,  which 
formed  a  covered  gallery.  The 
few  remains  which  are  now  found 
of  this  edifice,  would  induce  us  to> 
believe  that  it  had  been  destroyed 
in  an  eruption  anterior  to  that 
which  finally  buried  the  city,  as 
we  see  was  the  case  of  the  temple 
of   Isis,   before    it    was  rebuilt. 

262 


Around  this  monument  are  si 
five  steps,  twelve  inches  high,  a] 
fourteen  wide ;  the  entrance  v$ 
from  the  side  o\  the  sea,  and  n,» 
steps,  six  inches  high,  formed :i 
projection,  and  led  to  the  peristv. 
There  appears  to  have  been  ei« 
columns  in  the  front,  and  elevi 
in  the  flanks.    The  mosaic  pa  - 
ment  is  still  in  several  places  un| 
jured,  and  shews  that  the  tem \ 
had  two  divisions,  the  most  renv; 
being    probably    the  sanctuar; 
there  still  exists  a  round  isoiai 
altar,  and  on  the  outside  a  lc; 
square  stone,  on  which  the  victi 
were  placed.     This  building  i 
pears  to  be  the  most  ancient 
Pompeii.     Its  dimensions,  'and  I 
remains  of  the  columns,  &c.  pre 
that  it  was  of  a  noble  and  nrajes 
architecture.    It  appears  to  he 
been  peripteral.      The  place 
which  it  is  built  is  ninety-one  f| 
long,  and  nearly  sixty-four  ttfoaj 
the  columns  are  of  the  Doric  ord 
their  diameter  is  three  feet  anc 
half,  and  their  height  appears 
have  been  equal  to  six  diamete 
There  was  found  a  moulding 
baked  earth,  which  probably  si 
rounded  the  cornice,  and  whit 
adorned  with   the   masks  befc 
mentioned,  served  to  give  a  pf 
sage  to  the  rain-water. 

Between  this  temple  and  tn 
of  Isis  there  is  a  spacious  edirk 
which,  according  to  all  appearand 
served  as  a  barracks,  and  place 
arms,   for   the    Roman  soldiei 
whence  it  is  named  the  quarter' 
the  soldiers.    It  has  suffered  1< 
from  the  earthquake  than  many 
the  others,  because  it  was  of  lc 
elevation  and  of  a  lighter  constru 
tion.    Experience  has  proved  th 
lofty  buildings  of  a  massy  constru 
tion   are  much  more  exposed 
destruction  by  the  convulsions 
the   earth,  than   buildings  of 
weaker  and  lighter  constructio 


I? 

POM 

n  the  quarter  of  the  soldiers, 
Imost  all  the  walls  are  found  un- 
-ijured,  and  nearly  all  the  columns 
ntire.  The  form  of  this  edifice  is 
hat  of  a  long  square,  and  it  is 
urrounded  by  columns  and  an 
pen  gallery  :  this  gallery  commu- 
icates  with  many  chambers  or 
ells  placed  round,  and  which, 
robably,  were  the  lodgings  of  the 
oldiers.  The  interior  court,  which 
;  about  twenty-three  toises  by 
eventeen,  served  probably  for 
lilitary  exercises.  The  columns 
re  of  the  Doric  order  ;  they  have 
o  base,  are  eleven  feet  high,  and 
ieir  diameter  is  eighteen  inches, 
he  gallery  between  the  colonnade 
nd  the  wall  is  thirteen  feet  seven 
iches  wide.  It  served  for  a  walk, 
nd  at  the  same  time  to  shelter 
le  cells,  each  of  which  lodged 
robably  four  soldiers,  for  in  each 
re  found  four  suits  of  armour, 
hese  cells  are  not  all  of  the  same 
imensions  ;  all  of  them  are  very 
nail,  plastered  with  stucco,  orna- 
tented  with  arabesque  paintings, 
nd  paved  with  mosaic.  They 
ere  shut  by  means  of  a  folding 
oor,  which,  as  we  may  judge  from 
le  form  of  the  threshold,  opened 
I  iwards.  They  received  light  only 
y  the  door,  and  perhaps  some- 
mes  by  an  opening  made  in  the 
)of.  The  dimensions  of  two  of 
lese  suits  of  armour,  and  the 
eight  of  the  helmets  which  were 
njnd  in  one  of  the  chambers, 
ave  induced  some  people  to  think 
lat  they  were  only  trophies, 
used  for  ornament;  but,  as  they 
ere  covered  with  cloth,  there  is 
■ason  to  suppose  that  they  were 
tended  for  use.  Amongst  the 
n'ts  of  armour  that  were  found, 
iere  was  one,  on  which,  according 
•  Mr.  Hamilton.,  was  represented 
iie  siege  of  Troy.  The  helmets 
sembled  those  of  our  ancient 
arriors  in  the  age  of  chivalry, 


/ 

POM 

and  were  furnished  with  vizors.  A 
brazen  trumpet  was  also  found,  of 
a  singular  form,  and  six  ivory 
flutes,  uniting  in  one  mouth-piece, 
with  no  holes  to  vary  the  notes ; 
the  only  variation  appears  to  have 
been  caused  by  the  difference  in 
their  several  diameters.  From 
various  circumstances  connected 
with  these  chambers,  it  appears 
that  the  soldiers,  as  well  as  the 
greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Pompeii,  passed  most  of  their  time 
on  the  terraces  and  galleries,  and 
that  they  only  resorted  to  their 
rooms  to  sleep,  and  to  take  their 
repast.  Some  have  thought,  from 
the  meanness  of  its  accommodations, 
that  this  building  was  only  des- 
tined for  military  and  gymnastic 
exercises,  but  M.  Bartels,  in  his 
Lettres  sur  la  Calabre,  proves 
that  it  was  really  a  barrack,  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  quarter  of 
the  soldiers  at  the  villa  of  Adrian 
at  Tivoli.  There  are  also  larger 
chambers,  which  are  supposed  to  be 
the  apartments  of  the  officers,  as  at  a 
short  distance  from  them  have  been 
found  the  skeletons  of  slaves,  and 
of  a  horse  loaded  with  clothes  and 
valuable  effects,  which  they  were 
perhaps  endeavouring  to  save.  At 
a  short  distance  was  a  peristyle  of 
columns  with  elegant  capitals  ; 
probably  it  was  the  lateral  gate. 
Very  near,  another  gate  conducts, 
by  four  steps,  to  a  place  sur- 
rounded on  every  side  by  a  cover- 
ed gallery,  sustained  by  columns 
of  the  Ionic  order. 

On  the  right  is  the  entrance  to 
a  small  theatre,  which  is  supposed 
to  have  been  covered:  only  the 
steps  are  seen,  the  rest  being  still 
buried  in  ruins.  Some  travellers 
think  that  it  was  an  odeon.  To 
the  left  of  the  gate  of  the  quarter 
of  the  soldiers,  are  five  little  divi- 
sions or  chambers,  in  one  of  which 
was  found  a   handmill,  and  of 

263 


POM 


POP 


which  another  appeared  to  have 
served  for  a  prison  to  the  soldiers, 
who  were  put  in  irons.  Several 
skeletons  were  found  in  it,  which 
appear  to  have  belonged  to  unfor- 
tunate soldiers,  who,  at  the  mo- 
ment of  the  eruption,  were  then 
imprisoned,  and  for  whom  it  was 
impossible  to  save  themselves. 
The  position  of  these  skeletons 
shows  us  that  the  mode  of  putting 
prisoners  in  fetters  resembled  that 
which  is  still  practised  in  several 
countries.  Their  feet  were  placed 
on  a  block  of  wood,  and  under- 
neath passed  a  fetter  which  held 
them,  and  which  was  fixed  to  the 
block  by  nails.  The  remains  of 
this  building  show  clearly  that  it 
formed  part  of  the  theatre,  to 
which  it  appears  to  have  served 
as  a  peristyle.  The  proscenium 
of  this  theatre  is  in  a  great  part 
discovered,  and  appears  to  have 
resembled  in  form  that  at  Hercu- 
laneum.  The  covered  gallery  with 
which  it  is  surrounded,  where  are 
found  the  vomitoria,  has  also  been 
in  a  great  part  explored. 

The  construction  of  the  houses 
of  Pompeii  shows  that  they  must 
have  been  built  on  a  very  unequal 
ground,  perhaps  even  on  the  ex- 
tinguished crater  of  an  ancient 
volcano :  at  least  it  appears  that  it 
had  subterraneous  communications 
with  Vesuvius,  for  even  now  a 
cellar  found  under  the  terrace  of 
a  small  house  is  so  filled  with 
suffocating  effluvia,  that,  in  enter- 
ing, it  is  necessary  to  use  great  pre- 
caution. When  this  cellar  was 
discovered,  a  female  skeleton  was 
found  laid  by  the  side  of  a  great 
Yase,  near  a  stove,  which  warmed 
at  once  two  bathing  rooms  and  a 
dark  rotunda,  lighted  only  by  an 
opening  in  the  roof.  This  place 
is  equally  deserving  the  notice  of 
the  antiquary  and  the  naturalist. 
The  vase,  beside  which  the  skele- 

264 


ton  is  stretched  on  a  heap  of  ci 
ders,  is  three  feet  and  a  half 
diameter,  and    appears   to  ha 
been  used  as  a  bathing-tub.  T 
place    where    the    skeleton  w 
found,  and  its  position,  show  th 
the   person   has    been  sudder 
thrown  down,  which  without  dou 
was   the   consequence  of  an  a 
phyxy,  produced  by  the  effluvi 
It  is  to  the  solicitation  and  advi 
of  Mr.  Hamilton,  that  travelle 
owe  the  preservation  of  this  skd 
ton  in  its   original   position  at 
situation.    It  certainly  makes  he 
a   much    more   lively  impressk 
than  it  would  in  the  cabinet  I 
Portici.    The  entrance  of  this  ca 
is  still  sometimes  dangerous,  fro 
themephitic  air  with  which  it  isoftc 
filled  :  at  other  times  these  exh; 
lations  are  less  sensible,  so  as  ev( 
scarcely  to  rise  so  high  as  tl 
organs  of  respiration. 

Ponton,  (Fr.)  a  bridge  of  boat 

Pompeion,  (Gr. )  a  magnificei 
edifice  at  Athens,  at  the  entranc 
of  the  ancient  city,  by  the  side  < 
the  port  Phalerus,  in  which  all  tl 
sacred  utensils,  &c.  (7ro^7rcu)  whic 
were  used  in  the  celebration  of  in 
fetes,  were  deposited. 

PoNTiFiCES.or  Bridge  Builder 
were  an  order  of  Hospitallers,  founc 
ed  by  St.  Benezet,  about  the  clos 
of  the  twelfth  century.  Their  offic; 
was  to  assist  travellers,  by  makin 
bridges,  settling  ferries,  and  receiv 
ing  strangers  in  hospitals  built  o 
the  banks  of  rivers.  Of  this  orde; 
St.  John  the  bridge-maker  was 
celebrated  member. 

Poplar,  (populus,  Lat. )  th 
tree  is  ranked  by  Carlo  Fea  anion 
those  which  were  used  by  the  ar 
cient  statuaries.  See  Timber,  an, 
Abele. 

Poppy,  (popig,  Sax.)  The  popp 
was  a  plant  greatly  venerated  b 
the  Egyptians  ;  among  the  Greek; 
it  was  dedicated  to  Ceres,  and  : 


/ 


POR 

0>n  introduced  in  architectural 
oaments.  A  recl  jasPel\in  the 
c  ection  of  Stosch,  exhibits  a 
p|>py-head,  encircled  by  a  serpent. 
Rderic  Michael  Lochnar  has  coi- 
ned all  the  ancient  monuments 
o  which  the  poppy  is  depicted,  in 

1  h  "  Mekonopaignion  ;  sive,  Pa- 
r  er  ex  omni  antiquitate  erutum, 
(  nmis,  Nummis,  &c.  JEvi  incisis 
j|  stratum,"  4to.  Noriberg^,  1713. 
'okcelain,  (  Fr.  )  a  beautiful 
semi-transparent  kind  of  earth- 
e  are,  principally  manufactured 
hChina.  The  Chinese  (who  are 
t  illy  unable  to  pronounce  the 
nne  given  to  it  by  Europeans, 
t  ir  language  comprising  no  such 
s  nds)  call  it  tse-ki,  and  the  two 
c  f  ingredients  employed  in  it. 
v  ch  are  formed  into  a  paste,  pc- 
t  -tse  and  kao-lin :  the  former 

i  c:sists  of  fragments  of  rock  ex- 
ited from  certain  quarries,  and 
rJjuced  to  a  fine  powder,  of  a 
c'lur  inclining  slightly  towards 
gp,  the  other  appears  to  be 
nliing  else  than  a  very  pure  white 
s'd,  intermixed  with  shining  par- 
t  ?s.  The  vessels,  &e.  of  porce- 
1;  are,  in  China,  made  in  separate 
p  ts,  which  are  cemented  together 
v  i  some  of  the  same  paste  softened 
it  ater,  and  the  seams  being  polish- 

|  e'vith  an  instrument  on  both  sides, 
n  'race  is  visible  after  it  is  covered 
m  varnish.  The  painters  of  the 
p  :elain,  who  are  called  hoa-pci> 
a  ignorant  people,  possessing  no 
o  ir  art  but  that  of  mechanical 
p  :tice,  and  content  themselves  in 
g  ?ral  with  making  absurd  and 
n  istrous  figures.  Porcelain,  among 
t'  Chinese,  is  not  unfrequently  used 
ii  uilding.  In  the  vast  plain  near 
tl  city  of  Nankin,  there  is  an  oc- 
t;  >n  tower,  with  nine  arched  stories, 
ir  usted  in  the  interior  with  mar- 
b  and  on  the  outside  with  porce- 
k ,  whence  it  has  become  cele- 
b  ed  bv  the  name  of  the  porce- 
2L 


POR 

lain  tower.  At  each  story  is  a 
gallery,  and  all  are  covered  with 
roofs  of  a  green  colour,  supported 
by  gilded  rafters,  from  which  hang 
little  copper  bells.  The  highest 
point  of  the  building  is  surmounted 
by  a  pine-apple,  said  to  be  of  solid 
gold,  and  the  pieces  cf  porcelain 
are  placed  so  skilfully,  that  it  is 
next  to  impossible  to  detect  the 
place  where  they  join,  whilst  the 
whole  is  adorned  with  lead  and 
enamel,  glazed  with  green,  yellow, 
and  red,  glittering  at  a  distance 
like  gold,  emeralds,  and  rubies. 
This  tower  is  said  to  have  stood 
eight  hundred  years,  without  receiv- 
ing any  injury.  A  figure  and  full 
description  is  given  in  Fischer's 
"  Essai  d'Architecture  Historique." 
The  manufacture  of  porcelain  ap- 
pears to  be  very  ancient,  and  it  is 
believed  to  have  been  once  practised 
by  the  Egyptians.  Very  successful 
potteries  have  been  of  late  estab- 
lished in  several  countries  of  Europe. 
On  the  history,  &c.  of  porcelain, 
the  reader  may  consult  —  Pere 
d'Entrecoller,  in  the  Recueil  des 
Lettres  Edifiantes  ;  Du  Halde, 
Histoire  de  la  Chine;  Recueil 
des  Observations  Curieuses;  and, 
Milly  sur  l'Art  de  la  Porcelaine. 

Pouch,  ( from  the  Lat.  porticus,) 
an  arched  vestibule  at  the  entrance 
of  a  church,  or  other  building. 
PorciiesterCastle,  near  Ports- 
mouth, appears  to  be  partly  of 
Roman  construction,  with  modern 
additions  and  alterations  by  the 
Saxons,  Normans,  &c.  The  walls, 
which  are  nearly  twelve  feet  thick, 
have  in  many  places  a  passage 
covered  with  a  parapet  round  them. 
The  western  entrance  is  under  a 
square  tower,  and  over  the  gate  on 
the  inside  are  two  figures  which 
bear  some  resemblance  to  Egyptian 
sphynxes  :  this  gate,  as  well  as  the 
eastern,  is  fourteen  feet  wide.  The 
keep  has  four  towers,   three  df 


POR 


POR 


which  are  on  the  outside  wall,  the 
one  forming  the  north-west  angle 
being  much  the  largest :  the  build- 
ings of  the  keep  cover  an  area  of 
sixty-five  feet  by  115.  In  some  of 
the  round  towers  are  still  visible 
regular  rows  of  Roman  bricks, 
which  divide  the  layers  of  stone 
work.  The  sacellum  of  the  Roman 
prcetorium,  is  supposed  by  Mr. 
King  to  have  occupied  the  site  of 
the  present  parish  church,  which  is 
a  very  old  building. 

Porphyry,  (  from  nopyvpoQ,  Gr. 
'purple,)  a  very  hard  stone,  partak- 
ing of  the  nature  of  granite.  It 
is  designated  by  Pliny  under  the 
name  of  porphy  rites.  Winckel- 
manh  (Observations  sur  l'Historie 
de  l'Art,)  is  wrong  in  pretending 
that  it  is  not  certain  that  porphyry 
was  produced  in  Egypt.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  the  Egyptians,  who  be- 
stowed greater  attention  on  sye- 
nites, for  a  long  time  neglected  the 
porphyrites,  and  that  on  this  ac- 
count no  works  in  porphyry  can  be 
proved  to  be  of  very  great  anti- 
quity ;  in  fact,  there  are  few  remains 
of  works  in  porphyry,  that  are 
purely  Egyptian.  The  mixture  of 
red  (or  rather  purple)  and  white 
was  not  approved  by  the  ancient 
artists,  and  this  substance  was 
never  employed  for  sculpture  in 
the  best  ages  of  the  art.  Pliny, 
after  havi.ig  related  that  Vitruvius 
Pollio,  governor  of  Egypt,  pre- 
sented to  the  emperor  Claudius 
some  statues  of  porphyry  which  he 
had  brought  from  that  country  to 
kome,  adds,  that  they  were  regard- 
ed as  fantastic  novelties,  and  that 
none  approved  of  works  in  such 
materials.  From  this  we  may  judge 
that  the  number  of  statues  in  por- 
phyry among  the  ancients  cannot 
have  been  very  considerable.  This 
substance  appears  to  have  been 
much  better  calculated  to  be  used 
in  columns,  for  funerary  monu- 

266 


ments,  for  urns,  &c.  of  which  tire 
is  a  great  number  at  Rome  in  ie 
baptistry  of  St.  John,  in  the  chi  h 


of  St.  Constance  without  the 


in  the  Museo  Pio-Clementino 
Pliny  and  Anna  Comnena  spea 
columns  of  porphyry,  which  o; 
mented  the  interior  of  the  Egyp  n 
labyrinth.      The  most  celebiVd 
quarries  of  porphyry  were  in  JjkL 
tian  Arabia,  that  is,  in  that  pai  >f 
Africa  which   joined   Egypt,  d 
which  was  often  confounded  \ 
Arabia.    But  the  great  numbe 
porphyry  columns   found  at  1| 
myra  leads  us  to  presume  tha 
was  also  found  in  the  eastern 
Asiatic  Arabia. 

Porphyry  is  less  fine  than  m  y 
of  the  ordinary  marbles,  but  r 
exceeds  them  in  hardness,  am  3 
capable  of  bearing  a  high  poll. 
It  is  still  found  in  Egypt  in  - 
mense  strata.  It  is  generally  0  a 
high  purple,  which  varies  howir 
from  claret  colour  to  violet.  ,3 
variations  are  rarely  disposedn 
grains.  The  red-lead  coloured  }  - 
phyry,  which  is  found  in  got 
plenty  in  Minorca,  variegated  vli 
black,  white,  and  green,  is  a  be 
tiful  and  valuable  material,  'e 
pale  and  red  porphyry,  variegaJ 
with  black,  white,  and  green,  is  foi  I 
in  huge  veins  in  Arabia  Pet  a 
and  Upper  Egypt,  and  in  st-paie 
nodules  in  Germany,  England,  id 
Ireland.  Ficoroni  mentions  0 
exquisitely  fine  columns  of  bljk 
porphyry  in  a  church  at  Rok 
and  three  celebrated  obelisks  of  [  - 
phyry  have  been  found  in  Egij 
two  at  Alexandria,  and  one  it 
Cairo.  (See  Obelisk.)  M.  Fer  r, 
in  his  "  Lettres  sur  l'ltalie,"  >s 
given  details  of  the  different  kin 
of  ancient  porphyry,  which  he  )- 
served  at  Rome.  The  dark  d 
porphyry,  porjido  rosso,  is  tl  e 
the  most  common  :  it  is  of  a  d  p 
red,  with  oblong  white  spots :  ^ 


/ 


P  O  R 

te.r  are  of feld-spath,  which  re- 
ntes schorl.  There  are  two 
rieties  of  black  porphyry,  porfido 
ro;  that  which  is  more  pecu- 
rly  called  black  porphyry,  and 
■x  which  they  call  serpentino 
ro  antico.  The  first  has  a  ground 
tirely  black,  spotted  with  oblong 
lite  spots,  like  the  red  porphyry  : 
other  has  also  a  black  ground, 
h  great  white  spots  oblong  or 
her  in  the  form  of  a  parallelo- 
jedon,  nearly  resembling  in  eo- 
nr  w  hat  the  French  call  serpentin 
•t  antique.  The  brown  por- 
tjry,  has  a  brown  ground,  with 
!  :e  oblong  greenish  spots.  There 
|  several  kinds  of  green  por- 
jury,  which  the  Italians  distin- 
;sh  into  serpentin  vert  antique, 
h  green  porphyry  properly  so 
( led.  The  first  is  found  in  great 
;  indance,  and  in  large  blocks,  in 
t  neighbourhood  of  the  ancient 
<tia,  the  port  where  Egyptian 
vsels  loaded  with  this  stone  un- 
t  pped  their  cargoes,  and  is  of  a 
i  en  ground,  with  oblong  spots  of 
s  ghttr  shade  of  the  same  colour. 
r  2  green  porphyry,  is  of  a  very 
ck  green  ground,  almost  blackish, 
» h  lighter  shades,  sometimes  of  a 
f !  grass  green. 

Che  art  of  cutting  porphyry,  as 
]  ctised  by  the  ancients,  appears 
t>e  now  quite  lost.  The  tomb  of 
( istantia,  the  daughter  of  Con- 
s  nine,  still  extant  in  the  church 

0  >t.  Agnes,  and  commonly  known 
blhe  name  of  the  tomb  of  Bac- 
C  s,  is  finely  worked  in  this  sub- 
s  ice,  and  in  the  palace  of  the 

1  leries  there  is  likewise  a  bust 
o  ipollo,  and  of  the  twelve  em- 
p  >rs,  all  in  porphyry.  Da  Costa 
(■'  t.  Hist,  of  Fossils,  p.  285,)  ima- 
g  s,  that  the  ancient  mode  of 
u  <mg  porphyry  was  simple,  and 
tij  they  had  no  scientific  process, 
b  that  they  first  rudely  hewed  it 
d'n  with   great  diligence  with 


POR 

common  tools,  and  afterwards  rub- 
bed it  down  by  means  of  hard  sands 
found  in  Egypt,  or  of  a  kind  of 
grit  analogous  to  the  substance 
itself,  which  they  might  find  in  the 
porphyry  quarries.  Some,  on  the 
contrary,  think  the  ancients  had 
the  secret  of  tempering  steel  better 
than  we,  and  others  that  they  pos- 
sessed means  of  softening  the  por- 
phyry. Addison  saw  a  workman 
at  Rome  engaged  in  cutting  por- 
phyry, but  says  that  his  advances 
were  extremely  slow,  and,  in  fact, 
almost  insensible.  Many  have  at- 
tempted to  discover  the  ancient  art, 
which  they  imagined  to  be  lost. 
Cosmo  di  Medicis,in  1555,  is  said  to 
have  distilled  a  water  from  certain 
herbs,  by  help  of  which  his  sculptor, 
Francesco  Tadda,  gave  his  tools 
such  an  admirable  hardness,  and 
so  fine  a  temper,  that  he  performed 
most  exquisite  works,  among  which 
were  heads  of  Christ,  of  Cosmo, 
and  of  his  duchess,  in  demi-relievo; 
in  these  the  very  hair  and  beard 
are  well  executed,  and  equal  in 
every  respect  to  the  remains  of 
ancient  art  in  the  same  substance, 
but  the  secret  appears  to  have  died. 
The  French  have  invented  the  use 
of  an  iron  saw  without  teeth,  grez, 
(a  kind  of  freestone  in  powder.)  and 
water,  for  cutting  porphyry*  Some 
have  proposed  to  harden  the  tools 
by  steeping  them  in  the  juice  of  the 
plant  called  bears-breech.  Mr. 
Boyle  recommends  the  use  of  emery, 
steel  saws,  and  water. 

Port,  (  portus,  Lat.  )  a  small 
gulf  so  hollowed  and  disposed  by 
nature  or  art,  as  to  contain  vessels 
in  safety,  and  to  facilitate  their 
loading  and  unloading.  Sea-ports 
are  commonly  enclosed  by  moles, 
thrown  out  into  the  sea,  and  pro- 
tected by  batteries.  The  most  cele- 
brated ports  of  antiquity  were  those 
of  Carthage,  of  Alexandria,  Syra- 
cuse, Rhodes,  and  Messina.  The 

267 


P  OR 


POR 


famous  city  of  Tyre  had  two  ;  the 
largest  was  nearly  oval,  the  entrance 
formed  by  two  moles,  stretching  out 
into  the  sea  in  the  form  of  seg- 
ments of  circles :  a  third  mole  co- 
vered the  entrance,  and  protected 
the  vessels  from  the  impetuosity  of 
the  waves.  Two  lofty  towers,  at 
the  head  of  this  mole,  served  to 
defend  the  two  mouths  thus  form- 
ed, and  on  their  summits  were 
placed  lights  to  guide  the  navi- 
gators. The  second  port  of  Tyre 
was  destined  for  merchant  ships, 
and  had  nothing  remarkable  in  its 
entrance,  which  was  adorned  with 
magnificent  architecture,  and  cover- 
ed by  an  advanced  mole. 

The  harbour  of  Peirseus,  the 
port  of  Athens,  although  subject 
to  some  inconveniences,  is  still  an 
excellent  port  for  vessels  as  large 
as  frigates.  The  Peirseus  was  an- 
ciently subdivided  into  three  har- 
bours, which  caused  Themistocles 
to  recommend  its  use  to  the  Athen- 
ians, but  it  was  not  till  the  second 
year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  that 
they  saw  the  necessity  of  fortifying 
it.  Its  three  ports  then  became 
closed  harbours,  (  kXehttoi  Xijieveg) 
as  Munychia  and  Phalerum  had 
probably  long  before  been  made. 
The  expression  kXehttoi  Xifxeyeg, 
which  frequently  occurs  in  ancient 
history  is  illustrated  by  many  ex- 
amples in  the  ruins  of  the  mari- 
time cities  of  Greece.  Their  har- 
bours were  generally  small  land- 
locked basins,  such  as  the  coasts  of 
Greece  particularly  abound  in,  and 
they  were  enclosed  within  the  cir- 
cuit of  the  town  walls,  that  is,  the 
walls  being  carried  down  to  either 
side  of  the  harbour's  mouth,  were 
prolonged  from  thence  across  the 
mouth  upon  shoals,  or  artificial 
moles,  till  a  passage  only  was  left 
in  the  middle  for  two  or  three 
triremes  abreast  between  two  towers, 
the  opening  of  which  might  be  fur- 


ther protected  by  a  chain.  T\ 
kind  of  harbour  was  not  out  of  \> 
in  the  Levant,  as  long  as  the  A 
mata  Sottile,  as  the  Venetia; 
called  that  part  of  their  navy  whi 
consisted  of  galleys  and  gallio, 
continued  to  be  an  object  of  imp< 
tance  among  them,  and  to  ha 
opponents  of  the  same  kind  amo 
the  Turks,  and  the  other  nav 
powers  of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  traces  of  the  works  whi 
closed  the  three  ports  of  the  P 
reeus  being  still  perfectly  appare: 
its  three  divisions  are  exactly  c 
termined.  The  entrance  of  t 
outer  port  is  marked  by  an  insj 
lated  rock,  lying  towards  the  ea 
ern  shore :  this  port  extended  j 
ward  as  far  as  two  reefs,  whu 
projecting  from  either  shore,  foi 
a  second  narrow  passage,  now  i 
dicated  by  two  small  masses 
modern  masonry.  Anciently  t 
reefs  afforded  a  foundation  to  ti 
projecting  walls,  the  opening  I 
tween  which  was  the  communic 
tion  from  the  outer  to  the  midc 
port.  This  was  by  much  the  large 
of  the  three,  and  contained  all  t 
portion  of  the  Peireeus  now  in  u< 
and  extended  as  far  as  the  shore 
the  modern  custom-house  and  co 
vent  of  St.  Spyridion,  leaving  I 
the  north  side  a  third  narrow  e 
trance,  leading  into  a  circular  basi 
the  regular  form  of  which,  and  tj 
walls  which  were  carried  across  t! 
entrance,  with  the  exception  of  i 
opening  in  the  middle,  furnish  u 
doubted  proofs,  that  it  was  one 
the  three  Peiraic  ports,  thoug 
from  the  neglect,  and  the  alluv. 
deposits  of  a  small  stream,  it  h 
been  rendered  now  a  mere  1 
goon.  (See  Leake's  Topography 
Athens.) 

The  port  of  Ostia  was  not  one 
the  least  celebrated  amongst  t 
Romans.  Suetonius  attributes 
to  Claudius.     The  mole  at  t 


PO  R 


POR 


(trance  was  of  such  extent,  that 
o  calls  it  an  isle.    This  port  was 
mated  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tiber, 
,'posite  to  Sardinia.    It  had  two 
itrances,  with  a  large  pharos,  like 
it  of  Alexandria,  in  the  middle, 
guide  the  vessels  in  the  night. 
'  e  emperor  Trajan  repaired  this 
rt,  enlarged  it,  and  even  doubled 

1  former  size,  shutting  it  up  in 
ij  form  of  a  hexagon.  Thus 
proved,  it  afforded  a  safe  and 
jst  commodious  harbour,  and  at 
3  same  time  presented  to  the 
es  all  the  pomp  and  grandeur 

architectural  decoration,  in  the 
iendid  edifices  which  surrounded 
'  and  amongst  which  were  ware- 
uses,  magazines,  vast  manufac- 
ies  and  depots,  hotels  for  stran- 
rs  of  every  class,  and  even  palaces 
(r  the  ambassadors  who  might  be 

their  way  to  Rome.  The  port 
Ostia,  with  its  hexagonal  form,  is 
'own  in  Montfaucon,  Antiq.  Ex- 
q.  torn.  iv.  part  2,  pi.  143;  and 
the  Recueil  et  Parallele  of  MM. 
irand  and  Legrand,  pi.  25,  after 

2  design  of  Serlio.  The  medals 
'  Nero  represent  this  port  almost 
und,  but  it  is  hexagonal  on  a 
;?dal  of  Trajan,  with  the  inscrip- 
'n  port.  ost.  Perhaps,  in  form- 
*  it  round,  the  designers  of  the 
edals  had  no  intention  of  giving 
e  exact  form  of  the  port.  Mont* 
ucon,  Suppl.  a  l'Antiq.  torn.  iv. 
.  49  bis.  no.  2,  has  published  an 
scription  in  memory  of  a  procu- 
tor  or  inspector  of  this  port : 
laudii  Optati  Augusti  liberti 
ocuratoris  portus  Ostensis,  The 
me  antiquary  has  given,  from 
manuscript  of  Peiresc,  in  PI.  49, 
e  plan  of  the  ancient  port  of 
ejus,  which  was  almost  triangu- 
\  and   of  considerable  extent ; 

each  side  of  its  entrance  was 
?cted  a  tower,  and  in  the  middle 
the  port  was  the  ruins  of  a  for- 
-ss.    On  the  west  bank,  near  the 


extremity,  was  a  kind  of  ruined 
gateway.  This  port  is  now  dry, 
and  at  some  distance  from  the  sea. 
PI.  49  bis.,  of  the  same  work, 
exhibits  an  engraved  stone,  repre- 
senting a  port  with  its  round  pha- 
ros, placed  on  a  very  high  and 
steep  rock.  A  description  of  other 
ports  will  be  found  in  the  Hydro- 
graphie  of  Fournier,  and  in  the 
Architecture  hydraulique  of  Be- 
Hdor. 

Portal,  [portail,  Fr.  from 
Lat.  porta,]  the  arch  over  a  door 
or  gate ;  the  frame-work  of  the 
gate  ;  the  lesser  gate,  when  there 
are  two  of  different  dimensions  at 
an  entrance :  the  vast  trilithons, 
or  frames  of  the  entrances  of  the 
edifices  at  Persepolis,  and  in  an- 
cient ruins  in  other  parts,  are 
called  portals.  The  name  is  also 
given  to  a  little  square  corner  of  a 
room,  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  apartment  by  wainscoting. 

Portcullis,  [Fr.]  a  strong 
grating  of  timber,  fenced  with  iron, 
and  made  to  slide  up  and  down  in 
a  groove  of  solid  stone-work  within 
the  arch  of  the  portal  of  old 
castles.  The  bottom  was  fur- 
nished with  sharp  iron  spikes,  de- 
signed to  strike  into  the  ground, 
for  the  sake  of  greater  firmness 
and  solidity,  and  also  to  break  or 
destroy  whatever  should  be  under 
it,  when  it  was  let  down.  Port- 
cullises were  used  among  the  Ro- 
mans. The  portcullis  is  believed 
to  have  been  first  introduced  to 
the  military  architecture  of  this 
country,  in  the  instance  of  early 
Norman  castles. 

Portico,  [porticus,  Lat.]  a 
long  covered  space,  composed 
either  of  vaults  supported  by  ar- 
cades, or  of  flat  roofs  supported  by 
pillars,  the  sides  being  quite  open. 
Jn  the  time  of  Homer,  the  portico, 
aiOovaa,  does  not  appear  to  have 
been   constructed   with  columns. 


POR 


POR 


Twice  only  is  it  mentioned,  that 
these  porticos  were  polished  or 
well  wrought,  and  in  one  instance 
he  alludes  to  the  divine  mansion  of 
Jupiter  himself,  in  the  other  to  the 
splendid  palace  of  Priam.  (II.  xx. 
11.  vi.  242.)  "  It  seems,"  says  the 
translator  of  Vitruvius,  Mr.  Wil- 
kins,  "  to  have  been  a  species  of 
raised  platform  or  exedra,  probably 
covered  at  the  top,  but  exposed  at 
the  sides  to  the  air,  and  to  the 
enjoyment  derived  from  this  expo- 
sure, we  may  chiefly  attribute  its 
origin."  One  of  the  principal 
porticos  at  Athens  was  the  Pcecile. 
At  Rome  they  were  very  numerous. 
Vitruvius  and  Columella  prescribe 
the  manner  in  which  the  portico 
ought  to  be  turned,  that  they 
might  be  convenient  places  of 
resort  at  all  seasons.  Pliny, 
speaking  of  the  porticos  or  galle- 
ries which  he  had  in  his  country- 
house,  gives  such  a  description  of 
it,  as  even  now  to  excite  our  admi- 
ration. In  plate  P.  I.  are  repre- 
sented porticos  of  temples  of  the 
Doric  and  Corinthian  orders. 

Portico  of  Philip,  in  the 
isle  of  Delos,  a  ruin  described  by 
Stuart.  It  is  a  fine  specimen  of 
the  Doric  order,  and  is  remarkable 
for  the  lightness  of  its  proportions. 
Mr.  Stuart  conjectured  it  might 
have  been  erected  by  Philip,  after 
the  Sacred  war.  The  shafts  of  the 
columns  appear  to  have  been  left 
plain,  for  the  purpose  of  future 
completion.  Among  the  archi- 
traves were  three  lying  pretty  near 
each  other,  with  inscriptions  in 
memory  of  Philip.  Each  archi- 
trave was  ten  feet  long,  two  and  a 
half  thick,  and  one  foot  eight 
inches  deep.  There  are  also  in  this 
island  the  remains  of  a  Doric  tem- 
ple dedicated  to  Apollo,  of  which 
the  shafts  of  the  columns  are  fluted 
at  their  upper  and  lower  extremi- 
ties, and  left  plain  in  the  middle. 

270 


The  aspect  of  this  temple,  from  | 
appearance  of  the  ruins,  was  e<- 
jectured  to  have  been  periptei, 
and  it  was  judged  to  be  nea| 
equal  to  the  temple  of  These . 
In  this  island  have  been  fou 
capitals    with    bulls'    head    a  I 
shoulders  attached  to  them.  ] 
gures  of  them  are  given  in  the  si- 
plementary   volume    to   the  1;| 
edition  of  Stuart.  They  were  fou 
near  a  portal  or  gateway,  on  t 
ascent  of  mount  Cynthus,  form 
to  support,  the  wall  of  an  ancit 
fortification  of  that  height;  tJ 
entrance  is  constructed  with  t 
large  stones,  inclined  to  each  otl 
like  those  at  the  aperture  to  t 
great   Egyptian    pyramid.  It 
perhaps  the  earliest  specimen 
Greece,  of  the  architecture  term 
Pelasgic,  displaying  the  first  st 
toward  the  principle  of  the  arc 
and  was  probably  executed  by  t 
colony  settled  here  by  Minos, 
the  supplementary  volume  of  t 
last  edition  of  Stuart's  Athens, 
given  a  restoration  of  one  of  the 
capitals.    The  bulls,  with  those 
the  triglyph,  doubtless  belonged 
some  edifice  dedicated  to  the  wc 
ship  of  Mithra,  who  among  t 
Persians  personified  the  sun.  i 
Persepolis,  and   in   the  vicinit 
tauriform  capitals  are  yet  in  exis 
ence;  and  a  Silician  coin,  engr 
ved    also    in   the  supplementa 
volume  of  Stuart's  Athens,  bea 
an  emblem  alluding  to  the  worsli 
of  the  bull.    Kneeling  bulls  a 
introduced  in  the  frieze  of  the  ter 
pie  of  the  sun  at  Balbec,  (Cass; 
Voyage  Pittoresque  de  la  Syri 
torn.  ii.  pi.  16,  17.) 

Porticus,  in  ancient  church( 
appears  to  have  been  a  portion 
the  west  end,  dedicated  to  sor: 
saint,  &c,  not  resembling  our  m 
dern  porches,  (See  Britton's  Arc! 
tect,  Antiq.  vol.  v.  p.  118,  119.) 

Portland  Stone,  [the  saxu 


POS 


VRJE 


anarium  Portlandicum   of  Da 
Ota,  and  the  psadurium  hebes, 
Qidum,  laxius,  of  Hill,]  a  dullish 
vite  kind  of  sandstone,  brought 
f  n  the  isle  of  Portland  in  Dor- 
s;hire,  and  much  used  in  London. 
3»  piers  and  arches  of  Westmin- 
s  -bridge  are  of  this  material.  It 
i  ery  soft  when  it  comes  out  of 
t  quarry,  but  hardens  by  time 
j]  exposure  to  the  air.  See  Stone. 
Porus,  (Gr.)  or  lapis  porinus,  a. 
scies  of  marble,  which,  accord- 
i    to  Theophrastus  and  Pliny, 
rsmbles   in  its   beautiful  white 
cour,  and  in  its  quality,  the  mar- 
t  of  Paros,  with  which  some  have 
!     cifounded  it.     It   is   now  un- 
bwn.    It  was  found  in  Elis,  and 
lusanias   informs   us   that  the 
tiple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  was 
tic     I1  it  of  it.    Some  authors  mention 
1     stues  made  of  it,  and  it  was  used 
j  ticularly  for  engraving  inscrip- 
'«    tis  on.    Ernesti  thinks  that  the 
•!      I'rble  called  porus,  or  lapis  pori- 
?  ,  is  the  same  as  that  which  the 
llians  now  call  peperino. 
Position,    in    geometry,  the 
station  of  one  thing  in  regard  to 
nther. 

Post,  (Fr.)  a  piece  of  timber  set 
e      <ct  in  the  earth;   certain  orna- 
i  nts  of  the   shape  of  rolls  or 
\  athings. 

i  Post  and  Paling,  a  close 
\  oden  fence,  made  by  posts  fixed 
i  the  ground,  and  pales  nailed 
1  ween  them.  This  kind  of  fence 
i  sometimes  called  Post  and 
A  iling. 

•Postern,  (Fr.)  a  small  door  or 
£e  at  the  back  of  a  building. 
i  sterns,  in  ancient  castles,  were 
trances  for  the  private  ingress  of 
i  ssengers  to  the  governor. 

PosTicuM,(Lat.)the  porch  in  the 
1  k  front  of  an  ancient  temple. 

Postique,  (Ital.)  an  ornament, 
If  <•  added  after  the  rest  of  the 
1  rk  is  done. 


Postscenium,  (Lat.)  the  back 
part  of  the  ancient  theatres,  where 
the  machinery  was  desposited,  and 
where  the  actors  retired  to  robe 
themselves. 

Poultry  House,  a  building  for 
keeping  poultry  in.  There  is  a 
most  magnificent  building  of  this 
kind  at  the  seat  of  lord  Penrhyn,  at 
Winnington,  in  Cheshire,  consisting 
of  a  handsome  regular  front  of 
140  feet,  with  an  elegant  pavil- 
lion  at  each  end,  which  are  united 
to  the  centre  by  a  colonnade  of 
small  cast-iron  pillars,  which  sup- 
port a  slate  roof,  that  covers  a 
paved  -walk.  In  the  centre  of  the 
front  are  four  handsome  stone 
columns,  and  as  many  pilasters, 
supporting  also  a  slated  roof,  with 
an  elegant  iron  gate  between  them. 
Behind  is  a  large  semicircular 
court,  with  a  colonnade  round  it, 
and  places  for  the  poultry.  On 
one  side  of  the  gate  is  a  little  par- 
lour, and  at  the  other  end  of  the 
colonnade  a  neat  kitchen. 

Powderings,  devices  to  fill  up 
vacant  spaces  in  carved  works,  &c. 

Prtecinctio,  (Lat.)  or  balteus, 
a  kind  of  wide  seat  or  rather  step, 
round  the  entire  circumference  of 
the  ancient  theatres  and  amphi- 
theatres. It  was  termed  liafapa 
by  the  Greeks,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  inscription  at  Patara,  (  see 
Theatre, )  which  delermines  the 
meaning  of  the  word  in  Vitruvius. 
See  Amphitheatre, 
v  Pr;efurnium,  see  Propnigeum. 

Pr^torian  Camp,  was,  as  its 
name  indicates,  destined  for  the 
purpose  of  including,  within  one 
enclosure,  the  cohorts  which  were 
under  the  praetorian  prefect.  Se- 
janus,  the  minister  of  Tiberius,  hav- 
ing occupied  this  station,  wished 
that  all  the  soldiers  of  the  praeto- 
rian cohort,  whose  quarters  were 
before  dispersed,  should  be  collected 
in  one  vast  edifice,  which  he  order- 

271 


P  KM 


PRI 


ed  to  be  erected,  and  which  was 
called  castrum  prcEtorium,  or  castra 
prcetoriana.  Authors  are  not  agreed 
as  to  its  exact  situation ;  but  it  is 
believed  to  have  been  situated  to 
the  east  of  Rome,  between  the  roads 
Nomentana  and  Tiburtina,  behind 
the  baths  of  Dioclesian,  and  near 
the  walls  of  the  city.  This  camp 
was  built  of  brick,  in  the  reticulated 
mode  of  masonry,  covered  with  stuc- 
co, and  adorned  with  superb  por- 
ticos. Constantine  caused  it  to  be 
demolished,  but  it  appears  to  have 
been  rebuilt  by  the  care  of  Pinho 
Ligorio.  In  the  centre  was  the 
prcEtorium,  or  tribunal,  in  which 
the  prefect  delivered  judgment.  It 
had  the  exterior  form  of  a  temple ; 
the  interior  was  plain  :  its  only 
ornament  was  a  table  covered  with 
a  purple  cloth,  embroidered  with 
gold.  The  camp  was  surrounded 
by  an  enclosure,  which  in  some 
places  was  double,  within  which  were 
built  the  quarters  of  the  soldiers, 
two  stories  high,  the  communica- 
tion between  them  being  formed 
by  vast  colonnades.  The  exterior 
towers  gave  it  the  formidable  aspect 
of  a  fortress.  The  great  space 
which  it  enclosed,  favoured  the 
health  of  the  troops,  and  afforded 
room  for  them  to  exercise.  MM. 
Durand  and  Legrand,  in  their  valu- 
able "  Recueil  et  Parallele  des 
edifices  anciens  et  modernes,"  (  PI. 
26,)  have  given  the  plan  of  this 
superb  monument.  Whatever  be 
the  degree  of  authenticity  that  we 
may  be  inclined  to  yield  this  plan, 
or  whoever  be  the  restorer  of  this 
edifice,  it  is  impossible  to  excel 
a  disposition  so  well  contrived,  so 
conformable  to  the  ancient  cha- 
racter, and  to  give  it  more  ele- 
gance, without  diminishing  its  con- 
venience. On  the  same  plate  are 
exhibited  the  small  camp  of  Pom- 
peii, and  that  of  Otricoli. 

Praetorian  Gate,  see  Castra. 

272 


Pr^torium,  (Lat.)  see  the  fe- 
going  article.  The  name  was  i0 
often  given  to  any  building  wire 
causes  were  judged  by  the  prar, 
and  also  to  patricians'  seats)r 
manor-houses,  in  the  country 

Preaching  Cross,  see  Cn 

Precarium,  in  Roman  vi 
a  counting-house. 

PRECEPTORiES,manorsorest 
of  the  knights  templars,  on  wl  h 
they  erected  churches  for  relig  is 
service,  and  convenient  houses  >r 
habitation,  and  placed  some  of  tpr 
fraternity  under  the  government 
one  of  those  more  eminent  temp  s 
who  had  been  created  by  the  gr  d 
master  prceceptores  templi,  to  t  e 
care  of  the  lands  and  rents  in  ut 
place  and  neighbourhood  :  tl  e 
preceptories  were  only  cells  to  e 
temple,  or  principal  house  of  e 
knights  in  London. 

Presbytery,  the  part  of  e 
church  appropriated  to  official": 
priests,  comprising  the  choir,  d 
other  eastern  portions  of  the  i  - 
fice.  In  Roman  Catholic  countrs, 
the  term  is  applied  to  religis 
houses  near  any  given  par 
wherein  all  such  priests  as  e 
considered  to  merit  such  disti- 
tion,  are  lodged  and  boarded n 
common. 

Prick-Post,  the  same  as  Qun 
Post. 

Priene,  an  ancient  city  of  /a 
Minor,  at  a  few  miles  distant  fin 
Miletus.    The  temple  of  Mine  a 
Polias,  which  is  supposed  to  b< 
the  age  of  Alexander,  is  descri 
in  the  first  volume  of  the  lor 
Antiquities,  p.  13.    Its  site  is 
vered  with  ruins  so  confusedly  be  > 
ed  together,  that  neither  the  ni 
ber  of  columns  in  front  can  be 
tinguished,  nor  its  aspect  or  spe 
be  determined.    The  upper  s 
the  only  one  that  can  be  measu 
is  1'  1"2.     The  base  is  Ionic, 
has  no  plinth.    The  torus  is  e 


PRI 


P  R  I 


Li,  and  fluted.  The  eyes  of  the 
i  utes  of  the  capitals  are  bored 

X  i  inches  and  a  half  deep,  per- 

:  \js  for  the  convenience  of  fixing 
f  toons  of  flowers,  and  the  other 
jDaratus  with  which  the  temples 
ire  adorned  on  days  of  festivity. 
12  hem,  or  border,  with  its  fillet, 
rting  on  the  echinus,  and  con- 
r  ting  with  a  graceful  sweep  the 
s'als  of  the  volutes,  adds  much  to 
t  beauty  of  the  capital.  The 
s -al  of  the  volute  has  four  revo- 
1  ons.  The  cymatium  under  the 
dtitals  has  three  mouldings,  a  fil- 
1  a  cyma  inversa,  and,  beneath 
1 1,  a  fascia  or  band.  Neither 
t  diameter  or  altitude  of  the  co- 

l!    1  ins  could  be  obtained. 

jrime.  Any  figure  in  geometry  is 
si  to  be  prime,  when  it  cannot  be 

11  d  tied  into  any  other  figures  more 
s  pie  than  itself,  as  a  triangle  in 
p  ie  figures,  and  a  pyramid  in 
s'Js.    A  prime  number  is  one 

1  tk  cannot  !>e  divided  by  another 
n  iber  without  a  remainder. 

1  Aiming,  among  painters,  the 
h  ng  on  of  the  first  shade  of  co- 

F   I  r. 

Principal   Brace,   a  brace 
inediately  under   the  principal 
i  to  lifers. 

'kincipal  Point,  in  perspec- 
ti,  a  point  in  the  perspective 
p  ie,  on  which  a  line  drawn  per- 
p  Jiculalry  from  the  eye  to  the 
p  ie  falls. 

kincipal  Rafters,  the  two 
in  ned  timbers  which  support  the 
K . 

kincipal  Ray,  in  perspec- 
ti  the  line  passing  from  the  eye 
tc  he  principal  point  on  the  per- 
sflive  plane. 

kincipalis,  see  Castra. 
Friory,  a  building  of  the  same 
n'  re  as  a  monastery,  or  abbey, 
*  >e  governor  was  denominated  a 
pi ',  or  prioress. 

rism,  (Gr.)  a  solid  of  which 
2M 


two  of  the  faces  are  parallel,  equal, 
and  similar  plane  figures,  and  simi- 
larly situated,  and  of  which  the 
remaining  surface  or  surfaces  be- 
tween them  may  be  in  contact  with 
all  the  intermediate  points  of  a 
straight  line,  intersecting  each  edge 
of  each  of  the  two  faces,  while  the 
line  moves  parallel  to  itself.  The 
two  parallel  faces  are  called  the 
ends  or  bases.  The  edges  of  the 
two  ends  are  called  the  directrices. 
The  moving  straight  line,  in  which 
all  its  points  between  the  two  bases 
are  in  contact  with  the  interme- 
diate surface,  is  called  the  gene- 
ratrix. When  the  generatrix  would 
be  at  oblique  angles  to  each  of  the 
bases,  if  it  cease  to  move  in  any  of 
its  positions,  it  is  called  an  oblique 
prism.  A  triangular  prism  has  its 
bases  triangles,  a  square  prism,  its 
bases  squares,  &c.  If  the  two  di- 
rectrices are  endless  curves,  it  is 
an  oval  prism,  if  circles,  a  circular 
prism,  if  ellipses,  an  elliptic  prism. 
If  the  directrices  be  circles  or 
ellipses,  the  surface  between  the 
prism  is  called  a  cylindric  surface. 
To  find  the  solidity  of  a  prism, 
find  the  area  of  one  of  the  ends, 
and  multiply  it  by  the  perpendi- 
cular distance  between  the  ends. 
To  find  the  surface  of  a  right  prism 
between  the  two  bases,  multiply  the 
perimeter  of  one  of  the  ends  by  the 
length  of  one  of  the  perpendicular 
edges,  or  by  the  perpendicular  dis- 
tance between  the  bases,  and  the 
product  will  be  the  area  of  the 
surface  or  surfaces  between  the 
two  bases. 

Prismoid,  (Gr.)  or  the  frus- 
tum of  a  wedge,  a  solid  which  has 
two  parallel  rectangular  faces,  and 
the  remaining  faces  trapezoids,  ter- 
minating with  their  parallel  edges 
in  the  same  lines  as  the  two  pa- 
rallel faces,  which  are  called  the 
ends.  The  greater  end  is  called 
the  base.     The  length  of  a  line 

273 


PRI 


PRI 


intercepted  between  the  two  ends, 
and  perpendicular  to  one  of  them, 
is  called  the  altitude  or  height  of 
the  prismoid.    See  Pyramid. 

Prison,  (Fr.)  a  strong  building 
for  the  confinement  of  criminals  or 
debtors.  From  the  different  pas- 
sages of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
writers,  where  these  buildings  are 
mentioned,  it  appears  that  they 
were  composed  of  divisions  or  cells 
more  or  less  disagreeable:  some- 
times the  prisoners  were  kept  only 
in  a  simple  vestibule,  where  they 
were  permitted  to  see  their  parents 
or  their  friends,  as  appears  from  the 
history  of  Socrates :  sometimes,  for 
it  seems  to  have  been  regulated  by 
the  nature  of  their  crimes,  they 
were  shut  up  in  dark  subterranean 
cells,  and  in  moist  and  infectious 
holes,  such  as  that  in  which  Jugur- 
tha  was  immured,  according  to  the 
account  of  Sallust.  The  establish- 
ment of  prisons  at  Rome  is  attri- 
buted by  Eutropius  to  Tarquinius 
Superbus ;  others  attribute  it  to 
Ancus  Martins,  and  they  say  that 
Tullus  Hostilius  added  to  them  a 
kind  of  dungeon,  which  was  for  a 
long  time  after  called  tullianum. 
According  to  Juvenal,  during  the 
time  of  the  kings  and  the  republic, 
there  was  but  one  prison  at  Rome. 
Under  Tiberius  a  new  one  was  con- 
structed, which  was  named  the 
Mamertine  prison.  The  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  the  whole  ecclesiasti- 
cal history  of  the  first  ages,  prove 
that  there  was  then  scarcely  a  town 
in  the  empire  which  did  not  possess 
a  prison,  and  the  jurisconsulti  of- 
ten speak  of  them  in  their  Com- 
mentaries on  the  laws.  The  ex- 
pression mala  mansio,  which  is 
found  in  Ulpian,  signifies,  ac- 
cording to  some  critics,  a  prison. 
The  places  known  by  the  name  of 
latomicB  and  lapidicince,  have  been 
taken  by  some  authors  for  the 
mines,  to  which   some  criminals 

274 


were  condemned ;  but  it  appt  s 
that  they  were  real  prisons  holloed 
in  the  rock,  or  vast  quarries,  if 
which  all  the  outlets  were  cam'  , 
closed.  The  Roman  laws  mento 
different  officers  who  had  either  e 
care,  or  inspection,  of  the  pris  s 
and  prisoners.  Those  who  kept  n 
account  of  the  expenses  of  the  L 
son  of  which  they  had  charge  d 
the  age  and  number  of  their  - 
soners,  and  of  the  nature  of  e 
crime  with  which  they  were  > 
cused,  were  named  comments  L 
There  were  some  prisons  cad 
free,  because  the  prisoners  v  e 
not  shut  up,  but  only  committee  o 
the  care  of  a  magistrate,  a  senar, 
&c.  or  confined  to  a  partic  ir 
house,  or  even  in  their  own,  \h 
permission  to  go  out.  The  law>f 
Trajan  and  the  Antonines  pni- 
bited  domestic  prisons,  or  what  e 
French  call  chartes  privees ;  bu  n 
some  instances  a  father  was  r- 
mitted  to  confine  at  his  own  hue 
an  incorrigible  son,  an  husbam:o 
inflict  the  same  punishment  on  is 
wife,  and  for  greater  offence  a 
master  was  allowed  to  imprison  is 
own  slaves,  which  was  in  a  p:t 
called  ergastulum  ;  see  this  wo. 

In  the  "  Recueil  et  Paralleled 
Durand  and  Legrand,  are  g  n 
plans  and  elevations  of  mocn 
prisons.  The  plan  of  the  mam 
de  correction  at  Ghent,  which* 
sembles,  in  an  octagonal  forn  a 
great  number  of  insulated  ho 
approaching  to  one  common  cei  e, 
is  very  ingenious,  as  it  greatly  » 
litates  the  inspection  and  so  r- 
intendence  of  the  whole.  The  i 
son  of  Aix,  built  by  M.  Ledoujin 
a  style  somewhat  resembling 
of  the  Egyptians,  is  on  a  very 
pie  plan.'  On  the  same  platjoi 
the  above  work  which  contain^ 
plan  of  these  buildings,  is  onM 
the  "  maison  de  correction1  at  H'  *t 
that  of  Milan,  that  of  Amster<">» 


PRO 


PRO 


nd  the  prison  of  Newgate,  which, 
\,  Millin  observes,  is  built  in  "  a 
vie  approaching  the  severe  archi- 
cture  of  Florence." 
Mr.  Howard  observes,  that  "  a 
mnty  gaol,  and  indeed  every 
ison,  should  be  built  on  a  spot 
at  is  airy,  and,  if  possible,  near  a 
ver  or  brook ;"  but  "  not  so  near 

that  either  the  house  or  yard 
all  be  within  the  reach  of  floods. 

it  be  not  practicable  to  build 
ar  a  stream,  then  an  eminence 
ould  be  chosen,  for  as  the  wall 
und  a  prison  should  be  so  high 

greatly  to  obstruct  a  free  circu- 
:ion  of  air,  this  inconvenience 
ould  be  lessened  by  rising 
Dund,  and  the  prison  should  not 

surrounded  by  other  buildings, 
r  built  in  the  middle  of  a  town 
city." 

Proaulion,  a  term  amongst 
>  Greeks,  for  what  the  Romans 
led    vestibulum,   the  passage 

,  ich  conducted  from  the  exterior 
the  interior  of  a  building. 
Prodomus,  (Gr.)  a  term  some- 

•  les  given  to  the  portico,  at  the 

(.ranee  of  the  cella,  and  to  the 

:  ade  of  the  temple. 
Producing,  in  geometry,  the 

(itinuing  a   right  line   to  any 

l,  uired  length. 

Profile,  (Fr.)  the  perpendicu- 
1  section  of  a  building.  The 
t-n  is  also  used  in  speaking  of 
t  contour  of  an  architectural 
i  mber,  as  of  a  base,  cornice,  &c. 
I.s  on  the  just  proportion  of  their 
J  files  that  the  chief  beauties  of 
t  different  orders  of  architecture 
d  end.  The  ancients  were  most 
c,?ful  of  the  profiles  of  their 
rwldings.  The  good  effect  which 
tUe  produced,  depended  on  the 
n.nbers  that  were  employed,  as 
•jjl  as  on  their  disposition  and 
p  ections.  In  this  respect  the 
C  eks  have  been  skilf  ul  masters. 
T  profiles  of  the  capitals,  of  the 


bases,  of  the  entablatures,  and  of 
the  different  mouldings  which  are 
offered  to  us,  in  the  works  of  the 
Grecian  artists,  abound  in  preci- 
sion, spirit,  and  expression,  and 
communicate  to  the  whole  a  cer- 
tain warmth  and  life.  They  never 
overloaded  their  entablatures  with 
members,  as  the  edifices  of  the 
Romans  offer  us  examples  in  later 
ages ;  they  employed  but  a  small 
number,  and  each  had  its  peculiar 
design.  These  members  are  dis- 
posed in  the  most  agreeable  situa- 
tions, they  offer  a  variety  in  their 
form  and  height,  and  their  projec- 
tion is  determined  by  the  most 
exact  proportions.  In  each  profile 
there  is  a  principal  member,  to 
which  all  the  others  are  subordi- 
nate. The  face  of  the  principal 
member  is  always  rectangular : 
those  which  serve  to  support  or  to 
cover  it,  have  their  profiles  traced 
with  a  curved  line.  The  members 
which  are  designed  to  sustain  or 
cover,  are  strong  towards  the  ex- 
tremities; those  on  the  contrary, 
which  only  serve  to  form  a  separa- 
tion are  delicate.  The  effect  of 
the  profile  depends  much  on  the 
degree  of  projection  given  to  each 
member.  When  this  projection  is 
too  diminutive,  the  profile  will  have 
a  cold  and  mean  air  :  when,  on  the 
contrary,  the  members  have  too 
much  projection,  it  will  appear 
clumsy.  The  ancients  avoided 
these  two  faults  with  great  success, 
and,  according  to  Vitruvius,  their 
method  was  to  give  each  member 
a  projection  equal  to  its  height. 
The  best  works  of  antiquity  sup- 
port the  authority  of  Vitruvius; 
although  sometimes  the  whole 
height  of  several  members  was 
given  to  the  most  elevated  member, 
that  it  might  cover  the  other  infe- 
rior members  which  were  below  it, 
and  which  depended  upon  it. 
Projection,  a  branch  of  per- 

275 


PRO 


PRO 


spective,  u  the  art  of  forming  the 
representation  of  a  body  upon  a 
plane,  by  drawing  straight  lines 
through  a  given  point,  or  parallel, 
from  the  contour,  and  from  the 
intermediate  lines  of  the  body,  if 
any,  so  as  to  cut  the  plane ;  then 
colouring  the  respective  compart- 
ments according  to  the  degree  of 
light,  shade,  and  hue,  of  each  sur- 
face." (Nicholson.) 

Projecture,  the  prominence  of 
the  mouldings  and  members  beyond 
the  naked  surface  of  a  column, 
wall,  &c.  They  are  termed  by  the 
Greeks  £K<f>opat,  by  the  Italians 
Sporti,  and  by  the  French  sailles. 
See  Profile. 

Prolate,  (Lat.)  a  spheroid  is 
said  to  be  prolate,  when  it  is  pro- 
duced by  the  revolution  of  a  semi- 
ellipsis  about  its  long  diameter; 
when  revolved  about  its  short 
diameter,  it  produces  an  oblate 
spheroid. 

Pronaos,  (Gr.)  the  front  porch 
of  an  ancient  temple. 

Propnigeum,  (from  Gr.  irviyw, 
to  suffocate,)  the  chamber  in  the 
Roman  baths,  placed  under  the 
different  portions  of  the  bath,  as 
the  Laconicum,  &c,  for  the  purpose 
of  given  heat  to  them.  It  was 
also  named  prcefurnium. 

Proportions,  see  Architecture. 

Proportional  Compasses,  see 
Instruments. 

Propylaa,  the  buildings  which 
fronted  the  only  entrance  to  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens.  Some  infor- 
mation relating  to  these  buildings, 
and  more  particularly  to  their  for- 
tifications, have  been  given  under 
the  article  Acropolis.  They  were 
commenced  during  the  administra- 
tion of  Pericles,  and  were  finished 
in  five  years,  Mnesicles  being  the 
architect.  Several  plates  of  the 
Propylaea  are  given  by  Stuart, 
from  drawings  in  possession  of  the 
society  of  Dillettanti.    Before  the 

276 


Propyleea  stood  two  lofty  piers,; 
each   of  which   was  placed 
equestrian  statue.    On  the  riglv 
the  Propylsea  was  the  temple 
Victory    without  wings,  whe 
there  is  a  prospect  of  the  sea,  ;S 
on  the  left  was  an  edifice  adord 
with  paintings,  the  work  of  Pol . 
notus.    The  remains  of  the  teme 
are  described  by  Wheler ;  "  it  $ 
built  of  white  marble,  and  one  f 
its  ends  is  near  the  wall.  It 
not  above  fifteen  feet  long,  ;J 
eight  or  nine  broad ;"   the  fri 
"  has  a  basso-relievo  on  it  of  li 
figures  well  cut."    The  three  c 
tiguous  buildings  originally  forni 
one   front,   occupying  the  wi 
breadth  of  the  rock  from  side  a 
side  at  its  western  end,  so  that  e 
only  admission  into  the  Acroprs, 
was  through  the  middle  build  * 
the  five  gates  of  which  are  :  I 
remaining.    Here  we  must  suppe 
was  placed  the  Hermes  Pro- 
Iseus,   and   perhaps   the  Gran, 
which  were  sculptured  by  Socrai. 
The  great  front  vestibule  is  divid 
by  six  Ionic  columns  into  the 
ailes,  through  the  central  oneif 
which  carriages  passed.    The  rd 
through  the  Propylsea  was  me 
practicable  by  an  inclined  pie 
intersecting  the   flights  of  stn, 
and  traversing  the  entire  edif . 
The  central  intercolumniation  s 
made  ditriglyph,  to  afford  suflfic  t 
width  for  the  passage  of  the  qu  - 
rigee.    In  the  interior  of  this  ] 
of  the  building,  there  is  an  as( 
of  four  feet  eight  inches  by 
steps.    The  central  wall  is  rem; 
able  for  the  massive  marble  linls 
which  covered  its  five  gates,  lit 
of  the  central  gate  being  a  s 
mass,   22    feet  6   inches  lc,r 
3'  10"  3  high,  and  4  feet  w 
The  interior  of  the  door- ways 
lined  with  marble,  parts  of  wl 
still  remain.    On  excavating, 
cording  to  M.  Fauvel,  two  si 


PRO 

v  e  found  next  the  interior  of  the 
e  t  portico,  and  a  low  one  outside 
s  jping  into  the  Acropolis.  At 
t!  front  portico  there  are  four 
Hds.  There  was  only  one  step  to 
n  inner  portico  of  the  Propylsea 

0  Eleusis.  The  substruction  of 
tl  right  wing  of  the  Propyiaea 
b  eath  the  western  wall  is  not . 
p'allel  with  the  plane  of  the  wall 
a  ve,  but  diverges  somewhat  to- 
wels the  north ;  it  consists  of 
a  ut  twelve  courses  of  a  deep 
coured  hard  breccia.  The  left 
v  g  is  much  dilapidated,  but  evi- 
d1  itly  had  three  columns  in  front, 
p  bably  in  antis,  as  in  the  other 
v'g.    The  present  horse-road  into 

t  interior  of  the  Acropolis  was 
f  ned,  probably,  when  one  of  the 
Ink  princes  closed  up  the  central 
c  ning,  when  the  great  vestibule 
v;  converted  into  an  arsenal;  it 
ry  probably  have  received  its 
diction  from  an  ancient  private 
c.  privileged  entrance,  at  this 
a  le  of  the  building.    The  co- 

1  ns  consist  of  eleven  frusta,  in- 
ching the  capitals.  The  episty- 
1  extend  from  centre  to  centre, 
a  I  are  in  three  thicknesses,  like 
t  se  of  the  Parthenon.  The  me- 
t  a?  of  the  front  portico  appear 
t.iave  been  decorated  with  seulp- 
t  The  exterior  marble  walling 
if  instructed  without  mortar,  in 
b  ?ks  of  one  thickness,  the  courses 

0  which  are  3.  10'  5"  long,  and 

1  v  5"  high.  When  the  Greeks 
c  ie  in  possession  of  the  Acropolis 
(1  ing  the  late  war,  they  made  two 
droveries  in  the  Propyleeum. 
( J  was,  a  small  subterraneous 
c  pel  under  the  right  wing,  which 
a  eared  to  have  been  long  filled 
ii  rubbish;  the  other  was  the 
c  'jrated  fountain  of  Pan,  rising 
P  tear  the  north-west  corner  of  the 
c  del,  that  it  was  immediately 
c  losed  by  a  new  bastion.  The 
e  ance  to  the  subterranean  cham- 


PRO 

ber  is  by  a  descent  of  steps  from 
the  interior  of  the  outwork,  beneath 
the  north  wing ;  and  the  well  is, 
according  to  the  accounts  of  the 
travellers  who  have  visited  the 
place  since  its  discovery,  in  it.  The 
chamber  is  decorated  with  paint- 
ings of  Greek  saints,  executed  in 
the  middle  ages,  and  the  colours 
are  still  vivid.  See,  for  further  de- 
tails of  these  buildings,  the  fifth 
chapter  of  Stuart's  Athens,  and  the 
notes  of  his  editor — Meursii  Attica 
— Hughes'  Travels — Unedited  An- 
tiquities of  Attica — Leake's  Topo- 
graphy of  Athens— Waddington's 
Visit  to  Greece. 

In  the  plan  of  the  Acropolis  of 
Athens,  (plate  A cropolis,)  the  follow- 
ing references  are  not  mentioned  in 
the  article  to  which  it  belongs. 

a,  pedestal  of  Rome  and  Augustus. 

0,  site  of  the  temple  of  Minerva  Pro  ma- 
dias. 

c,  site  of  the  temple  of  Diana  Brauronia. 

</,  site  of  the  temple  of  Venus  Leiiuea. 

e,  the  Ereclhfium. 

/,  the  Dionvsiac  Theatre. 

q-,  the  Odeon  of  Herodes. 

hf  a  grotto  identified  with  the  sanctunrj 
of  Apollo  and  Pan,  described  by  Pausmias. 
Just  before  it  is  a  spring  of  running  water. 

1,  a  ruined  mosque,  which  Stuart  sup- 
poses to  have  been  an  ancient  christian 
church,  established  on  a  still  more  ancient 
temple. 

ky  a  gale  with  an  elegant  little  basso 
relievo  over  it,  representing  a  deceased 
husband  and  wife  meeting  in  the  shades. 

/,  /,  the  remains  of  an  ancient  portico. 

m,  the  choragic  monument  of  Thrasy- 
cles,  &c.  now  the  church  of  our  lady  of  the 
grotto. 

n,  »,  a  level  space  cut  at  the  foot  of  the 
rock,  supposed  to  be  a  part  of  the  Pelasgic 
wall  :  a  short  distance  to  the  south  stood 
a  temple  of  Eleusiniau  Ceres. 

o,  a  grotto,  the  supposed  hicron  of  Ag- 
laurus. 

P*  Pi  Py  wa"  °f  l',e  outworks,  rudelj 
built,  and  of  little  strength. 

s,  a  little  gate  to  the  north  of  the  Acro- 
polis, the  entrance  to  a  kind  of  outwork, 
through  which  we  pass  to  go  to  the  Pro- 
pvlaea. 

q,  a  small  fort  facing  the  gate. 
r,  another  little  fort. 
ty  another  small  fort. 

277 


PRO 


PRO 


u,  u,  foundations  of  an  ancient  wall,  of 
hewn  stone,  well  built,  perhaps  the  Pelas- 
gic  wall. 

v,  v,  a  wall  extending  from  the  lower 
ground  battery  to  the  Odeon. 

The  following  are  the  references 
to  the  second  plan  in  the  same 
plate,  which  is  that  of  the  Propy- 
Icea,  on  a  larger  scale. 

A,  the  outer  modern  gate. 
BCD,  termination  of  the  .southern  wall  of 
the  Acropolis. 

F,  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  Agrippa. 

/,  the  supposed  site  of  the  pedestal  of 
the  statue  of  Augustus. 

G,  carriage  entrance  of  the  Propylaea. 

H,  the  Propylseum,  or  great  vestibule. 

I,  northern  wing. 
K,  southern  wing. 

L,  supposed  site  of  the  postern  at  the 
northern  inner  gate. 

M,  the  central  of  the  five  gates,  which 
led  from  the  Propylaeum  into  N,  the  back 
portico,  which  descended  by  three  steps 
upon  O,  the  platform  of  the  Acropolis. 

P,  the  temple  of  Ceres  and  Terra,  under 
the  platform  R,  upon  which  stood  the  tem- 
ple of  Victory. 

S,  termination  of  the  northern  wall  of  the 
Acropolis. 

T,  steps  cut  in  the  rock,  by  which  there 
was  anciently  a  descent  from  the  Propylaea 
by  the  grotto  of  Pan  into  the  city. 

supposed  site  of  the  temple  of  Themis. 

g,  gale  and  passage  under  the  battery. 

h,  modern  road  from  the  town  to  the 
Acropolis. 

i,  supposed  site  of  the  sanctuary  of  Ve- 
nus and  Peitho.  * 

k,  direction  of  the  ancient  road  to  the 
Lenaeum,  Olyrnpium,  &c. 

/,  supposed  site  of  the  temple  of  jEscn- 
Iapius. 

m,  road  to  the  Porta;  Melitides,  Pei- 
raica,  &c. 

n,  supposed  direction  of  the  ancient  car- 
riage road,  from  the  north  side  of  the  city. 

In  this  plan,  the  ancient  works 
still  existing  are  shaded,  those  pre- 
sumed dotted ;  the  Turkish  works 
are  described  by  thin  lines  without 
shade,  but,  to  avoid  confusion,  the 
modern  works  in  the  Propylsea  are 
omitted.  The  arrows  show  the 
direction  of  the  modern  road,  which 
Mr.  Leake  supposes  to  be  the  same 
as  the  ancient  road  from  the  outer 
gate  A  to  the  upper  Turkish  bat- 
tery. 

278 


The  Propyls?um  of  Eleusis  i 
built  in  imitation  of  that  of  Ath  s. 
The  Eleusinian  Propylaea  had  a  g  at 
advantage  in  point  of  symmk 
over  that  of  Athens,  on  account 
its  situation,  but  what  was  ga  :d 
in  general  effect  was  counte  \. 
lanced  by  the  want  of  that  1  h 
finish  so  conspicuous  in  the  lo- 
cution of  the  buildings  of  Ath  s. 
Amongst  the  novelties  which  ie 
details  of  the  interesting  build] >s 
at  Eleusis  present  us,  is  the  L 
thod  of  covering  the  edifices  \  h 
marble   slabs,   worked    into  lie 
shape  of  tiles.     This   ingen  is 
contrivance  was  so  highly  apk 
ciated  by  the  Greeks,  that  »y 
honoured    the    inventor  witl  a. 
statue,  and  with   an  inscripti 
which  is  preserved  by  Pausans. 
Byzes   of  Naxos,  the  author  >f 
this  invention,  flourished  in  e 
time  of  Solon,  580  years  be 
Christ,  (Pausanias,  v.  10.)  " 
meritorious  part  of  the  inven 
consists  in  the  expedients  adop 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  e 
admission  of  wet,  and  especiv 
between  the  joints  of  the  contii- 
ous  tiles :  this  was  effected  by  e 
introduction  of  narrow  joint-tk 
(called  appoi,  harmoi,  in  the  Ath- 
ian  inscription)  extending  from  e 
ridge  to  the  eaves  in  a  contind 
line  over  the  meeting  joints  of  e 
flat  tiles;   these  being  previoiy 
ranged  in  courses,  the  higher  o  - 
lapping  that  next  in  order  below  " 
The  Eleusinian  Propylaea  was  is 
tirely  constructed  of  fine  Pent  c 
marble,  the  pavement  consisting 
blocks  nearly  six  feet  square, 
more  than  thirteen  inches  thick 
accurately  fitted,   that  in  in 
places  the  joint  is  not  percepti 
There  are  six  steps  on  the  n<  h 
front,  the  lower  step  both  higp 
and  wider  than  the  others.  Be 
each  column  a  circular  sinkin 
visible,  half  an  inch  in  depth, 


PRO 

%     >mewhat  more  in  diameter  than 
ie  column :  a  similar  sinking  is 
imarked  in  the  steps  belonging  to 
ie  wings   of  the  Propylsea  at 
thens,  and  in  other  Grecian  edi- 
:es.     It  has  been  conjectured, 
jiat  it  was  intended  to  collect  the 
ater  from  the  channels  of  the  flut- 
gs,  and  discharging  it  in  front, 
jt  in  some  instances  it  is  not  open 
the  front  of  the  step,  and  others 
k.     we  imagined  that  it  was  intended 
Ml       mark  the  level  to  which  the 
;       ivement  of  the  portico  was  to  be 
eJ      orked  :  however,  it  is  met  with  in 
to      liidings  where  the  pavement  has 
;en  finished    perfectly  smooth, 
ie  columns  of  the  north  front 
*     minish  in  a  line  very  slightly  con- 
i!       x  :  the  bottom  diameter  of  those 
liyf     .  the  angles  is  5'  1".366,  and  at 
tie;     e  height  of  6^  feet  from  the  upper 
risk     ?p  it  is  4'  1 1".    The  beams  of  the 
pi     iling  are  supported  by  the  epi- 
v  !      ylia  of  the  inner  ranges  of  co- 
lli     inns,  and  by  the  flank  walls  of 
[lire     e  building.    The  beams  over  the 
pretj     le  aisles  were  twenty-three  feet 
nil      .rig,  three  wide,  and  two  and  a 
jftl      If  deep,  and  each  weighed  about 
fleet)     iven  tons.    The  intervening  pa- 
oi       !s  were  formed  out  of  slabs  four 
it  long,  sixteen  inches  wide,  and 
ik     m  deep. 

Plutarch  informs  us  that  the 
ystic  temple  of  the  Eleusinian 
ires  was  begun  by  Choraebus,  who 
oceeded  so  far  as  to  erect  the 
-ver  columns  and  their  epistylia. 
his  death  Metagenes,  of  Xypete, 
ded  the  galleries  and  the  upper 
lumns:  and  Xenocles  the  Cho- 
gian  constructed  the  roof  over 
2  ceiling  of  the  sanctuary.  The 
iole  area  occupied  by  the  temple 
s  covered  by  a  substructure  of 
rous  stone :  the  steps  and  pave- 
nt  of  the  portico  were  formed  of 
2  hard  grey  limestone  of  Eleusis. 
e  walls  appeared  to  have  been 
sed  within  and  without  with  Eleu- 


PRO 

sinian  stone,  the  intermediate  space 
being  filled  in  with  the  same  stone 
as  that  of  the  substructure.  In 
advance   of    the    Propylaea,  and 
apparently  included    among  the 
appendages  of  the  great  temple, 
was  discovered  the  temple  of  Diana- 
Propylsea.    Diana  was  considered 
by  the  Greeks  as  the  daughter  of 
Ceres,  not  of  Latona,  ( Paus.  viii. 
37.  Herod,  ii.  156,)  and  hence  her 
temple  was  here  appropriately  situ- 
ated.   This   temple   is  the  only 
variety  which  has  yet  been  disco- 
vered of  the   species   of  temple 
called  vaog  ev  7rapa.arTa.criv,  which 
presented  in  its  fronts  two  columns 
interposed  between  the  antae,  ter- 
minating the  flank  walls  of  the 
cella.    It  was  the  most  simple  of 
the  forms  of  the  early  temples  of 
Greece,  and  the  Greek  tragedian 
alludes  to  it  in  the  dialogue  be- 
tween Pylades  and  Orestes,  where 
the  latter  is  instructed  to  obtain 
access  to  the  sanctuary,  and  carry 
off  the  statue  of  the  goddess,  by 
letting  himself  down  into  the  in- 
terior, where  the  openings  between 
the  triglyphs  afforded  admission. 
(Eurip.  Iphig.  in  Taur,  116.)  With 
the  Doric  buildings,  which  have 
been  hitherto  described,  the  roof 
terminates   in   a  stillicidium,  or 
dripping  eaves,  but  in  this  building 
the  sima,  or  upper  moulding  of  the 
pediment    cornice,    is  continued 
along  the  flanks,  and  a  channel  is 
hollowed  in  it,  for  the  purpose  of 
collecting  the  rain  which  fell  upon 
the  roof.    (Unedited  Antiquities  of 
Attica.) 

The  term  propylceum,  was  ap- 
plied in  its  general  meaning  to 
the  vestibule  of  any  building,  or 
place. 

Puopylon,  (Gr )  a  vestibule. 

Proscenium,  the  front  part  of 
the  stage  of  the  ancient  theatres, 
on  which  the  actors  performed.  It 
had  also,  or  rather  a  part  of  it  had 

279 


PRO 


PRO 


the  name  of  pulpitum,  which  the 
Greeks  called  logeion :  for  Pollux, 
enumerating  the  parts  of  the  thea- 
tre, mentions  separately  the  pro- 
scenium  and  the  logeion,  and  Vitru- 
vius  uses  the  expression  proscenii 
pulpitum,  the  pulpitum  of  the 
proscenium.  The  Greek  name  has 
probably  been  given  to  it,  because 
it  was  the  place  where  they  spoke, 
\oyog  signifying  a  word,  speech, 
or  discourse;  and  the  Latin  name 
pulpitum  originated  perhaps  in  its 
being  a  place  elevated,  and  com- 
posed of  wood.  (  See  Pulpitum, 
and  Theatre.)  The  logeion  was 
not  more  than  twelve,  or  less  than 
ten  feet  high  above  the  floor  of  the 
orchestra.  A  sufficient  proof  that 
it  was  generally  of  wood,  is,  that  in 
all  the  ruins  of  the  theatres  of  the 
ancients,  in  which  a  part  of  the 
scene  has  been  preserved,  we  do 
not  find  the  least  trace  of  the  pro- 
scenium. In  the  theatre  of  Tauro- 
menium,  on  which,  amongst  other 
works,  may  be  consulted  the  second 
volume  of  the  "  Voyage  Pitto- 
resque"  of  M .  Houel,  and  the '?  Voy- 
age en  Sicile,"  by  Riedesel,  we  find 
before  the  scene,  at  the  place  where 
the  proscenium  terminates,  and 
where  the  orchestra  commences, 
a  long  subterraneous  and  vaulted 
gallery,  which  passes  under  the 
whole  length  of  the  proscenium  ; 
we  arrive  at  the  middle  of  this 
gallery  by  a  similar  gallery,  which 
comes  from  above,  and  passes  un- 
der the  scene.  These  two  gal- 
leries are  disposed  in  the  form  of 
a  T.  The  vault  of  the  gallery, 
which  passes  under  the  proscenium 
in  its  whole  length,  is,  at  equal 
distances,  pierced  with  holes,  in 
which,  without  doubt,  were  fixed 
the  wooden  supports  which  formed 
the  anterior  face  of  the  prosce- 
nium, on  which  were  placed  the 
timbers  that  formed  the  logeion. 
The  theatre  of  Telmessus,  figured 


in  the  72nd  plate  of  the  first  p  t 
of  the  "  Voyage  Pitioresque"  of  I 
de  Choiseul  -  Gouffier,  shows  e. 
dently  that  the  proscenium  2 
thus  supported;  we  there  discov 
in  the  wall  of  the  scene  the  opr 
ings  in  which  the  beams  were  i 
ed.  Perhaps  the  galleries  unc 
the  proscenium  of  the  theatre 
Tauromenium,  served  also  to  fa 
litate  the  access  to  the  machiri 
placed  under  the  scene.  In  t 
theatre  of  Telmessus,  we  also  d 
cover  in  the  wall,  under  the  scei 
three  entrances  which  lead  undert 
proscenium.  According  to  Vitt 
vius,  the  length  of  the  whole  see 
was  equal  to  twice  the  diamei 
of  the  orchestra,  and  all  the  r 
mains  of  ancient  Roman  theatr 
give  these  measures.  That  the 
who  were  stationed  in  the  orche 
tra  might  not  be  hindered  fro 
seeing  what  was  passing  on  tl 
scene,  the  pulpitum  in  the  Rom; 
theatres  must  have  been  low 
than  the  logeion  among  the  Greek 
The  same  author  accordingly  tell 
us,  that  the  Romans  made  it  i 
more  than  five  feet  high,  whilst  tl 
Greeks  gave  it  double  of  that  el 
vation. 

Prostas,  in  Grecian  house 
the  passage  which  separated  tl 
thalamus,  or  bed-chamber,  fro 
the  antethalamus,  or  antechar 
ber. 

Prostyle,  temples  with 
lumns  only  in  front.  Whi 
there  was  also  a  portico  at  tl 
opposite  front,  the  temple  w 
termed  amphiprostyle,  that  is,  pr 
style  on  both  sides.  Such  was  tl 
temple  near  the  Ilyssus,  in  tl 
environs  of  Athens. 

Prostyride,  a  name  given  1 
Vignola  to  the  key  of  an  arcad 
formed  by  a  bunch  of  foliage  b 
tween  two  listels  and  fillel 
and  crowned  by  a  Doric  cym 
tium. 


I 


PTE 

|eC!    j  Protii yrum,  (Gr.)  a  porch  at 
?'     e  outer  door  of  a  house;  a  rail 
h|    I  defend  the  door  from  horses, 
!*  ;rts,&c. 

Protractor,  see  Instruments. 
i  improved  protractor  has  been 
vented,  with  a  moveable  index 
ted  on  the  centre,  and  so  con- 
ved  as  to  set  off  angles  to  a 
inute  with  great  nicety. 
Prytaneium,  (Gr.)  a  place  at 
hens,  where  those  who  had  de- 
rved  well  of  their  country  were 
aintained  at  the  public  charge. 
*'     ' Pseudisidomum,  or  Pseudiso- 

>mum :  see  Isidomum. 
*      Ps  eu  do  dipt  eros,  (Gr.)  that  is, 
!lt      Ise  dipteral,  a  mode  of  arrang- 
£  the  columns  in  a  temple,  in 
\kh  the  two  fronts  had  eighteen 
>lumns,  and  the  sides  fifteen  or 
(teen.    It  differed  from  the  dip- 
ral  in  having  only  a  single  range 
columns,  the  interior  range  near 
e  eella  being  dispensed  with.  By 
is  disposition,  a  wide  gallery  was 
jft  round  the  cella,  in  breadth 
ual  to  two  intercolumniations  and 
e  diameter  of  a  column.  Vitru- 
us  attributes  its  invention  to  Her- 
lOgenes.    See  Hermogenes. 
Pseudoperipteros,  or  imper- 
ct  peripteral,  a  disposition  of  the 
icient  temples,  in  which  the  co- 
rans  of  the  sides  were  engaged  in 
e  wall.    Instead  of  being  sur- 
unded  by  a  portico,  it  had  none 
it  on  the  facade  in  front.  On 
.ch  side  the  walls  of  the  cella 
sre  continued  to  the  intercolumni- 
ions  of  the  portico,  which  were 
ereby  shut.    This  diposition  was 
metimes  given  to  temples,  for  the 
ke  of  enlarging  the  interior  of 
e  cella.    Such  are  the  temple  of 
jrtuna  Virilis  at  Rome,  and  the 
.aison  Carree  at  Nismes. 
Pseudotiiyron,  (  Gr.  )  a  false 
)or  behind  a  building. 
Pteroma,  (  Gr.  from  nrfpov,  a 
ing,)  the  spaces  between  the  walls 
2N 


PUR 

of  the  cella  of  a  temple,  and  the 
columns  of  the  peristyle ;  called  also 
ambulatio. 

Pugging,  a  coarse  kind  of  mor- 
tar laid  on  the  boarding  between 
joists. 

Pug-Piling,  the  same  as  dove- 
tail filing.    See  Piling. 

Pulley  Mortise,  a  long  mor- 
tise, parallel  to  the  under  side  of 
the  bonding  joists,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  ceiling  joists. 

Pulpit,  (Lat.)  an  elevated  place 
for  public  speeches ;  the  place  in  a 
church  whence  the  sermon  is  pro- 
nounced. Some  of  them,  particu- 
larly in  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
are  richly  ornamented. 

Pulpitum,  see  Logeum  and 
Proscenium. 

Pulvinaria,  (Lat.)  cushions  in 
the  ancient  temples,  on  which  the 
statues  of  the  gods  were  sometimes 
laid. 

Pulvinated,  (  from  pulvinus, 
Lat.  a  pillow,)  a  frieze  that  swells 
out  in  form  of  a  pillow. 

Punchion,  (  Fr.  )  a  common 
name  given  to  all  the  iron  tools 
used  by  stone-cutters,  &c.  for  cut- 
ting, or  chipping  :  also,  a  piece  of 
timber  placed  upright  between  two 
posts  which  have  too  much  bear- 
ing :  also,  a  piece  of  timber,  called 
by  Vitruvius  columen,  which  is 
raised  upright  under  the  ridge  of 
a  building,  and  in  which  are  jointed 
the  little  timbers,  &c. 

Punt,  an  oblong  flat-bottomed 
boat,  with  square  head  and  stern. 

Purbeck  Stone,  a  species  of 
sandstone,  brought  from  Purbeck 
in  Dorsetshire,  and  much  used  in 
London,  both  for  building  and 
pavements.  It  is  harsh  and  rough, 
of  an  ash  colour,  hard,  and  very 
heavy.  Though  it  cuts  to  a  smooth 
surface,  it  will  not  take  a  polish. 
It  is  found  in  other  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  and  there  are  large  strata 
of  it  in  Yorkshire. 

281 


PUT 


PUZ 


Purfled,  (Fr.)  ornamented  with 
carving,  resembling  embroidery, 
lace-work,  fringes,  or  flowers.  An 
old  term. 

Purlins,  pieces  of  timbers 
which  are  laid  across  the  inside 
of  the  rafters,  to  keep  them  from 
sinking  in  the  middle. 

Puteal,  (Lat.)  The  puteal  of 
Libo,  puteal  Libonis,  so  celebrated 
in  Roman  history,  was  the  mar- 
ginal stones  of  a  well,  with  a  cover, 
which  Scribonius  Libo  had  caused 
to  be  erected  by  order  of  the  senate, 
in  a  place  where  a  thunderbolt  had 
fallen,  near  the  statue  of  Marsyas 
and  Janus,  by  the  Comitia.  He 
erected  within  its  enclosure  an  altar 
and  a  chapel.  It  appears  indeed 
to  have  been  a  kind  of  tribunal, 
where  they  took  cognizance  of  com- 
mercial affairs.  The  figure  of  this 
puteal  is  still  seen  on  some  medals 
with  the  inscription,  puteal  li- 
bon. 

Puteoli,  an  ancient  town  of 
Campania,  celebrated  for  its  hot 
and  cold  springs ;  it  is  now  called 
Puzzuoli.  No  part  of  the  Roman 
port  now  remains,  but  a  line  of 
piers,  which  were  designed  to  break 
the  force  of  a  rolling  sea.  The 
ruins  of  the  ancient  city  are  con- 
siderable. Among  these  is  an  am- 
phitheatre, still  almost  entire,  and 
a  temple  of  Sera  pis.  The  latter 
has  in  great  part  been  destroyed  by 
volcanic  commotions.  It  square 
enclosure  is  surrounded  by  build- 
ings which  appear  to  have  served 
for  abodes  for  the  priests,  and 
baths.  A  circular  platform  remains 
in  the  centre,  approached  by  four 
flights  of  steps,  on  which  the  vases 
for  fire,  the  altar,  the  rings  for  the 
victims,  and  the  other  appendages, 
still  remain,  although  the  columns 
which  supported  its  roof  have  been 
removed  to  the  palace  of  Caserta. 
The  modern  cathedral  occupies  the 
site  of  another  temple,  which  was 


dedicated  to  the  deities  whow*. 
supposed  to  preside  over  comme  > 
and  navigation.  Near  the  town  I 
the  remains  of  the  Campanian  wl 
which  was  constructed  by  Dor 
tian,  and  frequently  mentioned 
Statius.    It  is  paved  with  lava  a 
lime  on  each  side,  and  venerable  i 
pulchral  towers  stand  on  each  sir 
their  interior  richly  stuccoed. 

Putlogs,  or  Put  locks,  pieces 
timber  about  seven  feet  long,  us 
in  building  scaffolds. 

Putty,  (Fr.)  a  kind  of  pas; 
made  of  whiting,  a  little  white  lee 
and  linseed  oil,  well  beat  togethe 

Puzzolana,  a  greyish  eai 
used  for  building  under  watt 
This  mineral  is  found  in  great( 
abundance  in  the  vicinity  of  P 
teoli,  and  derives  its  name  frc 
Puzzuoli,  the  modern  name  of  tl 
place;  it  is  also  found  in  oth 
parts  of  Italy,  and  generally  in  t! 
neighbourhood  of  burning  mou 
tains,  from  which  it  has  be« 
thrown  out  in  the  form  of  ashe 
sometimes  covering  the  face  of  tl 
country  to  a  considerable  dept 
and  over  extensive  districts:  som 
times,  also,  found  in  the  state 
small  pieces  of  an  earthy  ai 
porous  texture,  classed  by  miner 
logists  under  the  genus  lava, 
is  magnetic,  and  easily  melts  per 
into  a  black  slag.  It  sudden 
hardens  when  mixed  with  one-thi 
of  its  weight  of  lime  and  watc 
forming  a  cement  more  dura!: 
under  water,  than  any  othe 
Bergman  found  one  hundred  pat 
of  it  to  contain  fifty-five  to  sixty 
siliceous  earth,  twenty  of  argillac 
ous,  five  or  six  of  calcarious,  at 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  of  iron  :  tr 
last  constituent  is  considered  to 
the  cause  of  its  property  of  harde 
ing  under  water.  The  iron  decoi 
poses  the  water  of  the  morta 
and  thus,  in  a  very  short  time, 
new  compound  is  formed.  Tl 


/ 


P  YL 

ibstanee  is  found  in  France,  and 
England.  Artificial  puzzolana 
made  by  reducing  to  a  red  heat 
,ree  parts  of  clay,  with  one  of 
acked  lime  by  measure.  Puzzo- 
na  was  called  by  the  Romans 
rra  puteolana,  from  the  place 
here  they  chiefly  procured  it. 
he  Greeks  were  not  acquainted 
ith  this  substance,  and  the  Ro- 
ans had  in  this  respect  a  great 
Wantage  over  them,  on  account 
■  the  solidity  which  it  ensured  to 
:eir  buildings.  When  it  was  used 
buildings  in  the  water,  they 
ixed,  according  to  Vitruvius,  two 
irts  of  puzzolana  to  one  of  mor- 
'*  Sir.  The  ruins  of  edifices  built  in 
ie  sea,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
aise,  prove  the  solidity  of  this 
?ment.  Winckelmann,  in  his 
eatise  on  the  architecture  of  the 
icients,  says  that  the  Romans 
™!  referred  the  black  puzzolana, 
ml  stead  of  which  now  the  prefer- 
lce  is  given  to  the  red.  Puzzo- 
na  was  employed  with  great  ad- 
intage  in  the  construction  of  the 
ublic  ways  at  Rome,  and  in  its 
cinity. 

Pycnostyle,  (Gr.)  the  method 
'  intercolumniation,  which  has  but 
diameter  and  a  half  between  each 

i;      )himn.    The  pycnostyle  interco- 
mniation  occurs  in  the  ruins  of 

lu  almyra. 

Pylon e,  (Gr.)  a  term  applied 
y  the  editors  of  the  Description  de 
Egypte,  to  the  lofty  pyramidal 
asses  of  masonry  which  were 
aced  at  the  entrance  of  temples 
id  palaces  of  the  ancient  Egyp- 
ans.  They  give  their  reasons  for 
?  adoption,  in  the  following  words : 
Embarrases  de  donner  a  ces  con- 
ructions,  qui  n'ont  point  d'ana- 
gues  ni  dans  l'architecture  Grec- 
je,  ni  dans  l'architecture  Romaine, 
dans  la  notre,  une  denomination 
li  en  presentat  une  idee  exacte, 

d      Jus  avons  adoptes  celles  de  py- 


P  YR 

lone,  derivee  du  mot  grec  ttvXwv, 
dont  se  servent  les  anciens  auteurs 
pour  designer  l'espece  d'edifice 
dont  il  est  ici  question." 

Pyramid,  (for  the  derivation  of 
the  word,  see  next  article,)  a  solid, 
having  one  of  its  sides,  called  the 
base,  a  plane  figure,  and  the  other 
sides  triangles,  their  points  joining 
in  one  point  at  the  top,  called  the 
vertex.  The  edge  of  the  base  and 
the  vertex  are  called  the  two  direc- 
trices, and  the  straight  line  extend- 
ing between  them  is  called  the 
generatrix.  Pyramids  are  called 
triangular,  square,  &c,  according 
to  the  form  of  their  bases.  When 
the  base  is  enclosed  by  a  curve, 
the  pyramid  is  a  cone.  The  soli- 
dity of  a  pyramid  may  be  found  by 
multiplying  the  area  of  its  base  by 
its  height,  and  dividing  the  product 
by  three.  The  frustum  of  a  pyra- 
mid is  the  lower  part,  when  the 
upper  part  is  cut  off  by  a  plane 
parallel  to  the  base ;  the  latter 
being  also  the  base  of  the  frustum. 
Any  two  edges  of  one  end,  and  the 
corresponding  edges  of  the  other, 
make  four  proportionals.  To  find 
the  solidity  of  the  frustum  of  a 
pyramid  or  cone,  or  of  a  prismoid, 
which  is  the  frustum  of  a  wedge; 
to  four  times  the  area  of  the  mid- 
dle section,  parallel  to,  and  equally 
distant  from  each  end,  add  the 
areas  of  the  two  ends;  multiply 
the  sum  by  the  altitude  of  the 
solid,  and  one-sixth  part  of  the  pro- 
duct will  be  the  solidity. 

Pyramid,  a  building  of  a  pyra- 
midal form.  The  most  ancient 
people  raised  pyramidal  structures 
to  serve  for  monuments.  The 
most  famous  pyramids  of  anti- 
quity are  those  of  Egypt.  There 
are  at  present  more  than  forty 
pyramids  found  in  that  country. 
It  is  very  singular,  that  this  kind 
of  building  is  only  found  in  one 
district  of  that  country,  which  is 


P  YR 


PYR 


now  called  Fayoume,  and  which 
lies   between  Cairo  and  Meidun, 
on  the  west  side  of  the  Nile ;  hence 
it  would  appear  that  we  ought  to 
regard  them  as  more  modern  than 
the  temples  of  the  Thebaid.  The 
portion  of  the  country,  in  which  the 
pyramids  are  situated,  is  not  more 
than  twenty  leagues  in  extent,  and 
is  situated   between   the  twenty- 
ninth  and  thirtieth  degrees  of  north 
latitude,  and  under  the  forty-ninth 
degree   of  east  longitude.  The 
pyramids  mentioned  by   the  an- 
cients are  not  all  now  in  existence; 
neither  those  which,  according  to 
Herodotus,  were  in  the  lake  Moeris, 
nor  those  which,  according  to  Hero- 
dotus, Diodorus,  Pliny,  and  others, 
belonged  to  the  labyrinth,  can  now 
be  found.    On  the  other  hand,  all 
the  pyramids  which  now  exist  are 
not  mentioned  by  ancient  writers. 
It  is  thought  that  it  was  only  one 
period  of  the  Egyptian  history,  that 
was  distinguished  by  their  erection. 
The  history  of  their  origin,  how- 
ever, as  given  by  the  ancients,  is 
very  uncertain.    According  to  He- 
rodotus,  the   stones,  which  were 
used  in  building  them,  were  ex- 
tracted from  the  quarries  of  the 
eastern  mountains,  on  the  frontiers 
of  Arabia.    Yet  modern  travellers 
have  observed,  that  the  pyramids 
appear  to  be  constructed  of  the 
same  calcarious    stone  which  is 
procured  from  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  place  where  they  stand. 

Many  opinions  have  been  form- 
ed, as  to  the  original  destination  of 
the  Egyptian  pyramids.  Some, 
amongst  whom  we  may  include 
nearly  all  the  ancients,  take  them 
for  tombs.  Others  suppose  them 
to  have  been  erected  for  astronomi- 
cal purposes,  and  this  opinion  is 
found  in  the  commentary  of  Pro- 
clus  on  the  Timaeus  of  Plato. 
Others  again  have  taken  them  for 
religious  edifices,  and  suppose  that 


in  them  were  celebrated  the  mi; 
sacred  mysteries.  The  mode  I 
erecting  these  buildings  was,  wit 
out  doubt,  very  simple.  The  fi 
process  would  be  to  level  t 
ground  ;  after  this  they  would  pi 
ceed  in  laying  different  layers 
stone,  from  the  foundation  to  t 
summit,  carrying  up  the  immen 
stones  from  step  to  step,  either  j 
levers  or  some  other  means,  wi 
an  incredible  degree  of  indust 
and  labour.  Their  design  m 
without  doubt,  to  serve  as  sepi 
chres  for  the  kings  or  great  peop! 
and  this  is  the  opinion  of  almo 
all  the  ancient  writers ;  but  th, 
probably  also  partook  of  a  religio 
character.  M.  Gatterer  divid 
the  pyramids  into  five  groups,  tho 
near  Ghize,  those  near  Manje 
musa,  those  near  Sacarra,  those 
Bagshar,  and  those  near  Fejur 
The  first  of  these  collections  a 
the  most  remarkable,  and  are  siti 
ated  on  a  vast  elevated  plai 
which  was  appropriated  to  lY 
sepulchres  of  the  inhabitants 
the  city  of  Memphis.  Two  pyn 
mids,  of  an  immense  magnitude 
rise  far  above  the  others,  which  ai 
smaller,  and  in  great  part  destroy 
ed.  Further  towards  the  east  j 
the  great  sphinx,  which  is  cut  01 
of  a  solid  rock,  that  was  foun 
standing  on  the  spot,  but  which 
now  in  a  great  measure  buried  i| 
sand  and  earth. 

Several  attempts  have  been  mad 
to  ascertain  the  true  derivation  d 
the  word  pyramid.  The  Greek 
all  derived  it  from  7rvp,Jire't  othei 
derived  it  from  trvpog,  corn,  imagiri 
ing  them  to  be  the  granaries  thj; 
were  built  by  Joseph,  to  preserv 
the  grain  of  Egypt !  But  M.  Sy! 
vester  de  Sacy,  in  a  memoire  ir, 
serted  in  the  6th  volume  of  th 
Magazine  Encyclopedique,  p.  44( 
has  shewn  that  the  word  pyrami 
belonged  to  the  primitive  languag; 


P  YR 


PYR 


'  Egypt.  The  Arabs  call'  the 
>ramids  haram,  and  in  the  plural 
hram,  written  in  the  Arabic  cha- 
rter by  the  three  consonants  krm. 
d  discover  the  origin  of  their 
ime,  M.  de  Sacy  endeavours  to 
scover  an  Egyptian  or  Coptic 
ord,  which  might  easily  be  made 
to  either  pyrumis  or  haram.  In 
inclusion,  he  derives  it  from  a 
ord  composed  of  the  three  letters 
rm,  which,  he  observes,  is  found 

the  Oriental  languages  in  its 
rimitive  sense,  to  separate  from 
le  intercourse  and  usage  of  men, 
tence  in  Hebrew,  Syriac,  &c,  the 
;rb  signifies  to  consecrate  to  God, 
»  devote  ;  hence  herem,  a  thing 
onseerated,  and  the  Arabic  haram, 

thing  forbidden,  prohibited,  a 
oly  place  ;  harim,  women  ;  harem, 
ie  place  where  they  are  kept 
>parate  from  the  men.  "  If  be- 
>re  the  word  haram  or  hrum,  we 
lace  the  Egyptian  article,  we 
lall  have  pi  'hram,  whence  the 
!reeks  might  easily  form  pyramis, 
:nd,  taking  away  the  Egyptian 
'rticle,  and  Greek  termination,  we 
lall  have  the  haram  of  the  Arabs, 
his  word  would  signify  the  holy 
Hace,  the  edifice  consecrated,  in  a 
articular  manner,  either  to  some 
ivinity,  or  to  some  religious  use." 
1  Pyramids  are  not  confined  to 
'gypt.  The  pyramidal  tombs  of 
1  byssinia  are  described  under  the 
rticle  Abyssinian  Buildings',  some 
aces  of  this  kind  of  edifice  have 
een  found  in  other  eastern  coun- 
ties. They  occur  in  several  in- 
ances,  in  the  islands  of  the 
)uthem  seas.  They  are  found 
so  in  America,  (see  Cholula,  and 
Texican  Buildings ;)  and  their 
>rm  may  be  traced  in  the  pagodas 
f  India  and  China.  The  pyramid 
f  Meidun,  near  Memphis,  displays 
ie  shape  of  the  Pah-gahu  temple, 
hile  that  of  Ghize,  if  surrounded 
ith  a  tee,  would  correspond  pre- 


cisely to  that  of  Shoe-Madoo.  Both 
these  pyramidal  forms,  as  well  as 
the  globular  structures  of  the  Cin- 
galese, are  alike  sacred  to  Buddha, 
under  different  invocations  or  ava- 
tars. The  variations  of  structure 
are  neither  accidental  nor  arbitrary, 
but  imply  the  particular  incarna- 
tion to  which  the  edifice  is  dedi- 
cated. 

Various  authors,  at  different 
periods,  have  differed  much  in 
their  estimates  of  the  dimensions 
of  the  Egyptian  pyramids.  The 
following  is  a  comparative  view 
of  the  dimensions,  according  to 
several  authors,  of  the  great  pyra- 
mid, in  French  feet. 

Width  of  one 

Ancients.  Height,    of  its  sides. 

Herodotus,    800    800 

Strsibo  625  000 

Diodorus  Siculus   600    700 

Plinj  708 

Moderns. 

Le  Brujn  616  704 

Prosper  Alpinus   625  750 

Thevenot   520    682 

Niebuhr   440    710 

Greaves,    444  ......  648 

Number  of  Layers  of  Stone  which  form  it. 

Greaves  207 

Maillet  and  Thevenot  208 

Pococke  212 

Belon  250 

Alb.-rt  Litfwenstein  250 

In  the  plate  History  of  Arch, 
we  have  given  a  figure  of  the  en- 
trance of  the  great  pyramid,  and, 
at  fig  Z,  a  sketch  of  the  mode  of 
roofing  the  interior  chamber. 

On  the  Egyptian  pyramids,  be- 
sides the  works  of  the  numerous 
travellers  who  have  visited  that 
country,  and  the  authors  already 
mentioned,  may  be  consulted,  Bel- 
lonius,  de  Admirabili  Op  rum  An- 
tiquorum  et  Rerum  Suspicienda- 
rum  prsestantia.  4to.  Paris,  1535. 
Greaves'  Pyramidographia,  or  a 
Description  of  the  Pyramids,  8vo. 
Lond.  1646.  L'Egypte  de  Murta- 
di,  Fils  de  Graphiphe,  ou  il  est 


QUA 


QUA 


traite  des  Pyramides,  des  Deborde- 
ment  du  Nil,  et  des  autres  Mer- 
veilles  de  cette  Province,  selon  les 
Opinions  Arabes,  translated  from 
the  Arabic  by  P.Vatter,  Par.  12 mo, 
1666 ;  and  English  translation,  8vo. 
Lond.  1666;  Celsius,  Historia  Py- 
ramidum,  8vo.  ;  Gochvvend,  Pro- 
gramma  de  Pyramidibus,  folio; 


Krans,  Theoria  Pyramid um,  8ve 
iEgyptischeMerkwurdigkeiten,8v 
White,  iEgyptiaca.  Oxford,  180 
Pyramidoid,  (Greek.)  a  so 
formed  by  the  revolution  of  a  pai 
bola  about  its  base,  or  greatt 
ordinate.  It  is  also  sometim 
called  a  parabolic  spindle. 


Q 


Quadra,  a  square  border  or 
frame,  encompassing  a  basso-re- 
lievo, panel,  &c. 

Quadra,  the  bands  or  fillets  of 
the  Ionic  base,  on  each  side  of  the 
scotia,  or  hollow.  The  term  is  also 
applied  to  the  plinth  or  lower  mem- 
ber of  the  podium. 

Quadrangle,  (Lat.)  any  figure 
with  four  angles  and  four  sides. 

Quadrant,  (  Lat. )  the  quarter 
of  a  circle,  an  arc  of  ninety  degrees 
with  its  enclosed  angle. 

Quadrature,  (Lat.)  the  deter- 
mination of  the  area  of  a  figure,  in 
a  square,  or  even  any  other  recti- 
linear form. 

Quadrels,  square  artificial 
stones,  made  of  a  dry  chalky 
earth. 

Qua drifores,  (Lat.)  folding 
doors  whose  height  was  divided 
into  two ;  when  they  opened  in  one 
height,  they  were  termed  fores  val- 
vatce  or  valvce. 

Quadrilateral,  (Lat. )a  fi- 
gure of  four  sides. 

Quarrel,  (carreau,  French,)  a 
square  or  lozenge-shaped  piece  of 
glass  for  windows. 

Quarry,  (carrig,  Irish,)  a  place 
out  of  which  stones  are  dug.  Lime- 
stone is  found  in  abundance  in 
Lancashire,  Westmorland,  York- 
shire, and  Cumberland,  as  well  as 
in  Devonshire,  Sussex,  Kent,  and 
other  of  the  southern  counties,  and 
Gloucestershire,  Shropshire,  Der- 
byshire,  Staffordshire,  and  some 


districts  of  Scotland.  Kent  is  mo 
particularly  celebrated  for  two  kin- 
of  stones,  the  Kentish  rag-ston 
of  a  hard  strong  texture,  and  th 
termed  hassock,  of  a  soft  crumb; 
nature.  The  former  is  divided  1 
the  quarrymen  into  two  kinds,  tl 
common  rag,  and  the  cork  ston 
the  latter  resembling  in  its  gener 
appearance  strong  grey  lime-ston 
The  hassock  is  of  a  loose  and  bri 
tie  texture,  crumbling  between  tl 
fingers  into  a  coarse  powder  reserr 
bling  sand.  Marble  is  found  < 
various  kinds  in  different  countie 
That  of  Sussex  is  much  used  ft 
ornamenting  chimney  pieces,  am 
many  other  purposes.  It  is  chief! 
found  about  Kirdford,  and  is  com 
monly  known  by  the  name  of  Pel 
worth  marble.  Excellent  marbl 
is  found  in  various  parts  of  Derbj 
shire,  and  several  species  are  als 
found  in  other  inland  counties,  a 
Shropshire,  Nottinghamshire,  &(; 
Near  Newark,  in  the  latter  count) 
is  found  a  fine  blue  stone,  which  i 
very  nearly  allied  to  marble,  and  ij 
of  great  use  for  hearths,  &c.  Vari 
ous  species  of  fine  marbles  ar 
found  in  different  districts  of  York 
shire,  particularly  on  the  sides  c 
river  Kent,  near  Kendal.  A  fin 
black  marble  is  also  found  in  Lan 
cashire.  It  is  found  in  abundanc 
in  several  parts  of  Scotland,  parti 
cularly  on  Ben  Nevis,  where  a  fin 
variegated  species  is  dug  up.  Chal 
quarries  are  chiefly  found  in  Bed 


! 


QUA 

•dshire,    Essex,  Hertfordshire, 
jnt,  Sussex,  Surrey,  and  other 
uthern   counties.      Granite  is 
iefly  found  in  the  northern  parts 
the  island,  although  it  is  found 
=ntifully  in  the  western  districts 
Cornwall,  and  also  in  some  other 
the  southern  counties.  Free' 
me,  is  very  ahundant  in  Cheshire, 
imberland,  Westmorland,  Lan- 
shire,  and  other  northern  coun- 
s.    That  brought  from  Runcorn, 
anley,  &c.  in  Cheshire,  and  that 
)m  Wigan,  Ormskirk,  Up-Hol- 
id,  and  the  vicinity  of  Lancaster, 
3  particularly  celebrated.    It  is 
;o  abundant  in  Northumberland. 
:;ry  fine  free-stone  is  brought  from 
e  isle  of  Portland,  and  also  from 
?vonshire,  Cornwall,  and  from  the 
)tswold,  and  other  quarries  in 
oucestershine.       A  grit-stone, 
rtaking  of  the  nature  of  free- 
ze, is  found  in  various  districts 
Shropshire,  and  in  some  other 
unties.     In  Cheshire,   and  in 
ssex,  and  other  southern  counties 
found  a  very  useful  sand-stone. 
Scotland,  free-stone  is  found  in 
Wiltshire,  and  many  other  coun- 
's.    Flag-stones,  of  an  excellent 
ality,  are  found  at  Grinsell,  near 
rewsbury,  at  Corndon  hill,  near 
shop's-Castle,  and  about  Bridge- 
rth,  in  Shropshire,  as  well  as  in 
;  Swinney  mountain,  and  abound 
Lancashire,  Yorkshire,  and  most 
the  counties  which  produce  free- 
me.    The  white  and  grey  sorts  of 
1  te  are  found  in  Lancashire,York-' 
ire,  Westmorland,  Cumberland, 
)rthumberland,  and   in  several 
itricts  of  Scotland.    The  lighter 
d  thinner  kinds,   as  the  blue, 
sen,  purple,  &c.  are  chiefly  found 
Wales,  and  in  the  northern  parts 
Lancashire,  and  in  some  few  dis- 
cts  of  Scotland.    In  Borrowdale, 
d  other  parts  of  Westmorland 
d  Cumberland,  are  found  good 
Je  and  green  slates.  Granite, 


QUA 

porphyry,  serpentine,  and  other 
kinds  of  stone,  are  found  abun- 
dantly in  the  isle  of  Jersey. 

In  Kent,  the  banks  of  some  of 
the  large  rivers  are  scooped  out 
into  stone  quarries  in  a  very  re- 
markable manner,  some  of  them 
worn  out  and  disused.  Near  Maid- 
stone are  many  traces  of  quarries 
thus  abandoned.  In  the  quarries 
of  Fant  and  Farleigh,  the  blocks  of 
stone  are  found  in  irregular  masses, 
separated  by  seams,  and  in  some 
places  buried  in  brick  earth.  Gra- 
nite is  often  found  in  large  de- 
tached blocks,  particularly  in  Corn- 
wall and  Scotland,  where  they  are 
easily  dug  up  and  quarried.  In 
the  Carse  of  Gowry  in  Scotland, 
free-stone  is  found  in  immense 
blocks,  in  the  quarries  of  Kingoodie, 
some  of  them  fifty  feet  long,  sixteen 
broad,  and  three  thick.  Around 
Bath,  numerous  quarries  are  seen, 
with  men  at  work  sawing  the  stone 
into  regular  forms  for  use :  the 
sameness  of  their  labour,  and  the 
ghastly  hue  thrown  over  their  coun- 
tenances by  the  adhering  particles, 
or  the  reflection  from  the  stones,  has 
atendency  toexcite  melancholy  ideas 
in  the  beholder.  Immense  blocks 
of  stone  are  carried  down  the  hills, 
by  an  ingenious  machine  invented 
by  Mr.  Allen,  of  Prior  Park :  it  is 
a  carriage  with  low  and  broad  cast- 
iron  wheels,  with  a  groove  in  the 
perimeter,  which  serves  to  confine 
their  course  to  the  pieces  of  wood 
on  which  they  smoothly  move  down 
the  hills  without  the  help  of  horses, 
carrying  from  four  to  five  tons  of 
stone  at  a  time,  without  horses : 
the  motion  regulated  by  a  friction 
lever,  made  to  bear  on  the  hinder 
wheels  as  occasion  requires. 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  a  quar- 
ry should  be  situated  near  to  some 
river  or  canal,  or  on  the  sea  coast, 
unless  it  be  required  for  building- 
purposes  very  near  to  the  spot,  as 


QUA 


QUA 


the  great  expense  of  land-carriage 

of  many  miles,  in  such  a  material, 
cannot  be  afforded.  There  are 
many  instances  in  which  canals 
have  been  cut  solely  for  the  con- 
veyance of  the  stone  ;  in  others, 
iron  and  wooden  rail -roads  have 
been  constructed,  to  lessen  the  la- 
bour of  the  draught.  Some  of 
these  rail-roads  being  on  a  slightly 
inclined  plane,  the  loaded  carriages 
are  impelled  forward  by  their  own 
gravity  to  considerable  distances. 

The  implements  made  use  of  by 
the  miners  or  quarrymen,  although 
few  and  simple,  are  very  efficient 
in  their  expert  hands.  They  are 
represented  in  Plate  Tools,  and 
are  as  follow  :  Fig.  5.  The  sledge- 
hammer, or  mallet.  6.  The  borer, 
or  chisel.  7.  Wedges.  8.  The 
scraper.  9.  The  claying  bar.  10. 
The  needle.  11.  The  tamping  bar. 
12.  The  shovel.  13.  The  fusee, 
inserted  in  the  charge. 

In  separating  the  different  por- 
tions of  stone,  the  readiest  means 
are  of  course  adopted.  When  the 
mass  to  be  removed  is  not  very 
large,  and  is  surrounded  more  or  less 
with  fissures,  by  which  it  is  parti- 
ally unconnected  with  the  rock,  the 
driving  in  of  wedges  will  often  be 
sufficient  to  produce  an  entire  sepa- 
ration. The  wedges  also  serve  to 
remove  from  their  beds  those  por- 
tions of  the  rock  which  are  already 
naturally  separated  by  cracks  or 
fissures. 

Blasting,  by  gunpowder,  is  re- 
sorted to  where  the  rock  is  solid 
and  compact;  and  to  perform  the 
operation  only  two  men  are  requi- 
site. The  miner's  judgment  directs 
him  to  the  fittest  place  for  the 
charge ;  and  a  hole  is  bored  or  cut 
into  the  hard  rock  to  receive  it, 
which  is  effected  in  the  following 
manner.  The  borer,  or  chisel, 
6,  is  held  by  one  man,  whilst  it  is 
struck  with  a  sledge-hammer  by  the 


other;  the  man  holding  the  ch:l 
turning  it  at  every  blow,  so  an 
cross  the  previous  cut,  by  wh  ri 
means  the  stone  is  chipped  ayy 
by  degrees.  The  boring,  or  ci- 
ting, is  occasionally  suspended  :) 
clear  out  the  hole,  which  is  dig 
by  the  scraper,^.  8;  then  the  c  - 
ting,  or  boring,  is  resumed ;  and ) 
on  alternately,  boring  and  clear  r 
out,  till  the  perforation  is  of  > 
required  depth,  which  is  from<j 
to  three  feet,  according  to  circu- 
stances ;  and  the  diameter  usm  j 
about  an  inch  and  a  quarter,  f 
the  hole  is  wet,  some  tough  L 
clay  is  introduced,  and  the  clay^ 
bar,  Jig.  9,  is  driven  in  with  grt 
violence,  by  which  means  thecr 
is  forced  into  all  the  crevices, 
sorbing  the  moisture,  and  preve  • 
ing  the  entrance  of  more  ;  on  wit 
drawing  the  claying  bar,  the  h  I 
is  left  dry,  and  of  an  unifoi 
smooth  surface,  which  adapts  it  r 
receiving  the  charge.  The  chai; 
is  generally  of  gunpowder  alone,  f 
mixed  with  quicklime,  (which  H\ 
said  increases  the  force  of  the  <■ 
plosion,)  and  is  contained  in  pa]- 
as  a  common  cartridge,  to  fit  it 
bore;  in  very  wet  situations,  a  i 
casing  is  used,  to  enclose  it.  1. 
charge  being  now  introduced,  a. 
thrust  to  the  bottom  of  the  hole 
means  of  a  thin,  copper,  taperi 
rod,  called  the  needle,  Jig. 
which  is  also  driven  down  into  I 
charge.  The  next  operation  isl 
exclude  as  much  of  the  air  as  p< 
sible,  by  reducing  the  size  of  I 
vent ;  for  which  purpose,  the  tarr  - 
ing bar,  Jig.  11,  is  employed  i 
ramming  round  the  needle  so! 
yielding  yet  compact  substan, 
so  that  when  the  needle  is  vvi  - 
drawn,  a  very  small  vent  or  tone 
hole  remains.  Into  this  perforate 
is  dropped  a  fusee,  or  rush,  char 
ed  with  powder,  on  the  top  jf 
which  is  fixed  a  snuft,  as  it b 


RAF 


R  A  I 


lied,  or  some  other  contrivance, 
adjusted  as  to  bum  a  sufficient 
Le  to  permit  the  man  who  fires 
to  retreat  to  a  proper  distance, 
evious  to  firing  it,  it  is  usual 
give  notice   to  all  persons  in 
I  immediate  neighbourhood,  by 
fe  blowing  of  a  horn,  that  they 
,iy  have  the  opportunity  of  retir- 
k  to  some  place  of  security. 
The  cart   principally   used  in 
tarrying,  is  of  a  low,  compact, 
id  strong  construction,   and  is 
iide  of  well-seasoned  wood  :  it  is 

<  led  a  quarry-cart.  The  quarry- 
i  gijon,  or  truck,  is  also  a  low 

<  riage,  and  is  more  particularly 
i:d  in  slate  quarries.  Its  form  is 
•  newhat  similar  to  the  common 
brow,  having  light  iron  wheels. 
;kmd  of  inclined  plane  is  formed 
i  the  quarry,  for  it  to  work  up  and 
(  ATi.  Slates  generally  go  through 
j'eral  processes  in  the  quarrying, 
l:ng  separated  into  thin  pieces. 
Quarry,  (  Fr.  carree, )  a  pane 
(  glass  cut  in  a  diamond  or 
1  enge  form. 

Quarter-round,  the  same  as 
t  Ovoio:  see  Moulding. 
Quarters,  slender    pieces  of 

i 


timber  placed  between  the  punch- 
eons and  the  posts,  to  nail  the 
laths  to  in  partitions;  they  are 
four  inches  square,  and  called  dou- 
ble quarters ;  or  single,  and  four 
inches  broad  and  two  thick.  It  is 
an  established  rule,  to  place  them 
fourteen  inches  from  each  other. 

Quartz,  (Germ.)  a  genus  of 
siliceous  earths,  which  is  very  com- 
mon in  Europe.  It  is  more  or  less 
transparent,  and  is,  according  to 
M.  Magellan,  one  of  the  principal 
kinds  of  stone  containing  metals. 

Quay,  (Fr.)  a  bank  of  masonry, 
on  the  side  of  the  sea,  or  of  a  river, 
for  the  purpose  of  unlading  goods 
conveniently. 

Quintan  a,  see  Castra. 

Quirk,  a  piece  taken  out  of 
any  regular  ground,  flat,  or  floor. 

Quirk  Mouldings,  the  con- 
vex part  of  Grecian  mouldings, 
when  they  recede  at  the  top,  form- 
ing a  re-enticent  angle,  with  the 
surface  which  covers  the  moulding. 
See  Bead. 

Quoins,  (Fr.)  stones  or  other 
materials  put  in  the  corners  of 
buildings,  to  strengthen  them.  See 
Coin. 


R 


Rabbet,  Rabeting,  see  Rebate. 

Iaddlings,  an  old  term,  the 
c  ping  or  bowing-in  of  walls. 

Radial  Curves,  in  geometry, 
c  ves  of  the  spiral  kind,  whose 
o  urates  all  terminate  in  the  cen- 
tiof  the  including  circle,  and  ap- 
pr  like  so  many  radii  of  that 
ei  le. 

Radius,  in  geometry,  the  semi- 
d  neter  of  a  circle,  or  a  right  line 
d  vn  from  the  centre  to  the  cir- 
» iterence  ;  in  mechanics,  the 
s|  ce  of  a  wheel. 

afters,  (Dutch,)  the  second- 
ai  timbers  of  a  house,  which  are 
le'nto  the  great  beam. 
20 


Raftic  Coins,  the  same  as 
Rustic  Coins. 

Rails.  In  framing,  the  pieces 
that  lie  horizontal  are  called  rails, 
and  those  which  are  perpendicular 
stilei.  Two  rails  and  two  stiles  en- 
close a  panel.  The  upper  and  lower 
part  of  the  banister  of  a  stair-case 
is  called  the  hand-rail,  and  the 
foot-rail.  Pieces  of  timber  which 
lie  horizontally  from  post  to  post  in 
fences  are  called  rails. 

Railing,  a  fence  composed  of 
posts  and  rails. 

Railway,  or  Tram-road,  a 
track  of  iron,  stone,  &c.  intended, 
by  diminishing  friction,  to  facili- 


R  A  I 


R  A  I 


tate  the  conveyance  of  heavy  loads. 
At  first  they  were  made  only  of 
wood,  and  employed  only  to  carry 
coals  from  the  pits  to  the  ware- 
houses, &c,  but  they  have  since 
been  carried  to  a  much  greater 
extent. 

The  origin  of  rail-ways  may  be 
traced  back  as  far  as  the  year 
1680.  About  this  time  coal  came 
generally  into  use  as  a  substitute 
for  wood  fuel  in  London,  and  other 
places;  in  consequence,  the  greatest 
inconvenience  was  experienced  at 
the  mines,  in  conveying  the  coals 
from  them  to  the  ships,  and  the 
expense  of  horses  and  machinery 
for  the  purpose  was  immense.  To 
facilitate  the  travelling  of  the  wag- 
gons over  the  roads,  wooden  rails 
or  straight  pieces  of  wood  were 
laid  down  and  imbedded  in  the 
road,  which  were  afterwards  im- 
proved upon  by  making  ledges 
upon  their  sides,  to  prevent  the 
waggons  from  going  out  of  their 
track.  By  these  simple  contriv- 
ances, it  was  also  found  that  a 
waggon,  which  required  previously 
three  or  four  horses  to  draw  it,  was 
with  greater  facility  drawn  by  one 
horse,  and  in  much  less  time,  as 
the  rails  were  laid  upon  a  gradual 
descent.  These  wooden  rail-roads 
had  been  generally  in  use  fifty 
years,  when  cast  iron  was  intro- 
duced as  a  substitute  about  the 
years  1738;  but  a  difficulty  arose 
in  the  great  pressure  of  the  heavy 
waggons  then  in  use  upon  the  iron, 
which  was  subsequently  overcome, 
by  reducing  the  size  of  the  wag- 
gons, and  linking  a  number  of 
them  together  in  a  team,  by  which 
means  the  pressure  was  extended 
over  a  larger  surface.  The  impor- 
tance of  rail- roads  becoming  every 
year  more  manifest,  several  able 
treatises  on  the  subject,  from  dis- 
tinguished scientific  men,  appeared 
towards  the  close  of  the  last  cen- 

290 


tury,  setting  forth  their  utility,  ar 
proposing  plans  for  their  improv 
ment.  After  this  time,  iron  rai 
roads  began  to  be  constructed  i 
branches  to  canals,  and  in  son 
places  as  roads  of  traffic  from  ot 
place  to  another. 

Iron  railways  were  first  used 
the  great  foundry  of  Colebroc 
Dale,  about  1786,  and  are  sajd  ! 
have  been  projected  by  Mr.  Jol 
Curr,  civil  engineer  of  Sheffiel 
Mr.  Jessop  was  the  first  engine? 
of  celebrity  who  made  use  of  ire 
railways  in  the  south  of  Engian 
In  the  neghbourhood  of  Newcastl' 
and  in  Scotland,  great  use  is  maij 
of  iron  rail-roads,  as  also  in  diffd 
ent  parts  of  Wales.  In  Sc.otlan 
the  principal  rail-roads  are  the  ro< 
from  Kilmarnock  to  Troon,  ar 
the  rail-ways  of  the  Carron  in 
foundry,  and  of  Lord  Elgin's,  M 
Erskine's,  and  Sir  J.  Hope's  co 
mines.  There  have  been  numero 
suggestions  for  making  iron  ra 
ways  in  the  neighbourhood 
Edinburgh,  most  of  them  propose 
by  Mr.  Robert  Stevenson,  who  h 
suggested  a  plan  for  crossing  t 
narrow  and  deep  ravines  interset 
ing  the  lines  of  rail-road  whii 
he  has  proposed  laying  out.  Tl 
plan  consists  in  placing  the  wa 
gon  on  a  suspension  frame-woi 
The  frame-work  would  advance, 
means  of  pulleys,  along  an  inclin 
plane  composed  of  chains  or  W 
of  iron  extended  from  one  side 
the  ravine  to  the  other. 

Rail-ways  are  arranged  into  t' 
kinds,  according  to  their  form.  T 
tram-ways,  or  plate- ways,  are  ma 
of  bars  of  cast-iron.    They  have 
projecting  edge  at  top,  which  ru 
along  the  outside  of  the  rail;  | 
the  bottom,  a  rim  gives  the  bar  t 
strength  necessary  for  supporti; 
the  weight  of  the  waggon  whe, 
which  runs  flatly  in  the  groo . 
The  edgeways  are  formed  of  pie'' 


R  A  I 


RAN 


of  iron  laid  flat  on  the  ground,  and 
rounded  on  the  upper  side;  the 
waggon  wheel  has  a  groove  like 
:hat  of  a  pulley,  which  fits  to  the 
round  part  of  the  rail-way.  The 
iram-ways  have  the  disadvantage 
)f  considerably  augmenting  the 
riction,  in  consequence  of  the 
arth,  dust,  sand,  and  gravel,  which 
odge  in  the  hollow  of  the  rail. 
The  edge-ways  are  exempt  from 
his  inconvenience  ;  when  equal  in 
til  other  respects,  they  are  capable 
>f  bearing  a  more  considerable 
veight,  and  consequently  they  are 
generally  preferred.  The  edge- 
ways are  formed  of  bars  of  wrought- 
ron,  about  an  inch  and  a  half 
vide  ;  the  vertical  thickness,  which 
s  always  greater  than  the  width, 
s  proportionate  to  the  weight 
fhich  the  rail  has  to  support.  The 
dge-ways  are  much  adopted  in 
Vales.  But  in  the  neighbourhood 
f  Newcastle,  the  tram- ways  are 
till  generally  used.  A  third  kind 
f  iron  rail  ways  are  quite  flat, 
ithout  edges  or  runs,  and  are 
tid  into  hollows  made  in  the 
ommon  road  or  pavement,  so  as 
ot  to  rise  above  the  level  of  the 
round.  This  plan  is  particularly 
ell  adapted  to  the  streets  and 
juares  of  a  town,  where  vehicles 

all  forms  and  sizes  are  continu- 

ly  passing. 

An  ingenious  improvement  in 
til-roads,  by  Mr.  H.  R.  Palmer,  is 
ascribed  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
st  series  of  the  Register  of  Arts, 
istead  of  two  lines  of  rail  laid 
xm  the  ground,  as  heretofore, 
r.  Palmer's  rail-way  consists  of 
ily  one,  which  is  elevated  upon 
liars,  and  carried  in  a  straight 
ie  across  the  country,  however 
adulating  and  rugged,  over  hills, 
lleys,  brooks,  and  rivers;  the 
lars  being  longer  or  shorter,  to 
it  the  height  of  the  rail  above  the 
rface  of  the  ground,  so  as  to  pre- 


serve the  line  of  the  rail,  which  is 
always  straight,  whether  the  plane 
be  horizontal  or  inclined.  The 
waggons  travel  in  pairs,  one  on 
each  side  of  the  rail,  like  paniers 
over  the  back  of  an  ass,  and  they 
are  so  contrived  as  to  need  only 
two  wheels  for  the  pair,  instead  of 
eight. 

Raiser,  the  upright  board  on 
the  foreside  of  the  steps  of  a  flight 
of  stairs. 

Raising  Pieces,  pieces  which 
lie  under  the  beams,  over  the  ports 
or  puncheons,  by  the  side  of  the 
house. 

Raking,  a  term  applied  to 
mouldings  whose  arrises  are  in- 
clined to  the  horizon. 

Raking  Temple,  a  member 
hollowed  in  the  square  of  a  pedes- 
tal or  elsewhere. 

Ramp,  a  concavity  on  the  upper 
side  of  hand-railings,  formed  over 
risers,  or  over  a  half  or  quarter 
space,  made  by  a  sudden  rise  of 
the  steps  above. 

Rampant,  (Fr.)  a  term  applied 
to  an  arch  whose  abutments  spring 
from  an  inclined  plane. 

Rampart,  a  massy  bank  or  ele- 
vation of  earth,  &c.  raised  for  the 
purpose  of  covering  a  place  from 
the  direct  fire  of  the  enemy.  It  is 
made  of  sufficient  thickness  effec- 
tually to  resist  the  impression  of 
the  cannon  balls,  and  is  formed 
into  bastions,  curtains,  &c.  The 
term  rampart  is  also  applied  to  the 
space  left  void  between  the  wall  of 
a  city  and  the  houses  next  to  it, 
called  by  the  Romans  pomcerium. 

Ramps,  in  fortification,  gentle 
slopes  made  for  the  cannon  to  be 
drawn  up  and  down  by,  and  to 
facilitate  communication,  raised 
either  on  the  side  of  an  elevated 
work,  or  against  a  salient  angle,  on 
each  side  of  an  entering  angle. 

Range,  a  term  applied  to  the 
edge  of  a  number  of  bodies  which 

291 


RAT 

run  straight  in  the  same  surface 
or  line. 

Rasant  line  of  defence,  in  for- 
tification, that  part  of  the  courtin 
or  flank,  whence  the  shot  exploded 
glances  or  razes  along  the  face  of 
the  opposite  bastion. 

Rath,  amongst  the  ancient 
Irish,  a  fortress  or  castle.  Like 
the  British  oppidum  described  by 
Caesar,  the  rath  was  a  large  circu- 
lar enclosure,  on  elevated  ground, 
not  unfrequently  in  the  bosom  of 
woods,  and  it  consisted  of  the  fol- 
lowing parts,  the  Beallagh,  Dun, 
Mote,  Ran,  Rath,  Uagh,  £c.  The 
beallagh  was  an  external  circular 
enclosure,  constructed  of  a  staked 
hedge  or  fence  of  wood,  sometimes 
with  an  entrenchment;  within  this 
enclosure  resided  the  servants  and 
domestic  animals  of  the  chief.  The 
dun,  which  answered  to  the  Nor- 
man keep,  was  situated  within  the 
area  of  the  beallagh,  near  the 
centre,  and  was  generally  the  habi- 
tation of  the  chief  and  his  family. 
The  mote  or  molhan,  was  the  cir- 
cular entrenchment  which  enclosed 
the  dun.  The  ran  was  a  rampait 
of  earth  or  stone,  surrounding  the 
dun,  and  within  the  mote.  The 
rath  was  the  court  or  open  area 
within  the  ran,  wherein  the  pilait 
or  right  lann,  (habitation  of  the 
chief  and  his  family)  was  situated. 
They  were  in  general  small  build- 
ings of  earth  and  hurdles,  some- 
times with  walls  of  wood.  The 
uagh,  or  uaigh,  was  the  cave  or 
cellar  where  the  provisions  were 
kept,  and  into  which  the  women 
and  children  retired  in  case  of 
danger.  Although  it  was  gene- 
rally placed  under  the  dun,  and 
had  steps  leading  from  the  rath, 
yet  it  was  sometimes  situated  be- 
tween the  dun  and  the  rath  in  the 
field.  Of  the  ancient  Cathairs, 
which  were  the  same  as  the  an- 
cient caers,  there  are  now  no  re- 


REC 

mains.  At  Ardscul,  about  three 
miles  from  Athy,  is  a  very  good 
specimen  of  a  dun.  It  contains 
also  the  amhaire  or  radhaire,  aj 
watch-tower,  which  contained  the 
habitation  of  the  chief,  and  wherein 
guards  were  constantly  placed.  In; 
it  may  be  traced  the  foundation  of 
a  building,  which  consisted  of  two 
apartments,  in  a  line  with  each 
other.  The  cave  under  the  rath 
was  ten  feet  square.  When  on  a 
plain,  these  buildings  are  always 
circular,  but  on  hills  other  forms 
are  sometimes  adopted.  In  a  rath 
on  the  Curragh  of  Kildare  is  a 
tumulus,  and  another  with  a  cavity. 
(Gough's  Camden.) 

Ravelin,  in  fortification,  a  flat 
bastion,  anciently  placed  in  the 
middle  of  a  curtain.  The  term  is 
now  applied  to  a  detached  work, 
which  is  formed  by  two  faces  mak- 
ing a  salient  angle,  and  raised  be- 
fore the  curtain  of  the  counterscarp 
of  a  place,  to  cover  it  and  the  ad- 
joining flanks  from  the  direct  fire 
of  the  enemy.  It  is  sometimes 
termed  a  half  moon. 

Ray,  principal,  in  perspective, 
the  perpendicular  distance  between 
the  edge  and  the  vertical  point  of 
the  table. 

Rebate,  (raoot,  Fr.)  1.  a  hard 
free-stone,  which  is  used  in  con- 
structing pavements  :  2.  a  piece  of 
wood  hafted  into  the  top  of  a  long 
stick,  for  the  purpose  of  beating 
out  the  mortar :  3.  an  iron  tool 
sharpened  something  like  a  chisel, 
and  employed  in  dressing  and 
polishing  wood. 

Rebating,  plaining  or  cutting 
grooves,  channels,  &c. 

Recess,  (from  recedo,  Lai.)  a 
depth  of  some  inches  in  the  thick- 
ness of  a  wall,  as  a  niche,  &c. 

Recipi angle,   an  instrument 
which  was  used  by  French  engi- 
neers, to  take  angles  in  fortifica-  ^ 
tion,  &c.    It  was  in  the  form  of  a 


RED 


REP 


square,  or  rather  a  bevel,  consist- 
ing of  two  moveable  limbs  like  a 
sector;  and  in  using  it,  the  centre 
of  a  protractor  was  laid  to  the 
joint,  and  the  degrees  cut  by  the 
edge  showed  the  quantity  of  the 
angle,  or  the  angle  made  by  the 
two  rulers  was  traced  on  paper,  and 
afterwards  measured  by  the  pro- 
tractor. Sometimes  a  circle,  mark- 
ed into  degrees,  was  annexed  to  it, 
when  it  could  be  used  without  a 
protractor.  See  Bevel. 
'  Recta  Directrix,  in  conic 
sections,  a  line  made  by  the  mutual 
intersection  of  the  vertical  plane 
'with  that  of  the  base. 

Rectangle,  a  figure  in  geome- 
try, whose  angles  are  all  right 
angles.  Solids  are  said  to  be  rect- 
angular also,  with  respect  to  their 
situation,  as  a  cone,  cylinder,  &c. 
when  it  is  perpendicular  to  the 
plane  of  the  horizon.  A  parabola 
;was  called  by  the  ancient  geome- 
ters a  rectangular  section  of  a 
zone,  as,  before  the  time  of  Apollo- 
.lius,  it  was  considered  only  in  a 
:one,  the  section  of  which  by  the 
'axis  would  be  a  triangle  right- 
'angled  at  the  vertex,  hence  the 
book  of  Archimedes,  on  the  quad- 
rature of  the  parabola,  was  entitled 
)u  "  the  section  of  a  rectangular 
::one." 

Rectification,  in  Geometry, 
he  finding  the  length  of  a  curve 
foe,  or  a  right  line  equal  to  a 
(wen  curve. 

Reciilinear,  figures  bounded 
)y  right  lines. 

Redans,  (Fr.)  projections  con- 
ducted at  intervals,  in  a  wall  built 
tn  uneven  ground,  for  the  purpose 
>f  preserving  the  same  height 
'hrough  its  whole  length. 

Redoubt,  in  fortification,  a 
mall  square  fort,  defended  only  in 
ront,  used  in  trenches,  lines  of  cir- 
umvallation,  &c,  and  also  to 
tefend  passages,  &c.     They  are 


generally  encompassed  by  a  ditch 
and  bank  of  earth,  and  consist 
of  two  parts,  a  rampart  and  a 
parapet. 

Reduct,  a  quirk,  or  little  piece 
taken  out  of  a  larger,  to  make  it 
more  uniform  and  regular. 

Redundant  Hyperbola,  a 
curve  of  the  higher  kind,  so  called 
because  it  exceeds  the  conic  sec- 
tion of  that  name,  in  the  number 
of  its  hyperbolic  legs,  it  being  a 
triple  hyperbola,  with  six  hyperbo- 
lical legs. 

Refectory,  (Lat.)  an  eating- 
room.  The  term  is  confined  to 
convents  and  other  religious  com- 
munities, and  to  colleges. 

Reg  let,  (Fr.)  a  flat  narrow 
moulding,  used  to  separate  from 
each  other  the  parts  or  members  of 
compartments  and  panels,  and  to 
form  knots,  frets,  &c. 

Reg  rating,  a  term  given  by 
masons  to  the  process  of  taking  off 
the  outer  surface  of  an  old  hewn 
stone,  for  the  purpose  of  whitening 
it,  and  making  it  look  fresh  again. 

Regula,  (Lat.)  a  band  below 
the  taenia  of  the  Doric  epistylium. 

Regular,  a  figure  is  said  to  be 
regular,  when  it  is  equilateral  and 
equiangular.  A  body  is  regular, 
when  it  is  bounded  by  regular  and 
equal  planes,  and  has  all  its  solid 
angles  equal. 

Regui  ar  jCurves,  such  as  are 
the  perimeters  of  the  conic  sections, 
which  are  always  curved  after  the 
same  geometrical  manner. 

Rejointing,  the  filling  up  the 
joints  of  stones  in  old  buildings, 
when  the  mortar  has  been  crum- 
bled out  by  the  effect  of  time  and 
weather. 

Relievo,  or  relief,  the  prefec- 
ture of  an  architectural  ornament. 

Rendering,  in  building,  the 
same  as  Pagetting. 

Replum,  (Lat.)  the  panel  of 
the  impages  of  a  framed  door. 

203 


RES 


RES 


Reredos,  or  Reredosse,  (Tar- 
ritre  dos,  Fr.)  a  screen  or  division 
wall,  placed  behind  an  altar,  rood- 
loft,  &c.  in  old  churches. 

Reservoir,  (Fr.)  an  artificial 
pond  or  basin,  to  collect  water  for 
the  use  of  canals,  mills,  &c.  In 
houses  it  is  a  basin  made  of  wood, 
and  lined  with  lead,  to  keep  water 
for  the  supply  of  the  house. 

Belzoni  describes  an  ancient 
Egyptian  reservoir  among  the  ruins 
of  Arsinoe,  at  Medinet  el  Faium. 
He  made  an  excavation,  and  found 
it  to  be  as  deep  as  the  bottom  of 
the  Bahr  Yousef ;  and  it  was,  no 
doubt,  filled  at  the  time  of  the 
inundation,  for  the  accommodation 
of  the  town.  There  are  others 
similar  in  these  ruins,  which  prove 
that  this  was  the  only  mode  they 
had  of  keeping  water  near  them, 
as  the  river  is  at  some  distance 
from  the  town.  Amongst  the 
ruins  of  ancient  Carthage,  the 
reservoirs  for  water  are  still  very 
perfect,  being  all  arched  over; 
they  are  not  exposed,  the  walls 
being  covered  with  a  thick  and 
strong  cement.  Amongst  the 
remains  of  Forum  Julii,  at  the  mo- 
dern Frejus,  in  France,  a  reservoir 
of  water  is  formed  by  galleries  in 
arcades,  three  upon  the  length  and 
four  upon  the  breadth  ;  at  the  four 
corners,  a  hole  through  which  the 
water  entered.  At  Misenum,  Oc- 
tavius  Csesar  brought  water,  by 
means  of  aqueducts,  into  immense 
reservoirs,  the  largest  of  which 
remains  to  this  day  in  great  pre- 
servation, and  is  called  piscina  mi- 
rabile  :  it  is  a  subterraneous  cistern, 
divided  by  alleys,  formed  by  rows  of 
square  pillars,  which  support  an 
arched  roof.  At  Taurominium, 
the  water  was  collected  in  a  similar 
manner.  Of  its  five  grand  reser- 
voirs one  remains  perfect.  These 
edifices  were  oblong  squares,  with 
arches  supported  by  pillars.  Each 


had  an  aperture  for  the  conveyam 
of  the  water,  and  another  to  let 
the  superfluity,  with  a  staircase  j 
descend  by,  and  a  sluice  to  empi 
it  entirely,  and  carry  off  the  mm 
Swinburne  describes  that  reservo 
which  is  best  preserved,  as  divide 
by  a  row  of  massive  pillars  intl 
two  rooms,  lighted  by  semicircul; 
windows,  near  the  ceiling.  St 
Aqueduct. 

Resistance,  in  mechanics,  th; 
power  which  acts  in  opposition  t 
another,  so  as  to  diminish  or  di 
stroy  its  effect.  From  the  theoi 
of  resistance,  there  are  many  J 
suits  which  are  extremely  valuabi 
when  applied  to  practicable  put 
poses.  In  the  fracture  of  any  bod^ 
as  a  cylinder,  when  it  breaks  by  it 
own  weight,  two  powers  are  exerl 
ed ;  the  weight  which  tends  to  brea 
it,  and  the  cohesion  of  the  parts  c 
fibres,  which  resists  the  fracture! 
Now  the  fracture  may  take  plac 
in  two  ways.  When  the  body  j 
in  a  vertical  position,  the  fibres  c 
the  base  all  break  at  once,  and  th 
absolute  weight  of  the  body  mus 
exceed  the  united  resistance  of  a 
its  fibres.  But  in  an  horizontE 
position,  the  fibres  are  broken  on 
after  another,  and  consequently 
much  less  relative  weight  is  requii 
ed.  From  the  observations  of  M 
Mariotte,  it  appears  that  fibres  ma 
be  considered  as  so  many  littli 
bent  springs,  which  never  exei 
their  whole  force,  till  stretched  t 
a  certain  point,  and  never  brea' 
till  entirely  unbent.  Those,  cor; 
sequently,  which  are  nearest  th 
axis  of  equilibrium,  or  the  wholj 
line  on  which  the  motion  of  th 
fraction  will  be,  which  is  an  immove 
able  line,  are  stretched  less  tha; 
those  farther  off,  and  therefore  em 
ploy  a  less  part*  of  their  force 
Hence  all  bodies,  fractured  in  thi 
position,  bend  before  they  break 
Oak  will  suspend  much  more  tha 


RES 


RET 


fir,  but  fir  will  support  twice  as 
much  as  oak;  which  difference  is 
supposed  to  arise  from  the  curva- 
ture of  the  fibres  of  oak.  The  re- 
sistance of  a  bar  or  beam  to  a  frac- 
ture by  a  force  which  acts  laterally, 
is  as  the  solid  made  by  a  section 
Df  the  beam  in  the  place  where  the 
force  is  applied,  into  the  distance 
3f  its  centre  of  gravity  from  the 
point  or  line  where  the  breach  will 
end.  When  the  beam  is  fixed  at 
both  ends,  it  must  be  considered  as 
only  half  its  length,  that  is,  the  re- 
sistance is  doubled.  The  following 
is  a  table  of  the  relative  resistance 
:or  strengths  of  different  bodies,  re- 
sulting from  I  he  experiments  of 
Emerson  and  others. 

Proportional 
Resistance. 

Fine  freestone   1 

Iron  ..  107 

Brass    50 

Lead    6  J 

Bone   22 

Box,  yew,  plum-tree,  oak    11 

Elm.  ash   8£ 

Walnut,  thorn   7£ 

Red  fir,  holly,  elder,  plane  crab-tree, 

apple-tree   7 

Beech,  cherry-tree,  hazel   ........  63 

Alder,  asp,  birch,  while  fir,  willow  .  6 

|  The  following  table  of  the  cohe- 
sive force  of  a  square  inch  of  dif- 
ferent substances,  is  from  the  expe- 
riments and  investigations  of  Pro- 
fessor R.obinson. 

Pounds. 

Gold,  when  cast    20,000 

Silver   40.000 

Cnn  iron   40.000  to  60,000 

Wrought  Iron   60,000  to  90,000 

'Soft  Sieel   12.000 

Razor  Steel   15,000 

Oak  and  Beech  in  the  direction  of 

their  fibres,  from  8,000  to  17,000 

Willow   12,000 

Fir    8,000 

Cedar    5,000 

f'ory  16,000 

B  ne   5,000 

Rope   20,000 

Respond,  or  Responder,  in  old 
English  architecture,  a  pilaster,  or 
ualf-column  placed  against  a  wall, 


in  a  situation  to  correspond  with 
another  pilaster  or  pillar,  so  called 
from  the  Latin  respondere,  to  an- 
swer. 

Ressant,  a  term  employed  by 
William  of  Worcester,  (  I  tin.  220,) 
in  describing  mouldings  of  door- 
ways, supposed  to  have  been  of  the 
ogee  form. 

Ressault,  (Fr.)  the  effect  of  a 
body  which  projects  over,  or  falls 
back  from,  the  line  or  range  of  the 
other  members. 

Restorm  el  Castle,  see  Castle. 

Reticulatum,  a  kind  of  ma- 
sonry among  the  Romans,  in  which 
the  stones  were  laid  diagonally. 
Perrault  and  some  other  writers 
are  mistaken  in  supposing  that  the 
reticulatum  was  a  wall  constructed 
of  stones,  which  had  their  faces  in 
form  of  a  parallelogram.  Vitruvius 
prefers  the  reticulatum  to  the  in- 
certum,  because  it  had  a  more 
regular  appearance  :  but  at  the 
same  time  he  observes,  that  it  want- 
ed solidity,  because  the  stones  were 
not  placed  horizontally. 

R etrencii  ment,  (Fr.)  any  thing 
cut  off  or  taken  from  another.  Any 
works,  such  as  ditches,  with  para- 
pets, gabions,  &c.  to  strengthen  or 
defend  a  post:  and,  more  particu- 
larly, a  simple  retirade  made  on  a 
hern-work  or  bastion,  when  it  is 
intended  to  dispute  every  inch  of 
the  ground. 

Return,  (Fr.)  the  continuation 
of  a  moulding,  projection,  &c.  in 
an  opposite  direction ;  a  side  or 
part  which  falls  away  from  the 
front  of  a  straight  work. 

Return  Bead,  one  that  ap- 
pears both  on  the  face  and  edge  of 
a  work. 

Returns  of  a  Trench,  in  fortifi- 
cation, the  several  windings  and 
crooked  lines  of  a  trench,  drawn  in 
some  measure  parallel  to  the  side 
of  a  place  attacked,  to  prevent 
being  enfiladed,  or  having  the  shot 

295 


RH  A 


RHO 


of  the  enemy  scour  along  the  length 
of  the  line.  The  returns  of  a  mine, 
are  the  turnings  and  windings  of  a 
gallery. 

Revels,  (from  the  Lat.  revello,) 
the  two  vertical  sides  of  an  aper- 
ture between  the  front  of  the 
wall  and  the  window  or  door 
frame. 

Revolution,  the  motion  of  a 
figure  round  an  axis. 

Rez  -  de-Chaussee,  (  Fr.  )  the 
ground -floor. 

Riiamnus,  one  of  the  demi  of 
Attica,  celebrated  for  its  temple  of 
Nemesis,  the  remains  of  which  are 
described  in  the  "  Unedited  Anti- 
quities of  Attica."  The  hieron  of 
Nemesis  contained  within  its  en- 
closure two  temples,  the  principal 
one  hexastyle  peripteral,  and  the 
smaller  temple  in  antis.  The  latter 
is  named,  by  the  editors  of  the  fore- 
going work,  the  temple  of  Themis, 
from  a  votive  chair  found  in  it 
dedicated  to  that  goddess.  The 
temple  of  Nemesis  is  the  only 
example  of  this  species  of  temple 
having  the  antae,  which  terminate 
the  flank  walls  of  the  cella,  to  range 
■with  the  opposite  columns  in  the 
front.  The  lower  portions  of  the 
shafts  of  seven  columns  in  the 
south  side,  and  one  in  the  pronaos, 
remain  in  their  original  situations. 
A  kind  of  railing  appears  to  have 
been  placed  between  the  folumns 
of  the  pronaos,  as  the  holes  sunk 
in  the  pavement  for  the  purpose  of 
fixing  it  remain.  The  shafts  of  the 
columns  in  the  front  were  fluted 
only  at  the  top  and  bottom.  The 
columns  of  the  pronaos  were  fluted 
in  front,  and  planed  behind :  the 
flutings  are  nine,  the  planes  eleven. 
The  epistylia  were  continued  from 
the  antae,  across  the  ambulatory, 
to  the  opposite  columns  in  the 
flanks.  The  metopae  were  omitted 
in  the  frieze,  but  the  guttae  retained 
in  the  epistylia.    All  the  members 


of  the  cornice  were  painted  or  gfl 
The  temple  of  Themis  has  but  or, 
portico,  and  is  situated  almost  i 
contact  with  the  temple  of  Nemesi 
The  walls  are  of  the  same  materi; 
as  the  larger  ten  pie,  but  the  cfl 
lumns  and  other  parts  of  the  ornj 
mental  architecture  are  of  a  so 
porous  stone.  The  masonry  of  th 
walls  was  of  that  kind  denominate 
by  Vitruvius,  incertum. 

Rhodiacum,  (Gr. )  In  the  in 
teriorofthat  part  of  the  house,  whic 
among  the  Greeks  was  occupied  b 
the  male  portion  of  the  familj 
there  was  a  peristyle  greater  thai 
that  of  the  gynaeceium,  enclose' 
on  its  four  sides  by  porticos.  Th< 
open  place  in  the  middle  of  th 
peristyle  was  generally  plantec 
with  grass  and  flowers.  The  por 
ticos  which  formed  the  peristyle 
were  sometimes  all  of  the  sam< 
height;  at  others,  the  columns  o 
that  which  faced  the  south  wen 
made  loftier  than  the  rest.  Wher 
the  peristyle  had  this  latter  dis- 
position, it  was  termed  rhodiacum 
According  to  the  description  which 
Vitruvius  gives  us  of  the  Greek 
houses,  there  were  behind  these 
porticos  different  apartments  all 
round  the  peristyle.  The  walls 
next  to  the  porticos  were  covered 
on  the  outside  with  stucco.  Be- 
hind the  northern  portico  was  the 
Cyzicene  oecus,  and  a  room  foi; 
pictures ;  towards  the  east  was  the 
library,  towards  the  west  the  exe- 
drae,  and  towards  the  south  was 
a  great  hall,  where  the  master  of 
the  house  took  his  repast  with  his 
friends.  In  describing  the  part  of 
the  Greek  houses  which  was  ap- 
propriated to  the  men,  Vitruvius 
mentions  neither  a  bed-chamber 
nor  a  common  sitting-room :  it 
appears,  therefore,  that  the  master 
of  the  house  passed  the  day  in 
the  exedrae  or  in  the  library,  and 
in  the  cecus  when  he  had  com- 


RIG 

JjJ  j\y,  and  that  at  night  he  re- 
t:d  to  the  apartment  of  his  wife. 

[|  I)tn  the  description  of  the  part 
Jthe  house  inhabited  by  the  men, 

J  gen  by  Vitruvius,  it  appears  that 
i  only  contained  apartments  that 
ue  for  pleasure,  more  superflu- 
c.  than  necessary;  and  the  ne- 
csary  and  essential  parts  of  the 
hse  appear  to  have  made  part 

I     cthe  gvnaeceium. 

Riiom  boi  d,  (Gr.)  a  quadrilateral 
f  ire,  of  which  the  opposite  sides 
si  opposite  angles  are  respec- 
t?ly  equal. 

Rhombus,  (Gr.)  a  quadrilateral 
,      f'jre  whose  sides  are  all  equal, 
d  whose  opposite  angles  are  re- 
s  ctively  equal,  two  being  obtuse 
tp  two  acute. 

Rhyparographia,  a  kind  of 
i?rior  painting  among  the  an- 
cnts,  which  consisted  in  repre- 
ssing common  inns.  The  forty- 
trd  plate  of  the  third  volume  of 
t'  Pitture  cCErcolano  furnishes 
i  with  an  example.  Pliny  and 
™  Vruvius  mention  these  rhyparo- 
K  £phic  paintings,  with  which  they 
(2n  adorned  the  walls,  &c.  of 
t  ir  houses. 

Rib,  (Sax.)  an  arched  piece  of 
t.ber,  sustaining  the  plaster-work 
c'a  vault,  &c. 

Ribbet,  the  recess  in  a  wall 
t  receive  a  door  or  window- 
sitter,  as  it  folds  back  when 
c:ned. 

Rideau,  in  fortification,  a  small 
f  nation  of  earth,  extending  length- 
\ys,  to  cover  a  camp,  or  add  an 
£  antage  to  a  post ;  also,  a  ditch, 
t  earth  of  which  is  thrown  upon 
i  side. 

iiDGE,  (  hrigg,  Saxon,  )  the 
t  of  the  roof,  which  rises  to  an 
i  te  angle. 

Iight  Angle  an  angle  of  ninety 
c';rees. 

Right  Line,  a  line  perfectly 
Slight. 

2P 


RO  A 

Right  Circle,  a  circle  drawn 
at  right  angles  with  the  plane  of 
projection. 

Roads.  The  Romans  were  pecu- 
liarly industrious  in  the  construc- 
tion of  roads.  The  ancient  Britons 
had  many  great  roads  running  in 
different  directions  through  the 
island  ;  and  several  British  roads 
were  adopted  by  the  Romans,  and 
improved  according  to  their  own 
mode  of  road-making.  When  we 
remember  the  great  number  of 
British  towns  which  were  retained 
by  the  Romans,  and  fortified  by 
them  as  stations  or  settlements,  we 
may  readily  believe  that  many 
roads,  now  supposed  to  be  purely 
Roman,  were  really  formed  in  the 
line  of  previous  British  trackways. 
The  Romans  worked  with  the  hand 
of  conquest,  and  all  but  such  na- 
tural obstacles  as  were  quite  supe- 
rior to  the  efforts  of  human  skill 
and  labour,  yielded  to  their  perse- 
verance; and  it  appears  from  actual 
investigation,  that  all  Roman  roads 
run  invariably  in  a  straight  line, 
except  where  they  meet  with  some 
local  impediment,  such  as  a  steep 
mountain  or  a  deep  ravine,  or  where 
they  bend  out  of  their  general  di- 
rection, to  approach  or  leave  a  sta- 
tion, or  to  throw  off  some  vicinal 
road.  (Leman  on  the  Roman  Roads, 
&c;  Introduction  to  Nichols's  Hist, 
of  Leicestershire,  p.  119.)  The 
Roman  military  road,  in  Britain, 
consisted  of  an  artificial  fabric, 
composed  of  chalk,  pebble-stones, 
or  gravel,  raised  to  a  considerable 
height  above  the  level  of  the  natu- 
ral soil.  These  materials  were  of- 
ten brought  from  a  distant  tract 
of  country;  and  instances  are  yet 
to  be  seen,  of  the  road  rising  to  the 
height  of  ten  feet,  in  a  crest  of 
emphatical  but  deserted  grandeur. 
The  occurrence  of  so  great  an  ele- 
vation was  most  frequent  on  heaths, 
covered  with  long  stubbed  or  pol- 


RO  A 


ROA 


lard  oaks ;  and  it  has  been  conjec- 
tured, that  such  was  the  aspect  of 
a  great  part  of  Britain,  in  the  early 
periods  of  the  Roman  ascendancy  ; 
and  that  the  forest  trees  in  the  vici- 
nity of  a  great  military  thorough- 
fare were  thus  decapitated  for  the 
security  of  an  army  on  its  march, 
by  revealing  the  recesses  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  precluding 
the  danger  of  surprise.  The  most 
considerable  of  the  Roman  ways 
were  paved  with  stones :  when  the 
surface  did  not  consist  of  large 
paving  stones,  it  was  composed  of 
gravel,  and  the  durability  of  the 
road  was  greatly  assisted  by  excel- 
lent drains,  disposed  with  much 
care  and  judgment.  For  more 
copious  information  on  the  con- 
struction of  Roman  roads,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Bergier's  "  His- 
toire  des  Grands  Chemins  de  l'Em- 
pire  Romain,"  &c. 

Miss  Knightdivides  Roman  roads 
into  stratas  vias,  pebbles  and  gra- 
vel, like  ours;  vias  silice  stratas, 
paved  with  large  unequal  stones ; 
and  vias  saxo  et  lapide  quadrato 
stratas y  a  kind  of  flagged  pave- 
ments. In  some  roads  four  strata 
occur:  (1)  the  statumen,  or  foun- 
dation, all  sand  and  soft  matter 
being  carefully  removed  ;  (2)  rude- 
ratio,  a  bed  of  broken  earthenware, 
tiles,  &c.  set  in  cement;  (3)  nu- 
cleus, a  bed  of  mortar;  (4)  summa 
crusta,  the  outer  coat  of  bricks, 
tiles,  stones,  or  other  materials. 

Along  the  sides  of  the  Roman 
roads,  in  Italy,  temples,  ©dicula, 
triumphal  arches,  villas,  groves, 
gardens,  &c.  were  thrown  together 
in  the  most  picturesque  irregula- 
rity; porticos  afforded  shade,  and 
inns  shelter,  refreshment,  or  repose, 
to  the  traveller. 

The  Greeks  commonly  paved 
their  ways  with  large  square  blocks 
of  stones,  unlike  the  roads  of  the 
Romans,  which  are  composed  of 

,  298 


irregular  polygons.  The  anc  ,t 
road  from  lolis  to  Carthsea, 
cording  to  Toumefort,  the  firt 
thing  of  the  kind,  which  can  j. 
haps  be  found  in  all  Greece,  !  1 
exists.  He  traced  it  for  the 
miles  in  extent,  flanking  the  si  s 
of  the  hills,  and  standing  by* 
strong  wall,  of  which  the  copr 
consisted  of  immense  blocks  oi 
greyish  stone. 

The  British  roads,  before  » 
Roman  invasion,  were  not  pai 
or  gravelled  :  they  were  sometii  5 
elevated  terraces,  and  their  bf$ 
was  the  firm  and  verdant  it 
They  are  very  commonly  atteiuil 
by  tumuli  or  barrows,  and  vesti  5 
of  villages  and  settlements  ; 
sometimes  found  near  them.  rJ> 
Romans  adopted  the  British  tov; 
and  trackways  whenever  they  fou 
them  convenient.  New  Ronu 
roads  sometimes  run  parallel  1 
them.  The  chief  British  tra<- 
ways  adopted  by  the  Romans, 
the  Foss-road  and  Ikenild-street. 

Among  the  old  English  we  fi 
roads  made  of  mortar  and  stone, : 
wood  and  stone,  and  roads  for  c 
riages,  distinguished  from  brid 
ways.  The  Anglo-Saxons  call 
the  old  Roman  roads,  milita 
ways ;  the  British  trackways,  t 
country  roads;  and  they  distinguis 
ed  the  high-ways  as  anes  weens gm 
(one  waggon's  way)  which  was  fc 
feet  broad,  and  twegna  wee 
ganweg,  (two  waggons'  way,)  whi 
was  perhaps  eight  or  more. 

In  Mr.  Mc.  Adam's  observatic 
on  the  arrangement  of  roads, 
observes,  "  The  reason  we  requ 
artificial  roads  in  Europe  is,  tl 
the  soil  becomes  soft  from  wetne: 
were  the  natural  earth  always  d  , 
nothing  could  be  preferable,  fi 
being  travelled  upon,  it  would  nev 
wear  out,  nor  would  any  carria!;, 
however  heavy,  sink  in  it.  II 
object  to  be  aimed  at,  therefore.  1 


ROE 


ROM 


t  keep  the  natural  soil  dry,  and 
«g  may  be  done  both  by  defend- 
j  it  from  ground  water,  and  from 
it  which  falls  from  above.  In 
t  knowledge  of  the  measures  re- 
c  site  to  effect  these  objects,  con- 
s's  the  whole  science  of  road- 
uking." 

\  patent  was  given  to  Mr.  Parker 
f  an  improved  miethod  of  paving 
rds.  The  method  of  paving 
yts  of  roads,  for  which  this  pa- 
tt  has  been  granted,  consists  in 
fning  two  parallel  rows  or  lines, 
ohard  materials,  at  a  proper  dis- 
t  ce  asunder  to  support  the  wheels 
ohecarriages,  which  distance  must 
b regulated  by  the  medium  length 
o  heir  axles;  thus  forming  a  way 
o  rack  for  them,  similar  to  a  rail- 
r  d.  Five  varieties  of  this  method 
a( described  by  the  patentee;  the 
m  first  relating  to  stone  rail-ways, 
a  the  fifth  to  a  compound  rail- 
v  of  stone  and  iron.  In  all  the 
n'hods  of  making  the  stone  ways, 
kte  blocks  of  granite,  of  a  suitable 
bidth  and  depth,  which  latter  is 
n  particularized,  (but  probably 
n  d  not  exceed  a  foot  either  way,) 
a  laid  level  in  the  manner  before 
mtioned,  and,  where  the  ground 
is'Dft,  must  have  sleepers  of  stone 
O'uher  fit  material  placed  beneath 
tl  r  joints  ;  but  when  the  ground 
is'ard  enough,  the  mode  of  joint- 
it  these  stones  (in  which  the  dif- 
f(  nee  of  the  four  first  varieties 
c  sist)  will  support  them  in  their 
p  :es  sufficiently,  without  any 
H  pers. 

Rochester  Castle,  see  Castle. 

ioe-Stone,  or  Oolite,  a  kind 
o  me-stone  found  under  chalk  in 
v  ous  parts  of  England,  generally 
s<  trated  from  it  by  beds  of  sand 
a  clay.  Different  strata  of  it  are 
c:ed  in  Northamptonshire,  Ketten 
in  Somersetshire,  the  Bath 
fi  stone:  and  in  the  isle  of  Port- 
In,  Portland  stone.    It  is  one 


of  the  secondary  lime-stones,  and 
may  be  considered  as  belonging  to 
the  chalk  formation.  It  is  compos- 
ed of  small  round  globules,  resem- 
bling in  some  measure  the  roes  of  fish. 

Rolls,  in  Gothic  architecture, 
mouldings  representing  bent  cylin- 
ders. 

Roman  Architecture.  The 
Romans  received  their  first  notions 
of  architecture  from  the  Etruscans. 
In  true  taste  they  were  always  far 
inferior  to  the  Greeks,  but  they  have 
the  merit  of  bringing  to  perfection 
the  ornamental  part,  and  of  having 
raised  edifices  neglected  by  the 
Greeks,  such  as  public  roads,  aque- 
ducts, cloaci,  amphitheatres,  and 
triumphal  arches.  Under  the  first 
kings  they  thought  more  of  enlarg- 
ing than  of  embellishing  the  city. 
Every  temple  built  at  this  period 
was  small  and  square,  being 
scarcely  large  enough  to  contain 
the  statue  of  the  deity  to  whom  it 
was  dedicated.  The  houses,  agree- 
ably to  the  name  given  them  (tecta,) 
were  but  miserable  cabins.  They 
were  not  formed  into  regular  streets, 
but  thrown  together  as  chance  di- 
rected. The  walls  were  half  mud, 
and  the  roofs  pieces  of  boards;  and 
even  this  was  a  later  improvement; 
for  in  the  time  of  Romulus,  the 
houses  were  only  of  straw,  and 
from  thence  called  culmina.  The 
palace  of  the  kings  was  a  little 
thatched  house,  which  is  called  by 
Ovid  and  Livy  a  cottage.  Any 
thing  finer  than  ordinary  was  ap- 
propriated to  the  embellishment  of 
the  temples.  The  chief  ornaments, 
both  of  the  temples  and  the  houses, 
were  their  trophies,  which  were 
trunks  of  trees  loaded  with  the  arms 
taken  in  war;  and  permission  to  raise 
these  was  at  first  given  only  to  pa- 
tricians, it  having  some  privileges 
attached  to  it.  Ancus  Martius 
built  the  city  and  port  of  Ostia,  ."it 
the  mouth  of  the  Tiber.  Tarquinius 


ROM 


ROM 


the  Elder  established  the  grand  cir- 
cus; he  caused  the  walls  to  be  re- 
built with  large  hewn  stones,  and  con- 
structed the  great  cloacus,  which  was 
finished  by  Tarquinius  the  Proud, 
and  of  which  the  remains  are  still 
to  be  seen.  After  the  expulsion  of 
the  kings,  the  first  works  for  the 
embellishment  of  the  city  were  the 
finishing  of  the  capitol,  which  Tar- 
quinius Superbus  had  begun,  and 
the  Campus  Martius  for  the  gym- 
nastic exercises  of  the  young  Ro- 
mans. In  the  different  wars  which 
the  Romans  made  on  their  neigh- 
bours, the  generals  made  vows  of 
dedicating  temples  to  the  divinities 
whose  assistance  they  had  invoked, 
and  the  plunder  of  the  vanquished 
people  was  in  part  consecrated  to 
this  purpose.  However,  in  the  time 
of  Furius  Camillus,  Rome  must 
have  been  very  badly  built,  for  the 
people  wanted  to  leave  it,  and  settle 
in  the  conquered  city  of  Veii.  In 
the  war  with  the  Gauls,  the  latter 
took  the  city,  and  burnt  it;  as  the 
greater  part  of  the  temples  had  not 
suffered  from  the  fire,  and  as  the 
private  habitations  were  but  cabins, 
the  city  was  rebuilt  in  a  short  time, 
but  with  so  much  haste  that  no 
plan  was  followed ;  the  streets  were 
made  narrow  and  crooked,  and  the 
cloaci,  which  were  originally  under 
the  streets,  now  ran  under  the 
houses  and  courts.  Amongst  the 
temples  which  the  Roman  generals 
had  built  in  fulfilment  of  the  vows 
they  had  made  in  their  different 
expeditions,  the  most  distinguished 
was  that  of  Quirinus,  built  by  Papi- 
rius  Cursor,  after  the  victory  over 
the  Sarnnites,  because  the  first 
solar  quadrant  at  Rome  was  affixed 
to  it.  The  censor  Appius  Claudius 
made  the  first  via,  or  paved  way, 
and  the  first  aqueduct,  both  which 
bore  his  name.  The  aqueduct 
reached  from  Praeneste  to  Rome, 
and   the  Appian  way  led  from 

300 


Rome  to  Capua,  and  was  a  r- 
wards  continued  to  Brundusijn, 
During  the  two  first  Punic  \L 
many  temples  were  built  at  Rde 
but  they  do  not  appear  to  l!/e 
been  of  great  extent,  since  for  at 
which  Fulvius  Flaccus  raisecito 
equestrian  fortune  after  the  ir 
with  the  Celtiberians,  only  hal  Df 
the  marble  tiles  were  eniploid, 
which  he  had  carried  away  fin 
the  temple  of  Juno  Laciniaiit 
Crotona,  to  cover  it.  The  Roi  n 
power  had  now  arrived  at  a  g  it 
height ;  most  of  the  rich  citi:|is 
quitted  the  country  where  they  Sd 
hitherto  lived,  and  settled  in  ie 
city,  and  from  this  time  Rome;- 
gan  to  be  embellished.  Cato  lit 
a  basilica,  surnamed  Porcia ;  d 
Titus  Sempronius  built  anotr, 
called  Sempronia.  The  censs, 
Fulvius  Fiaccus  and  A.  Postums 
Albinus,  contributed  much  to  e 
embellishment  of  the  city;  ty 
paved  it,  adorned  it  with  portn, 
enlarged  the  circus,  and  made  p* 
lic  ways  and  bridges  on  the  outs;. 
A  little  before  the  third  Punic  \  r, 
Rome  had  no  theatre:  for  eh 
representation  a  temporary  see 
was  erected,  and  the  specta  s 
ranged  themselves  before  it  in  e 
public  places.  When  at  this  te 
the  censors  Messala  and  Cas;s 
wished  to  build  a  theatre,  e 
senate,  at  the  proposal  of  P.  Cm 
Nasica,  forbade  it  as  an  unr- 
taking  which  might  be  injurious 
the  people. 

By  degrees,  as  the  Romans  ■ 
tended  their  conquests,  they  tra- 
ported  to  Rome  a  great  numbe  >f 
works  of  art,  as  paintings,  stat  s, 
&c,  and  adorned  their  houses  vh 
them.  Their  architecture  still  c»- 
tinued  in  the  Etruscan  style,  d 
the  whole  embellishment  of  t  ir 
temples  consisted  in  adorning  th i, 
generally  without  any  taste,  W 
the  statues,  &c,  which  they  W 


ROM 


ROM 


ca  ed  away  from  the  conquered 
f  coitries ;  it  was  not  till  the  time 
N  of  ulla  tnat  tney  Degan  t0  imitate 
th  architecture   of  the  Greeks. 
Tt  i  temples  were  built  either  of 
br;,  or  of  such   stone  as  was 
fe  d  in  the  vicinity:  it  was  only 
n  ater  times  that  the  Romans 
w  acquainted  with  marble,  which 
m  brought  to  Rome  from  Greece. 
M  :llus  Macedonicus,  the  eontem- 
L  pc  ry  of  Mummius  the  conqueror 
of  orinth,  was  the  first  who  built 
atRome  a   temple  of  marble. 
'    Fin  this  time  most  of  the  grand 

*  edces,  and  particularly  the  tem- 

*  pi,  were  built  of  this  material, 
tit!  airbricks  were  only  employed  to 
i  fil  ip  the  interior  of  the  walls,  and 
dpi  fo  vaults.  From  this  time  the 
toil  R  tans  employed  Grecian  archi- 
1  te|,  as  before  they  had  made  use 
v  ofEtruscans,  and   they  carried 

Inn  av/  many  of  the  columns  from 
he  d  th  buildings  in  Greece,  to  adorn 
i nil  th,  own  at  Rome.    Thus  it  was 
ad   th  Sulla  carried  away  the  co- 
i    lu  is,  «&c,  from   the  temple  of 
ii;d    J l  ter  Olympius,  at  Athens,  to 
lire    en  jllish  that  of  Jupiter  Capitoli- 
ll    We  know  little  of  the  Ro- 
m;  architects  who  had  studied  in 
i  f    Gi  ce.    In  the  time  of  Antiochus 
Ephanes,  there  was  at  Athens  a 
a   R<ian  called  Cossutius,  who  was 
en  oyed  by  that  king  in  the  erec- 
3|tl  tic'of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Olym- 
r  pii  and  who   is   mentioned  by 
n  Vijvius   as  a  skilful  architect. 

M  ius,  who  had  the  charge  of  the 
p   co  truction  of  the  temple  of  Ho- 
■    no  and  Virtue,  built  by  order  of 
M  us,  was  also  a  Roman,  and 
ha  studied  the  architecture  of  tbe 
■|i   Gi  ks.    The  two  brothers  Caius 
in  Marcus  Stallius,  built  by  order 
of  riobarzanes,  king  of  Cappado- 
cbthe  odeon   at  Athens,  which 
ha  been  burnt  during  the  siege  by 
(    Sun.    From  this  period  the  city 
of'omc  began  to  be  embellished 


with  fine  edifices,  amongst  which 
are  particularly  remarked  several 
theatres,  as  that  of  Scaurus,  which 
was  capable  of  holding  80,000 
spectators,  and  that  of  Curio,  which 
was  moveable,  and  of  which  might 
be  formed  an  amphitheatre,  a  kind 
of  building  unknown  before.  These 
buildings,  though  richly  adorned, 
were  however  but  temporary.  Pom- 
pey  erected  the  first  theatre  of 
stone,  which  might  endure  from 
one  representation  to  another.  To 
him  and  to  Caesar,  Rome  owes 
many  fine  monuments  of  archi- 
tecture. 

The  taste  for  Grecian  architec- 
ture influenced  also  the  construc- 
tion of  private  edifices,  and  parti- 
cularly the  country  houses,  where 
the  rich  Romans  rivalled  each  other 
in  splendour.  The  peaceable 
reign  of  Augustus  was  particularly 
favourable  to  the  progress  of  archi- 
tecture. He  had  conceived  the 
project  of  making  Rome  the  most 
splendid  city  in  the  world;  and  he 
was  not  content  with  himself  em- 
bellishing it  with  a  number  of  fine 
edifices,  but  also  engaged  his 
friends  to  follow  his  example.  He 
built  a  portico,  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  his  sister  Octavia,  the 
new  forum,  and  the  temple  of 
Mars  ultor;  the  basilica,  in  honour 
of  Caius  and  Lucius;  the  temple 
of  Apollo,  with  a  portico,  where  he 
established  a  bibliotheca  or  library  ; 
the  mausoleum  for  him?«lf  and  his 
family,  was  one  of  his  most  ele- 
gant buildings :  he  also  built  a 
theatre,  which  he  called  the  theatre 
of  Marcellus,  from  the  name  of  one 
of  his  friends,  who  died  during  its 
erection.  (See  Theatre.)  The 
edifices  built  by  the  companions  of 
Augustus  were,  a  temple  of  Her- 
cules Musagetes,  by  Marcius  Pht- 
lippus;  a  temple  of  Diana,  by  L. 
Cornificius;  a  temple  of  Saturn, 
by  Munatius  Plancus;  the  Atrium 


R  O  M 


ROM 


Libertatis,  by  Asinius  Pollio ;  the 
temples  of  Concord  and  of  Castor 
and  Pollux,  by  Tiberius;  a  theatre 
by  Cornelius  Balbus ;  and  an  Am- 
phitheatre by  Statilius  Taurus. 
Agrippa  distinguished  himself  by 
his  grand  edifices,  such  as  aque- 
ducts, fountains,  basins,  baths,  &c. 
but  more  particularly  by  the  erec- 
tion of  the  Pantheon. 

For  a  long  time  the  artists  of 
Greece  and  the  east  had  been  ac- 
customed to  repair  to  Rome,  where 
they  were  esteemed  and  sought 
after.  Their  number  was  greatly 
increased  under  Augustus,  but  we 
know  few  of  them  by  name.  Of 
this  number  were  Cyrus,  celebrated 
in  the  time  of  Cicero,  Posphorus, 
one  of  the  architects  of  Augustus, 
Saurus  and  Batrackus,  who  built 
the  temple  behind  the  portico  of 
Octavia,  C.  Posthumius  and  X. 
Cocceius  Ametus,  employed  by 
Agrippa,  in  the  environs  of  Naples, 
the  latter  of  whom,  who  was  a  disci- 
ple of  the  former,  made  the  exca- 
vation now  called  the  grotto  of 
Pouzzuolo,  and  is  supposed  to  have 
built  the  temple  at  Pouzzuolo  or 
Puteoli,  which  was  dedicated  to 
Augustus.  Valerius,  a  Roman 
born  at  Ostia,  was  the  architect  of 
the  Pantheon,  and  built  also  a 
theatre  at  Rome.  Amongst  the 
architects  of  this  time,  Vitruvius 
Pollio  is  known  by  his  writings,  the 
only  work  that  has  come  down  to 
us  on  the  subject.  His  freedman 
Vitruvius  Cerdon  introduced  the 
ornaments  which  had  been  im- 
proved by  his  master. 

At  the  time  when  the  Romans 
learnt  to  appreciate  the  architec- 
ture of  the  Greeks,  it  had  already 
lost  much  of  its  perfection ;  it  re- 
vived at  Rome  under  Augustus, 
but  it  partook  of  the  character  of 
the  time;  elegance  was  preferred 
to  simple  and  majestic  beauty. 
Nevertheless,  the  exterior  of  build- 

302 


ings  was  not  as  yet  overchar  i 
with  ornaments,  they  were  rat  x 
reserved  for  the  interior.  aC 
the  burning  of  Rome  by  Nero,  t  t 
emperor  employed  Celer  and  S(L 
rus  to  rebuild  several  of  the  <L 
flees,  and  principally  to  raise  tl.t 
golden  house  which  surpassed  n 
richness  all  that  existed  in  e 
world.  Under  the  first  success  s 
of  Augustus  architecture  fell  i ) 
decline.  It  began  to  rise  agi 
under  Vespasian  and  his  s  - 
cessors,  but  the  taste  was  aire;/ 
too  much  corrupted,  to  allow,  eji 
under  the  reign  of  Adrian,  yk 
was  a  great  encourager  of  the  a  , 
of  the  correction  of  its  faults,  f 
which  one  of  the  principal  w 
that  of  wishing  to  surpass  the  grt 
masters  of  former  times,  whi 
they  endeavoured  to  do  by  ov- 
loading  their  buildings  with  b- 
reliefs  and  other  ornaments.  1> 
principal  edifice  of  Vespasian  is  $ 
great  amphitheatre,  which  v; 
built  nearly  in  the  middle  of  ; 
city,  and  which  was  the  first  st(> 
edifice  of  this  nature.  Among  11 
edifices  that  were  constructed  t 
Rome,  under  the  emperors  u> 
succeeded  him,  the  most  dist - 
guished  are  the  triumphal  archf 
Titus,  the  stadium,  the  naumach, 
the  Odeon,  and  the  forum  begun 
Domitian  and  completed  by  Ner . 
The  palace  of  Domitian  was  bi 
for  Rabirius.  Frontinus  hi, 
under  Nerva,  the  direction  of  1: 
aqueducts:  under  Trajan  flourish. 
Apollodorus,  who  fell  a  victim  i 
the  jealousy  of  the  prince, 
blaming  his  architectural  plan 
C.  Julius  Lacerus  built  in  i 
honour  a  temple  in  Spain.  T: 
most  remarkable  edifices  in  tl 
reign  are  the  forum,  and  t: 
column  and  triumphal  arch  i 
Trajan.  No  emperor  built  mc 
edifices  than  Adrian;  he  built  t; 
maison  carree  at  Nismes;  in  So 


ROM 


ROO 


|a  ,  a  wall  which  was  eighty  miles 
]0  ;  he  rebuilt  Jerusalem,  which 
;   dimmed  ALlia.  Capitolina ;  and 
he-rebuilt  part  of  the  temple  of 
Ji.ter  Olympius  at  Athens ;  Detri- 
aft  was  his  principal  architect. 
Tl  edifices  of  this  time  are  the 
vi  which  bore  the  name  of  the 
ereror,  and  the  iElian  bridge, 
(g  Adrian,  Adrian  s  Villa,  Advi- 
ce Vallum,   Mausoleum,   &c.  ) 
U  er  the  Antonines  were  erected 
tb  temple  of  Faustina  and  Antoni- 
m  the  column  of  this  emperor 
ai  that  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  with- 
01  reckoning  numerous  temples 
ai  other  edifices  in  the  provinces, 
i:    ai  the  rebuilding  of  Smyrna,  Lao- 
d-i  a,  and   other  cities   of  Asia 
Bon  After  the  Antonines,  archi- 
1    teure  fell  with  the  empire  into 
d(  ine,  as  may  be  seen  by  the 
an  of  Septimius  Severus.  Under 
1     A  (ander  Severus,  the  artists  were 
ei  )uraged,  and  he  erected  several 
ec  ces;  but  architecture  had  fallen 
to  much,  to  revive :  it  continued 
!iE    to  lecline,  till  at  length  it  became 
m'strous.     Under  the  reign  of 
>    Cstantine  the  Great,  many  tem- 
"i    pi1  and  Christian  churches  were 
8    mi  at  Rome,  which  prove  in  an 
! E   in  ntestable  degree  the  bad  taste 
(     of  it*  age.    The  practice  was  now 
in  duced,  of  despoiling  the  old 
!    ei  ces  of  their  ornaments  for  the 
erellishment  of  the  new.  After 
*    Cstantine  had  fixed  the  seat  of 
th empire  at  Byzantium,  and  the 
p6leof  the  north  had  begun  to 
i    thaten  the  empire  by  their  excur- 
sus, architecture  fell  to  its  lowest 
st  e,  and  instead  of  embellishing 
ci  s,  the  emperors  thought  only  of 
bt  ling  fortresses.  Under  Constan- 
tii  however,  Metrodorus  is  men- 
tis! as  a  skilful  artist,  but  none 
of  is  works  are  known. 

omax  Ornament.  In  the 
pl^s  Roman  Ornament  and  Ro- 
ut Mosaic  Pavement,  are  given 


some  of  the  most  elegant  designs 
that  have  been  found  among  the 
ornaments  of  ancient  Roman  se- 
pulchres and  tesselated  pavements, 
or  Mosaics. 

Roman  Order,  another  name 
for  the  Composite  Order:  see  Or- 
der. 

Roman  Vaulting,  a  term  ap- 
plied by  some  to  a  vault  built  in  the 
following  manner :  each  vault  being 
built  exactly  as  if  it  were  single, 
the  two  vaults  will  meet  in  an  edge 
or  groin  of  a  regular  elliptical  form, 
lying  diagonally  across  the  com- 
partment, and  the  lines  running 
along  the  top  of  each  vault  will  be 
horizontal  lines. 

Romanesque  Arch,  see  Arch. 

Rome,  a  city  of  Italy,  situated 
on  seven  hills,  called,  severally, 
Palatinus,  Capitolinus,  Aventinus, 
Janiculus,  Cselius,  Esquilinus,  and 
Quirinalis.  See  Roman  Architec- 
ture. Many  of  the  principal  edifices 
of  ancient  and  modern  Rome  are 
described  under  their  proper  articles, 
as  Amphitheatre,  Aqueduct,  Pan- 
theon, Peters,  St.  &c.  For  a  fuller 
account,  the  following  works  may 
be  consulted :  Buonaventura,  Re- 
liquiae Antiquae  Urbis  Rcmanae  ; 
Cassas,  Grandes  Vues  Pittoresques, 
&c. ;  Parcier  et  Fontaine,  Palais, 
Maisons,  et  autres  Edifices,  &c.  a 
Rome.  See  also  Zoega,  Piranesi, 
and  Eustace,  with  the  other  tra- 
vellers. 

Rood-loft,  (rode,  Sax.  a  cross,) 
a  gallery  between  the  nave  and 
choir  in  churches,  in  front  of  which, 
towards  the  nave,  stood  the  rood 
or  cross,  and  images  of  saints.  The 
rood-lofts  of  English  cathedrals 
have  often  been  occupied  in  later 
times  by  organs.  At  Gilden  Mor- 
den,  in  Cambridgeshire,  the  rood- 
loft  is  very  large  and  complete, 
having  a  double  screen  forming 
two  pews,  about  six  feet  square,  on 
each  side  of  the  passage  to  the 


ROO 


ROD 


chancel;  the  upper  parts  are  of 
light  open  Gothic  work,  of  the 
fifteenth  century :  the  lower  part 
is  painted  with  flowers,  and  has 
figures  of  Edmund  and  Erkenwald, 
with  their  names  and  inscriptions. 

Rood-tower,  or  Rood -steeple, 
the  building  at  the  intersection  of 
the  nave  and  transept  of  a  church, 
which  covered  the  rood-loft,  &c. 

Roof,  (Sax.)  the  covering  of  a 
house,  which  shelters  the  interior 
from  the  action  of  the  weather. 
The  ancient  roofs,  according  to 
Vitruvius,  consisted  of  the  follow- 
ing parts  ;  Trabes,  a  beam  or  wall 
plate,  being  the  timber  which  is 
laid  upon  the  walls,  columns,  &c. 
to  receive  and  distribute  the  pres- 
sure ;  Culmen,  the  top  or  ridge. 
Columen,  the  king  post  ;  Tran- 
strce,  the  principal  rafters ;  Ca- 
preoli,  struts  or  braces  ;  Canterii, 
small  or  common  rafters,  project- 
ing to  the  extremities  of  the  eaves; 
Templa,  cross  or  longitudinal 
pieces,  which  supported  the  as- 
sercs,  or  laths.  In  PI.  Temple, 
fig.  13  shows  a  transverse  section 
through  the  roof  of  an  ancient 
temple,  according  to  Vitruvius,  a, 
the  trabs,  b  b,  the  tigna,  c  c,  axis, 
d,  transtrum,  e,  capreolus,  f,  coin- 
men,  g  g,  canterii,  h  h,  templa,  i  i, 
anseres.  The  trabs,  or  beams, 
which  were  placed  immediately 
upon  the  columns  and  antae,  were 
notched,  in  order  to  preserve  the 
tigna  in  their  positions :  these  in- 
cisions were  termed  cubilia  by  the 
Romans,  and  opce  by  the  Greeks ; 
whence  the  intervals  between  two 
were  called  mctopaz. 

The  simplest  form  of  a  roof  is, 
when  one  side  of  the  building  be- 
ing higher  than  the  other,  pieces 
of  wood  are  laid  across  in  the  posi- 
tion of  an  inclined  plane.  This  is 
called  a  shed-roof,  or  lean-to,  but 
is  only  practicable,  except  as  wings 
to  larger  ones,  in  such  buildings  as 


a  cow-shed  or  a  pig-sty.  R(_ 
angular  buildings  are,  theref»j; 
usually  covered  by  a  roof,  whL 
vertical  section  is  an  isosceles  . 
angle.  The  height,  or  pitch  of  e 
roof  was  formerly  made  in  Engl;  ] 
very  high,  and  there  are  some  - 
stances  in  which  the  angle  cont;  % 
more  than  sixty  degrees.  The  ru 
of  the  present  day  have  generiy 
an  angle  of  not  more  than  th 
degrees.  High  roofs  are,  howei, 
the  most  advantageous  in  poin  f 
durability  in  our  climate.  In  e;- 
em  countries,  the  roofs  are  gi 
rally  made  flat.  The  principal dis  - 
vantageof  this  form  is  there obvial 
by  the  regularity  of  the  dim;. 
When  the  sides  of  the  roof  o\ 
building  are  all  inclined,  it  is  call 
a  hipped  or  hip-roof.'  If  the  incliil 
sides  are  not  carried  up  till  ti/ 
meet, but  are  finished  in  a  horizorl 
plane,  it  is  said  to  be  truncal. 
When  the  roof  of  a  circular  bui- 
ing  is  constructed  in  the  form  ci 
cone,  it  is  a  revolved  roof.  If 
roof  of  a  circular  or  regular  pc- 
gonal  building  is  of  such  a  form  > 
to  have  its  section  a  regular  curr 
it  is  termed  a  dome. 

The  chief  part  of  a  roof  of  ; 
most  common  and  simplest  ob- 
struction, whose  sides  incline  en 
way,  is  a  truss.  The  principle! 
the  truss  may  be  thus  explainc 
two  pieces  of  wood  simply  incliil 
to  meet  in  the  middle,  with  tl  r 
extremities  resting  on  the  w , 
would  have  the  greatest  possi; 
tendency  to  thrust  them  out ; ) 
obviate  this,  a  cross  beam  is  in- 
duced, which  acts  as  a  string  ) 
hold  them  together ;  and  since  f 
the  span  be  considerable,  this  be  i 
is  liable  from  its  length  to  sink* 
the  middle,  a  post  is  suspend 
from  the  vertex,  and  attached  5 
the  beam,  and,  from  the  point  t 
intersection,  two  other  pieces  pi 
obliquely  to  the  centre  of  the  t) 


R  O  O 


RO 


rces  which  form  the  exterior  of 

1  frame.  The  large  horizontal 
jces  are  called  the  beams,  and 
my  rest  at  each  end  on  the  wall 
iites,  and  any  other  beams  above 

2  called  collar  beams.  The  per- 
iocular piece  is  called  the  king 
yt,  and  in  large  roofs  there  are 
c  er  perpendicular  pieces  called 
^en  posts.  The  inclined  pieces 
v:ch  pass  from  the  base  of  the 
I  g-post  to  the  middle  of  the  out- 
S2  inclined  pieces,  are  called 
$  uts,  and  these  latter  are  termed 
t  principal  rafters.  The  piece 
vich  is  parallel  to  the  wall-plates, 
al  supported  by  the  ends  of  the 
t  beams,  is  named  the  pole-plate, 
li  piece  which  runs  along  the 
t  is  called  the  ridge-piece,  and 
t  piece  which  runs  parallel  to 
t;  and  the  pole-plate,  half-way 
bwen  them,  is  called  the  purlin. 
1-  small  pieces,  running  parallel 
tithe  principal  rafters,  supported 
bihe  poie-plate  and  purlin,  and 
n  ing  in  the  ridge-piece  at  the 
e  emity,  are  called  common  raf- 
tr  or  spars.  The  head  of  the 
k^-post  is  formed  much  wider 
th  the  rest  of  it,  and  is  bevelled 
a'ipht  angles  with  the  inclination 
o  tie  rafter,  which  is  firmly  mor- 
tal into  it,  the  projecting  parts 
big  called  joggles.  An  iron 
Hp  is  sometimes  added  for 
g  iter  security,  bolted  into  each 
p  e.  Sometimes  the  king-post  is 
rr  tised  into  the  beam,  and  secur- 
er vith  pins,  but  the  best  way  is 
tcuspend  it  by  an  iron  strap  re- 
scuing a  stirrup,  which  passes 
rt  id  the  beam,  and  at  its  upper 
ei  is  fixed  to  the  king- post.  Fig. 
dt  )late  Carpentry,  C.  44.)  shows 
th  mode  of  joining  the  collar 
ht  n,  principal  rafter,  and  one  of 
th  queen- posts,  and  the  iron 
bi  es  to  protect  the  junction,  as 
es  uted  in  the  truss  of  the  roof  of 
Dry  Lane  Theatre.    Our  plates 

2Q 


of  roofs,  represent  a  section  of  the 
riding-house  built  at  Moscow,  an 
elevation,  part  of  the  roof  on  a 
larger  scale,  and  A,  B,  C,  the  mode 
of  joining  the  parts.  The  other 
plate  contains  the  roof  of  the  Shel- 
donian  theatre  at  Oxford,  and  that 
of  the  Argentine  theatre  at  Rome. 

In  some  roofs  are  used  punch- 
eons, or  short  transverse  pieces  of 
timber,  fixed  between  two  others 
to  support  them  equally;  strain- 
ing beams,  or  pieces  of  timber 
placed  between  two  queen-posts  at 
their  upper  end,  for  the  purpose  of 
withstanding  the  thrust  of  the  prin- 
cipal rafters;  straining  sills,  or 
pieces  of  timber  placed  upon  the 
tie-beam,  at  the  bottom  of  the 
queen-posts,  to  withstand  the  force 
of  the  braces,  which  are  acted  upon 
by  the  weight  of  the  covering; 
chamber  beams,  or  horizontal 
pieces  of  timber  made  on  the 
upper  edge  to  slope  from  the  mid- 
dle towards  each  end  in  an  obtuse 
angle,  for  discharging  the  water, 
and  placed  above  the  straining 
beam  in  a  truncated  roof,  to  fix 
the  boarding  on  which  the  lead  is 
laid  ;  and  auxiliary  rafters,  called 
sometimes  principal  braces  and 
cushion  rafters,  which  are  pieces 
of  timber  framed  in  the  same  ver- 
tical frame  with  the  principal  raf- 
ters under  them,  and  parallel  with 
them. 

In  roofs  of  rectangular  buildings, 
instead  of  a  lead  flat,  a  valley  is 
often  introduced,  which  makes  the 
vertical  section  in  the  form  of  the 
letter  M,  or  rather  of  an  inverted 
when  it  is  called  an  M  roof. 

The  most  common  pitch  of  a  roof 
for  slates,  is  that  whose  height  is 
one-fourth  of  the  span,  or  whose 
inclination  is  at  an  angle  of  26° 
30'  with  the  horizon.  If  we  take 
this  as  a  standard,  the  following 
table  will  show  the  degree  of  incli- 
nation for  other  materials. 

305 


R  O 


ROO 


VinA 

Tncli 
nation 

of  roof 

Weight  upon  ft 

of 

to  the 
hori- 

in part* 
of  the 

square  of 

covering. 

zon. 

Span. 

roofing. 

Copper,  lead, 

dey.  min. 

3  50 

is 

$Copperl00 
Head  700 

.Large  slatrs, 

li  V 

1 

6 

1120 

\ 

\from  500 

Com.  slates, 

26  33 

Ho  900 

Stone  slates, 

29  41 

2380 

Plain  tiles, 

29  41 

1780 

Pan-tiles 

24  0 

650 

Thatch, 

45  0 

h 

A  roof  of  an  improved  construc- 
tion, by  A.  H.  Holdsworth,  Esq.  is 
described  in  the  first  volume  of  the 
Register  of  Arts,  for  which  the 
Society  of  Arts  gave  their  silver 
medal.  In  this  method  of  roofing 
there  is  a  great  saving  of  timber ; 
and  the  gaining  the  whole  space 
under  the  roof  for  useful  purposes. 
A  A,  fig.  6,  plate  Carpentry  C.  xix. 
represents  the  walls  of  the  house 
B.,  one  of  the  timbers  of  the 
uppermost  floor,  resting  on  the 
sleepers  f  ft  which  are  let  into  the 
wall;  over  two  other  sleepers 
laid  in  the  top  of  the  wall,  are 
fitted  two  pieces  of  wood,  D  D. 
The  principal  rafters  C  C,  forming 
each  pair,  are  then  secured  at  the 
bottom,  into  the  pieces  D  D,  and 
are  fastened  to  each  other  at  the 
top  by  iron  pins.  Each  pair  of  the 
principal  rafters  C  C,  is  supported 
by  two  arch  pieces  E  E,  these 
pieces  are  in  their  grain,  and  are 
formed  on  the  plan  recommended 
by  Mr.  Hokey,  of  the  king's  yard 
at  Woolwich,  to  whom  the  country 
is  so  much  indebted  for  this  me- 
thod of  preparing  the  timber. 
They  are  cut  lengthways,  by  a 
saw,  into  three  pieces,  to  within 
two  feet  of  one  end,  are  then  placed 
in  a  steam-kiln,  and  boiled  until 
they  will  bend  freely,  when  they 
are  fixed  to  a  mould,  and  left  to 
cool;  after  which,  a  few  pins  of 
wood  are  driven  through,  to  keep 

306 


the  pieces  so  cut  from  again  flJL 
open.  The  arch  pieces  will 
little  out  of  shape  when  tafi 
from  the  mould,  but  will  be  ea 
brought  back,  and,  when  secu 
under  the  principal  rafters,  wil| 
the  more  firmly.  The  lower 
of  these  arch  pieces  are  insertec 
the  beam  B  of  the  floor,  and  ther  i 
firmly  pinned ;  while  at  the  d 
they  cross  one  another,  and  ei  i 
butts  against  its  opposite  raf . 
They  are  further  secured,  by  itji 
straps,  to  the  short  pieces  D  D,  i 
which  the  principal  rafters  n, 
thus  preventing  the  latter  frjj 
sinking  and  thrusting  out  the  \va  , 
and  making  the  whole  a  stiff? I 
complete  framing,  on  which  > 
longitudinal  rafters,  and  transvej 
pieces,  are  fastened  in  the  us  I 
manner.  The  most  important  «- 
cumstance  to  attend  to,  is  that  f 
bringing  the  feet  of  the  arch  pies 
so  far  down  the  wall,  as  to  ge 
them  a  firm  bearing.  Mr.  Hoi- 
worth  has  used  this  kind  of  roo j 
buildings  of  great  width,  and  - 
presses  his  entire  confidence  in  s 
belief,  that  it  may  be  advanta- 
ously  applied  to  any  extent  f 
building,  for  which  timber  of  su- 
cient  length  can  be  procured. 

Both  copper  and  iron  are  u  1 
for  covering  roofs  in  Sweden  ; 
iron  becomes  of  an  equal  redcu 
colour  throughout,  lasts  a  long  tii , 
and  is  very  secure.    The  cop 
soon  becomes  of  a  dirty  whi 
green,  but  very  unequal  cole, 
which  produces  a  very  disagt  - 
able  effect. 

The  spring  rafter,  invented  y 
Mr.  Smart  of  the  Ordinance  whf, 
Westminster  bridge,  received 
honorary  reward  of  the  Societ 
Arts.  For  roofs  nearly  flat, 
improved  method  is  found  hie 
advantageous.  A  square  spar/ 
the  usual  size  for  a  rafter,  is  it 
with  a  circular  saw,  as  represer  d 


ROO 

2§in    j  b  b,  figure  7,  (pi.  C.  xix.)  it  is 
en  again  cut,  as  represented  at 
«W    ij  at  right  angles  to  the  former 
*{h    itting,   and   at  equal  distances 
Iv      ,m  each  end;  and  lastly  a  thin 
ds:e  is  cut  out  of  the  two  places 
irked  d  d ;  the  two  pieces  c  d> 
k  then  to  be  gently  raised  up,  till 
ley  form  an    angle   of  ten  or 
e!ve  degrees  with  the  piece  b  b, 
(      Id  are  secured  to  their  place  by 
I  s     13  insertion  of  a  key-wedge  e,  of 
usoned  oak,  as  represented  at 
).  2.    It  is  evident  that  a  weight 
nk    jessing  on  the  key- wedge  of  this 
j'ter,  (the   ends  being  properly 
;oy[i|,    ipported,)  will  be  sustained  till 
In     iher  the  fibres  of  the  wood  form- 
on  ii    m  the  string  are  drawn  asunder, 
nk    <  till  the  lateral  cohesion  forming 
in!    |  butt-ends  of  the  rafters  are  de- 
iin|)K    i.oyed;  at  the  same  time  there  is 
I  to     i  lateral  pressure  on  the  wall,  or 
then    ner  support.    (See  Carpentry, 
ll-roof,  $c. 
|     Room,  a  part  of  a  house  enclos- 
kindt    <J  by  a  wa^>  anc*  entered  by  a 
fjdtl;    cpr,  as  a  kitchen,  parlour,  dining- 
ig     ],>m,  drawing-room,  chamber,  &c. 

'e  proportions  of  rooms  depend 
m     rich  on  their  use.    Their  length 
[jfllg    i  general  may  be  from  once  to 
proc|    tee  their  breadth;  but  they  are 
(nmonly  made  longer,  in  propor- 
^   in,  according  to  their  size :  thus 
{.mall  room  may  be  square,  while 
^    (i  of  very  large  dimensions  may 
I    1  in  length  at  least  twice  its 
lf|  ,   tyadth.   The  height  may  be  three- 
f  rths  of  the  breadth,  when  the 
(ling  is  flat;  but  when  it  is  coved 
(arched,  it  should  be  once  and  a 
frth,  or  more,  according  to  the 
ij.f  of  the  arch.    The  ornaments 
uhe  walls  of  rooms  are  columns, 
Hsters,  entablatures,  niches,  re- 
uses, and   panels,  with  foliage 
rd  other  embellishments.  When 
£  apartment  is  adorned  with  an 
(ire  order,  the  entablature  may 
(  upy  one-sixth  or  one-seventh  of 


ROS 

the  height:  if  a  cornice,  frieze, 
and  astragal  are  used,  they  may  be 
one-tenth.  Pilasters  should  not 
project  more  than  one-tenth,  or 
one-eighth  of  their  breadth ;  and 
all  proportions  should  be  much 
more  delicate  than  on  the  exterior 
of  the  building. 

Roporog  r a ph  y,  see  Arabesque. 

Rose,  or  Rosette,  an  ornament 
sculptured  in  the  centre  of  each 
face  of  the  abacus  of  the  Corin- 
thian capital. 

Rose  Window,  a  circular  win- 
dow, with  compartments  of  mul- 
lions  or  tracery,  branching  from  a 
centre;  it  is  sometimes  also  called 
a  Catherine-wheel,  or  marigold 
window. 

Rosslyn  Chapel,  in  Scotland, 
was  founded  by  William  Saint 
Clair,  earl  of  Caithness  and  Ork- 
ney, in  1446,  and  is  now  in  a  mu- 
tilated condition.  It  is  a  most 
remarkable  specimen  of  architec- 
ture, and  combines,  according  to 
the  description  of  Mr.  Gandy,  "the 
Egyptian,  Grecian,  Roman,  and 
Saracenic  styles."  Mr.  Britton,  in 
his  Architectural  Antiquities,  ob- 
serves, that  "  of  arches,  there  are 
more  than  thirteen  varieties  to  be 
found  in  this  building.  A  flat,  or 
segment,  beneath  the  roof  of  the 
aisles,  and  over  the  door  to  the 
sub-chapel;  semicircular  in  the 
vault  of  the  roof,  and  over  the  en- 
trance doors;  groined,  acutely 
pointed  over  the  western  aisles ; 
flat-pointed  between  the  centre  and 
side  aisles;  sharp-pointed  in  the 
lower  windows ;  ogee  to  the  pisci- 
nas: flattened,  and  latest  of  the 
pointed  style,  inside  of  the  door- 
way, south-side;  half  segment  in 
the  flying  buttresses;  counter  arch 
in  the  triangular  windows;  flat 
arch  and  segment  joined,  in  a  door 
in  the  vault ;  several  arches  of 
various  forms  in  the  windows, 
niches,  and  canopies,  aisc  in  the 


ROU 


ROU 


battlements."  The  exterior  of  this 
building  is  supported  by  twenty- 
one  buttresses,  surmounted  by  pin- 
nacles, and  differing  in  ornaments." 
Two  have  double  pinnacles,  the 
outer  shafts  of  which  are  smaller 
than  the  inner,  and  connected  by 
flying  abutments.  Even  the  win- 
dows that  answer  to  one  another 
in  situation  and  dimensions,  all 
differ  in  the  tracery  and  other  orna- 
ments. The  transom  of  the  arch 
of  the  windows  at  the  eastern  end 
is  decorated  with  half-figures  of 
persons  in  a  supplicating  attitude. 

Rost rom,  (  Lat.  )  The  place 
where  the  orators  pleaded  at  Rome. 
The  rostrum  was  a  kind  of  square 
pulpit,  supported  by  columns,  and 
ornamented  with  a  base  formed  of 
rostra,  or  the  beaks  of  ships,  from 
whence  it  took  its  name.  There 
were  two  rostra,  termed  Vetera  and 
nova.  The  first  was  placed  in  the 
forum  Romanum,  near  the  place 
called  curia  postilia,  and  was 
adorned  with  the  beaks  of  the 
ships  taken  in  the  first  naval  vic- 
tory gained  over  the  Carthaginians. 
Its  figure  is  seen  on  a  medal  of  the 
family  Lollia,  in  the  Thesaurus 
Morellianus,  on  another  of  C. 
Junius  Silanus,  published  by  Gess- 
ner,  and  on  several  others.  The 
rostra  nova  was  als  ocalled  Julia, 
either  because  it  was  situated  near 
the  temple  of  Augustus;  or  because 
it  had  been  the  work  of  Julius 
Caesar,  or  because  it  had  been  re- 
paired by  Augustus. 

Rotunda,  (Lat.)  a  building 
which  is  round  both  within  and 
without. 

Rough-casting,  is  the  ordi- 
nary mode  of  finishing  the  plaster 
and  lath  outside  work  of 'cottages, 
and  inferior  buildings ;  a  pricking- 
up  coat  of  hair-mortar  is  first  put 
on,  upon  which,  when  tolerably  dry, 
a  smooth  coat  of  the  same  mixture 
is  laid;  and  a  second  workman 

308 


following  with  a  vessel  full  of  . 
thinner  mixture,  which  he  thro , 
over  the  work  as  fast  as  it  is  finis 
ed  :  this  last  operation  produces 
uniformity  of  colour. 

Round  Churches.  Thesecc 
stitute,  Mr.  Britton  observes,  a  si 
gular  and  rare  class  of  ancie 
edifices,  and  are  eminently  intere: 
ing  to  the  architectural  antiquai 
Their  origin  in  England  has  be 
generally  attributed  to  the  Jev 
This  opinion  was  very  prevale 
with  respect  to  that  at  Cambrid< 
till  Mr.  Essex,  in  his  historic 
observations  in  the  sixth  volur 
of  the  Archeeologia,  showed 
evident  incorrectness.  "  Their  ter 
pie  at  Jerusalem,"  he  says,  "  w 
not  of  the  circular  form,  neith 
was  the  tabernacle  of  Moses ;  n 
do  we  find  the  modern  Jews  afft 
that  figure  in  building  their  syn 
gogues.  It  has,  however,  be 
generally  supposed,  that  the  roui 
church  at  Cambridge,  that 
Northampton,  and  some  othei 
were  built  for  synagogues  by  ti 
Jews,  while  they  were  permitt 
to  dwell  in  those  places;  but 
no  probable  reason  can  be  a 
signed  for  this  supposition,  ar 
I  think  it  is  very  certain  that  tl 
Jews  who  were  settled  in  Can 
bridge  had  their  synagogue,  ar 
probably  dwelt  together  in 
part  of  the  town  now  called  tl 
Jewry,  so  we  may  reasonably  po 
elude,  the  round  churches  we  fir 
in  other  parts  of  this  kingdom  we 
not  built  by  the  Jews  for  syn 
gogues,  whatever  the  places  m; 
be  called  in  which  they  stand 
There  are  four  perfect  examples  j 
these  buildings  in  England  :  S 
Sepulchre's  at  Cambridge,  St.  S 
pulchre's  at  Northampton,  the  Ter 
pie  church  in  London,  and  a  srm 
church  at  Little  Maplestead, 
Essex.  All  these,  with  one  th 
was  at  Temple  Bruer,  and  one 


ROU 


ROU 


slackly,  in  Lincolnshire,  are  gen e- 
Jly  attributed  to  the  knights  tern - 
ars,  who  obtained  their  orgfaniza- 
dh  and  fame  in  the  vicinity  of 
ie  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 

Jerusalem.  This  building  is 
nd  to  have  been  erected  by  He- 
na,  the  mother  of  Constantine 
ie  Great,  and  we  are  informed 
liat  it  was  rebuilt  by  Charlemagne, 
;  813.  "  The  east* end,"  says  Mr. 
ssex,  "  I  take  to  be  of  his  build- 
er, containing  the  semicircular 
ibune;  but  the  intermediate  part 
ztween  it  and  the  sepulchre  is 
iore  modern,  and  might  be  rebuilt 
hen  the  church  was  restored,  in 
ie  year  1049,  after  it  was  defaced 
v  the  Saracens  towards  the  end 
•f  the  tenth  century."  (Archaeolog. 
)1,  vi.)  Bede  describes  this  struc- 
lre  as  a  round  church,  with  three 
alls  and  twelve  pillars,  (Resurrec- 
onis  Dominicse  rotunda  ecclesia 
ibus  cincta  parietibus,  duodecim 
')lumnis.  Sustentatur  de  Locis 
anctis,  c.  2.)    The  circular  form 

this  building  still  remains.  It 
'as  revered  by  the  knights  above 
'1  earthly  objects,  and  it  was  their 
rovince  to  protect  Christian  pil- 
rims  against  the  Saracens :  and 
\  they  were  originally  instituted 
id  stationed  at  the  church  of  the 
oly  Sepulchre,  it  seems  extremely 
'robable  that  they  would  imitate 
lat  structure,  when  they  were 
terw  irds  distributed  in  companies 
ver  Europe,  and  when  they  had 
casion  to  erect  a  new  church, 
nd  it  actually  appears  that  some 

them  in  England  had  both  the 
rm  and  name  of  the  Holy  Se- 
dchre.  These  churches  are  de- 
ribed  in  the  first  volume  of  Brit- 
n's  Architectural  Antiquities. 
Round  Towers.  The  round 
wers  of  Ireland  have  long  been 
subject  of  antiquarian  dispute, 
early  seventy  of  them  still  re- 
ain,  and  only  two  are  known  out 


of  Ireland,  which  are  found  at 
Abernethy  and  Brechin,  in  Scot- 
land. They  in  general  bear  a  great 
resemblance  to  one  another,  are 
from  thirty  to  one  hundred  and 
thirty  feet  high,  and  from  thirteen 
to  twenty  in  diameter.  These  build- 
ings are  mentioned  by  Giraldus 
Cambrensis  in  1185,  and  by  John 
Lynch  in  1662,  who  attributes 
them  to  the  Danes,  who  entered 
Ireland,  according  to  Giraldus,  in 
838,  and  says  that  "  they  were 
called  clock  theach,  or  house  of 
the  bell."  They  have  since  been 
treated  on  by  Peter  Walsh  in  1684, 
by  Dr.  Molyneux  in  1727,  and 
more  lately  by  Dr.  Ledwich,  Mr. 
Grose,  Vallancey,  and  Morres. 

The  tower  at  Monasterboice,  near 
Drogheda,  is  one  hundred  and  ten 
feet  high,  and  seventeen  in  dia- 
meter: the  thickness  of  the  wall 
is  three  feet  six  inches.  The  an- 
cient church,  which  is  close  to  it, 
is  now  in  ruins.  In  the  church- 
yard are  two  very  old  and  curious 
crosses;  one  about  eighteen  feet 
high,  covered  with  sculpture,  is 
called  St.  Boyne's  cross,  and  is 
esteemed  the  most  ancient  religious 
relic  now  in  Ireland.  Among  the 
sculptures  on  it  is  an  inscription 
in  Irish  characters,  "  in  which," 
says  Mr.  Elmes,  "  is  plainly  legible 
the  name  of  Muredach,  who  was 
for  some  time  king  of  Ireland,  and 
died  in  534,  about  a  hundred  years 
before  the  arrival  of  St.  Patrick  in 
that  kingdom."  Tradition  says  that 
this  cross  was  sent  from  Rome  by 
the  pope.  The  round  tower  at 
Drumiskin,  in  Louth,  is  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty  feet  high,  and  that 
of  Kildare  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
three  high,  and  eighteen  in  dia- 
meter. The  walls  of  the  latter  are 
three  and  a  half  feet  thick,  and  are 
built  of  fine  white  granite  to  about 
twelve  feet  from  the  ground.  The 
name  Kildare  signifies  the  wood  of 

309 


ROU 


ROU 


oaks,  and  the  whole  district  was 
anciently  a  large  forest,  in  the 
centre  of  which  was  a  plain  sacred 
to  Druidical  worship,  now  called 
the  Curragh  of  Kildare.  "  The 
tower  at  Kilkenny,"  Mr.  Elmes  ob- 
serves, **  which  he  has  measured 
and  investigated,  is  evidently  older 
than  the  cathedral,  the  south  tran- 
sept of  which  appears  to  have  been 
shortened  in  its  original  building, 
on  account  of  the  round  tower, 
which  is  within  a  very  few  feet 
of  it." 

In  the  first  volume  of  the  Ar- 
chseologia,  some  ancient  Irish  ma- 
nuscripts are  cited,  relating  to  the 
history  of  the  round  towers,  which, 
it  appears,  "  were  built  in  the 
darkest  times  of  superstition,  about 
anno  900  or  1000.  The  ancient 
Irish  MSS.  relate,  that  these  towers 
were  used  for  imprisoning  penitents; 
some  other  writers  name  them  in- 
clusoriciy  et  arcti  inclusorii  ergas- 
tula)  the  prisons  of  narrow  enclo- 
sures; particularly  the  MS.  of  the 
Life  of  Dunchad-o-Braoin,  of  whom 
it  is  said  that  he  betook  himself 
into  such  a  prison,  wherein  he  died 
anno  987.  The  MSS.  add,  that 
these  penitents  were  placed  in  the 
uppermost  story  of  the  tower;  where 
having  made  probation,  or  done 
penance,  such  a  limited  time,  ac- 
cording to  the  heinousness  of  their 
crimes,  they  then  were  permitted 
to  descend  to  the  next  floor;  and 
so  on  by  degrees  until  they  came 
to  the  door,  which  always  faced 
the  entrance  of  the  church,  where 
they  stood  to  receive  absolution 
from  the  clergy,  and  the  blessings 
of  the  people." 

A  writer  in  the  second  volume 
of  the  Archseoiogia,  thinks  that  the 
round  towers  of  Ireland  are  decid- 
edly Irish  ;  and  he  conjectures  that 
the  two  Scotch  examples  were  per- 
haps built  by  the  Irish  during  their 
incursions  into  Scotland.    In  illus- 

310 


tration  of  his  supposition  as  to  th 

use,  he  adds  an  anecdote  which 
met  with  in  a  Welsh  MS.  of  t 
Gwider  family  in  North  Wales, 
which  it  appears,  that  so  late 
the  year  1600,  the  common  Wei 
were  so  wild,  that  Sir  John  Wyu 
when  he  went  to  church,  was  fore 
always  to  leave  a  watchman  on 
eminence,  whence  he  could  s 
both  his  house  and  the  churc] 
his  duty  was,  to  give  notice  if 
saw  any  attack  made  on  the  forrw 
though  it  was  always  left  bolte 
barred,  and  guarded  during  churc 
time.  "  This  anecdote  natural 
hints  another  manifest  use  of  the' 
towers,  as  the  castles  in  Irela; 
(for  such  every  gentleman's  hou 
was)  almost  always  stood  near 
church  ;  and  consequently  in 
country  in  that  age  (1015,)  mu 
more  wild  than  Wales,  a  watchm; 
at  the  top  of  one  of  these  towe; 
remaining  all  church-time,  must 
of  the  greatest  advantage,  to  gi 
alarms  to  the  family  in  thi 
churches."  44  I  am  not,"  he  adc 
"  singular  in  my  opinion  on  the 
matters,  for  both  earl  Morton  ai 
bishop  Pocock  concurred  with  m 
the  latter  had  seen  a  long  trump 
of  iron,  which  was  dug  from  t 
bottom  of  one  of  these  tower 
several  such  have  been  found 
Ireland,  near  these  buildings;  sor 
of  them  are  exhibited  in  one  of  t 
plates  published  by  this  sociel 
and  others  are  now  extant  in  t 
royal  museum."  Mr.  Gough, 
an  article  in  the  same  volurr 
thinks  that  these  towers  were  ere< 
ed  before  the  introduction  of  bel 
to  call  people  to  church  by  t 
sound  of  a  trumpet  or  horn. 

The  round  tower  at  Brechin, 
Scotland,  consists  of  sixty  regui 
courses  of  hewn  stone,  of  a  brighr 
colour  than  the  adjoining  churc 
it  is  eighty-five  feet  high  to  t 
cornice,  whence  rises  a  low  spi 


ROU 

x>inted  roof  of  stone,  with  windows, 
ind  a  vane  at  the  top.  The  tower 
it  Abernethy  is  seventy-five  feet 
iigh,  and  like  that  at  Brechin  is 
bout  forty-eight  feet  in  external 
ircumference.  On  the  front  of 
he  tower  at  Brechin  are  two 
rches,  one  within  the  other,  in 
elief.  On  the  point  of  the  outer- 
nost  is  a  crucifix,  and  between 
ioth,  towards  the  middle,  are 
igures  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and 
jit  John,  the  latter  holding  a  cup 
vith  a  lamb.  The  outer  arch  is 
domed  with  knobs,  and  within 
>oth  is  a  small  slit  or  loop :  at  the 
lottom  of  the  outer  arch  are  two 
>easts  couchant ;  one  of  them,  by 
ts  proboscis,  is  evidently  intended 
or  an  elephant.  (See  Smith's 
listory  of  Cork ;  Gough,  and  Val- 
encey,  and  Grose's  Antiquities  of 
reland.) 

In  the  county  of  Kilkenny  are 
nany  curious  Druidical  remains, 
ome  of  which  are  described  in  the 
ixteenth  vol.  of  the  Archaeologia. 
Cromlechs  are  very  common  in 
reland.  They  are  there  called 
romleacht,  which  signifies,  "  The 
tone  of  punishment."  They  are 
mown  by  the  Welsh  under  the 
lame  of  crwm  lechew,  or  bowing 
tones.  The  cromlech  at  Tobin's 
:own,  in  the  county  of  Carlow, 
orms  a  sort  of  rude  temple,  with 
i  porch  on  the  west  end  formed  by 
wo  irregular  upright  pillars,  each 
ight  feet  high,  and  nine  broad, 
erminated  behind  by  a  broad  flat 
tone,  eight  feet  high,  and  nine 
>road.  It  is  covered  by  a  large 
loping  stone,  twenty-three  feet  long, 
ighteen  broad  at  the  front  end, 
nd  six  behind.  On  the  upper 
urface  is  a  large  channel,  from 
>'hich  branch  a  number  of  smaller 
nes.  The  sides  are  enclosed  by 
everal  upright  stones,  forming  a 
oom  or  cell,  eight  feet  wide  in 
font,  and  five  behind.    A  sort  of 


ROU 

avenue,  formed  by  small  hillocks, 
leads  to  the  portico  from  the  west. 
It  is  situated  near  a  rivulet,  on  the 
road  from  Tullow  to  Hatchet's 
Town.  Another  remarkable  crom- 
lech occurs  in  a  field  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  from  Carlow.  See,  be- 
sides the  books  already  referred  to, 
Ware's  Antiquities  of  Ireland. 

Round  Towers,  attached  to  " 
parish  churches,  occur  chiefly  in 
the  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suf- 
folk, and  are  traditionally  attri- 
buted to  the  Danes.  They  are 
uniformly  constructed  of  rough 
materials,  and  such  as  could  be 
easily  procured ;  whole  flints,  stones, 
chalk,  and  other  coarse  ingredients, 
imbedded  in  mortar.  The  walU 
are  generally  of  a  great  thickness, 
but  gradually  diminish  in  sub- 
stance, as  they  ascend.  They  are 
usually  found  with  small  churches, 
and  are  not  uniformly  situated  at 
the  west  end :  at  Tooting,  in  Surrey, 
a  circular  tower  is  found  on  the 
north  side  of  the  church.  Why 
these  remains  are  attributed  to  the 
Danes,  it  is  not  easy  to  say,  un- 
less from  their  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  Danish  district  of  East 
Anglia.  No  ancient  towers  of  this 
kind  are  found  in  the  northern 
countries  whence  they  came.  The 
high  antiquity  of  these  buildings 
must  be  allowed  by  all.  The  em- 
bellished pointed  arch  never  occurs, 
except  when  evidently  a  modern 
addition.  In  the  tower  of  the 
church  of  Bychamwell,  Norfolk, 
are  four  pointed  apertures,  the 
arched  parts  of  which,  and  the 
sides,  are  formed  of  plain  squared 
stones ;  and  the  former  are  dis- 
posed in  the  form  of  an  acute  tri- 
angle. They  appear  to  be  coeval 
with  the  original  building,  and 
similar  arches  are  to  be  seen  in 
the  ancient  entrance -gateway  to 
Rougemont  Castle,  at  Exeter. 
Even    the    ornamented  circular 

311 


RUD 


K  U  JL 


style  is  rarely  apparent,  although 
it  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to 
find  their  simple  narrow  openings, 
or  windows,  having  semicircular 
heads.  In  many  instances,  parti- 
cularly in  Suffolk,  these  massive 
round  towers  of  churches,  are 
lighted  by  narrow  apertures  only, 
which  resemble  loops,  or  arrow- 
slits.  (See  the  Introduction  to  the 
Beauties  of  England  and  Wales.) 

Rudder,  (roeder,  Dutch,)  the 
instrument  at  the  stern,  by  which 
a  ship  is  governed.  The  ancients 
sometimes  had  but  two  rudders  to 
a  vessel,  and,  according  to  Athe- 
naeus,  that  of  Philopater  had  four; 
of  these  we  learn  from  Suidas,  that 
two  were  placed  at  the  stern,  and 
two  at  the  prow. 

Rudentuue,  (Fr.)  the  figure  of 
a  rope  or  staff,  which  is  frequently 
used  to  fill  up  the  flutings  of  co- 
lumns, the  convexity  of  which  con- 
trasts with  the  concavity  of  the 
flutings,  and  serves  to  strengthen 
the  edges.  Sometimes,  instead  of 
being  in  a  convex  shape,  the  flut- 
ings are  filled  with  a  flat  surface, 
which  reaches  nearly  to  the  edges, 
as  we  see  in  the  interior  columns 
of  the  Pantheon.  Sometimes  the 
rudentures  are  ornamentally  carved, 
and  sometimes  on  pilasters,  &c. 
rudiments  are  used  in  relief,  with- 
out flutings.  Rudentures  are  the 
most  common  ornaments  of  the 
flutings  in  the  Ionic  and  Corin- 
thian orders.  As  their  use  is  to 
give  greater  solidity  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  shaft,  and  secure  the 
edges,  they  are  in  general  only 
used  in  columns  which  rise  from 
the  ground,  and  are  not  to  reach 
above  one-third  of  their  height  of 
the  shaft.  The  arch  of  Constan- 
tine  offers  an  example  of  columns 
with  rudentures  one-third  of  their 
height,  although  raised  on  pedes- 
tals, but  it  is  evident,  that  this 
arch  has  been  built  of  the  ruins  of 

312 


some  other  edifice,  where  the  c( 
lumns  may  have  rested  on  ih 
ground. 

Ru deration,  (Lat.)  a  mode  ( 
laying  pavements,  mentioned  b 
Vitruvius,  and,  according  to  sortu 
of  building  walls,  with  rough  pel 
bles  and  mortar.  The  morte 
was  made  of  lime  and  sand,  and 
called  by  Vitruvius  statumen. 

Rule,  an  instrument  for  met 
suring,  &c,  of  which  there  ai 
several  kinds  ;  stone-cutter's  rule 
mason's  rules,  carpenter's  rule 
sliding  rules,  parallel  rules,  &< 
See  Instruments. 

The  carpenter's  rule  is  calle 
sometimes  the  sliding  rule,  becaus' 
it  has  several  sliding  pieces,  whic 
are  used  in  making  different  calct 
lations.  Its  principal  uses  will  b 
understood  by  the  following  exanr 
pies.  (1.)  In  multiplication,  if  vi 
wish  to  find  the  produce  of  12  an 
14,  set  1  on  the  slide  marked  I 
to  12  (the  multiplier)  on  A,  an 
against  14,  (the  multiplicand)  o 
B  will  be  found  the  product  on  A 
which  is  168.  If  the  number  bj 
higher  than  the  scale  reache,1 
they  may  be  taken  as  decimal: 
thus  783  may  be  reckoned  as  78.( 
and  45  as  4.5,  &c.  This  observa 
tion  applies  equally  to  other  case! 
(2.)  In  division,  if  it  be  required  t 
divide  180  by  12,  set  12  on  A  to 
on  B,  and  against  the  dividend  36( 
on  A  will  be  found  15,  the  answe 
on  B.  The  line  marked  C,  cor 
tains  all  squares,  lengths,  and  cor 
tents  of  solids,  and  D  all  rooti 
(3.)  To  square  any  number :  let 
be  15  ;  first  place  1  on  C  to  10  o 
D,  and  it  must  be  observed,  ths 
when  you  consider  the  10  on  D  a 
10,  the  1  on  C  will  be  its  square,  c 
100,  and  if  you  reckon  the  10  o 
D  as  1,  the  1  on  C  will  also  be  ] 
and  so  on  :  then  again  every  nurr 
ber  on  D  stands  its  square  on  C 
in  the  same  proportion;  thus  th 

:  ' ' .'.  -f:->  !'  n  Mr 


RUR 


It  U  R 


piarcof  15  will  be  225;  and  if 
ju  reckon  it  as  150,  the  square 
ill  be  22500,  &c.  (4.)  To  ex- 
act the  square  root  of  a  number, 
xjng  the  slider  as  in  the  last  ex- 
mp!e,  against  every  number  on  C 
ill  be  found  its  square  root  on  D. 
;.)  To  find  a  mean  proportional 
?tween  6  and  54,  set  one  number 
on  C,  to  the  same  number  on  D, 
id  against  54  on  C  will  be  found 
8  on  D,  which  is  the  mean  pro- 
ortional. 

Rural  Architecture,  that 
ranch  of  architecture  which  re- 

tes  to  the  construction  of  pictu- 
isque  and  rustic  dwelling-houses, 
c,  in  the  country.  In  the  choice 
Situations,  for  a  residence  of  this 
ascription,  attention  should  be 
articularly  paid  to  its  conveni- 
|ice  in  site  and  position,  with 
igard  to  the  adjoining  country, 
)  as  at  once  to  be  in  itself  pictu- 
sq"e,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
ford  picturesque  views  to  its  in- 
ates.  When  the  surface  of  the 
juntry  is  but  gently  varied,  the 
ighest  eminences  will  be  found 
encrally  the  most  appropriate  and 
.^reeable,  but  if  the  hills  are  high 
id  numerous,  their  sides,  or,  when 
?ry  steep,  a  gentle  slope  at  the 
:>ttom  will  be  the  best  situation, 
ne  bank  of  a  river,  or  the  margin 
t  a  lake,  particularly  when  the 
inks  are  woody  and  diversified 
ith  rocks,  will  afford  a  good  situ- 
Jon.  In  the  building  itself,  a 
irtain  degree  of  irregularity  is 
pessary ;  and  its  convenience 
,ill  be  greatly  increased  by  a  care- 
il  attention  to  the  position  of  the 
>oms.  Thus,  for  instance,  the 
.eakfast-room  should  be  so  situ- 
ed  as  to  afford  a  morning  scene, 
id  the  drawing-room  might  be  so 
sposed  as  to  present  a  view  of 
ie  setting-sun  ;  and  to  every  view 
>ine  object  should  be  visible,  to 
>rm  a  striking  characteristic.  At 
2R 


mid-day,  the  prospect  may  be  ren- 
dered agreeable,  by  an  expanse  of 
water,  or  a  brook.  The  style  of 
building  is  best  regulated  by  the 
nature  of  the  situation.  In  an  ex- 
posed situation,  where  trees  are 
generally  broad  and  low,  as  on  the 
brows  of  high  hills,  rocks,  &c. 
the  buildings  should  also  be  low, 
and  have  some  appearance  of 
strength  and  solidity.  In  low  fer- 
tile plains,  where  trees  are  luxu- 
riant, and  generally  grow  to  a  con- 
siderable elevation,  and  their  out- 
lines generally  narrow,  round, 
and  flowing,  with  few  horizontal 
branches,  the  shoots  and  branches 
tender,  and  the  trunks  compara- 
tively slender,  the  buildings  may 
also,  like  them,  be  high,  light,  and 
elegant.  More  massy  and  splen- 
did edifices,  should  be  built  in  rich 
extended  plains.  This  mode  of 
regulating  the  style  and  situation 
of  rural  edifices,  it  has  been  ob- 
served, "  is  certainly  deserving  of 
attention,  were  it  for  no  other  rea- 
son, than  that  the  trees  might 
grow  well  with  the  buildings;  that 
when  full-grown  they  might  nei- 
ther be  too  large  nor  too  small ; 
that  they  might  neither  diminish 
it  into  insignificance,  nor  leave  it 
staring  through  the  trees,  which, 
from  want  of  due  proportion  to  it, 
appear  as  copsewood." 

Many  places  are  more  appro- 
priated for  the  growth  of  some 
kinds  of  trees  than  others.  This 
also  should  be  particularly  attend- 
ed to.  The  most  common  trees 
are  oak,  elm,  and  beech.  But  in 
some  situations,  particularly  on  lofty 
ground,  the  only  kind  of  trees  that 
can  be  got  to  flourish,  are  larches, 
firs,  birch,  and  mountain  ash. 
The  colour  and  hue  of  the  sur- 
rounding objects  should  also  be 
attended  to — the  tints  of  the  rocks, 
stones,  soil,  or  foliage;  and  they 
ought  to  form  a   guide  for  the 

313 


SAC 


SAG 


colour  of  the  edifices  which  are 
erected  in  their  neighbourhood. 

Rustic,  a  mode  of  building  in 
imitation  of  nature.  The  ancients 
sometimes  built  with  stones,  smooth- 
ed only  on  the  sides  where  they 
were  intended  to  join,  and  the 
outer  surface  left  entirely  rough. 
A  species  of  rustic  employed  by  the 
Greeks  is  found  in  the  base  of  the 
choragic  monument  of  Lysicrates. 
But  one  of  the  noblest  specimens 
of  this  kind  of  work,  is  the  vast 
wall  which  surrounded  the  forum 
of  Nerva,  and  which  is  now  called 
the  wall  of  the  arch  of  Panthanus. 
Other  examples  are  found  in  the 
aqueduct  of  Claudius,  called  also 
the  arch  of  Drusus,  and  in  the 
amphitheatres  of  Pola  and  Verona. 
The  Italian  architect,  Bruneleschi, 
employed  rustic  work  in  great  pro- 
fusion, for  the  purpose  of  impress- 
ing all  his  works  with  a  character 
of  strength  and  grandeur,  but 
later  Italian  architects  have  used 
it  with  less  profusion  and  more 
taste. 

Frosted  Rustic  Work,  has  the 


margins  of  the  stones  reduced  j 
a  plane  parallel  to  the  plane  of  til 
wall,  the  intermediate  parts  havir 
an  irregular  surface. 

Vermiculated  Rustic  Work,  h; 
these  intermediate  parts  so  worke 
as  to  have  the  appearance  of  beir 
eaten  by  worms. 

Rustic  Chamfered  work, 
which  the  face  of  the  stones  beir 
smoothed,  and  made  parallel  to  tl: 
surface  of  the  wall,  and  the  angl-j 
bevelled  to  an  angle  of  one  hui! 
dred  and  thirty-five  degrees  wil 
the  face  of  the  stone,  when  tnt 
come  together  on  the  wall,  the  b 
veiling  will  form  an  internal  rig] 
angle. 

Rustic  Coins,  (called  by  Vitr 
vius,  lapides  minantcs,)  stones 
the  interior  angles  of  building 
which  project  from  the  surface 
the  wall,  the  edges  being  bevelie 
or  recesses  left  at  the  joints,  j 
present  they  are  not  much  used. 

Rustic  Order,  that  kind 
building,  where  the  face  of  tlj 
stones  are  hatched  or  picked  wi 
the  point  of  a  hammer. 


S. 


Sabliere,  a  piece  of  timber  as 
long  as  a  beam,  but  not  so  thick. 
An  old  term. 

Sacellum,  (Lat.)  a  small  cha- 
pel amongst  the  Romans,  without 
a  roof,  sacred  to  the  gods.  Little 
private  sacella,  or  chapels,  were 
annexed  to  the  Egyptian  temples. 
Sacella,  in  old  church  architecture, 
were  burial  chapels,  for  the  cele- 
bration of  obits,  and  where  prayers 
for  the  dead  were  offered  up. 

Sacome,  (sacoma,  Ital.)  a  term 
applied  to  the  exact  profile  of  a 
member  or  moulding;  and  given 
by  the  French  to  the  mouldings 
themselves. 

*Sacrarium,  (Lat.)  a  kind  of 
family  chapel  in  the  Roman  houses, 

314 


differing  from  the  lararium  in  b 
ing  dedicated  to  one  particul 
deity,  instead  of  being  dedicate 
generally  to  all  the  household  god 
Cicero,  in  his  oration  against  Mil 
speaks  of  the  sacrarium  of  tl 
Bona  Dea.  The  name  was  al| 
given  to  a  part  of  the  tempi 
where  the  sacred  things  were  d 
posited. 

Sacristy,  (from  sacrista,  Latj 
a  strong  room  attached  to  a  enure 
in  which  sacred  vestments  and  utei 
sils  are  deposited.    See  Abbey. 

Sagging,  the  bending  of  a  boc 
in  the  middle  by  its  own  weigr 
when  suspended  horizontally  1 
each  end. 

Sagitta,  (Lat.  an  arrow.)  Tl 


SAL 

:erm  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
cey-piece  of  an  arch.  Some  geo- 
neters  use  it  to  signify  the  abscissa 
)f  a  curve.  In  trigonometry  it  is 
he  versed  sine  of  an  arc,  which 
tands  on  the  chord  like  a  dart. 

Sail,  (  segl,  Sax. )  Amongst 
he  ancients,  sails  were  composed 
•ither  of  flax,  rush,  broom,  or  lea- 
der. In  the  age  of  Homer  they 
vere  all  flaxen.  According  to 
Caesar,  the  Venetii  had  sails  made 
>f  the  skins  of  beasts.  Triangular 
,ails  were  most  commonly  used  in 
he  Mediterranean.  Square  ones 
veie  only  used  in  very  small  ves- 
,els.  The  Portuguese  in  the  In- 
lies  used  round  sails.  Sails  at 
irst  were  only  spread  in  favourable 
vinds. 

Saint -Ciiamas,  in  Provence. 
There  is  here  an  ancient  Roman 
nidge  entire,  called  by  the  natives 
he  Pont  Surian.  It  is  built  in 
ull  centre  between  two  rocks,  and 
n  a  level  with  the  road  which 
oes  from  Aries  to  Aix.  It  has 
iut  one  arch,  which  is  six  toises 
n  diameter,  built  with  large  stones 
hree  feet  square,  and  eleven  toises 
ong.  Towards  the  Aix  side  the 
rch  has  a  frieze,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion stating  that  it  was  built  by  the 
'estamentary  will  of  a  flamen  of 
'lome  and  Augustus.  Some  Ro- 
nan  work,  and  a  similar  inscrip- 
ion,  are  also  found  in  the  bridge 
ver  the  Charente  at  Saintes. 
Saliant,  (Fr.)  projecting. 
1  Sally,  (Fr.)  a  prefecture;  the 
nd  of  a  piece  of  timber,  when  cut 
cross  the  fibres  with  an  interior 
ngle,  formed  by  two  planes. 

Salonica,  a  city  of  Macedonia, 
nciently  called  Thessalonica.  In 
fiis  large  city,  Mr.  Stuart  says, 
we  found  the  remains  of  only  one 
uilding,  the  description  of  which 
re  could  flatter  ourselves,  would 
iterest  the  lovers  of  ancient  art. 
'his  is  situated  in  the  Jews'  quar- 


S  AL 

ter:  five  Corinthian  columns  on 
their  pedestals  support  an  entabla- 
ture, over  which  is  an  attic  adorn- 
ed with  figures  in  alto-relievo;  on 
the  side  next  the  street  are  a  Vic- 
tory, a  Medea,  or  perhaps  a  Helen, 
with  a  Diadem  and  Sceptre,  a  Tele- 
phus,  and  a  Ganymede;  and  next 
the  court-yard  of  the  Jews'  house, 
a  Bacchante  dancing  and  playing 
on  the  flute,  a  Bacchus,  a  Bac- 
chante crowned  with  vine  leaves, 
and  a  Leda.  It  seems  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  to  ascertain  the 
species  of  building  of  which  this 
ruin  once  made  a  part ;  for  though 
the  figures  I  have  specified  would 
seem  to  be  proper  decorations  for 
a  theatre,  no  traces  were  discovered 
that  might  confirm  the  opinion 
these  figures  suggested ;  nor  does 
the  vulgar  tradition  of  the  place 
afford  any  light  that  may  assist 
our  inquiries."  The  Greeks  call 
this  edifice  Goeteia,  (  Torjreia,  en- 
chantment;) and  the  Jews  who  are 
descended  from  Spanish  refugees 
settled  here,  and  speak  Spanish, 
call  it  the  Incantada,  which  has  a 
similar  meaning.  A  ridiculous  story 
is  attached  to  the  name,  which 
is  given  by  Stuart.  There  are  also 
at  Salonica  the  remains  of  two  tri- 
umphal arches,  one  of  which  has 
been  richly  ornamented. 

Saloon,  (Fr.)  a  lofty  hall,  usu- 
ally vaulted  at  the  top,  with  two 
stages  of  windows.  It  is  much 
used  in  the  palaces  of  Italy,  from 
whence  it  came  to  France  and 
England.  It  is  of  various  forms, 
square,  round,  oval,  and  oc  tagonal. 
See  Alhambra,  for  an  account  of 
Arabian  saloons. 

Salsette,  an  island  near  Bom- 
bay, containing  the  famous  temple 
of  Canari,  very  much  resembling 
that  at  Elephanta.  This  monu- 
ment has  been  described  by  Gough, 
and  by  Mr.  Salt,  in  the  Bombay 
Transactions.    It  is  characterized, 

315 


SAN 


SAN 


like  that  of  Elephanta,  by  its  open 
courts,  porticos,  gigantic  figures, 
columns  in  rows,  forming  aisles  in 
vaulted  rooms  forty  paces  wide, 
and  a  hundred  long,  round  at  the 
end,  grottos  like  burial  chapels, 
with  dagops  or  cupolas  in  them, 
by  way  of  niches  to  images.  In 
the  first  part  of  this  temple  are 
two  large  pilasters  twenty  palms 
high,  a  third  of  which  from  the 
bottom  is  square,  the  middle  part 
octagonal,  and  the  upper  round. 
There  are  observed  in  various  parts 
numerous  inscriptions. 

Sanctuary,  or  Asylum,  a  place 
privileged  by  a  sovereign,  whence 
such  offenders  or  debtors,  as  fled 
to  it  for  protection,  could  not  forci- 
bly be  taken  without  sacrilege  and 
impiety.  The  privilege  or  immu- 
nity was  called  aorvXta,  by  the 
Greeks,  and  the  deity  presiding, 
QtoQ  aavXaioQ,  (Plut.  Vit.  Romul. 
p.  22.)  Some  have  pretended  that 
Nimrod,  on  the  loss  of  his  eldest 
son,  was  the  first  deviser  of  the 
institution,  by  erecting  a  golden 
image  of  him  in  his  temple  and 
palace,  to  which  all  that  resorted, 
though  murderers,  or  guilty  of 
other  capital  offences,  should  be 
absolved  from  their  crimes.  The 
history  and  purport  of  asylums  or 
sanctuaries,  is  treated  at  length  by 
Mr.  Pegge,  in  the  eighth  volume  of 
the  Archoeologia. 

This  Sanctuary,  among  the  Jews 
was  the  most  sacred  and  retired 
place  in  the  temple,  and  was  term- 
ed on  that  account  the  holy  of 
holies :  in  it  was  deposited  the  ark 
of  the  covenant,  and  no  one  was 
permitted  to  enter,  except  the  high 
priest,  who  went  in  once  every 
year  to  make  intercession  for  the 
people.  In  the  Grecian  temples, 
the  part  which  answered  to  the 
sanctuary  was  called  Adytum,  (see 
this  word.)  In  the  Catholic  churches, 
the  Sanctuary  is  that  part  where  the 


high  altar  is  placed,  accompanied 
by  a  rail  or  balustrade.  See  Cella 

Sanctjs  Bell,  usually  port 
able,  and  rung  by  a  monk  durinji 
the  more  solemn  part  of  the  cere; 
mony  of  the  mass,  as  the  pries 
repeated  sanctus,  sanctns,  sarictus 

Sand,  (Danish  and  Dutch,)  ] 
very  fine  kind  of  gravel.  Sand,  ii 
building,  is  chiefly  used  as  an  in 
gredient  in  mortar,  for  which  pit 
sand  is  the  best  for  walls  an< 
vaults,  and  river  sand  preferabl* 
for  rough -casting. 

Sand-stone,  a  species  of  ston 
composed  essentially  of  sandy  par 
tides,  generally  of  quartz,  some 
times  mixed  with  felspar  or  parti 
cles  of  slate.  Wheu  the  substanc 
which  cements  or  binds  these,  par 
tides  together  is  lime,  the  stom 
is  termed  calcarious  sand-stone 
sometimes  it  is  oxide  of  iroi 
mixed  with  aiumine.  There  an 
a  great  number  of  varieties.  Se 
Quarry,  and  Stone. 

Sangallo,  Antcnio  de,  a  Flo 
rentine  architect,  born  in  the  fif 
teenth  century.  He  was  educated  a 
a  joiner,  but  he  afterwards  left  thi 
trade,  and  assumed  the  name  aiu 
profession  of  his  uncles,Giulianoanc 
Antonio  Sangallo,  who  were  thei 
architects  of  some  reputation  a 
Rome.  He  was  entrusted  witl 
several  works  by  Bramante,  \{ 
1512,  and  arose  so  much  in  rej 
pute,  that  in  the  pontificate  of  Le<! 
X.  he  was  appointed  successor  t< 
his  uncle  Giuliano,  as  architect  o 
St.  Peter's,  in  conjunction  witl 
Raphael.  He  also  excelled  as  ai 
engineer,  and  was  the  author  o| 
the  plan  of  the  fortifications  o 
Civita  Vecchia.  Among  his  work 
are  enumerated  the  Pauline  chapel 
and  the  magnificent  staircases  b; 
which  the  chapels  of  the  Vaticai 
communicate  with  St.  Peter's.  Hi 
was  employed  in  strengthening  thij 
foundations  of  the  Vatican,  anc 


SAR 


SAS 


ne  great  columns  which  support 
ne  cupola  of  St.  Peter's,  and  he 
xecuted  a  model  for  that  cathe- 
ral,  which,  however,  was  not 
losely  followed.  Sangallo  died 
i  1546. 

Sap,  (Ital.)  to  undermine  a  wall 
y  digging  a  trench  under  it. 
Saracenic  Architecture, see 
[rabian  Architecture. 
Sarcophagus,  (Gr.  from  <rap£, 
esh,  and  fayu),  to  eat,)  a  tomb  or 
pffin  made  of  one  stone.  Accord- 
ig  to  Pliny,  it  was  originally  the 
ame  of  a  stone  found  in  the 
'road,  and  which  from  its  power- 
j1  caustic  qualities  was  selected 
>r  the  construction  of  tombs.  It 
said  to  have  perfectly  consumed 
le  flesh  of  human  bodies  which 
ere  buried  in  it,  in  the  space  of 
>rty  days.  From  its  frequent  use 
>r  this  purpose,  the  name  became 
pplied  to  the  tomb  itself.  There 
also  another  quality  related  of 
lis  stone,  that  of  turning  into 
one  any  substance  deposited  in 
?ssels  made  of  it :  (Theophrastus, 
liny.)  -Sarcophagi  were  made 
ther  of  stone,  of  marble,  or  of 
orphyry.  The  Greeks  sometimes 
nployed  hard  wood,  as  oak,  cedar, 
f  cypress,  which  were  calculated 
>  resist  humidity,  and  occasionally 
rra-cotta,  and  even  metal.  The 
>rm  was  generally  a  long  square, 
le  angles  sometimes  rounded.  The 
J  varies  both  in  shape  and  orna- 
!ent.  The  sarcophagi  of  the  pri- 
itive  Christians  often  enclosed 
;veral  corpses,  and  were  orna- 
ented  with  several  sets  of  bassi- 
lievi.  The  sarcophagi  of  the  an- 
,ents  are  often  most  beautifully 
ulptured.  The  figures  on  them 
ere  either  those  of  the  deceased, 
id  the  parties  connected  with 
iem,  or  allegorical,  or  mytholo- 
cal.  Some  sarcophagi  have  con- 
ined  only  an  urn.  The  Egyp- 
an  sarcophagi  are  sculptured  with 


hieroglyphics.  Those  of  the  Ro- 
mans and  Grecians  sometimes  re- 
present sleep  and  dealh,  with  their 
legs  crossed,  one  hand  supporting 
the  head,  and  the  other  holding 
a  reversed  torch  ;  sometimes  Mer- 
cury is  seen  conducting  the  souls, 
and  Charon  ferrying  them  over  in 
his  bark.  Sometimes  the  subjects 
sculptured  on  the  sarcophagi  are 
groups  of  Bacchanals,  the  triumphs 
of  the  god  after  his  conquests  in 
India,  and  Bacchic  scenes.  The 
early  Christians  ornamented  their 
sarcophagi  with  pious  subjects  from 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  such 
as  those  mentioned  by  Gregory  of 
Tours,  and  many  that  may  be  seen 
in  published  collections. 

Sarrasine,  in  fortification,  a 
sort  of  portcullis,  called  also  a 
horse,  which  is  hung  with  a  cord 
over  the  gate  of  a  town  or  fortress, 
and  let  down  in  case  of  surprise. 

Sash,  (chassisy  Fr.  a  frame,)  the 
wooden  frame  which  holds  the  glass 
in  windows.  A  patent  was  given 
in  1819,  to  W.  Bailey,  of  High 
Holborn,  London,  for  an  invention 
of  certain  improvements  in  the  con- 
struction of  sashes,  sky  -  lights, 
frames,  &c.  He  proposes  the  use 
of  iron  bars,  which,  after  rendering 
them  red  hot,  he  passes  through 
grooved  rollers,  so  as  to  produce 
rebates  on  the  side  intended  to  re- 
ceive the  glass,  and  any  other  form 
of  moulding  upon  the  reverse  of 
the  sash  frame;  the  bars  are  then 
cut  into  convenient  lengths,  and 
fitted  together,  so  as  to  form  the 
frame  of  any  desired  dimensions. 
After  this  the  glass  is  to  be  attach- 
ed by  putty,  or  any  other  means, 
to  the  sash  frame.  For  such  win- 
dows as  are  of  a  curved  form,  par- 
ticularly in  the  Gothic  style,  this 
invention  may  be  peculiarly  appli- 
cable by  the  facility  in  bending  the 
bars  to  any  desired  or  fanciful  form. 
In  the  erection  of  hot-houses,  green- 

31? 


SAW 


SAW 


houses,  and  all  kinds  of  conserva- 
tories, this  invention  is  particularly 
useful,  as  it  combines  strength, 
lightness,  economy,  and  durabity. 
For  the  purpose  of  roofs,  sheets  of 
iron,  copper,  or  other  materials,  are 
to  be  fitted  into  these  frames,  and 
"iveted  firmly  together. 

Saw,  (saga,  Sax.  saive,  Dutch,) 
to  cut  wood,  ivory,  stone,  &c.  by 
an  edge  formed  into  regular  teeth. 
The  Greeks  attributed  the  inven- 
tion of  this  instrument  to  Daeda- 
lus, or  Talus;  it  is  found  figured 
on  the  obelisks  of  the  Egyptians. 
The  trunks  of  trees  were  first  split 
into  planks  by  wedges,  and  Beck- 
man  thinks,  that  the  idea  of  a  saw 
was  taken  from  a  fish-bone,  for 
which  he  cites  Ovid  (Met.  viii. 
244.)  Cicero  (pro.  Aul.  Cluent.) 
mentions  an  ingenious  saw,  by 
which  a  thief  sawed  out  the  bottom 
of  a  chest;  it  was  "crooked  on 
every  part  of  the  teeth,  and  twist- 
ed," adunca  ex  omni  parte  den- 
tium  et  tortuosa.  Saw-mills  by  wa- 
ter occur  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
both  for  cutting  stone  and  timber. 
They  occur  at  Augsburg  in  1322; 
the  first  erected  in  Holland  was  in 
1596.  One  was  erected  in  Lon- 
don in  1663,  but  opposed  by  the 
sawyers.  In  1767  or  1768,  one 
driven  by  wind  was  built  at  Lime- 
house,  but  destroyed  by  the  mob  ; 
another,  however,  was  erected.  A 
wind  saw-mill  of  this  description 
occurs  at  Leith  in  Scotland  some 
years  before.  Anderson  (Comm. 
ii.  254)  mentions  a  wind  saw-mill 
which  was  erected  upon  the  Thames 
by  a  Dutchman,  in  1633,  but  put 
down,  lest  labourers  should  want 
employ.  (See  Beckman's  Invent, 
i.  364.)  The  best  saws  are  of  high- 
tempered  steel,  ground  bright  and 
smooth,  and  the  good  quality  of 
their  workmanship  may  be  known 
by  their  bending  stiffly,  and 
equally  in  a  bow ;  the  former  show- 


ing that  they  have  been  well  ham- 
mered, and  the  latter  that  thej 
have  been  evenly  ground. 

The  saw  is  one  of  the  most  use- 
ful of  all  cutting  tools  to  the  joiner' 
as  it  enables  him  to  divide  timber! 
of  any  dimensions,  into  pieces  oil 
bars  of  whatever  size  he  may  re 
quire,  with  scarcely  any  waste! 
Saws  are  of  several  kinds:  th»t 
ripping-saw  is  used  for  dividing 
boards  into  several  pieces,  in  tin 
direction  of  the  fibres :  the  hand 
saw  is  employed  for  cross-cutting 
and  sawing  thin  pieces  in  thi 
direction  of  the  grain  :  the  pannel 
saw  serves  either  for  cross-cutting 
or  for  cutting  very  thin  boards  in  3 
longitudinal  direction  :  the  tenon 
saw,  with  a  thick  iron  back,  i 
used  for  making  an  incision  of  an1 
depth  below  the  surface  of  thi 
wood,  and  for  cutting  pieces  eni 
tirely  through,  not  exceeding  thi 
breadth  of  that  part  of  the  plat 
between,  and  the  iron  back:  thi 
sash-saw,  and  the  dovetail-saw 
are  used  in  much  the  same  way 
To  divide  boards  into  curver 
pieces,  a  compass-saw,  or  a  ver 
narrow  saw  without  a  back,  ii 
used,  and  in  cutting  a  very  smal 
hole,  a  saw  of  the  same  kind  callei 
a  key-hole  saw,  these  two  hav 
thicker  plates,  and  coarser  teetl 
than  either  the  sash  or  dove-ta: 
saws.  The  external  and  interna; 
faces  of  the  teeth  of  all  saws,  arj 
generally  formed  at  an  angle  c 
sixty  degrees,  and  the  front  edgei 
teeth  slope  backward  in  a  sma! 
degree,  but  recline  from  th 
straight  line  drawn  from  the  inte 
rior  angle,  perpendicular  to  thj 
edge  in  the  plane  of  the  plate,  a; 
the  saw  may  be  employed  in  rip, 
ping  or  in  cross-cutting.  Thi 
teeth  of  all  saws,  except  tumin 
and  key-hole  saws,  are  bent  altei 
nately  on  different  sides,  for  th 
purpose  of  clearing  the  sides  of  th 


,t,  which  the  saw  makes  in  the 
iod. 

With  the  intent  of  saving  manual 
x>ur,  the  saw-mill  has  been  in- 
nted,  and  has  been  brought  to 
:h  a  state  of  perfection,  that,  by 
:ans  of  this  machine,  wood  may 
cut  to  the  thickness  of  writing- 
per.  The  general  principle  of 
?se  machines  consists  of  a  saw 
awn  up  and  down  as  long  as 
cessary,  by  a  motion  com  muni- 
ted  to  the  wheel,  the  piece  of 
iber  to  be  cut  into  boards  being 
vanced,  by  an  uniform  motion, 
receive  the  strokes  of  the  saw. 
ie  most  complete  saw-mill,  is  that 
?cted  in  the  government-yard  at 
msmouth,  and  impelled  by  a 
rge  steam-engine,  which  raises 
e  wood  to  its  required  situation 
the  frame,  and  performs  all  the 
sential  functions  of  animal  life. 
Saw-pit,  a  pit  dug  in  the 
ound  for  sawing  timber,  which  is 
ne  by  two  men,  one  standing 
ove,  and  the  other  below.  The 
qdes  should  be  lined  with  board- 
or  with  stones  or  bricks,  and 
depth  should  be  a  little  more 
an  the  height  of  a  man. 
Saxon  Architecture.  This 
•m  has  been  applied  by  some 
'iters  to  all  architecture  in  Eng- 
id  and  Wales,  previous  to  the 
tinted  Gothic  style,  which  is  cha- 
ized  by  round-headed  doors  and 
tidows.  But  we  take  the  term 
applied  exclusively  to  buildings 
:cted  in  this  isle  under  the  Saxon 
lgs,  comprehending  all  edifices 
nstructed  between  the  conver- 
n  of  the  Saxons  in  597,  and  the 
>rman  conquest  in  1066,  with 
!  exception  of  the  short  inter- 
ring reigns  of  the  three  Anglo- 
inish  kings.  The  few  buildings 
ich  now  remain,  that  can,  by 
itten  documents,  be  proved  to  be 
an  age  prior  to  the  Conquest, 
ve  caused  many  writers  to  assert, 


that  at  present  there  is  no  real 
specimen  of  Anglo-Saxon  architec- 
ture extant:  and  many  have  be- 
lieved that  their  churches,  which 
were  doubtless  their  chief  works, 
were  low  mean  buildings,  usually 
composed  of  timber;  and  that,  if 
in  rare  instances  they  were  formed 
of  stone,  they  still  were  destitute 
of  columns  and  arches,  the  stone- 
works consisting  merely  of  upright 
walls.  The  latter  opinion  has  now 
become  universally  discarded,  and 
the  former  rests  only  on  presump- 
tion. It  is  clear  from  the  writings 
of  Bede,  that  many  cfiurches  were 
constructed  by  the  Anglo-Saxons 
of  oaken  planks,  or  even  of  wattles, 
and  thatched  with  reeds.  Such 
buildings  were  sometimes  raised  in 
haste,  and  were  afterwards  taken 
down,  to  give  place  to  more  sub- 
stantial edifices,  or  were  included 
in  those  more  permanent  struc- 
tures; as  in  the  instance  of  a  chapel 
on  the  site  of  the  present  church  of 
St.  Peter  at  York,  which  was  has- 
tily built  of  wood,  for  the  purpose 
of  baptizing  Edwin,  king  of  North- 
umberland, in  627.  But  it  may 
be  readily  apprehended,  that  in 
every  age,  when  society  was  thinly 
spread,  and  the  resources  upon 
which  ecclesiastical  architecture  de- 
pended, proceeding  chiefly  from 
the  bounty  of  individuals,  many 
churches,  not  designed  for  a  tem- 
porary purpose,  would  be  com- 
posed of  materials  so  ordinary  and 
cheap.  Several  such  are  noticed 
by  ancient  writers,  and  it  may  be 
observed,  that  a  church,  thus  rudely 
formed,  although  the  date  of  its 
erection  be  unknown,  is  still  re- 
maining at  Greensted,  near  Ongar, 
in  Essex.  There  is,  however,  abun- 
dant evidence  that  churches  built 
of  stone  were  contemporary  with 
such  frail  edifices.  "  At  the  time 
the  Saxons  were  converted,"  Mr. 
Bentham   observes,   "  the   art  of 

319 


SAX 


SAX 


constructing  arches  and  vaultings, 
and  of  supporting  stone  edifices 
by  columns,  was  well  known 
among  them ;  they  had  many  in- 
stances of  such  kind  of  buildings 
before  them,  in  the  churches  and 
other  public  edifices  erected  in  the 
time  of  the  Romans.  For  notwith- 
standing the  havoc  that  had  been 
made  of  the  christian  churches  by 
the  Picts  and  Scots,  and  by  the 
Saxons  themselves,  some  of  them 
were  then  in  being.  Bede  men- 
tions two  in  the  city  of  Canterbury : 
that  dedicated  to  St.  Martin,  on 
the  east-side  of  the  city,  wherein 
queen  Bertha  performed  her  devo- 
tions, and  which  Augustin  and  his 
companions  made  use  of,  at  their 
first  coming;  and  the  other,  that 
which  the  king,  after  his  conver- 
sion, gave  to  Augustin,  and  which 
he  repaired  and  dedicated  to  our 
blessed  Saviour,  and  made  it  his 
archiepiscopal  see.  Besides  these 
two  ancient  Roman  churches,  it  is 
likely  there  were  others  of  the 
same  age,  in  different  parts  of  the 
kingdom,  which  were  then  repaired, 
and  restored  to  their  former  use." 
(History  of  Ely  Cathedral.)  Bede 
and  his  contemporary  Eddius, 
make  frequent  mention  of  build- 
ings of  stone,  both  of  their  own 
and  preceding  times.  Eddius  de- 
scribes the  church  of  Hexham, 
which  was  founded  in  674,  as  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  fabrics  of 
the  age;  and  particularly  notes 
**  its  deepness  in  the  ground,  with 
rooms  formed  of  stones,  admirably 
polished ;  but  having,  above  ground, 
one  room  of  many  parts,  supported 
on  various  columns,  and  on  many 
subterraneous  chapels;  yet  possess- 
ing a  wonderful  length  and  height 
of  wallr ;  and  earned,  by  various 
passages  winding  in  lines,  along 
spiral  stairs,  sometimes  up,  some- 
times down."  Richard,  prior  of 
Hexham,  (Ricardus  Hagust.)  who 

320 


flourished  about  a  century  after  tl 
Conquest,  when  the  original  bnili 
ing  was  still  in  existence,  thou^ 
in  a  decaying  state,  has  left  us  al 
a  description  of  it,  and  both  me 
tion  the  "  crypts  and  oratories  su 
terraneous,  with  winding  passag 
to  them,"  and  relates  **  that  tl 
walls  were  of  immense  length  ai 
height,  supported  on  columi 
of  squared,  varied,  well-polish( 
stones,  and  divided  into  three  st 
ries ;"  adding,  "  that  the  wal 
themselves,  with  the  capitals 
those  columns  by  which  the  wal 
were  supported,  as  also  the  cov< 
ceiling  of  the  sanctuary,  Wilfn 
decorated  with  histories,  statues, ar 
various  figures,  projecting  in  scul 
ture  from  the  stone,  with  the  grat 
ful  variety  of  pictures,  and  with  tl 
wonderful  beauty  of  colours.  r 
also  surrounded  the  very  body 
the  church,  with  lateral  and  sul 
terraneous  chapels  on  every  sid< 
which,  with  wonderful  and  inexpi 
cable  artifice,  he  separated  t 
walls  and  spiral  stairs,  above  at: 
below.  In  the  very  stairs,  an 
upon  them,  he  caused  to  be  ma( 
of  stone,  ways  of  ascent,  places 
landing,  and  a  variety  of  winding 
some  up,  some  down,  yet  so  artii 
cially,  that  innumerable  multitude 
of  men  might  be  there,  and  stand  a 
about  the  very  body  of  the  churc! 
yet  not  be  visible  to  any  thl 
were  below  in  it."  Mr.  Whitake 
(Cathedral  Hist,  of  Cornwall 
compares  the  subterraneous  on 
tories  and  crypts  of  this  churc 
with  those  of  the  old  St.  Paul' 
(see  Paul's,  St.)  and  of  the  presei 
cathedral  of  Canterbury.  One  • 
the  most  complete  Saxon  church* 
of  which  we  have  authentic  info 
mation,  was  that  of  St.  Peters  ; 
York,  which  was  rebuilt  about  tl 
middle  of  the  eighth  century,  i 
consequence  of  having  sufFere 
from  fire  in  741,  and  which  is  d< 


■ 

SAX 

ribed  by  Alcuin,  in  his  poem,  de 
'ontificibus  et  Sanctis  Eccles. 
'borl  who  makes  particular  men- 
3n  of  its  pillars,,  arches,  vaulted- 
iofs,  windows,  porticos,  galleries. 
!C,  which  are  the  characteristics 
f  a  finished  building.  The  church 
'  Hexham  is  described  by  Richard 
;  having  "  a  tower,  of  a  round 
Irm,  from  which  four  porticos,  or 
sles,  proceeded."  From  this 
issage,  supported  by  other  evi- 
nces, it  appears  most  probable 
at  towers  were  added  by  the 
uons  to  their  churches  at  a  very 
irly  period.  (See  Church.) 
The  Saxon  style  was  doubtless 
it  a  barbarous  imitation  of  the 
chitecture  .of  Rome.  Bede,  in 
ascribing  the  church  of  St.  Peter, 
I  the  monastery  of  Wearmouth, 
hich  was  built  by  the  famous  Be- 
;dict  Biscopius  in  675,  imforms 
i  that  that  abbot  went  over  to 
ranre,  to  engage  workmen  to 
lild  his  church  after  the  Roman 
anner.  And  Dr.  Milner,  in  his 
,:ciesiastical  Architecture  of  the 
iddle  Ages,  observes,  that  "  the 
?ll-known  Saxon  mouldings,  the 
evron  or  zig-zag,  the  billet,  the 
ble,  the  embattled  fret,  the  lo- 
nge,  the  corbel  table,  and  a 
riety  of  such  other  ornaments  as 
je  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to 
ixon  architecture,  will  be  found, 

1  close  examination,  to  have  had 
eir  archetypes  in  some  or  other 
the  buildings,  medals,  tessellated 
ivements,  or  sepulchres  of  Italy, 
fore  they  were  adopted  by  our 
cestors."    However,  it  was  but 

imitation,  for  the  architect  of 
e  most  splendid  sacred  structures 

2  to  be  found  in  native  eccle- 
istics. 

Although  the  Saxon  churches 
re  in  a  great  many  instances 
■edified  by  the  Normans,  yet  it  is 
i  Owed  to  be  far  from  improbable 
at  some  few  churches  constructed 
1  2S 


SAX 

by  the  Anglo-Saxons,  in  recluse 
situations,  may  still  be  in  exist- 
ence ;  and  it  may  be  presumed 
almost  with  certainty,  that  many 
parts  of  Anglo-Saxon  structures 
still  exist,  though  intermixed  with 
predominating  buildings,  often  of  a 
much  later  erection.  In  such 
cases,  they  are  most  commonly  to 
be  looked  for  in  door-ways,  or  in 
massy  pillars,  which  sometimes 
support  arches  of  another  style, 
and  in  the  foundations  and  crypts. 
Enriched  door-cases  of  stone,  with 
all  the  peculiarities  attributed  to 
this  style,  are  frequently  seen  in- 
serted in  the  buildings  of  churches, 
which,  in  almost  every  other  part, 
or  perhaps  entirely,  are  of  the  Go- 
thic or  pointed  style.  Some  mo- 
tive of  peculiar  reverence  seems  to 
have  influenced  the  architects  of 
the  more  modern  structures,  in  re- 
taining these  vestiges  of  the  an- 
cient buildings.  It  is  conjectured 
by  Mr.  Stavely  (Hist,  of  Churches) 
that  the  south  door  was  sometimes 
the  place  where  civil  business  was 
transacted,  and  Eadmer,  describ- 
ing the  cathedral  church  of  Can- 
terbury, says,  that  "  of  two  towers 
at  the  middle  of  the  length  of  this 
cathedral,  one  on  the  south  had  on 
its  side  the  principal  door  of  the 
church ;  which  door  is  often  men- 
tioned by  name  in  the  laws  of  our 
ancient  kings ;  by  which  laws  it  is 
decreed,  that  even  all  suits  of  the 
whole  realm,  which  cannot  be 
legally  determined  in  hundred  or 
county  courts,  or  certainly  decided 
in  the  king's  own  court,  must  have 
their  determination  here,  as  in  the 
highest  court  of  the  king."  (Whit- 
aker,  Cath.  Hist.)  Smaller  courts 
appear  also  to  have  been  some- 
times held  at  the  doors  of  country 
churches.  The  preservation  of 
circular  arched  doorways  in  more 
modern  buildings  is  not  confined 
to  this  country ;  an  old  door,  with 


SAX 

a  round  arch,  and  hatched  mould- 
ings, is  remaining  in  the  cathedral 
of  Liege,  although  the  other  parts 
of  the  structure  are  entirely  Gothic. 
(Ornaments  of  Churches  consider- 
ed, p.  91.) 

We  know  from  historical  testi- 
monies, that  a  great  number  of 
parish  churches  were  erected  be- 
tween the  conversion  of  the  Saxons 
and  the  incursion  of  the  Danes  in 
the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries,  and 
in  a  great  council  held  at  Cealc- 
hythe,  in  816,  a  canon  was  framed, 
prescribing  a  precise  manner  of 
consecrating  them  by  the  bishop  of 
the  diocese,  and  directing  that  the 
saint  to  whom  each  church  or  altar 
was  dedicated,  should  be  depicted 
either  on  the  wall  of  the  oratory, 
or  on  a  table. 

In  the  church  of  Kirkdale,  in 
Rydale,  in  the  north  riding  of 
Yorkshire,  over  the  south  door  is 
a  curious  inscription  in  Saxon  cha- 
racters, of  which  a  plate  is  given  in 
the  fifth  vol.  of  the  Archseologia. 
The  inscription  is  accompanied  by 
an  ancient  dial,  and  is  placed  over 
a  doorway,  with  a  plain  semicir- 
cular arch.  It  is  engraved  on  one 
entire  freestone,  seven  feet  five 
inches  long,  and  one  foot  ten 
inches  high,  and  is  in  perfect  pre- 
servation, except  a  small  part  in 
the  centre,  where  the  inscription  is 
disfigured,  but  not  obliterated  by 
the  weather.  This  seems  in  some 
measure  to  be  owing  to  its  being 
defended  by  the  porch  which  en- 
tirely covers  it,  except  at  two  an- 
gles, and  consequently  must  have 
been  of  later  erection,  which  is 
further  improved  by  its  having  been 
formerly  plastered  over  with  lime 
or  some  other  cement,  as  appears 
by  the  remains  of  it  in  the  inter- 
stices of  the  letters,  and  in  the 
vacancy  where  the  hand  of  the  dial 
has  been  broken  off*.  The  inscrip- 
tion  may  be  read  thus  :  Oum. 

*322 


SAX 

Gamal.  suna.  bohte.  sanctu 
gregorius.  minster.  thonn) 
hit.  wes.  .el.  to.  b  roc  an.  an  i 

TO.  FALAN.  CJ.IEHITLE.  AND.  Ma 
NEW  AN.  FROM.  GRUNDE.  CHRIST 
AND.  SANCTUS.  GREGORIUS.  II 
EADWARD.  DAGUM.  CNG.IN.TOST 

dagum.  earl.     "  Orm,  Gamal 
son,  bought  St.  Gregory's  churcl 
then  it  was  all  gone  to  ruin  an 
fallen  down.  Chehitle  and  others n| 
newed  it  from  the  ground,  to  Chri 
and  St.  Gregory,  in  Ead  ward's  JaV 
the  king,and  in  Tosti's  days  the  ear] ; 
and  under  the  dial, and.  iiawarti 
me.  wroht.  and.  brand.  PR 
"and  Hawarth  me  made, and  Bra 
the  priest."    "  That  part  of  tl 
inscription,"  observes   the  writ 
"  which  is  above,  and  runs  rou 
the  radii  of  the  dial,  being  som* 
what  defaced,  I  dare  offer  no  e} 
planation  of,  but  am  favoured  wit 
the  following  ingenious  conjectun 
from  the   Rev.  Mr.  Manning  < 
Godalming.     It  is  obvious,  sa< 
that  great  master  of  Saxon  literi 
ture,  from  the*  position  of  this  dia 
that  it  was  intended  for  a  dire 
south  dial,  described  on  the  plar 
of  the  prime  vertical ;  on  the  bac 
part,  or  north  side  of  which,  tl 
sun  never  shines  from  the  autumn 
to  the  vernal  equinox.    Now  su< 
a  dial  may,  with  great  propriet 
be  called  a  dial  for  the  winter  ha 
of  the  year;   because  it  exhibi 
the  whole  of  the    sun's  diurn 
course,  while  he  is  in  the  souther 
or  winterhalf  of  the  ecliptic,  but  n 
when  he  is  in   the  northern 
summer  half  of  it."    This  beit 
premised,  he  has  no  doubt  th 
the  Saxon  legend  was  a  descri 
tion  of  such  a  dial,  and  in 
original  state  ran  thus:  this,  i 

DJEGES.  SjEL.  MERC  A.  TO.  SUNN 
TILLUM.  WINTERES.       "  This  is 

draught  exhibiting  the  time  of  cla 
while  the  sun  is  passing  to  a 
from   the  winter  -  solstice."  T 


SAX 

time  when  ibis  inscription  was  en- 
graved may  be  determined  within 
i  few  years.  Tosti,  who  was  fourth 
>on  of  Godwin,  earl  of  Kent,  and 
Drother  to  king  Harold,  was  made 
;arl  of  Northumberland,  by  Ed- 
vard  the  Confessor,  in  1056,  on  the 
leath  of  earl  Leward.  This  earl 
vas  driven  from  his  earldom  for 
lis  oppression,  and  was  killed  at 
Stamford  bridge,  near  York,  in 
066.  The  inscription  must,  there- 
ore,  be  dated  between  those  years. 
7rom  Doomsday  Book,  it  appears 
hat  Orm  was  the  owner  of  Kirk- 
lale,  and  the  districts  adjacent,  in 
lid  ward  the  Confessor's  time.  And 
rom  Simeon  of  Durham,  we  learn 
hat  a  certain  Thane  in  Yorkshire, 
iy  name  Orm,  the  son  of  Gamal, 
Tarried  Ethelrilh,  one  of  the  five 
laughters  of  Aldred,  earl  of  North- 
mberland,  &c. 

On  one  of  the  walls  of  the 
hurch  of  Aldborough,  in  York- 
hire,  is  the  following  Saxon  in- 
:ription,  "  Ulf  hit  arseran  cyrice 
jr  Hanum  and  for  Gunthard 
aula ;"  i.  e.  44  Ulf  commanded  this 
hurch  to  be  erected  for  the  souls 
f  Hanum  and  Gunthard."  From 
mny  circumstances,  this  church 

evidently  the  original  Anglo- 
axon  structure,  with  a  few  modern 
Jditions,  as  pointed  windows,  &c. 
i  The  walls  in  general  are  made  of 
)und  pebble-stones,  supposed  to 
ave  been  gathered  from  the  sea- 
lore  in  the  neighbourhood,  which 
nd  of  stones  by  a  strong  cement 
ade  very  durable  buildings;  but 
e  lower  part  of  the  south  wall  of 
e  chancel  is  built  with  hewn 
'one,  such  as  was  generally  used 

our  most  ancient  cathedral 
urches,  upon  which  there  are 
me  grotesque  figures,  and  in  the 
>rth  wall  is  a  narrow  window, 
'Out  five  feet  high  :  the  chancel 
•or  also,  which  is  a  south  en- 
ince,  is  low  and  narrow,  and  has 


SAX 

over  it  an  elliptic  arch,  ornamented 
with  zigzag  work.  Ulf,  who  is 
mentioned  in  the  inscription  as  its 
founder,  was  lord  of  the  whole  of 
this  part  of  the  Saxon  province  of 
Deira,  or  the  country  bounded  by 
the  Humber  and  the  Tees,  about 
the  time  of  Canute,  (Archseolog. 
vol.  vi.  p.  40,  41 .) 

The  church  of  Stewkley,  in  Buck- 
inghamshire, bears  many  marks  of 
great  antiquity,  and  the  character 
of  its  architecture  offers  great 
inducement  to  suppose  it  Anglo- 
Saxon.  Dr.  Stukeley  says,  it  is 
of  an  age  "  undoubtedly  before  the 
Conquest,"  and  a  stone  is  said  to 
have  been  discovered  in  repairing 
the  roof,  bearing  date  1006,  (Brit- 
ton,  Architect.  Antiq.  vol.  ii.)  St. 
Peter's  church,  at  Northampton, 
in  the  style  of  its  ornaments  bears 
great  resemblance  to  it. 

The  observations  of  Mr.  Garbett 
are  entitled  to  particular  notice. 
Having  been  appointed  by  the 
Dean  and  Chapter  of  Winchester, 
to  superintend  the  repairs  of  the 
cathedral,  he  inferred  from  his  own 
observations,  that  it  contains  por- 
tions of  Saxon  workmanship,  of  a 
very  early  age.  He  even  concludes, 
that  "  the  crypt,  under  the  part  of 
the  church  between  the  high  altar 
and  the  Virgin  chapel,  is  a  remnant 
of  the  work  of  our  pious  British  or 
Roman  ancestors,  in  the  early  part 
of  the  fourth  century."  He  judges 
that  the  transept  contains  some 
portions  of  the  structure  raised  by 
Kenewalch,  king  of  Wessex,  in  the 
seventh  century,  and  also  more  of 
that  attributed  to  bishop  Ethelwold, 
in  the  tenth.  These  conclusions  he 
draws  chiefly  from  a  comparison  of 
the  architecture  and  workmanship 
of  the  tower,  built  by  bishop  Wal- 
kelyn,  in  1079,  with  part  of  the 
transept,  in  which,  he  says,  44  it  is 
not  difficult  to  trace  distinctly  the 
junction  of  the  Norman  with  the 


SAX 


SAX 


Saxon  work,  not  only  by  the  supe- 
riority of  the  masonry,  but  by  the 
shape  of  the  arches."  To  this  sup- 
position Mr.  Britton  opposes  the 
authority  of  Rudborne,  the  histo- 
rian of  Winchester,  that  bishop 
Walkelyn  commenced  the  rebuild- 
ing of  the  cathedral  from  its  foun- 
dation, (a  fundamentis,  ccepit  re- 
adificare  ecclesiam  :)  but  some  al- 
lowance must  be  made  for  this 
assertion,  and  his  beginning  from 
the  foundation  need  not  imply  that 
he  allowed  no  portion  of  the  older 
masonry  to  remain. 

"  There  are  considerable  remains 
of  one  building  yet  standing,  though 
now  principally  confined  to  vaults 
and  cellaring,  which  may  be  justly 
attributed  to  the  Saxon  era,  since 
there  can  be  no  doubt  that  they 
once  formed  a  part  of  the  monastic 
edifices  of  Westminster  Abbey,  pro- 
bably the  church,  which  was  rebuilt 
by  Edward  the  Confessor,  in  the 
latter  years  of  his  life.  These  re- 
mains compose  the  east  side  of  the 
dark  and  principal  cloisters,  and 
range  from  the  college  dormitory 
on  the  south  to  the  chapter-house 
on  the  north.  The  most  curious 
part  is  the  vaulted  chamber,  open- 
ing from  the  principal  cloister,  in 
which  the  standards  for  the  trials 
of  the  Pix  are  kept,  under  the 
keys  of  the  chancellor  of  the  ex- 
chequer, and  other  officers  of  the 
crown.  The  vaulting  is  supported 
by  plain  groins,  and  semicircular 
arches,  which  rest  on  a  massive 
central  column,  having  an  abacus 
moulding,  and  a  square  impost 
capital,  irregularly  fluted.  In  their 
original  state,  these  remains,  which 
are  now  subdivided  by  several  cross 
walls,  forming  store-cellars,  &c.  ap- 
pear to  have  composed  only  one 
lpartment,  about  one  hundred  and 
ten  feet  in  length,  and  thirty  feet 
in  breadth,  the  semicircular  arches 
of  which  were  partly  sustained  by 

324 


a  middle  row  of  eight  short  and 
massive  columns,  with  square  capi- 
tals diversified  by  a  difference  in 
the  sculptured  ornaments.  These 
ancient  vestiges  now  form  the  base- 
ment story  of  the  college  school, 
and  of  a  part  of  the  dean  and  chap- 
ter's library."  Britton,  Architect. 
Antiq.  vol.  v.;  Brayley's  Hist. and 
Antiq.  of  Westminster  Abbey,  vol.  ii. 

That  the  church  at  Brixworth  in 
Northamptonshire,  is  of  an  age  an^ 
terior  to  the  Conquest,  we  have 
many  proofs.  Mr.  Britton  judges 
it  to  be  even  a  building  of  the  time 
when  the  Romans  were  in  posses- 
sion of  the  island,  after  the  Britons 
were  converted.  It  is  evident  from 
Domesday  Book,  that  it  was  in  ex- 
istence at  that  time,  and  in  Leland's 
Collectanea,  we  may  trace  it  to  the 
time  of  Cuthbald,  the  second  abbot 
of  Medeshamsted,  afterwards  called 
Peterborough,  who  was  contem- 
porary with  Wulphere,  king  61 
Mercia,  who  died  in  670.  The 
building  is  almost  entirely  formed 
of  Roman  bricks.  This  edifice 
has  been  described  by  Mr.  Baker, 
in  his  History  of  Northamptonshire, 
and  by  Mr.  Rickman,  in  his 
"  Attempt,"  &c.  It  has  at  its 
western  end,  in  addition  to  the 
square  tower,  a  round  one,  con- 
taining a  newel  staircase.  In  its 
original  form  it  appears  to  have 
consisted  of  a  spacious  nave  and 
narrow  aisles,  a  large  chancel,  and  a 
western  tower,  with  a  clerestery  t 
the  nave,  and  the  chancel  dividei 
from  it  by  a  large  arch.  The  con 
struction  of  this  church  is  particu 
larly  curious ;  the  walls  being  mostl 
built  with  rough  red-stone  rag,  i 
pieces  not  much  larger  than  com 
mon  brick,  and  all  the  arches  turned 
and  most  of  them  covered  with 
courses  of  bricks  or  tiles,  as  the) 
may  be  called.  •  The  original  doors 
and  windows  have  all  round  arches 
but  many  additions  have  been  made 


SAX 


SAX 


n  more  recent  ages.  Fig.  3.  PI. 
Castle,  C.  7 1 ,  represents  the  arches 
,vhich  look  from  the  tower  into  the 
:hurch.  The  tower  of  Earl's  Bar- 
:on  Church,  in  Northamptonshire, 
lis  well  as  that  of  Barton-upon- 
Humber,in  Lincolnshire,  bear  marks 
)f  great  antiquity,  and  are  ascribed 
>y  Mr.  Britton  to  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
Both  are  evidently  much  older  than 
:he  church  to  which  they  belong, 
,vhifh  are  good  specimens  of  the 
Gorman  style.  "  Nothing,"  Mr.  Brit- 
':on  observes,  "  can  be  found  more 
resembling  the  towers  now  under 
notice,  than  the  architectural  draw- 
ings in  certain  manuscripts  of  ac- 
knowledged Saxon  origin.  In  the 
British  Museum,  and  in  the  Gre- 
gorian gospels  preserved  in  the 
ibrary  of  Salisbury  cathedral,  are 
irawinss  by  Anglo-Saxon  scribes, 
n  which  the  triangular  arch,  and 
:olumns  resembling  balusters  with 
wo  or  three  bands,  are  represented, 
ind  seem  to  be  rude  delineations 
)f  architectural  members,  very  simi- 
ar  to  those  in  the  towers  of  the 
wo  Bartons,  and  Barneck,  in 
Northamptonshire,  in  which  they 
ire  employed."  The  walls  of  the 
ower  of  Earl's  Barton,  are  partly 
iomposed  of  stone  ribs,  placed  per- 
)endicnlarly,  with  some  turned  as 
)iank  arches,  and  others  fixed  dia- 
gonally, whilst  the  intermediate 
ipaces  are  formed  with  small  rub- 
)le  stones  and  mortar.  The  win- 
low  openings  are  very  small.  The 
vestern  doorway,  which  is  equally 
tide  in  design  and  in  construction, 
s  formed  of  two  large  pieces  of 
tone,  for  the  jambs,  imposts  with 
lightly  hollowed  arches  for  orna- 
nent,  and  large  masses  of  irregu- 
arly  sized  stones  for  the  arch, 
"he  walls  of  the  tower  of  St.  Peter's 
hurch,  at  Barton  upon  H umber, 
ire  strongly*  built  of  rubble-stone 
md  grout,  interspersed  by  a  sort 
*f  frame- work,  formed  of  coarse 


freestone,  of  the  same  grit  as  the 
doors  and  windows  are  cased  with. 
The  uppermost  story  seems  to  be 
of  more  modern  construction  than 
the  lower  parts.  The  lower  win- 
dow of  the  south  side  consists  of 
two  openings,  separated  by  a  cir- 
cular pillar  swelling  in  thickness  in 
the  middle.  The  churches  of  Brix- 
worth, Barton  on  Humber,  Earl's 
Barton,  Brigstock,  and  Barneck, 
may  all  be  safely  attributed  to  the 
Saxons :  "  They  must  be  seen,"  says 
Mr.  Rickman,  "  to  be  properly  ap- 
preciated ;  for  to  do  justice  to  them 
in  words,  would  require  a  volume 
to  each."  Fig.  4,  PI.  C.  71,  is  a 
sketch  of  triangular  arches  in  Earl's 
Barton  tower,  and  Jig.  7,  arches 
and  columns,  the  latter  of  the  same 
description  as  Jig.  3.  Figs.  8,  9, 
are  triangular  arches  from  the 
tower  of  Barneck.  Figs.  10,  11, 
column  and  capitals  from  the  very 
ancient  crypt  at  Lastingham,  or 
Lestingeham,  in  the  north  riding  of 
Yorkshire.  Fig.  13,  from  the  tower 
of  St.  Alban's  Abbey  church,  dis- 
plays two  semicircular  arches,  un- 
der another  constructed  with  Ro- 
man bricks,  and  devoid  of  mould- 
ings. A  plan  of  the  Saxon. church 
at  Brixworth  is  given  in  plate  Car- 
pentry,  C.  42,  Jig.  4.  The  church 
of  St.  James,  at  Dunwich,  in  Suf- 
folk, of  which  a  plan  is  given  in  the 
twelfth  volume  of  the  Archaeologia, 
bears  in  its  form  a  great  resem- 
blance to  that  of  Brixworth.  The 
church  of  Melbourne,  in  Derby- 
shire, is  supposed  to  be  a  Saxon 
church  by  Mr.  Wilkins,  who  has 
given  a  description  of  it  in  the 
Archaeologia,  (vol.  xiii.  p.  290,  &c.) 
In  the  old  German  churches,  the 
east  end  is  almost  always  semi- 
circular. At  the  church  of  St. 
Margaret's  ClifT,  in  Kent,  there  is 
a  very  singular  doorway,  of  which 
a  figure  is  given  in  the  fourth  vol. 
of  King's  Munimenta  Antiqua.  In 

325 


SAX 


SAX 


this  gate  the  circular  arches,  with 
their  mouldings,  are  enclosed  in  a 
triangle.  Some  of  the  columns  in 
arches  from  the  tower  at  St.  Al- 
bans, resemble  those  of  Earl's  Bar- 
ton, in  their  singular  form,  with 
swellings,  bands,  &c.  (King's  Muni- 
men'a  Antiqua,  vol.  4.)  The  church 
of  Saxham,  in  SufFolk,  near  Bury 
St.  Edmund's,  has  a  round  tower, 
with  arches,  even  in  the  highest 
part,  which  are  undoubtedly  either 
Saxon,  or  very  early  Norman. 
Roujd  towers  certainly  are  not 
characteristic  of  the  Norman  style, 
and  there  is,  therefore,  a  great  pre- 
sumption, that  the  tower  and  its 
architecture  are  purely  Saxon. 
Rumsey  church  is  evidently  Saxon ; 
(Archaeolog.  vol.  xv.)  the  capital  of 
one  of  its  pillars  is  given  in  Carter's 
Specimens  of  Ancient  Sculpture 
and  Painting.  Wahham  Abbey 
church  is  by  the  generality  of  anti- 
quarians considered  to  be  Saxon. 
But  Britton  thinks  both  this  and 
Durham  cathedral  to  be  entirely 
Norman. 

There  are  remains  of  a  curious 
building  at  Warnfortj^  in  South- 
amptonshire,  which  are  supposed 
by  Mr.  Wyndham,  (and  his  sup- 
position is  ably  supported,)  to 
be  the  original  church  founded 
there  by  Wilfred.  His  description 
of  it,  with  plates,  is  given  in  the 
Archaeologia,  (vol.  v.  p.  357 — 366.) 
The  walls  are  raised  with  flints, 
bedded  in  a  strong  cement  of  mor- 
tar, and  are  of  a  great  thickness. 
The  arches  are  all  semicircular  and 
plain,  and  the  columns  which  re- 
main are  round,  rather  slender  in 
proportion,  and  not  in  the  least 
resembling  any  of  Norman  con- 
struction. 

The  doubts  and  uncertainty  with 
which  the  architectural  monuments 
supposed  to  belong  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  are  involved,  make  it  next 
to  impossible  to  give  any  certain 

326 


traits  that  may  be  considered  as 
distinguishing  the  Saxon  style. 
Several  characteristics,  however, 
have  already  been  mentioned,  that 
are  considered  as  being  decidedly 
Anglo-Saxon,  as  columns,  arches, 
&c. 

Dr.  Milner  asserts,  that  Saxon 
buildings  may  in  a  great  measure 
be  distinguished  by  "  the  coarseness 
of  the  work." 

Mr.  Wilkins  observes,  that  "  the 
Saxons  supported  their  arches, 
which  separated  the  aisles,  by  a 
single  column,  or  rather  pier,  which 
was  circular,  octangular,  or  hexan- 
gular,  in  the  plan ;  whereas  the 
Norman  architects  supported  theirs, 
in  general,  with  extremely  massive 
piers,  ornamented  on  their  sides 
and  angles  with  upright  small  co- 
lumns; and  sometimes  they  inter- 
mixed them  with  round  piers,  like 
the  Saxons,  as  may  be  seen  in  Ely, 
Norwich,  Peterborough,  and  other 
cathedrals.  They  differed  widely, 
however,  from  the  Roman  propor- 
tions ;  and  the  Normans  increased 
the  difference,  as  is  shewn  by  the 
following  comparison : 


Saxon  Proportions. 


Diam, 


Height. 


3  3 


2  4 


ft. 


3    0  =  4 


14    2  =  6+2 


Piers  to  the  chan- 
cel at  Orford,  in 
Suffolk    .    .  . 

Width  of  the 
arches  three  dia- 
meters    .    .  . 

Piers  to  the  con- 
ventual church  at 
Ely  .... 

Width  of  the 
arches  three  dia- 
meters, 

Norman  Proportions. 

Piers  in  Norwich 
Cathedral    .  . 

Width  of  the 
arches  two  dia- 
meters   .    .  . 

The  same  proportions  may  be 
observed  in  Ely,  Peterborough,  and 


7  3 


14    6  = 


i 


SAX 

iher  Norman  buildings."  (Archae- 
lo£.  vol.  xii.) 

The  arches,  Mr.  Millers  (De- 
cription   of  Ely )  observes,  are 

frequently  very  plain,  sometimes 
ecorated  with  various  sorts  of 
mnldings,  not  only  on  the  face, 
!iit  in  the  sorfit,  which,  in  some 
istances  (as  in  the  ruins  at  Ely,) 
;  entirely  occupied  by  them ;  dou- 
le,  triple,  or  quadruple,  each  rest- 
lg  on  two  columns,  and  generally 
iced  with  a  different  moulding, 
hicli  is  frequently  double ;  so 
lat,  upon  the  whole,  there  are 
ix  or  eight  concentric  circles  of 
lem ;  and,  as  each  semicircle 
rejects  somewhat  beyond  the  next, 

moulding  is  placed  under  the 
rejecting  parts,  usually  the  same 
s  that  upon  the  face  of  it." 

In  plate  Tools,  we  have  given 
gures  of  all  the  Saxon  mouldings 
om  Mr.  King.    Their  names  are : 

1  1.  Double  leaf  moulding  (from  Malms- 
bury.) 
,  2.  Chevron  or  zigzag. 

3.  Triple  indented  moulding. 

4.  Triangular  frette  moulding. 

1  5.  Enriched  triangular  moulding. 

6.  Embiittied  frette  moulding. 

7.  Labyrinth  moulding. 

8.  Lozenge  or  losange  moulding. 

9.  Enriched  lozenge,  or  enriched  frette 

moulding. 
10  Rose  moulding. 

11.  Trefoil  leaf  mouldings. 

12.  Scroll  foliage  moulding. 

13.  Enriched  quatreloil  moulding. 

14.  Mere  scroll  moulding. 

15.  Starry  moulding. 
10.  Bead  moulding. 

17.  Nobbed  moulding. 

18.  Nail-head  moulding. 
l!>.  Billet  moulding. 

20.  Doable  billet  moulding. 

21.  Square  billet  moulding. 

22.  Hatched  moulding. 

23.  Incrusted  moulding. 

24.  Scribbled  moulding. 

25.  Cable  or  twisted  moulding. 
Braided  moulding. 

27.  Crossed  circle  moulding. 
2H.  Sun-flower  moulding. 
2'.'.  Reticulated  moulding. 
3().  Chequer  moulding. 
St.  Cross- pointed  moulding 


SAX 

32.  Spear-point  moulding. 

33.  Head  moulding. 

34.  Heart  moulding. 

35.  Wedge  moulding. 

36.  Nebule  moulding. 

37.  Overlapping  moulding. 

38.  Corbel  table. 

The  lozenges  have  sometimes  their 
ends  inserted  within  each  other 
like  the  links  of  a  chain,  as  in  a 
gate  at  Malmsbury,  when  they  are 
termed  lozenge  chain  moulding. 
The  head  moulding  admits  of  an 
immense  variety.  Zigzag  and  tri- 
ple indented,  with  a  very  few  others, 
were  imitated  by  the  Normans. 

The  zigzag  ornament  is  very  com- 
mon among  the  ruins  of  Mycenae, 
and  most  ancient  Greek  cities.  The 
following  is  a  list  of  the  principal 
buildings  in  which  remains  of  An- 
glo-Saxon architecture  are  consi- 
dered by  different  writers  to  be 
found.  Avington  church,  Berks; 
Stewkly  church,  Bucks ;  Dinton 
church,  Bucks  ;  remains  of  the 
conventual  church  at  Ely ;  War- 
wick church,  near  Carlisle;  Mel- 
bourne church,  Derbyshire ;  Stud- 
land  church,  Dorset ;  Waltham 
abbey  church,  Essex;  Greensted 
church,  Essex;  church  at  Tewkes- 
bury, Gloucestershire  ;  Bishop's 
Cleeve  church,  Gloucestershire  ; 
part  of  Rumsey  church,  Hants  ; 
parts  of  the  abbey  church,  and 
the  church  of  St.  Michael,  at  St. 
Alban's;  Barfriston  church,  Kent; 
the  undercroft  of  Canterbury  cathe- 
dral; remains  of  the  west  front  of 
St.  Augustine's  abbey  church,  Can- 
terbury; Crowle  church,  Lincoln- 
shire; Southwall  church,  Notting- 
hamshire ;  parts  of  the  cathedral, 
and  of  St.  Peter's  in  the  east,  Ox- 
ford ;  Iffley  church,  Oxfordshire  ; 
Teckencote  church,  Rutland;  part 
of  Halesowen  church,  and  St. 
Kenellin's  chapel,  Salop;  Tutbury 
church,  Stafford ;  chapel  at  Ox- 
ford, Suffolk  ;  New  Shoreham 
church,  Sussex ;  parts  of  the  mo- 


SC  A 

nastery  at  Pershore,  Worcestershire; 
the  undercroft  of  Worcester  cathe- 
dral ;  the  chapel  of  St.  Mary,  in 
cryptis,  in  York  cathedral ;  Adel 
church,  near  Leeds,  Yorkshire ;  and 
the  crypt  of  Lestingham  church, 
Yorkshire. 

The  following  works  are  tne  prin- 
cipal authorities  relating  to  the 
antiquities  of  the  Anglo-Saxons : 
Gale,  Quindecim  Scriptores;  Twys- 
den,  Decern  Scriptores;  Wilkins* 
Concilia  ;  Ricard.  Hagulstad.  de 
Stat.  Eccles;  William  of  Malms- 
bury  ;  Eddius  ;  Scriptores  post 
Bedam  ;  Anglia  Sacra ;  Brompton's 
Chronicon. 

Scabellum,  (Lat.)  a  kind  of 
pedestal,  anciently  used  to  support 
bustos  or  relievos,  very  high  and 
slender,  generally  ending  in  a  kind  of 
sheath,  or  in  the  way  of  a  baluster. 

Scaffold,  (  eschafaut,  Fr.  )  a 
fiame  of  wood  fixed  to  walls,  for 
masons,  plasterers,  &c.  to  stand  on 
while  working  the  parts  of  a  build- 
ing which  they  could  not  otherwise 
reach. 

In  an  illuminated  bible  of  the 
fifteenth  century,  is  a  representa- 
tion of  a  scaffold  round  the  tower 
of  a  castle,  which  is  not  like  ours 
in  stages,  but  ascends  spirally. 

A  very  ingenious  scaffold  for 
reparing  domes  was  contrived  by 
Mr.  Hughes,  and  the  invention  was 
rewarded  by  the  Society  for  the  En- 
couragement of  Arts,&c.  It  is  made 
to  move  round  on  an  upright  pole, 
in  the  centre  of  the  dome,  and  on 
two  wheels  running  on  the  floor, 
so  that  it  can  readily  be  turned  to 
any  part  of  the  dome.  See  Con- 
structive Carpentry. 

Scagliola,  (Ital.)  is  the  name 
of  a  species  of  -plaster  or  stucco, 
invented  in  the  town  of  Carpi,  in 
Modena,  in  1584,  by  Guido  del 
Conte,  composed  of  selenites  cal- 
cined to  a  fine  powder,  and  mixed 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water 

328 


SC  A 

make  a  paste,  which  must  be  well 
kneaded.  It  is  used  in  the  form- 
ation of  columns  and  ornamental 
works  in  imitation  of  marble;  which 
is  performed  with  astonishing  effect. 
In  forming  columns,  a  frame  or 
cradle  is  made  of  slips  of  wood, 
about  two  inches  and  a  half  in  dia- 
meter less  than  it  is  intended  to  be 
when  finished.  This  cradle  is  then 
lathed  round,  and  covered  with  a 
rough  coat  of  lime  and  hair,  raised 
up  in  little  projections.  When  this 
is  quite  dry,  the  artist  lays  on  the 
composition,  which  is  made  to  imi- 
tate the  most  beautiful  and  costly 
marbles,  and  which  when  dry  re- 
ceives a  high  polish,  and  proves  so 
complete  a  deception,  that  nothing 
but  a  fracture  of  its  substance  can 
discover  the  difference.  The  purest 
gypsum  is  calcined  and  passed 
through  a  fine  sieve,  and,  as  it  is 
wanted,  mixed  with  a  solution  of 
glue  or  isinglass  to  form  the  com- 
position ;  which  is  laid  on  the  pre- 
pared model  of  the  intended  shaft, 
and  is  then  floated  with  wooden 
moulds  of  the  size  required  :  dur- 
ing this  operation,  the  colours  are 
put  upon  the  work  as  it  forms,  by 
which  means  it  becomes  incorpo- 
rated with  its  substance  ;  forming 
the  veiny  appearance  so  much  ad- 
mired. The  workman,  when  the 
composition  is  fit  for  the  operation, 
smooths  the  work  with  a  pumice 
stone  with  one  hand,  while  with  the 
other  he  washes  it  with  a  spunge 
and  water  :  he  then  polishes  it  with 
tripoli,  charcoal,  and  a  piece  of  fine 
linen ;  then  he  polishes  it  with  a 
piece  of  felt,  dipped  in  a  mixture  of 
oil  and  tripoli,  finishing  his  opera 
tions  with  the  application  of  pure 
oil,  laid  on  with  cotton  wool.  The 
bases  and  capitals  of  these  columns 
are  generally  of  real  marble 

Scala  Santa,  a  portico  near 
the  church  of  St.  John  de  Lateran, 
at  Rome,  with  five  arcades  in  front, 


SC  A 


SCE 


id  three  flights  of  sfairs,  of  which 
ie  middle  flight  is  pretended  to 
ive  been  made  out  of  the  steps 
hich  once  belonged  to  the  house 
■  Caiaphas,  which  they  say  were 
-ou^ht  from  Jerusalem  to  Rome, 
1  account  of  their  having  served 
;  a  passage  for  Jesus,  when  he 
as  transferred  from  Caiaphas  to 
ilate.  The  original  steps,  which 
•e  twenty-eight  in  number,  are 
dvv  covered  with  marble,  to  pre- 
:rve  them  from  being  worn.  They 
e  ascended  with  great  devotion. 
Scale,  (Sax.)  a  line  divided 
to  a  certain  number  of  equal 
arts,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
•  plotting  by,  &c.  See  Instru- 
ents. 

Scalene,  in  geometry,  a  trian- 
!e  whose  sides  are  all  unequal. 

Scamillus,  a  small  plinth  be- 
>w  the  bases  of  the  Ionic  and 
orinthian  columns. 

Scamozzi,  Vincenzo,  an  Italian 
frchitect,  born  at  Vicenza,  in  15o2, 
>ed  in  1616.  His  father,  Gian- 
omenico,  was  also  a  skilful  archi- 
■ct.  He  travelled  to  Rome,Venice, 
rid  Naples,  to  gain  improvement, 
nd  among  his  works  are  the  addi- 
ons  to  the  library  of  St.  Mark,  at 
t  Venice,  the  finishing  of  the 
•lympic  theatre  at  Vicenza,  and  a 
leatre  at  Sabioneta.  His  "  Idea 
'ell'  Architettura  Universale,"  in 
x  hooks,  was  published  in  1615. 

Scamozzi's  Rule,  a  two  foot 
)int  rule  for  the  use  of  builders, 
3  called  from  its  inventor,  the 
rchitect  Scamozzi. 

ScANuuLiE,  flat  pieces  of  wood 
1  sed  by  the  ancient  Romans,  in 
lie  place  of  tiles,  to  cover  their 
ouses.  The  people  who  made 
lem  were  named  scandularii,  and 
'/ere  exempted  from  all  public  ser- 
ices. 

Scantling,  (  Fr.  )  the  dimen- 
ions  of  a  piece  of  timber  in  breadth 
nd  thickness.    Also,  the  name  of 
2T 


a  piece  of  timber,  as  of  quartering 
for  a  partition,  when  under  five 
inches  square,  or  the  rafter,  purlin, 
or  pole-plate  of  a  roof.  In  ma- 
sonry, scantling  is  the  dimensions 
of  stone  in  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness.    See  Carpentry. 

Scape,  (Lat.)  a  term  sometimes 
given  to  the  shaft  of  a  column, 
more  commonly  to  the  place  where 
it  rises  from  the  base. 

Scarfing,  the  jointing  and  bolt- 
ing of  two  pieces  of  timber  toge- 
ther transversely,  so  that  the  two 
appear  but  as  one.  See  Construc- 
tive Carpentry. 

Scarp,  in  fortification,  the  slope 
on  the  side  of  a  ditch  which  is  next 
to  the  fortified  place,  and  looks 
towards  the  field  ;  also  the  foot  of 
a  rampart  wall,  or  the  sloping  of  a 
wall  from  the  bottom  of  a  work 
to  the  cordon  on  the  side  of  the 
moat. 

Scene,  (Gr.)  This  word  origin- 
ally meant  an  alley  or  rural  por- 
tico, for  shade  and  shelter.  Cas- 
siodorus  says  that  theatrical  pieces 
were  first  represented  in  such  places 
as  this.  "When  first  applied  to  a 
part  of  the  theatre,  it  was  used  to 
indicate  the  wall  which  formed  the 
back  of  the  stage,  but  was  after- 
wards more  frequently  applied  to 
the  whole  stage,  and  was  subse- 
quently limited  to  its  present  signi- 
fication. There  were,  according  to 
Vitruvius,  three  principal  scenes 
appertaining  to  the  theatre,  the 
tragic,  the  comic,  and  the  satyric. 
Amongst  the  Greeks,  the  scene 
had,  according  to  Vitruvius,  the 
following  disposition :  in  the  middle 
was  a  great  door,  called  the  royal 
door,  because  it  was  decorated  as 
the  gate  of  a  palace  ;  at  the  sides 
were  smaller  doors,  called  hospi- 
talia,  because  they  represented  the 
entrances  to  the  habitations  destin- 
ed for  strangers,  which  the  Greeks 
commonly  placed  on  the  two  sides 


SCO 


SCR 


of  their  houses.  Some  variation 
was  occasionally  introduced  in  the 
disposition  and  ornaments  of  the 
scene.  Sometimes,  particularly  in 
satyrical  pieces,  as  in  the  Cyclops 
of  Euripides,  instead  of  doors,  caves 
were  represented. 

Scenography,  (Gr.)  the  repre- 
sentation of  solids  in  perspective. 

Schola,  (Lat.)  the  margin  or 
platform  surrounding  the  ancient 
baths.  Also  a  portico  correspond- 
ing to  the  exedra  of  the  Greek 
palsestra. 

Scholium,  (Gr.)  a  note  or  re- 
mark, on  a  proposition,  &c. 

School,  see  Academy.  There 
has  been  a  great  dearth  of  archi- 
tectural schools  in  England.  Batty 
Langley  had  a  school  or  academy, 
but  his  disciples  were  all  carpen- 
ters ;  and  though  his  taste  as  an 
architect  was  below  mediocrity,  he 
produced  many  excellent  workmen. 
One  of  our  first  regular  bred  ge- 
nuine architects  was  the  tasteful 
and  scientific  Wyat,  who  was  the 
son  of  an  eminent  and  opulent 
builder,  acquired  the  elements  of 
his  art  at  home,  and  refined  and 
purified  his  taste  abroad  from  the 
purest  sources,  an  absolute  neces- 
sity in  those  days,  for  there  was 
neither  master  or  school  in  Eng- 
land, till  that  which  he  formed. 
In  a  similar  school,  and  with  simi- 
lar advantages,  did  Milne  gain  the 
first  prize  in  the  first  class  of  archi- 
tecture at  Rome,  and  was  the  first 
Briton  who  obtained  a  premium  for 
art  in  that  city.  The  encourage- 
ment shown  to  Chambers  and  Tay- 
lor, the  establishment  of  the  royal 
academy,  and  the  triennial  pre- 
mium for  architecture,  founded 
a  school  from  which  sprung  many 
able  and  tasteful  men. 

Sciagraphy,  (Greek,)  another 
name  for  a  section  of  a  building. 

Scopas,  a  celebrated  artist  of 
Greece,  who  flourished  in  the  year 

330 


430  before  Christ,  and  was  parti- 
cularly distinguished  as  a  statuarj 
and  sculptor.  He  executed  one  01 
the  columns  in  the  temple  of  Ephe- 
sus,  and  one  of  the  four  sides  of  the 
famous  tomb  of  Mausoleus. 

Scope,  one  of  the  machines  of 
the  theatre  which  represented  an 
elevated  tower,  on  which  was  placed 
the  guards  whose  duty  it  was  to 
watch  over  the  public  safety. 

Scotia,  ( Gr.  from  okotios,  sha- 
dy,) the  hollow  moulding  in  the 
bases  of  Ionic  columns;  also,  the 
groove  or  channel  cut  in  the  pro 
jecting  angle  of  the  Doric  corona 
The  Greeks  call  the  scotia  of  the 
base  rpo^tXov,  trochilon. 

Scratch-work,  (from  the  Ital 
sgraffiata,)  a  kind  of  fresco,  with 
a  black  ground,  covered  with  i 
coat  of  white,  which  is  'after- 
wards scratched  with  a  bodkin,  or 
some  pointed  instrument,  so  that 
the  black  appears  through  the 
scratches. 

Screen,  (escran,  old  Fr.)  par 
titions,  generally  wrought  with  rich 
tracery,  &c.  placed  before  small 
chapels  and  tombs,  or  behind  the 
high  altar.  In  old  parish  churches, 
oaken  screens,  richly  carved,  often 
divide  the  nave  from  the  chancel. 
We  sometimes,  as  at  Exeter,  find 
them  at  the  side  of  choirs.  See 
Altar.  A  screen,  is  also  an  instru 
ment,  consisting  of  three  wooden 
ledges,  joined  in  a  rectangular 
frame  at  the  bottom,  the  upper 
part  of  which  is  filled  with  wire 
work  :  its  use  is  to  sift  sand  or  lime 
in  making  mortar. 

Scribing,  fitting  the  edge  of  a 
board  to  any  surface,  as  of  the 
skirting  of  a  room  to  the  floor. 
In  joinery,  it  is  the  fitting  one 
piece  of  wood  to  another,  so 
that  their  fibres  may  be  perpendi 
cular  to  each  other,  the  two 
edges  being  cut  to  an  angle  to 
join. 


S  EG 


S  EL 


Scroll,  see  Volute. 

Scutcheon,  (Fr.)  a  shield  for 
morial  bearings.  In  a  contract 
r  building  Fotheringhay  church, 
e  term  appears  to  be  applied  to 
rnify  a  compartment  of  the  ex- 
rior  tower. 

Sealing,  fixing  a  piece  of  wood 
iron  (for  hinges)  to  a  wall,  with 
ment,  lead,  &c. 

Secant,  (Lat.)  a  line  which 
ts  another,  a  line  cutting  a  circle 
>m  a  point  in  the  tangent  to  the 
ntre. 

Seclusorium,  (Lat.)  an  apart- 
ent  in  the  large  aviaries  of  the 
oman  villas,  where  those  birds 
re  confined  that  were  designed 
be  sold  or  killed. 
Secos,  see  Adytum. 
'Section,  in  architectural  draw- 
ls, a  view  of  an  edifice,  as  cut 
'wn  the  middle,  showing  the  dis- 
sition  of  the  interior.  It  is  also 
lied  sciagraphy. 

Sector,  the  space  between  two 
Jii  of  a  circle,  and  the  part  of 
e  circumference  which  they  in- 
ide;  a  mathematical  instrument, 
B  Instruments.  To  find  the  area 
a  sector  of  a  circle,  multiply 
e  radius   by   one-half  of  the 

In 

Sector  of  a  Sphere,  a  conical 
id,  whose  vertex  ends  in  the 
:ntre  of  the  sphere,  and  whose 
se  is  a  segment  of  the  same 
here. 

Segment,   (Lat.)   a   part  cut 
•many  thing;  the  area  contain- 
by  the  arc  of  a  circle  and  a 
rd. 

In  the  segment  of  a  circle,  the 
rd  of  the  arc  is  called  the  base 
'  the  segment,  and  the  height  of 
?  arc  the  height  of  the  segment. 
f  find  the  area  of  the  segment  of 
circle,  when  its  base  and  height 
2  given,  find  the  area  of  the  sec- 
\  (see  Sector,)  and  the  area  of 
e  triangle  cut  off  by  the  chord; 


subtract  the  one  from  the  other, 
and  the  remainder  will  be  the  area 
of  the  segment. 

Segment  of  a  sphere,  a  portion 
of  a  sphere  cut  off  by  a  plane  in 
any  part  except  the  centre,  so  that 
the  base  of  such  a  segment  must 
always  be  a  circle,  and  its  surface 
a  part  of  the  sphere. 

Selinus,  an  ancient  city  of 
Sicily,  which  has  been  in  ruins 
ever  since  its  destruction  by  the 
Carthaginians.  The  most  striking 
ruin  is  that  of  the  great  temple, 
probably  that  dedicated  to  Jupiter, 
which  stood  in  the  ancient  forum. 
This  Doric  temple,  like  the  gene- 
rality of  those  dedicated  to  the 
supreme  deity  of  the  heathen  my- 
thology, was  hypsethral,  its  form 
being  octostyle-dipteral,  having 
eight  columns  in  each  front,  six- 
teen in  the  flanks,  and  a  double 
row  surrounding  the  cella.  The 
columns  of  the  east  front  were 
fluted,  but  some  of  the  others  seem 
quite  plain,  while  others  exhibit 
preparations  for  flutings  more  or 
less  advanced,  so  that  it  is  proba- 
ble that  it  was  left  unfinished. 
The  flutes  are  separated  by  a  fillet. 
Within  the  cella  was  a  double  row 
of  columns.  The  accumulated 
mass  of  ruins  hinder  a  correct  ex- 
amination of  this  temple,  but  its 
whole  length  appears  to  have  been 
331  feet,  and  its  breadth  161. 
The  length  of  the  cella  Mr.  Wil- 
kins  calculates  at  110'  5"  6,  and 
its  width  67'  3".  Diameter  of 
columns  of  peristyles  at  base  of 
shaft  10'  7"  5,  below  the  capital 
6'  3"  6,  height  including  capital 
48'  7".  The  capitals  are  each 
formed  of  a  single  block,  the 
length  of  the  abacus  is  12'  10" 
and  the  height  of  the  whole  capi- 
tal 4'  9"  5.  The  epistylia,  which 
extended  from  the  centre  of  one 
column  to  that  of  the  other,  are  of 
one  stone,  21'  6"  long,  9'  2"  25  high, 

331 


SEN 


SEP 


and  five  feet  thick.  The  next 
temple  is  hexastyle  peripteral,  hav- 
ing six  columns  in  front,  and  four- 
teen in  the  flanks,  including  corner 
columns.  Length  186' 4",  breadth 
76'  2",  on  upper  step.  Diameter 
of  columns  at  base  6'  6"  9,  below 
the  capital  4'  1"  9.  The  propor- 
tions of  this  temple  are  exactly 
similar  to  those  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter.  No  traces  of  the  wall  of 
the  cella  are  discernible.  The 
third  or  southerly  temple  is  hexa- 
style-peripteral,  with  sixteen  co- 
lumns in  its  flanks.  Besides  the 
celia  and  vestibules,  it  appears  to 
have  had  an  opisthodomus,  or 
second  cella,  the  wall  of  which, 
from  its  thickness,  appears  to  have 
contained  staircases.  Length  of 
temple,  on  upper  step,  232'  11", 
breadth  83'  10'.  Height  of  co- 
lumns 32'  8"  13,  diameter  at  base 
T  5"  9,  at  capital  S  9"  2.  There 
are  also  remains  of  three  other 
temples,  upon  what  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  acropolis,  but  com- 
pletely overthrown. 
Sell,  see  Sill. 

Semi,  a  Latin  word  which  is 
used  in  composition  with  other 
words  to  signify  half,  as  semicircle, 
a  half  circle. 

Semicubical  Paraboloid,  in 
geometry,  a  curve  whose  ordinates 
are  in  subtriplicate  of  the  duplicate 
proportion  of  the  diameter,  i.  e. 
the  cubes  of  the  ordinates  are  as 
the  squares  of  the  diameters. 

Senaria,  (Lat.)  a  name  given 
by  the  Romans  to  those  pipes  in 
their  aqueducts,  the  diameter  of 
which  was  an  inch  and  a  half,  or 
six  quarters ;  when  the  diameter 
was  seven  quarters,  they  were  called 
septejiaria ;  and  the  name  was 
varied  as  the  proportion  increased 
up  to  the  vicenaria,  which  mea- 
sured twenty  quarters  or  five 
inches  in  diameter. 

Septa,  or  Ovile,  (Lat.)  a  place 

332 


in  the  Campus  Martius  at  ancien 
Rome,  where  the  people  assemblec 
to  choose  he  magistrates. 

Septangular,  (Lat.)  havinj 
seven  angles. 

Septizonium,  the  mausoleun 
of  the  family  of  Septimius  Severus 
at  Rome,  which  was  a  large  build 
ing,  of  a  square  pyramidal  figure 
with  seven  ranges  of  columns,  am 
surmounted  by  the  statue  of  Septi 
mius.  There  was  also  an  olde 
building  at  Rome,  which  had  thi 
same  name. 

Sepulchral  Arch,  an  arc 
over  a  tomb,  with  an  inscription, 

Sepulchral  Monuments 
The  custom  of  interring  the  dea 
is  the  most  ancient,  and  prevaili 
"both  amongst  the  inhabitants 
Greece  and  Italy,  till  it  was  supe; 
seded  by  the  practice  of  burnin 
them.  In  the  Grecian  colonies  ii 
Italy  they  buried  their  bodies  en 
tire,  and  even  when  the  custom 
burning  them  prevailed  among  lb 
Romans,  some  families  still  pre 
served  that  of  inhumation.  Thi 
may  be  seen  in  the  example  of  th 
family  of  the  Cornelii,  which  pre 
served  the  custom  of  burying  th 
body  till  the  time  of  Sylla.  Th 
body  of  no  member  of  this  famii; 
had  been  burnt  before,  and  thi 
dictator  ordered  that  his  bod 
should  be  placed  on  the  funeral 
pile,  fearing  lest  it  should  be  pro 
ianed  like  that  of  Marius  was. 

In  Campania,  several  tombs  o 
the  ancient  inhabitants  have  beei 
discovered,  and  in  them  were  fourv 
the  beautiful  vases  called  Etruscan 
(see  Vase,)  of  which  several  col 
lections  have  been  made  and  pub 
lished.  In  the  collections  pub 
lished  by  D'Hancarville  and  Tisch 
bein,  is  represented  one  of  th 
Campanian  tombs  as  it  appears 
at  the  moment  of  its  discovery 
They  were  formed  by  an  enclosur 
of  cut  stones,  and  covered  with  j 


SEP 

rt  of  roof  or  flagstone,  shelving 
both  sides.  The  dead  body 
is  stretched  on  the  ground,  the 
?t  turned  towards  the  entrance  of 
e  sepulchre,  and  the  head  ranged 
ainst  the  wall,  from  which  were 
spended,  by  bronze  nails,  vases 
terra-cotta,  whilst  others  of  a 
iiilar  kind  were  disposed  around 
e  body,  In  the  plains  of  Etru- 
i  we  rind  many  sepulchral  grot- 
3S  scooped  in  a  shallow  manner 
t  of  the  rock,  and  excavated  in 
rious  shapes. 

Denon  thinks  that  the  custom 
d  fashion  of  the  sepulchres  at 
rrigentum  are  not  Grecian,  but 
loenician  and  Carthaginian.  They 
e  either  troughs,  one  over  the 
her,  sometimes  arched,  or  cham- 
rs  with  vent-holes  in  the  roof, 
ly  two  inches  apart  from  each 
'her.  In  some  parts  of  Greece 
d  Italy  are  sepulchral  chambers 
cavated  in  the  rock,  and  formed 
e  a  bell,  as  at  Amphissa  in 
eece,  described  by  Dodwell. 
pulchres  excavated  in  rocks  are 
Jer  than  the  Roman  sera.  Ano- 
er  form  of  sepulchre  is  a  square 
demerit  supporting  five  round 
ramids,  as  that  on  the  Appian 
ty,  erroneously  termed  the  tomb 
the  Curiatii,  and  one  among  the 
mins  of  ancient.  Alba.  These 
f  also  of  great  antiquity.  In  the 
lley  of  Ispica  in  Sicily,  Denon 
ind  tombs  formed  out  of  a  hol- 
v  stone,  upwards  of  five  feet 
ig,  and  fifteen  inches  wide,  and 
ntaining  petrified  bones. 
Mr.  Walpole  says,  that  the  most 
cient  form  of  the  tumulus,  is  a 
ap  of  earth  with  a  stele  at  the 
pi  In  parts  of  western  Scythia 
ly  are  found  encompassed  with  a 
uare  wall  formed  of  large  square 
'>nes.  This  defence  was  also 
ded  to  the  early  sepulchres  of 
'  eece  and  Asia,  as  in  that  of 
pheltes  at  Cleonae,  (Pausan.)  of 


SEP 

Alyattes  in  Lydia,  (Herod,)  of  Auge 
at  Pergamus,  of  iEpytus  in  Arca- 
dia, and  of  Phocus  in  iEgina  (Pau- 
san.) In  one  with  a  circular  wall, 
which  was  opened  between  Smyr- 
na and  Pergamus,  were  found  gal- 
leries and  chambers.  "The  sepul- 
chre of  king  Dercennus,"  Mr. 
Dodwell  observes,  "  was,  according 
to  Virgil,  a  tumulus.  This  is  pro- 
bably the  most  ancient  kind  of 
sepulchres  for  great  persons,  the 
pyramid  the  second,  and  the  spe- 
laion  the  third.  They  generally 
contained  sarcophagi,  and  were 
sometimes  ornamented  with  the 
inscribed  stele,  or  column,  which  is 
noticed  by  Homer.  (II.  xvi.  457.) 
One  of  the  tumuli  in  the  plain  of 
Athens  has  been  excavated.  It 
was  found  to  contain  a  chamber, 
finely  constructed  of  large  blocks 
of  stone,  in  which  was  a  vase  of 
terra-cotta,  with  figures  and  in- 
scriptions." 

A  curious  account  of  the  bar- 
rows or  tombs  of  the  ancient  Tar- 
tars is  given  in  the  second  volume 
of  the  Archaeologia.  The  Rus- 
sians, in  effecting  a  practicable 
road  to  China,  discovered  in  50° 
north  latitude,  between  the  rivers 
Irtish  and  Obalet,  a  desart  of  a 
very  considerable  extent,  overspread 
in  many  parts  with  tumuli  or  bar- 
rows. This  desart  constitutes  the 
southern  boundary  of  Siberia. 
Strahlenberg,  in  his  History  of  Rus- 
sia and  Tartary,  (p.  4.)  relates  that 
in  1720,  some  Russian  regiments 
being  sent  from  Tobolski,  the  capi- 
tal of  Siberia,  up  the  river  Irtish, 
to  the  great  plains,  found  in  the 
tumuli  there  many  antiquities,  as 
they  also  did  on  the  western  boun- 
dary of  the  desart,  between  the 
rivers  Tobal  and  Ischim.  He  also 
mentions  (p.  325,  330.)  that  Scy- 
thian antiquities  are  annually 
brought  from  the  pagan  tombs 
which  lie  on  each  side  of  the  river 

333 


SEP 


SEP 


Irtish,  on  the  desarts  of  the  Kal- 
muc  Tartars.  Mr.  Bell  gives  a 
similar  account  in  vol  i.  (p.  209.) 
of  his  journey  from  St.  Petersburg 
to  Pekin.  From  these  circum- 
stances it  appears,  that  when  any- 
chief  or  person  of  distinction  was 
interred,  it  was  usual  to  bury  in  the 
same  tumulus  with  him,  his  arms 
and  favourite  horse,  &c.  And 
this  custom,  which  is  said  to  be  of 
great  antiquity,  prevails  at  this 
day  among  the  Tartar  hordes. 
The  Russian  court  being  informed 
of  the  depredations  made  on  these 
tombs,  by  the  borderers  on  the 
desart,  sent  a  principal  officer,  with 
a  parly  of  soldiers,  to  open  such  of 
these  tumuli  as  were  too  large  for 
the  maurauding  parties  to  under- 
take, and  to  secure  their  contents. 
On  surveying  the  numerous  monu- 
ments of  the  dead  spread  over  this 
great  desart,  he  concluded  that 
the  barrow  of  the  largest  dimen- 
sions, most  probably  contained  the 
remains  of  the  prince  or  chief.  In 
this  he  was  not  mistaken.  After 
removing  a  very  deep  covering  of 
earth  and  stones,  the  workmen 
came  to  three  vaults,  constructed 
of  stones,  of  rude  workmanship. 
That  wherein  the  prince  was  depo- 
sited, which  was  in  the  centre,  and 
the  largest  of  the  three,  was  easily 
distinguished  by  the  sword,  spear, 
bow,  quiver,  and  arrow,  which  lay 
beside  him.  In  the  vault  beyond 
him,  towards  which  his  feet  lay, 
were  his  horse,  bridle,  saddle,  and 
stirrups.  The  body  of  the  prince 
lay  in  a  reclining  posture,  upon  a 
sheet  of  pure  gold,  extending  from 
head  to  feet ;  and  another  sheet  of 
gold,  of  the  like  dimensions,  was 
spread  over  him.  He  was  wrapped 
in  a  rich  mantle,  bordered  with 
gold,  and  studded  with  rubies  and 
emeralds.  His  head,  neck,  breast, 
and  arms  naked,  and  without  any 
ornament.    In  the  lesser  vault  lay 

334 


the  princess,  distinguished  by  hi 
female  ornaments.  She  was  place 
reclining  against  the  wall,  with  \ 
gold  chain  of  many  links,  set  wit| 
rubies,  round  her  neck,  and  gol 
bracelets  round  her  arms.  Th 
head,  breast,  and  arms  were  nakec 
The  body  was  covered  with  a  ric 
robe,  but  without  any  border  1 
gold  or  jewels,  and  was  laid  on 
sheet  of  fine  gold,  and  coverej 
over  with  another.  The  foi 
sheets  of  gold  weighed  forty  pound 
The  robes  of  both  looked  fair  an! 
complete,  but  upon  touching,  crurri 
bled  into  dust. 

The  tombs  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Pergamus,  in  Asia  Minor,  ai 
very  ancient  and  simple,  and  re 
semble  in  structure  the  Scythia 
tombs  observed  by  M.  Palla 
They  are  cones  of  earth,  raise 
with  much  art,  upon  the  plac 
which  was  occupied  by  the  funer; 
pile,  and  which  contained  its  n 
mains.  Sovereigns  elevated  thes< 
to  hold  their  whole  families 
hence  these  gigantic  tombs  an 
mountains,  supported  by  interk 
vaults.  The  Asiatic  princes  ol 
served  the  Scythian  form,  raise 
their  sepulchres  upon  solid  stor 
bases,  and  the  natural  vault  we 
sometimes  divided  into  many  caves 
of  this  last  kind  are  the  tombs  < 
Pergamus.  (See  the  Voyage  Pi 
toresque  de  la  Greece,  torn  ii.) 

Panticapaeum,  now  called  Ker 
chy,  in  the  Crimea,  is  rendere 
remarkable  by  its  immense  tumi 
lus,  called  by  some  the  tomb  i 
Mithridates.  It  still  exists  almo 
entire,  having  a  fosse  in  fron 
Several  other  very  large  tumuli  a 
scattered  about,  and  the  plaii 
are  covered  with  them.  It 
called  the  Altyn  Obo,  and  i 
shape  is  rather  hemispherical.  I 
sides  exhibit  that  stupendous  m 
sonry  seen  in  the  walls  of  Tiryn 
where  immense  unshapen  mass 


SEP 


SEP 


i  stone  are  placed  together  with- 
it  cement,  according  to  their  ac- 
« ien tal  forms.  The  western  part 
entire,  although  the  others  have 
<Ien.  Dr.  Clarke  compares  it  to 
L  cairns  of  Scotland ;  but  its 
terior  betrays  a  more  artificial 
,nstruction.  The  Tartars  have 
t  attempted  to  effect  a  passage 
o  it,  yet  they  entertain  a  notion 
it  an  entrance  was  once  accom- 
shed,  and  they  describe  the 
.erior  as  a  magnificent  vaulted 
me  chamber,  formed  by  enor- 
)us  slabs,  which  seemed  as  if 
2V  would  crush  the  spectator, 
is  remarkable  that  they  should 
3  this  expression,  because  it 
rees  with  the  style  used  in  the 
erior  of  other  tumuli  upon  the 
iatic  side.  At  Panticapseum 
3  also  an  immense  number  of 
tiquities.  (Clarke's  Travels,  vol. 
It  is  evident,  that  the  custom 
raising  barrows  over  the  de- 
\sed,  survived  the  introduction 
'Christianity.  That  it  continued 
long  many  of  the  Britons  after 
k  departure  of  the  Romans,  is 
'io  unquestionable ;  and  perhaps 
was  not  entirely  relinquished 
fore  the  middle  of  the  eighth 
ntury,  at  which  time  Cuthbert 
roduced  cemeteries  within  cities. 
ie  small  earthen  mound,  still 
aped  over  the  remains  of  those 
io  have  trodden  a  humble  path 
life,  is  evidently  a  diminutive 
Dresentation  of  the  ancient  bar- 
w. 

The  following  may  be  given  as  a 
ie  for  determining  the  dates,  &c. 

barrows  in  England.  Those 
(h  cistvaens  (see  Stonchcnyc,) 
is,  cups,  beads,  weapons  in 
>oden  scabbards,  bosses  of  shields, 
'.  are  British.  Those  which  arc 
ll-shapcd,  in  clusters,  without 
y  remains  of  garments,  &c.  are 
tfjlo-Suxon.  None  appear  to 
ve  been  formed  by  the  Danes, 


except  where  there  were  no  stones 
to  make  pyramids  or  obelisks. 

Roman  sepulchres  have  been  dis- 
covered in  several  parts  of  Britain. 
"The  burial-places  of  the  Romans," 
observes  Mr.  Douglas,  "  in  this 
kingdom,  are  very  rarely  discover- 
ed, owing  to  their  custom  of  inter 
ring  the  dead  at  no  great  distance 
from  their  stations,  by  the  side  of 
the  public  road,  and  in  such  situa- 
tions as  have  been  occupied  by  a 
succeeding  people  to  modern  times  : 
and  it  is  now  only  to  accident  we 
are  indebted  for  the  few  remains 
which  this  country  has  preserved." 
(Nenia  Britannica.)  Many  instan- 
ces have  occurred,  where  articles  of 
Roman  workmanship  have  been 
found  with  human  remains,  in 
Britain,  beneath  tumuli.  But  Mr. 
King  observes,  that  "  where  Ro- 
man insignia  have  been  found,  we 
have  very  great  reason  to  believe 
that  the  barrow,  or  cairn,  was  the 
sepulture,  not  of  Romans,  but  of 
British  officers,  or  chieftains,  in 
the  Roman  service  :"  for  "  we  do 
not  find  that  the  Romans  ever 
raised  barrows  over  the  sepulchres 
or  ashes  of  their  great  men,  either 
in  Italy  or  in  any  other  part  of  the 
world."  The  general  exterior  cha- 
racteristics of  a  Roman  place  of 
interment  in  Britain,  appears  to 
consist  simply  of  the  plain  grave, 
with  one  or  more  stone  pillars, 
bearing  an  inscription,  and  some- 
times a  sculptured  device.  Roman 
sepulchral  inscriptions  on  stone 
have  been  found  in  most  parts  of 
this  island,  which  are  visited  by  a 
Roman  road,  although  they  most 
frequently  occur  in  the  vicinity  of 
a  known  station.  They  are  gene- 
rally dedicated  to  military  men, 
and  are  sculptured  sometimes  with 
the  effigies  of  the  deceased,  and 
with  garlands,  &c.  At  Chatham 
hill,  in  Kent,  a  Roman  sepulchre 
was  discovered,  of  which  the  walls 

335 


SEP 


SEP 


were  composed  of  rubble  stone,  and 
hard  mortar;  the  wall  first  disco- 
vered was  thirty  feet  in  length,  and 
intersected  by  three  apartments, 
with  their  walls.  One  apartment, 
which  was  complete,  was  nine  feet 
three  inches  by  seven  feet  three 
inches,  with  the  inside  of  the  walls 
covered  with  fine  white  plaster,  on 
which  were  painted  stripes  of  black 
and  red.  The  urn,  containing  the 
ashes  of  the  deceased,  was  deposited 
on  a  pavement  within  the  sepulchre, 
and  round  it  were  several  vessels  of 
different  size  and  shape,  paterae,  &c. 
A  Roman  sepulchre,  discovered 
about  two  hundred  and  fifty  yards 
from  the  wall  of  the  city  of  York, 
was  an  oblong  room,  with  a  ridged 
roof,  covered  with  hollow  Roman 
tiles :  it  was  about  three  and  a 
half  feet  long  within,  and  con- 
tained several  urns,  all  standing  on 
a  tiled  pavement.  A  burial  vault 
was  discovered  in  Oxfordshire, 
which  in  the  part  explored  was 
twenty  feet  long  by  eighteen  wide, 
and  eight  high  from  "  the  plank- 
ing stones."  The  human  remains 
were  laid  in  partitions  of  a  dissimi- 
lar width,  which  crossed  the  vault 
from  east  to  west,  and  were  built 
with  Roman  red  tiles,  about  eight 
inches  and  a  half  square.  The 
partitions  were  two  feet  and  a  half 
deep,  and  generally  about  the 
width  of  modern  graves.  Roman 
urns  and  other  vessels  were  dis- 
covered among  the  rubbish.  There 
were  two  tiers  of  sepulchral  re- 
cesses, and  above  was  a  range  of 
planking  tiles,  covered  with  mortar 
and  sand,  in  which  was  set  tesse- 
lated  work,  supposed  to  have  form- 
ed the  flooring  of  a  temple.  When 
cremation  ceased  on  the  introduc- 
tion of  Christianity,  the  converted 
Romans  and  Britons  betook  them- 
selves to  the  use  of  sarcophagi,  or 
coffins.  Stone  coffins  have  been 
found  in  several  instances  in  Bri- 

336 


tain,  containing  bones  accompani, 
by  urns  and  funeral  vessels,  apj 
rently  Roman.  Roman  coffins,  f 
brick  and  of  burnt  stone,  a 
occur.  (Gough's  Sepulchral  M 
numents  —  Beauties  of  Englaj 
and  Wales,  for  Oxfordshire,  &c. 

In  a  Roman  sepulchre  discov 
ed  in  1794,  at  Ashby  Puerorum, 
Lincolnshire,  the  sepulchral  i 
was  enclosed  in  a  stone  chest  • 
coffin)  with  a  lid,  which  fitted  | 
sides  neatly,  and  rather  hung  o 
the  edges.  The  chest  was  of  fn 
stone,  such  as  is  found  in  abui  • 
ance  on  Lincoln  heath ;  and  I 
urn  was  made  of  strong  glass,  w  | 
manufactured,  greenish,  but  j 
more  so  than  green  window-gh 
usually  is.  It  was  found  wrii 
cutting  a  ditch  in  a  ploughed  fie. 
The  urn  was  nearly  full  of  srr, I 
pieces  of  bones  much  burn, 
many  of  them  being  white  throu^- 
out  their  substance.  (Archaeo- 
gia,  vol.  xii.  p.  96.)  Among  I- 
man  sepulchres  found  at  Lincc, 
were  many  whole  skeletons,  al 
also  "  a  sort  of  cist-vaen,  or  h 
formed  of  four  stones,  with  a  co  r 
of  the  same,  in  which  was  enclo.'l 
an  urn."  (Archceolog.  xii.  108,  t 
seq.)  In  August,  1807  was  & 
covered,  in  the  suburbs  on  ji 
southern  side  of  the  city  of  Yorki 
Roman  vault.  It  was  bioken  ii) 
at  one  of  the  sides,  in  digging  3 
foundation  for  a  house.  In  i 
vault  was  a  sarcophagus,  cut  't 
of  a  single  grit-stone,  and  cove  1 
with  a  blue  flag-stone,  contain  £ 
a  skeleton  in  remaikable  preser- 
tion,  arising  probably  from  s 
being  immersed  in  water;  e 
head  elevated  by  being  rested  o  a 
step.  The  length  of  the  sarcop  - 
gus  was  seven  feet,  breadth  the 
feet  two  inches,  depth  one  foot  x 
inches,  thickness  four  inches,  t 
the  northern  end  of  the  vault  s 
an  aperture,  too  small  to  have  1- 


SEP 


SEP 


lotted  the  sarcophagus,  and  care- 
ssly  closed    with    large  stories, 
ear  the  vault  an  urn  of  red  clay 
as  discovered,  containing  ashes 
id  fragments  of  burnt  bones,  (Ar- 
igeologia,  vol.  xvi.) 
That  the  Saxons,   in  common 
ith  other  northern  nations,  at  one 
?riocl  burnt  their  dead,  and  some- 
mes  erected  barrows  or  tumuli 
er  their  ashes,  is  proved  by  the 
jmerous  barrows  that  still  remain 
Lower  Saxony;  and  Mr.  Doug- 
s,  in  his  Nenia  Britannica,  sup- 
>ses  that  in  many  instances  small 
irrows  placed  in  clusters  must  be 
cribed  to  the  Anglo-Saxons.  But 
ore  careful  researches  have  shewn 
at  few  tumuli  in  Great  Britain 
e  to  be  ascribed  to  the  Saxons, 
le  Saxons,  it  is  believed,  had  once 
e  same  custom  of  burning  their 
ad,  as  the  Britons.  "  The  custom 
1  interring  the  body,"  says  Mr. 
irner,  (  History  of  the  Anglo- 
ksons,)  "  had  become  established 
1  the  era  when  their  history  began 
be  recorded  by  their  Christian 
?rgy,  and  was  never  discontinued, 
leir  common  coffins  were  wood; 
'e  more  costly  were  stone.  Thus, 
man  who  had  been  buried  in  a 
<>oden  coffin  was  afterwards  pla- 
i  in  one  of  stone,  (Bede,l.  iv.c.  19.) 
iij'i     'teir  kings  were  interred  in  stone 
iffins,  (Bede,  c.  4,)  they  were  bu- 
'd  in  linen,  (c.  19,)  and  the  clergy 
their  vestments."  Cuthbert,  arch- 
hop  of  Canterbury,  obtained  per- 
ssion,  about  750,  for  cemeteries 
be  made  within  cities;  and  from 
s  circumstance  some  have  sup- 
sed  that  church-yards  were  then 
;t  formed  around  the  places  of 
rship.    Mr.  Whitaker,  however, 
his  History  of  Manchester,  ob- 
ves,  "  The  custom  of  placing 
'neteries  around  our  churches, 
England,  is  asserted  by  all  our 
liquaries  to  have  been  originally 
roduced  by  Cuthbert,  archbishop 
2U 


of  Canterbury,  about  the  year  750. 
But  they  are  as  much  mistaken  in 
this,  as  1  have  already  shown  them 
to  be  in  many  other  particulars. 
And  the  church-yard  was  every 
where  laid  out,  at  the  time  when 
the  parish  church  was  erected, 
among  the  kingdoms  of  the  hep- 
tarchy. The  churches  in  France 
had  cemeteries  about  them,  as 
early  as  595 ;  and  those  in  Eng- 
land had  them  equally  as  early  as 
the  period  of  their  own  construc- 
tion. The  very  first  that  was  built 
by  the  Saxons  in  the  kingdom, 
that  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul, 
without  the  city  of  Canterbury,  had 
an  enclosure  for  sepulture  about  it; 
and  the  very  first  apostle  of  the 
Saxons,  the  pious  and  worthy  Au- 
gustine, was  actually  buried  within 
it.  In  sixteen  years  only  after  the 
conversion  of  the  Northumbrians, 
the  church  of  Lindisfarne  appears 
encircled  with  its  cemetery;  and 
the  head  of  Oswald,  the  slain 
monarch  of  the  kingdom,  and  the 
body  of  Aidan,  the  bishop  of  the 
diocess,  were  equally  interred  there. 
And  even  the  country  church  of 
St.  Michael,  distant  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  from  Hexham,  had  a 
cemetery  around  it  as  early  as  685." 
It  became  at  an  early  period  the 
custom  of  the  English  to  bury 
within  churches,  such  as  were 
noted  for  their  piety,  their  dignity, 
or  their  benefactions  to  the  church 
or  monastery.  But  the  tombs  were 
generally  even  with  the  pavement, 
and  it  does  not  appear  probable 
that  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  accus- 
tomed to  place  figures  in  imitation  of 
the  human  form,  even  on  the  tombs 
of  the  most  illustrious  deceased  : 
and  it  is  certain  that  no  well  au- 
thenticated monumental  effigies  of 
Saxon  construction  is  now  remain- 
ing. "  Those  we  meet  with  for  the 
kings  of  that  race,  such  as  Ina  at 
Wells,  Osric  at  Gloucester,  Sebba 

337 


SEP 


SEP 


and  Ethelbert,  which  were  in  St. 
Paul's,  or  wherever  else  they  occur, 
are  undoubtedly  cenotaphs,  erected 
in  later  ages  by  the  several  abbeys 
and  convents  of  which  they  were 
founders,  in  gratitude  to  benefac- 
tors so  generous."  (Archaeolog.  vol. 
ii.  p.  293.) 

The  Anglo-Saxons  naturally  em- 
braced the  customs  of  the  Chris- 
tians, after  their  conversion.  Soon 
after  the  arrival  of  St.  Augustine, 
we  find  St.  Awdrey,  of  Ely,  laid  in 
a  marble  coffin ;  for  Sexburga, 
abbess  of  Ely,  intending  to  remove 
the  body  of  her  sister  Aedilreda  or 
Awdrey,  into  the  church,  directed 
some  of  the  brethren  to  seek  for  a 
stone  "  de  quo  locellum  in  hoc  facere 
possent."  They,  finding  no  stone 
proper  for  the  purpose  in  the  isle, 
came  to  Grantacaester,  "  et  mox 
inveniunt  juxta  muros  civitatis 
locellum  de  marmore  albo  pulcher- 
rime  factum,  operculo  quoque  si- 
milis  lapidis  aptissime  tectum," 
(Bede,  lib.  iv.  c.  19.)  This  is  the 
oldest  instance  met  with  among 
the  Saxons;  but  from  this  time, 
the  use  of  stone  coffins  is  often  re- 
ferred to. 

The  stone  coffin  is  of  very  remote 
antiquity  in  this  island,  for  the 
cist-vaen  of  the  Britons  appears  to 
to  have  been  the  prototype  of  it. 
Some  very  singular  stone  coffins 
are  described  in  the  fifth  volume 
of  the  Archseologia,  p.  224.  Stone 
coffins  were  at  first  made  of  several 
stones,  set  round,  with  one  at  the 
bottom,  and  one  for  the  cover  at 
top.  Afterwards  they  were  formed 
out  of  one  single  stone. 

In  the  church  at  Christ  Church, 
near  Caerleon,  is  a  very  curious 
tomb-stone,  with  rudely  sculptured 
effigies  on  it,  which  bears  the  date 
of  1300,  in  a  barbarous  and  almost 
unintelligible  Latin  inscription  that 
runs  round  it,  (Archaeolog.  vol.  v. 


In  parish  churches,  ancient  se 
pulchral  monuments  are  usuall 
found  in  the  chancel,  or  in  sma 
chapels  or  side  aisles,  which  hav 
been  built,  and  frequently  endowec 
by  some  member  of  the  familie 
who  are  buried  there.  During  th 
time  of  our  Saxon  ancestors,  feJ 
or  no  monuments  of  this  sort  ap! 
pear  to  have  been  erected ;  at  leas 
being  usually  placed  in  the  churche 
belonging  to  the  greater  abbeys 
they  felt  the  stroke  of  the  genere; 
dissolution. 

"  The  monuments  of  England,! 
observes  Mr.  Gough,  "  are  so  feii 
in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  cer 
turies,  and  even  in  the  thirteent) 
that,  after  the  most  diligent  searcl 
there  are  periods  which  do  not  fur 
nish  any.  The  reigns  of  Henry  III 
and  the  two  first  Edwards  afforde 
no  small  number;  but  it  was  unde 
Edward  III.  and  Richard  II.,  thij 
they  multiplied  so  fast,  that  ne 
ones  are  continually  presentin 
themselves,  and  the  number  irj 
creases  as  we  come  nearer  oil 
own  time."  This  writer  has  d:| 
vided  and  classed  tombs  und( 
eight  different  heads : 

1st  form  ;  coffin-shaped  stone,  prisma! 
and  plain  at  the  top. 

2nd  form  ;  prismatic  and  carved  at  tl 
top,  with  crosses  plain  and  lleury,  as  th 
of  Theobald,  archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
1160,  and  that  of  bishop  Glanville,  ne 
the  altar  in  Rochester  cathedral. 

3rd  form  ;  tables  with  effigies  or  scul; 
ture,  as  that  of  Robert  duke  of  Normal^ 
in  Gloucester  cathedral,  with  effigy  cms 
legged  in  a  coat  of  mail,  A.  D.  1134.  Km 
John,  in  Worcester  cathedral  1213.  Pr 
lates  in  pontifical  habits,  first  in  half-relif 
afterwards  complete  efHgies,  as  Herbe 
Walter,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  120 
Knights  and  nobles  in  armour, &c.  a*  Lon 
spee,  earl  of  Salisbury,  1226. 

4th  form  ;  tombs  with  festoons  or  arch 
over  them,  as  those  of  Henry  III.  Edwa 
I.  queen  Eleanor,  Edward  the  black  princ 
Henry  IV.  &c.  This  class  was  succeed; 
by  more  loftv  tombs,  with  arches  crochcij 
pinnacles,  finials,  &c. 

5th  form  ;  tombs  in  chapel  burial-plactj 


SER 


SEV 


consisting  mostly  of  open  screens  with  doors, 
altar,  monuments,  piscines,  niches,  &c.  se- 
veral of  which  are  seen  in  the  catbedrals 
of  Wells,  Salisbury,  Exeter,  &c. 

6th  form  ;  inlaid  with  brass,  representing 
figures  of  the  deceased,  and  inscriptions 
either  in  cameo  or  intaglio.  These  are 
■mostly  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Many 
tine  specimens  are  engraved  and  published 
i>y  Cotman. 

7th  form ;  against  walls,  which  chiefly 
|)ccur  since  the  Reformation. 

8th  form  ;  detached  buildings,  as  domes, 
)belisks,  columns,  and  equestrian  statues. 

It  was  long  customary  in  Italy 
:o  raise  the  tombs  of  eminent  per- 
sons upon  pillars ;  that  of  the  great 
Vlatteo  Visconti,  in  the  church  of 
5t.  Eustorgio,  in  Milan,  is  mounted 
'ery  high  on  six  pillars,  which  stand 
>pon  the  backs  of  three  lions.  And 
he  Italians  appear  to  have  been  al- 
ways fond  of  representing  their  great 
nen,  and  military  worthies  particu- 
larly, on  horseback,  both  on  their 
epulchral  monuments,  and  in  pub- 
ic statues  erected  to  their  memo- 
ies,  as  well  as  in  paintings.  (Ar- 
haeolog.  vol.  xviii.  p.  194.) 
■  On  ancient  tombs  the  reader  may 
onsult  Gutherius,de  Jure  Manium. 
;he  best  collections  of  sepulchral 
lonuments  are — Montfaucon,  les 
lonumens  de  la  Monarchic  Fran- 
ais;  Millin,  Antiq.  Nationales ; 
Herbert,  Topographia  Principium 
•lustriae  ;  I  regali  Sepolcri  del 
')uomodi  Palermo,  fol.  Nap.  1784; 
epulchral  Monuments,  by  Gough, 
:c. 

Seraglio,  the  palace  of  an 
astern  prince,  more  particularly 
lat  which  contains  the  apartments 
f  the  females. 

Serapeum,  a  celebrated  temple 
r  Serapis,  at  Alexandria,  consist- 
g  of  a  vast  square  mass  of  build- 
g,  the  temple  itself  standing  on 
i  immense  platform,  supported  on 
ches. 

Serlio,  Sebastiano,  an  eminent 
alian  architect  of  the  early  part 
the  sixteenth  century,  who  was 


born  at  Bologna,  and  died  in  1578. 
After  having  travelled  through 
Italy,  and  resided  a  considerable 
time  at  Rome,  he  settled  at  Venice, 
where  he  built  the  palace  of  Gri- 
mani,  and  published  a  "  Complete 
Treatise  of  Architecture,"  in  1537. 
He  afterwards  went  to  France, 
at  the  solicitation  of  Francis  I.  in 
1541,  where  he  was  employed  at 
Fontainbleau. 

Sesqui-duplicate  Ratio,  in 
geometry,  where  two  terms  of  the 
greater  contain  the  less  twice,  with 
half  over,  as  fifty  to  twenty.  Ses- 
quialteral ratio,  is  the  ratio  be- 
tween two  lines,  numbers,  &c. 
when  one  contains  the  other  once 
with  a  half  over,  as  six  to  nine. 
Sesquitertian  ratio,  is  when  one 
quantity  contains  the  other  once 
and  a  third  over,  as  six  to  eight,  or 
twelve  to  sixteen. 

Sesspool,  or  Cesspool,  a  well 
sunk  under  the  mouth  of  a  drain, 
to  receive  the  sediments  which 
might  choke  its  passage. 

Set-off,  a  sloping  face  of  ma- 
sonry, marking  the  divisions  of  a 
buttress. 

Setting,  in  masonry,  fixing 
stones  in  walls  or  vaults. 

Setting-out  Rod,  a  rod  in 
use  among  joiners  for  setting- 
out  frames,  as  of  windows,  doors, 
&c. 

Severy,  (perhaps  from  sepa- 
rare,)  a  compartment,  a  division  of 
scaffolding. 

Severus's  Wall,  or  Vallum, 
one  of  the  barriers  which  were 
erected  by  the  Romans  across  the 
northern  part  of  our  island,  to  re- 
strain the  incursions  of  the  Scots. 
Severus  died  at  York  in  210. 
Dion  Cassius  mentions  the  great 
barrier  that  divides  the  island  into 
two  parts,  as  a  thing  existing  when 
Severus  undertook  his  expedition, 
and  asserts,  that  this  emperor,  in 
the  skirmishing  warfare  that  the 


SEV 

natives  used  against  him,  and  in 
clearing  away  forests,  levelling  hills, 
draining  morasses,  and  building 
bridges,  lost  at  least  fifty  thousand 
men,  and  yet  persisted  in  his 
design.  And  Herodian  says,  he 
made  roads  and  bridges.  But 
neither  of  these  two  authors,  who 
are  by  far  the  most  copious  de- 
tailers  of  the  actions  of  Severus, 
mention  any  wall  of  his  building. 
Spartian,  however,  about  sixty-five 
years  after  his  death,  not  only 
asserts  that  he  built  a  wall  eighty 
miles  long,  across  the  island,  but 
says  that  it  was  the  chief  glory  of 
his  reign.  Aurelius  Victor  says  it 
was  thirty-three  miles  long,  and 
Eutropius  thirty-two  ;  but  Osorius 
and  Cassiodorus  make  it  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty-two.  All  who 
mention  it  agree  that  it  passed 
from  sea  to  sea.  Spartian  calls  it 
murus  aut  vallum ;  Victor  has 
murus  in  his  large  work,  and  val- 
lum in  his  abridgment.  Eutro- 
pius has  vallum.  Orosius  calls  it 
magnum  fossum  Jirmissimumque 
vallum.  Antoninus,  and  the  au- 
thor of  the  Notitia,  use  the  phrases 
ad  vallum  and  per  lineam  valli. 
Bede  and  Gildas  cite  the  words  of 
Orosius,  and  the  former  observes 
"  a  murus  is  made  of  stones  ;  but 
a  vallum,  by  which  camps,  intended 
to  repel  the  force  of  an  enemy,  are 
defended,  is  made  of  turf  and  earth, 
piled  up  high,  like  a  murus,  above 
ground,  so  that  in  the  front,  the 
place  whence  the  earth  was  raised, 
forms  a  fosse,  and  upon  this  are  fixed 
stakes,  made  of  very  strong  beams 
of  wood.  Boethius  and  others 
mention  Severus  as  repairing 
Adrian's  Vallum.  See  'Adrians 
Vallum. 

Sewer,  (asseour,  old  Fr.)  a 
subterranean  channel  or  gutter  for 
carrying  off  the  superabundant 
water,  filth,  &c,  of  a  town.  The 
common  sewers  of  Roman  towns 

340 


SH  A 

have  been  more  or  less  imitated  fa 
the  modern  cities  of  Europe.  They 
are  said  to  have  originated  with 
the  elder  Tarquin,  and  were  re- 
paired and  enlarged  by  Cato  the 
Censor,  and  his  colleague  Valerius; 
Flaccus.    See  Cloaca. 

Sextant,  (Lat.)  the  sixth  part 
of  a  circle,  or  an  arch  of  sixty  de- 
grees ;  an  instrument  of  that  form, 
for  taking  angles. 

Shaft,  {sceaft,  Saxon,)  the; 
cylindrical  part  of  a  column,  be- 
tween the  base  and  the  capital, 
The  shafts  of  large  columns,  when: 
made  of  stone,  are  rarely  of  one 
piece.  But  it  is  possible  to  join 
the  parts  of  a  shaft  in  a  manner  sc 
solid,  that  it  will  appear  to  be  one 
single  block.  Wood,  in  his  de- 
scription of  the  ruins  of  Balbek. 
mentions  a  remarkable  example  ol 
the  solidity  of  shafts  composed  ol 
several  blocks,  an  example  which 
proves  at  the  same  time  that  the 
ancients  spared  nothing  in  endea- 
vouring to  ensure  solidity  to  their 
buildings.  A  very  lofty  column 
the  shaft  of  which  was  composed 
of  three  blocks,  fell,  and  broke  the 
stone  of  the  wall  against  which  it 
struck ;  even  a  fragment  of  the 
shaft  itself,  was  broken  off  by  the 
violence  of  the  shock;  yet  the 
blocks  were  not  in  the  least  dis- 
jointed, although  they  were  no! 
joined  with  any  cement  or  mortar 
The  temple  to  which  this  columr! 
belonged,  was  surrounded  by  i 
partico  of  fifty-four  of  the  sam< 
kind.  Before  the  period  in  whicl 
the  Greeks  brought  architecture  t( 
that  perfection  which  we  stil 
admirej  we  find  among  ditTeren 
people  shafts  of  columns  of  variou: 
forms.  The  shaft  of  the  Indiai 
columns  in  the  pagados  of  Salsettf 
and  Elephanta,  is  of  small  eleva 
tion,  and  is  diminished  in  an  un 
dulating  line.  This  form,  which  i 
disagreeable  in  other  columns,  ha 


S  H  A 


SH  A 


here  no  unpleasing  effect,  on 
account  of  their  lowness.  The 
renerality  of  Egyptian  columns 
appear  to  have  had  no  diminution, 
but  were  perfectly  straight,  and  of 
different  forms  and  ornaments. 
According  to  Pococke,  the  general 
height  of  Egyptian  columns  was 
from  three  to  five  and  a  half,  and, 
though  very  seldom,  six  diameters : 
the  diameters  vary  from  three  to 
nine  feet.  The  Persian  columns, 
which  have  been  found  among  the 
ruins  of  Persepolis,  vary  in  form 
and  height,  they  have  a  certain 
diminution,  and  are  sometimes 
fluted.  The  columns  of  the 
Greeks  were  generally  diminished 
in  a  straight  line.  The  oldest 
Doric  columns  were  low,  and  their 
diminution  was  so  considerable, 
that  the  shaft  was  of  a  conical 
form :  the  upper  diameter  was 
often  less  than  a  third  of  the  dia- 
meter at  the  bottom.  The  columns 
af  the  grand  temple  at  Peestum  are 
an  example.  By  degrees  the 
lower  part  of  the  column  was  made 
i!ess  in  proportion  to  the  upper, 
and  their  height  was  increased  : 
the  superior  diameter  being  not 
more  than  a  quarter  less  than  the 
inferior.  This  is  the  proportion 
generally  observed  in  the  Doric 
edifices  at  Athens.  The  diminu- 
tion of  the  columns  of  the  temple 
af  Jupiter  Nemeus,  between  Argos 
and  Corinth,  is  not  more  than  a 
fifth.  The  diminution  of  Ionic 
and  Corinthian  columns,  differs 
much  at  different  periods.  The 
difference  between  the  upper  and 
lower  diameters  was  from  a  fifth  to 
i  twelfth.  It  appears,  indeed,  that 
n  the  best  periods  of  the  art,  the 
indents  had  no  exactly  deter- 
mined rule  for  the  proportion  of 
he  diminution  of  their  columns, 
:)ut  the  architects  seem  to  have 
regulated  it  according  to  their 
weight.    The  Greeks  almost  always 


diminished  their  columns  in  a 
straight  line.  The  Romans  adopt- 
ed the  same  mode  of  diminution, 
as  we  may  see  in  those  of  the  por- 
tico of  the  Pantheon,  of  the  temple 
of  Jupiter  Stator,  and,  at  a  later 
period,  in  those  of  the  temple 
of  Antoninus  and  Faustina,  of 
the  portico  of  Septimus  Severus, 
&c. 

Besides  the  diminution  in  a 
straight  line,  which  was  the  most 
used,  Vitruvius  also  speaks  of 
another  kind  of  diminution,  which 
he  calls  entasis.  Many  commen- 
tators on  Vitruvius  have  imagined 
that  by  entasis,  he  means  the 
swelling  of  the  shaft,  such  as  Pal- 
ladio  prescribes ;  that  is,  that,  in- 
stead of  decreasing  the  lower  part 
of  the  shaft  to  one-third  of  the 
whole  height,  it  increased  from  the 
foot.  But  it  is  not  probable  that 
Vitruvius  intended  by  the  term  to 
express  any  such  a  swelling  in  the 
shaft,  not  only  because  it  gives  a 
bad  effect  to  the  column,  but  be- 
cause the  remains  of  ancient  build- 
ings offer  us  not  a  single  example. 
By  entasis,  Vitruvius  meant,  with- 
out doubt,  that  the  shaft  was  not 
to  be  diminished  in  a  straight  line, 
but  in  a  line  slightly  curved  out- 
wards, without,  however,  any  part 
of  the  shaft  having  a  greater  dia- 
meter than  that  of  the  foot.  The 
Doric  columns  in  the  portico  at  Pses- 
tum  offer  examples  of  such  a  dimi- 
nution in  a  line  slightly  curved, 
instead  of  being  perfectly  straight. 
These  columns  depart  most  from 
the  conic  form  towards  the  begin- 
ning of  the  upper  half ;  but  even 
there  the  diameter  of  the  shaft 
is  not  more  than  at  the  foot, 
but  it  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  little 
less. 

Vitruvius  does  not  explain  in  a 
very  exact  manner  the  form  of  this 
line  of  the  entasis,  and  the  design 
to  which  he  refers  has  been  lost. 

341 


S  H  A 


SHO 


A  passage  of  the  third  chapter  of 
his  third  book,  throws,  however, 
some  light  on  the  subject.  He 
there  fixes  as  a  rule,  that,  in  fluted 
Ionic  columns,  the  width  of  a  side 
comprised  between  two  flutings 
ought  to  be  equal  to  the  swelling 
of  the  middle  of  the  column.  The 
column  generally  contains  twenty- 
four  flutings,  and  consequently  as 
many  sides.  Each  side  having  for 
its  width  the  third  of  a  fluting,  it 
follows  that  its  width  is  the  ninety- 
sixth  part  of  the  circumference  of 
the  shaft,  or  the  thirty-second  part 
of  his  diameter.  It  appears,  there- 
fore, that  this  was  the  measure  of 
the  swelling  of  the  middle  of  the 
column.  This  proportion  at  the 
same  time  agrees  very  well  with 
that  which  we  observe  in  the  co- 
lumns of  the  portico  at  Psestum. 
The  columns  of  several  buildings  at 
Rome,  as  the  triumphal  arch  of 
Septimus  Severus,  that  of  Constan- 
tine,  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  the 
Coloseum,  &c.  offer  us  examples  of 
another  kind  of  diminution.  One- 
third  of  the  shaft  of  these  columns 
arises  from  the  base  in  a  cylindric 
form,  having  the  same  diameter  all 
its  length.  The  two  other  thirds 
diminish  in  form  of  a  cone.  This 
is  the  most  common  mode  of  dimi- 
nution. See  Entasis,  and  Dimin- 
ishing. 

Shaft,  in  a  chimney,  is  the 
stone  or  brick  turret  above  the  roof. 
The  shaft  of  a  king-post  is  the  part 
between  the  joggles. 

Shake,  the  fissure  occasioned  in 
timber  by  its  being  dried  too  sud- 
denly, or  exposed  to  too  great 
heat.  Any  timber,  when  naturally 
full  of  slits  or  clefts,  is  said  to  be 
shaky. 

Shank,  (scenca,  Sax.)  the  space 
between  the  channels  of  the  Doric 
triglyph,  which  is  sometimes  termed 
the  leg  of  the  triglyph ;  Vitruvius 
calls  it  femur, 

342 


Shield,  (scyld,  Sax.)  an  ancien 
weapon  of  defence,  borne  on  th 
arm,  to  send  off  lances,  darts,  &c 
often  used  in  architecture  as  a  pari 
of  ornamental  decorations.  Th 
shield  was  the  most  ornamental 
part  of  the  ancient  armour,  beinj; 
adorned  with  figures,  and  in  th| 
ages  of  chivalry  bearing  alwayj 
painted  on  it  the  arms  of  its  pos 
sessor. 

Shingles,  (schindel,  German,! 
small  oaken  boards,  used  like  slate 
to  cover  a  building,  from  eight  tj 
twelve  inches  long,  and  about  fou 
broad,  thicker  at  one  side  than  th 
other.  This  kind  of  roof  is  no 
frequently  used.  The  process  oj 
making  a  roof  of  this  kind  is  calle. 
shingling. 

Ship,  see  Naval  Architec 
ture. 

Shoar,  or  Shore,  (score.  Sax.):! 
prop  of  timber,  acting  as  a  brace 
in  the  side  of  a  building,  the  uppe 
end  resting  against  that  part  of  th< 
wall  on  which  the  floor  is  supported 
and  both  ends  resting  on  plates  o! 
beams.  A  dead  shoar,  is  an  up 
right  piece,  built  up  in  a  wall 
which  has  been  cut  or  brokei 
through  for  the  purpose  of  mak 
ing  some  alteration  in  the  build 
ing. 

Shoe,  the  part  at  the  bottom  o 
a  leaden  pipe,  or  water  trunk 
which  is  intended  to  turn  the  coursii 
of  the  water. 

Shooting,  planing  the  edge  o 
a  board  straight,  and  out  of  winding) 

Shooting-board,  two  board! 
which  are  joined  together  with  thei 
sides  lapped  upon  each  other,  s< 
as  to  form  a  rebate,  for  making 
short  joints. 

Shoulder,  the  plane  transvers< 
to  the  length  of  a  piece  of  timbe| 
from  which  a  tenon  projects. 

Shoulder  of  a  bastion,  in  forti 
fication,  the  place  where  the  fac 
and  plank  meet. 


SIG 

Shouldering  Pieces,  see 
Brackets. 

Shread  Head,  see  Jerkin 
Head. 

Shredings,  or  Furrings,  in 
old  buildings,  short  slight  pieces 
fixed  as  bearers  below  the  roof, 
forming  a  straight  line  with  the 
upper  part  of  the  rafters.  See 
Furring  s. 

Shrine,  (scrinium,  Lat. )  the 
tomb  of  a  saint.  The  altar  is  some- 
times called  a  shrine.  The  canopy 
Dver  shrines,  called  mandualis, 
whence  mantel  -  piece)  requies, 
Hpa,  &c.  was  sometimes  so  richly 
idorned  with  gold,  silver,  gems, 
md  other  ornaments,  as  to  make 
i  very  brilliant  appearance,  on 
which  account  the  shrines  were 
:overed  in  Lent.  The  form  and 
condition  of  the  shrine,  and  the 
innexation  of  an  image  to  it,  was 
)f  importance,  because  such  tombs 
md  greater  privileges  than  plainer 
nonuments. 

:  Shrouds,  The.  A  term  applied 
o  the  parish  church  of  St.  Faith, 
n  the  crypt  under  St.  Paul's  :  this 
'iame  is  also  given  to  other  subter- 
ranean churches. 

Shutters,  the  boards  which 
ihut  up  the  aperture  of  a  window. 

Side-posts,  a  kind  of  truss- 
>osts  placed  in  pairs,  each  disposed 
it  the  same  distance  from  the  mid- 
lie  of  the  truss,  for  the  purpose  of 
supporting  the  principal  rafters, 
oraces,  crown  or  camber  beams,  as 
•veil  as  for  hanging  the  tiebeam 
oelow. 

!  Side-timbers,  another  name 
or  purlins,  as  is  also  side  -  wavers, 
which  is  used  in  Lincolnshire  :  the 
Former  term  is  chiefly  confined  to 
Somersetshire. 

)  Signinum  Opus,  (Lat.)  a  kind 
)f  work  mentioned  by  Vitruvius, 
il).  viii.  c.  7,  which  was  used  by 
he  ancient  Romans  in  the  con- 
struction  of  walls   and  cisterns. 


S  I  N 

They  mixed  five  parts  of  pure  sand 
and  two  of  lime,  to  which,  when 
well  stirred  together,  they  added 
pieces  of  soft  sandy  stone,  each 
about  a  pound  weight.  This  mass 
served  to  cover  the  walls  or  ground- 
work ;  and,  to  increase  its  solidity, 
they  beat  it  with  logs  of  wood 
pointed  with  iron.  According  to 
Pliny,  the  signinum  opus  was  com- 
posed of  pounded  tiles  and  lime. 

Sili  or  cill,  {syl,  Sax.)  the  tim- 
ber or  stone  at  the  foot  of  a  door, 
&c.  Ground  sills,  are  the  timbers 
on  the  ground,  which  support  the 
posts  and  superstructure  of  a  tim- 
ber building.  The  name  of  sill  is 
also  given  to  the  bottom  pieces 
which  support  quarter  and  truss 
partitions. 

Sillon,  in  fortification,  an  ele- 
vation of  earth  in  the  middle  of 
a  moat. 

Si  ma,  see  Cyma,  and  Mould- 
ings. 

Similar,  figures,  &c.  which 
have  equal  angles  and  proportional 
sides. 

Sine,  a  right  line  drawn  from 
one  end  of  an  arch,  perpendicular 
upon  the  diameter,  or  it  is  half  the 
chord  of  twice  the  arch.  The  sine 
of  the  complement  is  the  sine  of 
what  the  arch  wants  of  ninety  de- 
grees. The  versed  sine,  is  an  arc 
or  angle  less  than  ninety  degrees, 
being  that  part  of  the  diameter, 
which  is  comprehended  between 
the  arch  and  the  sine. 

Single-frame  and  Naked, 
is  a  term  applied  to  a  floor  which 
has  only  one  tier  of  joists.  A  sin- 
gle-joist floor,  is  one  that  has  no 
binding  joists. 

Single-hung  :  when  only  one 
sash  of  a  window  is  moveable  in 
the  same  vertical  plane,  the  sashes 
are  said  to  be  single-hung. 

Single  Joists,  joists  which  are 
employed  singly  in  a  floor. 

Single  Measure,  a  door  which 

343 


S  I  s 


SLA 


is  square  on  both  sides:  if  it  be 
moulded  on  both  sides,  it  is  double 
measure,  and  if  moulded  on  one 
side  and  square  on  the  other,  it  is 
said  to  be  measure  and  a  half. 

Siparium,  (Lat.)  a  curtain  which 
was  often  employed  instead  of  a 
door,  to  separate  one  room  from 
another.  It  was  used  in  temples 
to  conceal  the  image  of  the  deity, 
when  sacrifice  was  not  performing. 
It  was  also  raised  beforathe  tribu- 
nal of  the  judges  in  criminal  causes, 
to  admit  of  their  discussing  the 
subject  with  greater  secrecy :  in 
cases  of  less  importance,  the  veil 
was  left  undrawn,  and  hence  arose 
the  expression  ad  vela  sisti  to  de- 
note the  curtain  being  drawn,  and 
levato  velo  to  signify  an  open  in- 
vestigation. 

Sisypheium,  (Gr.)  a  temple  at 
Corinth,  which  is  described  by 
Strado,  built  of  white  marble.  Its 
site  is  not  exactly  known.  Chan- 
dler supposes  it  to  be  the  temple 
that  is  described  by  Stuart  in  his 
Antiquities  of  Athens.  But  the 
difference  of  the  materials  is  an 
objection  to  this  supposition.  The 
ruin  described  by  Stuart  is  "a  Doric 
temple,  apparently  of  great  anti- 
quity, and  built  before  architecture 
had  received  the  improvements  it 
afterwards  did  in  the  time  of  Peri- 
cles." Twelve  columns  remain. 
They  are  made  of  the  stone  called 
porus,  (TroptvQQ  \i6oc.)  They  have 
twenty  flutings,  which  terminate  un- 
der the  listels  of  the  capital,  and 
are  segments  of  circles.  The  guttse 
are  round,  and  detached  from  the 
architrave.  The  shafts  are  each  of 
one  block  only,  and  the  whole  has 
been  covered  with  stucco.  It  may 
be  observed,  that  the  temples  in 
Greece,  Sicily,  and  Italy,  built  with 
the  same  stone,  are  generally  found 
to  have  been  extremely  thinly  stuc- 
coed with  a  fine  cement,  and  after- 
wards painted.    The  architraves  are 

344 


of  one  stcne,  reaching  from  centre; 
to  centre  of  the  columns.  In  plate 
Carpentry,  C.  44,  fig.  a,  b,  c,  show 
the  form  of  the  flutings,  of  the  gut- 
tse,  and  of  the  grooves  and  necking 
of  the  capitals  of  these  columns;! 
they  are  taken  from  the  drawings 
of  Sebastian  Ittar,  an  Italian  artist 
employed  by  lord  Elgin,  which  ares 
now  in  the  British  Museum. 

Skias,  (Gr.  a  shadow,  shady- 
place,)  an  edifice  at  Lacedemon, 
which  served  as  a  place  of  public! 
assembly  to  the  people.  It  was! 
the  work  of  Theodorus  of  Samos, 
to  whom  is  attributed  the  invention! 
of  casting  iron,  and  of  making! 
statues  of  it.  It  was  to  the  roof  of 
this  edifice  that  the  Lacedemonians 
suspended  the  lyre  of  Timotheus 
of  Miletus,  after  having  punished 
this  musician,  for  having  added 
four  more  strings  to  the  seven 
strings  of  the  ancient  lyre. 

Skirtings,  the  narrow  boards 
which  form  a  plinth  round  the 
margin  of  a  floor. 

Skirts,  several  superficies,  in  a 
plane,  which  would  cover  a  body 
without  one  part  lapping  over  the 
other. 

Skreen,  an  instrument  used  in 
making  mortar,  see  Screen. 

Skylights,  frames  with  one  or 
two  inclined  planes  of  glass,  placed 
in  a  roof  to  give  light  to  the  rooms 
or  passages  below,  and  looking  to 
the  sky. 

Slab,  the  outside  plank  cut  off 
a  tree,  which  is  of  unequal  thick- 
ness. 

Slating,  covering  roofs  with 
slates.  The  slates  used  in  London 
are  brought  chiefly  from  Bangor,  in 
Caernarvonshire.  But  the  most 
esteemed  is  a  pale  blue-green  slate, 
brought  from  Kendal,  in  Westmore- 
land, and  called  Westmoreland 
slates.  The  Scotch  slates  are  nol 
much    repute.      The  Welsh 


in 


slates  are  known  by  the  follow- 


SLA 


SLA 


*  names,  according  to  their  aver- 
se sizes.  . 

Length.  Breadth. 


ft. 

in. 

ft. 

in. 

j  Doubles  .... 

1 

6 

1 

3 

8 

Countesses      .    .  . 

I 

8 

10 

Duchesses      .    .  . 

2 

0 

1 

0 

Welsh  Rags  .    .  . 

3 

0 

2 

0 

Queens      .    .    ;  . 

3 

0 

2 

0 

Imperials  .... 

2 

G 

2 

0 

Patent  

2 

G 

2 

0 

Slate  is  separated  from  its  bed, 
<e  other  stones,  by  means  of  gun- 
3\vder,  and  is  afterwards  sepa- 
ited  into  layers  called  scant- 
ngs,  by  wedges,  and  finally  sawn 
\  the  respective  sizes  by  means  of 
achinery.  The  blue,  green,  pur- 
!e,  and  darker  kinds,  are  most 
ipable  of  being  split  thin,  the 
?hter  colours  being  coarser,  and 
sed  chiefly  for  stabling,  out-houses, 
c.  The  instruments  used  in  quar- 
ing  slates,  and  splitting  them,  are 
ate-knives,  axes,  bars,  and  wedges. 
i  laying  them  on  the  roofs,  and 
*ing  them,  are  used  the  saixe,  an 
strument  made  of  tempered  iron, 
Dout  sixteen  inches  long,  and  two 
ide,  resembling  a  large  knife,  bent 
little  at  one  end,  with  a  wooden 
'andle  at  the  other,  having  a  pro- 
cting  piece  of  iron  on  its  back, 
■awn  to  a  sharp  point,  about  three 
ches  long  :  it  is  used  to  chip  and 
'it  the  slates  to  their  required 
zes,  as,  when  brought  from  the 
uarry,  they  are  not  sufficiently 
[uared  and  cleaned  for  the  slaters' 
se.  The  ripper  is  an  iron  instru- 
ent,  about  the  same  length  as  the 
iixe,  with  a  very  thin  blade,  ta- 
?red  somewhat  towards  the  top, 
here  a  round  head  projects  over 
ie  blade  about  half  an  inch  on 
ich  side :  there  are  also  two  little 
'iund  notches  in  the  two  internal 
lgles:  the  handle  is  raised  above 
ie  blade  by  a  shoulder.  It  is  used 
|  repairing  old  slating,  to  remove 
ie  old  slates  for  the  purpose  of 


inserting  new  ones,  The  shaving 
tool,  consists  of  an  iron  blade  shar- 
pened at  one  end  like  a  chisel,  and 
mortised  through  the  centre  of  two 
round  wooden  handles,  one  fix- 
ed at  one  end,  and  the  other 
about  the  middle  of  the  blade, 
which  is  about  eleven  inches  long 
and  two  wide,  and  is  used  for  get- 
ting the  slates  to  a  smooth  face  for 
skirtings,  floors  of  balconies,  &c. 
The  hammer  used  by  slaters  differs 
from  common  hammers,  in  being 
bent  back  at  the  top,  which 
is  ground  to  a  tolerably  sharp 
point,  and  in  having  on  the  other 
end  of  the  driving  part  a  small  pro- 
jection, with  a  notch  in  the  centre, 
which  is  used  as  a  claw  to  extract 
such  nails  as  do  not  drive  well. 
Other  tools  used,  by  the  slater  are 
chisels,  gouges,  and  files. 

In  slating  roofs,  the  first  thing  is 
to  have  a  floor  or  base  to  lay  the 
slates  compactly  and  securely  on ; 
and  for  doubles  and  ladies'  board- 
ing is  required,  which  must  be 
even,  closely  jointed,  and  well  se- 
cured to  the  rafters.  The  slater 
next  provides  himself  with  slips 
of  wood,  called  tilting  slates, 
about  ten  inches  and  a  half  wide, 
three-quarters  of  an  inch  thick  at 
one  edge,  and  champfered  to  an 
arris  on  the  other.  These  he  nails 
down  all  along  the  extreme  edges 
of  the  roof.  Having  selected  the 
largest  slates,  he  arranges  them 
regularly  along  the  eaves,  with  their 
lower  edges  to  a  line,  nailing  them 
to  the  boarding.  After  this,  he 
takes  others,  with  which  he  forms 
the  bond  to  the  under  sides  of  the 
eaves,  placing  them  under  those 
previously  laid,  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  cross  and  cover  their  joints  ; 
these  must  be  slightly  pushed  up 
under  the  others,  and  are  seldom 
nailed,  as  they  are  held  in  their 
places  by  the  weight  of  those  above 
them.    He  next  lays  another  line 

345 


SLA 


SLA 


over  the  first  row,  covering  its 
joists  by  crossing  and  lapping  a 
sufficient  way  over  them,  and  in 
this  way  continues  them  to  the 
pitch  of  the  roof.  Layers  of  slates 
may,  instead  of  having  a  flooring, 
be  laid  on  battens,  or  narrow 
pieces  of  deal,  about  two  and  a 
half  or  three  inches  wide,  four  of 
them  being  generally  made  out  of 
an  eleven-inch  board. 

In  covering  a  roof  with  patent 
slates,  which  were  first  brought 
into  use  by  Mr.  Wyatt,  the  com- 
mon rafters  must  be  left  loose 
upon  their  purlins,  as  they  require 
to  be  so  arranged,  that  a  rafter 
may  lie  under  all  the  meeting  joists, 
hence  neithe**  boarding  nor  battens 
will  be  needed,  and  since  the  num- 
ber of  rafters  depends  on  the  width 
of  the  slates,  when  they  are  large, 
very  few  are  necessary.  This  kind 
of  slating  may  be  laid  on  a  much 
less  elevated  rafter  than  any  other, 
as  the  laps  being  much  less  than 
in  common  slating,  it  is  considera- 
bly lighter.  It  is  likewise  com- 
menced at  the  eaves,  but  is  neither 
crossed  nor  bonded,  the  slates  ly- 
ing uniformly,  with  each  end  reach- 
ing to  the  middle  of  the  rafter,  and 
butted  up  to  each  other  through 
the  length  of  the  roof.  The  eave 
slates  are  screwed  down  to  the  raf- 
ters by  two  or  three  strong  inch- 
and-a-half  screws,  at  each  of  their 
ends.  The  joints  are  secured  by 
filleting,  or  covering  them  with 
fillets  of  slates,  about  three  inches 
wide,  bedded  in  putty,  and  screwed 
down  through  the  whole  into  the 
rafters.  Slating  is  sometimes  laid 
in  a  lozenge  form,  but  it  is  much 
less  durable  than  the  common 
method. 

A  species  of  artificial  slates  have 
been  used  in  Russia,  which  are 
said  to  be  very  valuable,  as  being 
lighter  than  common  slates,  imper- 
vious to  water,  incombustible,  and 

346 


made  of  any  required  form  or  size 
They  have  been  analyzed  by  M 
Giorgi,  who  finds  them  to  consis 
of  bolar  earth,  chalk,  or  carbonat 
of  lime,  strong  glue,  paper  pulj 
and  linseed-oil.  The  earthy  mate 
rials  are  to  be  pounded  and  siftei 
and  the  glue  dissolved  in  water;  th 
paper  is  the  common  paper  pulr 
which,  after  being  steeped  in  wate 
has  been  pressed ;  or  it  may  h 
book-binders'  or  stationers'  sha\ 
ings  boilded  in  water  and  pressec 
The  linseed  oil  is  to  be  raw.  Tl 
paper  pulp  is  to  be  mixed  in 
mortar  with  the  dissolving  ghu 
the  earthy  materials  then  adde 
and  beaten  up,  and  the  oil  adde 
during  the  beating,  as  fast  as  it 
absorbed.  The  mixture  is  the 
spread  with  ?.  trowel  on  a  planl< 
on  which  a  sheet  of  paper  has  bee 
laid,  and  surrounded  by  a  ledge,  t 
determine  the  thickness  of  th 
layer,  and  is  then  turned  out  on 
plank,  strewed  with  sand  to  dr- 
When  dry,  they  are  passed  throug 
a  rolling-mill,  then  pressed,  an 
finally  finished  by  a  coat  of  dr) 
ing  oil. 

The  following  are  some  of  th 
various  proportions  recommended 

Two  parts  paper  pulp,  one  glut 
one  chalk,  two  bole  earth,  one  lin 
seed  oil;  this  forms  a  thin,  hare 
and  very  smooth  sheet. 

Three  parts  paper  pulp,  fouj 
glue,  four  white  bole  earth,  an! 
four  chalk  ;  this  produces  an  uni 
form  sheet  as  hard  as  iron. 

One  paper  pulp,  one  glue,  threi 
white  bole  earth,  one  linseed  oil: 
this  makes  a  beautiful  elastic  sheel 

When  these  plates  or  slates  wer 
steeped  in  water  for  four  month; 
they  were  found  not  to  alter  at  a 
in  weight ;  and  when  exposed  to 
violent  heat  for  five  minutes,  the 
were  scarcely  altered  in  form,  anj 
were  converted  into  black  and  vcrj 
hard  plates. 


S  L  E 


SOS 


Sleepers,  timbers  laid  upon 
jwarf  walls,  for  supporting  the 
rround  joists  of  floors  ;  cross  tim- 
bers for  fixing  the  planking,  where 
t  is  necessary  to  pile  under,  in 
order  to  make  a  secure  foundation, 
i  Slit  Deal,  inch-and-quarter 
leal  cut  into  two  boards. 

Slyp,  in  old  architecture,  a  pas- 
sage between  two  walls. 

Snipe's  Bill,  see  Plane. 
,  Socket  Chisel,  a  chisel  used 
n  mortising. 

Socle.    See  Zocle. 

Soffit,  or  Soffita,  the  under 
iart  or  ceiling  of  a  cornice  ;  any 
^mber  ceiling  formed  of  cross 
ieams  of  flying  cornices,  the  square 
ompartments  or  panels  of  whicb 
re  enriched  with  sculpture  or 
tainting,  as  in  the  Italian  palaces ; 
he  under  side  or  face  of  an  arehi- 
rave ;  and  more  particularly  that 
art  of  the  corona,  or  larmier, 
hich  was  called  by  the  ancients 
lcunaria,  and  which  is  termed  by 
le  French  plafond,  and  by  us 
sually  the  drip.  The  word  soffit 
•  also  applied  to  the  ceiling  of  an 
rch.    See  Carpentry. 

Soffits  of  Canopies,  the  inner 
art,  sometimes  with  groined 
acery,  forming  a  vaulted  arch 
,  ith  a  pendant. 

Soils,  a  provincial  term  for  the 
rincipal  rafters  of  a  roof. 

Sola  it,  or  Solyer,  a  light  upper 
>om. 

Solarium,  (Lat.)  (1.)  a  sun- 
ial,  (see  Sun-dial,  Horologium, 
c.)  (2.)  a  platform  at  the  top  of 
ie  ancient  nouses,  where  the  in- 
ates  occasionally  walked  to  take 
ie  air;  (3.)  a  tax  levied  on  those 
bo  received  permission  to  build 
Don  the  public  ground,  levied  by 
e  curators  of  the  public  places. 
Solder,  or  Sodder,  (soldare, 
al.)  a  metallic  or  mineral  com- 
)sition  used  in  soldering  or  join- 
g  together  other  metals 


Solid,  in  geometry,  a  body 
which  has  length,  breadth,  and 
thickness. 

Solids,  A rchitectural.  In  plate 
I,  fig.  1  is  a  semi-cylinder,  being 
the  centre  of  a  semi-cylindric  vault; 
fig.  2,  a  semi-cylindroid,  being  the 
centre  of  a  semi-cylindroidic  vault 
upon  the  greater  axis  of  the  ellipse, 
which  forms  the  ends  of  the  vault ; 
fig.  3,  a  semi-cylindroid  being  the 
centre  of  a  semi-cylindroidic  vault 
upon  the  axis  minor  of  the  ellipse, 
which  forms  the  ends  of  the  vault ; 
fig.  4,  and  5,  groins  upon  a  square 
plan,  proving  their  summits  in 
curved  lines  ;  fig.  6,  a  groin  spring- 
ing from  the  angles  of  a  square 
base,  but  of  which  their  horizontal 
sections  are  every  where  quad- 
rantal  arcs  of  a  circle ;  hence  the 
four  surfaces  meet  each  other  in  a 
horizontal  plane,  and  terminate  in 
a  quadrant ;  the  quadrilateral  space 
is  rilled  with  a  circular  figure.  In 
plate  II,  figs.  1,  2,  3,  gothic  groins, 
their  summits  being  straight,  1, 
being  upon  a  square  plan ;  3,  on  a 
rectangular  plan ;  and  2,  on  an 
octagonal  plan ;  fig.  7,  a  groin  of 
the  same  kind  as  fig.  6.  on  plate  1, 
upon  an  oblong  plan  ;  fig.  8,  gothic 
arches  penetrating  a  polygonal 
dome  of  the  same  number  of  sides; 
fig.  9.  gothic  arches  penetrating  a 
spherical  dome. 

Solid  Angle,  an  angle  formed 
by  three  or  more  plane  angles, 
which  meet  in  a  point,  and  of 
which  the  sum  of  all  the  plane 
angles  is  less  than  three  hundred 
and  sixty  degrees. 

Soline,  a  term  among  French 
carpenters,  for  a  joist  or  rafter, 
which  is  either  slit  or  sawed,  and 
with  which  they  lay  their  ceilings. 

Sommer,  see  Summer. 

Sophia,  St.  See  Constanti- 
nople. 

Sostratus,  a  celebrated  Gre- 
cian architect,  of  the  third  century 

347 


sou 


sou 


before  Christ,  bom  at  Cnidos  in 
Asia  Minor;  his  father  Dexiphanes 
was  also  celebrated  as  an  architect. 
Sostratus  is  renowned  in  history 
for  the  terraces  and  arcades  with 
which  he  adorned  his  native  city, 
and  was  patronized  by  Ptolemy 
Philadelphia,  king:  of  Egypt.  He 
was  the  builder  of  the  celebrated 
Pharos,  which  protected  the  en- 
trance to  the  port  of  Alexandria, 
and  is  said  to  have  given  celebrity 
to  his  name  by  a  singular  strata- 
gem :  having  been  ordered  to  en- 
grave on  the  tower  the  words 
"  King  Ptolemy  to  the  Gods,  the 
Saviours,  for  the  benefit  of  Sailors," 
he  substituted  his  own  name  in- 
stead of  that  of  Ptolemy,  and  hav- 
ing filled  it  up  with  mortar,  painted 
over  it  the  original  inscription,  so 
that,  after  it  had  been  some  time 
exposed  to  the  action  of  the  wea- 
ther, the  mortar  came  off,  and  the 
inscription  appeared  according  to 
the  first  engraving,  "  Sostratus, 
Sj9n  of  Dexiphanes,  of  Cnidos,  to 
the  Gods,  the  Saviours,  for  the 
benefit  of  Sailors,"  and  continued 
so  as  long  as  the  tower  remained 
standing. 

Soufflot,  James  Germain,  a 
French  architect,  who  was  born  at 
Irancy,  near  Auxerre,  in  1714,  and 
died  in  1780.  He  was  first  in- 
tended by  his  father,  who  was  an 
avocat,  for  the  profession  of  the 
law,  but  preferring  that  of  architec- 
ture, he  studied  it  some  time  at 
Lyons,  afterwards  travelled  into 
Italy,  and,  on  his  return,  was  ad- 
mitted into  the  number  of  the 
king's  pensioners.  His  works  at 
Lyons,  particularly  the  hospital, 
gained  him  great  reputation.  He 
afterwards  visited  Italy  a  second 
time,  and  settled  on  his  return  at 
Paris.  Amongst  his  other  works 
are  the  exchange,  the  concert- 
room,  and  the  theatre  of  Lyons, 
and  the  portal,  nave,  and  towers  of 

348 


the  church  of  St.  Genevieve.  A 
collection  of  designs  which  he  lef 
behind  him  were  published  by  M 
Dumont,  under  the  title  of  "  Ele 
vations  et  Coupes  de  quelque 
Edifices  de  France  et  d'ltalie,  de 
signees  par  feu  M.  Soufflot,  archi 
tect  du  Roi,  et  gravees." 

Sound  Boa  rding,  short  board 
which  are  disposed  transverse! 
between  the  joists  of  floors,  fo 
holding  any  substance  which  i 
intended  to  prevent  sound  fror 
being  transmitted  from  one  stor 
to  another.  They  are  supports 
by  fillets  fixed  to  the  sides  of  th 
joists,  generally  about  three  quar 
ters  of  an  inch  thick,  and  an  inci 
long.  The  substance  which  i 
placed  between  them,  to  preven 
the  transmission  of  the  sound,  i 
technically  termed  pugging. 

Sounding  Board.  Thechurc 
of  Attercliffe,  near  Sheffield,  ha 
long  been  remarkable  for  the  diffi 
culty  and  indistinctness  with  whic 
the  voice  from  the  pulpit  wa 
heard  :  these  defects  were  com 
pletely  remedied  by  the  erection  c 
a  concave  sounding  board,  havin 
the  form  resulting  from  half 
revolution  of  one  branch  of  a  para  18 
bola  on  its  axis.  It  is  made  c 
pine-wood  ;  its  axis  is  inclined  foi 
ward  to  the  plane  of  the  floor,  a 
an  angle  of  about  ten  or  fiftee 
degrees  ;  it  is  elevated  so  that  th 
speaker's  mouth  may  be  in  th 
focus;  and  a  small  curvilinea 
portion  is  removed  on  each  sid 
from  beneath,  so  that  the  view  ( 
the  preacher  from  the  side  gallerie 
may  not  be  intercepted.  Th 
effect  of  this  sounding  board  ha 
been  to  increase  the  volume  of  th 
sound  to  nearly  five  times  what 
was  before,  so  that  the  voice 
now  distinctly  audible  in  the  u 
motest  parts  of  the  church,  an 
more  especially  in  those  place 
however  distant  they  may  be,  whic 


SPA 


SPE 


re  situated  in  the  prolongation  of 
ie  axis  of  the  paraboloid.  The 
de  galleries  are  also  benefited, 
robably  from  the  increase  of  the 
:condary  vibrations  excited  in  a 
teral  direction. 

Souse,  (Fr.)  or  source,  a  sup- 
nrt  or  under  prop. 

Spalatro,  a  town  of  Venetian 
>almatia,  where  are  the  splendid 
;mains  of  a  palace  of  the  emperor 
•ioclesian,  which  has  been  de- 
;ribed,  and  several  fine  plates 
iven  of  it  by  Mr.  Adam.  This 
uilding  was  of  a  quadrangular 
)rm,  divided  by  two  large  streets, 
hich  crossed  at  right  angles,  and 
:d  to  the  different  gates.  These 
reets  were  bordered  on  each  side 
y  arcades  thirteen  feet  in  width, 
lany  of  which  are  still  entire, 
he  first  street  led  directly  to  the 
eristyle  before  the  villa,  from 
hich  a  flight  of  steps  led  into 
ie  porticus,  and  from  this  were 
vo  doors  to  two  winding  stairs, 
hich  led  to  the  ground  story,  that 
ie  slaves  might  have  access  there 
ithout  having  to  pass  any  of  the 
ipartments.    Next  to  the  porticus 

the  vestibule,  which  was  lighted 
irough  the  roof.  From  this  we 
iter  the  atrium,  on  each  side  of 
ie  door,  into  which  were  two 
iTiall  rooms,  one  of  which  may 
,ave  been  the  porter's  lodge,  and 
ie  other  the  tablinum,  or  reposi- 
)ry  of  the  records.  By  the  alae 
f  the  atrium  are  the  two  andrones 
r  mesaulae,  from  which  there  is 
:cess  to  several  great  rooms, 
hich  received  light  from  the  roof. 
,  ext  to  the  atrium  is  the  crypto- 
jorticus.  The  first  room  on  the 
iround-fiOor  is  the  basilica,  for 
ramatic  performances,  concerts, 
c  ;  next  the  oeci  or  eating  apart- 
ments, and  the  exedrae  or  orawing- 
)oms;  and  then  the  bath  and  its 
partments,  and  the  bed-chambers, 
emples  were  placed  in  the  two 


areas  adjoining  the  palace.  The 
whole  area  which  is  covered  by  the 
palace  is  nine  and  a  half  English 
acres. 

Span-piece,  a  name  given  in 
some  places  to  the  collar-beam. 

Span  Roof,  a  name  sometimes 
given  to  the  most  common  species 
of  roofing,  which  is  formed  by  two 
inclined  planes. 

Spandrel  Bracketing, brack- 
ets which  are  placed  between  curves, 
each  of  which  are  in  a  vertical 
plane,  and  in  the  circumference  of  a 
circle,  which  is  in  a  horizontal  plane. 

Spars,  the  common  rafters  of  a 
roof  for  supporting  the  tiling  or 
slating. 

Specific  Gravity,  a  compa- 
rison of  the  weight  of  any  quantity 
of  solid  or  fluid,  with  the  weight  of 
some  other  fluid  or  solid,  chosen  as 
a  standard,  which  is  generally  rain 
water,  as  being  least  subject  to 
variation,  and  of  which  a  cubic 
foot  weighs  1000  ounces  avoirdu- 
pois. For  tables  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  different  substances,  see 
the  articles  Stone  and  Timber. 

Specus,  (Lat.)  the  canal  into 
which  the  water  flows,  in  aqueducts 
which  are  raised  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  constructed  of  hewn 
stones  or  bricks.  It  was  covered 
with  a  vault,  to  preserve  the  water 
from  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  and 
from  being  mixed  with  rain-water. 
Sometimes  these  canals  were  cover- 
ed with  flat  stones,  laid  horizon- 
tally, as  in  the  Aqua  Marcia,  a 
part  of  the  Aqua  Claudia,  and  the 
aqueduct  of  Segovia.  Sometimes 
the  same  series  of  arcades  sup- 
ported several  of  these  canals,  of 
which  there  were  often  three  placed 
one  above  another :  thus  the  Aqua 
Julia,  Tepula,  and  Marcia,  were 
supported  by  the  same  arcades ; 
another  example  may  be  instanced 
in  the  Anto  Vetus,  and  the  Aqua 
Claudia. 

349 


SPH 


SQU 


SphjERIsterium,  a  building 
appropriated  for  exercising  with 
a  ball ;  a  tennis-court.  The  an- 
cients generally  placed  Sphseristeria 
among  the  apartments  that  were 
connected  with  their  baths,  and  in 
their  gymnasia.  They  also  had 
them  in  their  mansions,  and  par- 
ticularly in  the  villas  of  the  rich. 
Pliny  the  younger,  in  the  descrip- 
tion which  he  gives  of  his  two 
country  houses,  mentions  the  sphce- 
risterium.  The  emperor  Vespa- 
sian had  one  in  his  palace,  and, 
according  to  Lampridius,  Alexan- 
der Severus  very  frequently  exer- 
cised in  the  Sphaeristerium. 

Sphere,  (atyaipa,  Gr.)  a  solid 
body  contained  under  one  single 
surface,  and  having  a  point  in  the 
middle  called  its  centre,  from 
whence  all  the  lines  drawn  to  the 
surface  are  equal.  A  solid  ap- 
proaching the  figure  of  a  sphere, 
but  not  exactly  round,  formed  by 
the  revolution  of  a  semi-ellipsis 
about  its  axis,  is  called  a  spheroid. 
When  it  is  generated  by  the  revo- 
lution of  a  semi-ellipsis  about  its 
longest  or  transverse  diameter,  it  is 
called  an  oblong  spheroid ;  when 
about  its  shortest  or  conjugate 
diameter,  it  is  a  prolate  spheroid. 
The  fixed  axis  of  the  ellipse  is 
called  the  axis  of  rotation.  The 
circle  described  by  the  semi-axis  of 
the  ellipse  is  called  the  equatorial 
circle.  To  find  the  solidity  of  a 
sphere,  or  spheroid,  multiply  the 
square  of  the  equatorial  diameter, 
by  the  axis  of  rotation,  and  the 
product  by,  5236.  If  the  equato- 
rial diameter  be  equal  to  the  axis 
of  rotation,  multiply  the  cube  of 
the  diameter  by  5236. 

Spherical  Bracketing,  brack- 
ets of  such  a  form,  that  the  surface  of 
the  lath-and- plaster  work  which  they 
support, will  form  a  spherical  surface. 

Spherics,  the  doctrine  of  the 
sphere. 

350 


Spheroid,  see  Sphere. 
Spheroidal  Bracketing 
bracketing  which  has  the  surface  o 
a  spheroid. 

Sphinx,  (Greek,)  a  figure  of 
monster  with  the  head  and  breast 
of  a  woman,  the  wings  of  a  bird 
the  claws  of  a  lion,  and  the  rest  o 
the  body  like  a  dog :  we  find  if 
most  frequently  occurring  amongst 
the  ornaments  of  the  Egyptian  tem-s 
pies,  from  whom  it  was  borrowed; 
by  the  Romans,  who  placed  it  alsci 
very  often  in  the  porches  of  then' 
temples. 

Spiral,  a  curve  line  of  a  circu- 
lar kind,  which  in  its  progress  re- 
cedes from  its  centre. 

Spire,  (Gr.  anaipa,  twisting,' 
among  the  ancients,  was  the  base 
of  a  column,  and  sometimes  thf 
astragal  or  torus,  but  among  the 
moderns  it  designates  a  steeple 
which  diminishes  as  it  ascends 
either  pyramidally  or  conically. 

Spla  yeb,  (disployer,o]d  French 
to  spread  out);  the  heading  joists 
of  a  boarded  floor,  the  jambs  of  3 
door,  or  any  thing  else,  of  which 
one  side  makes  an  oblique  an- 
gle with  the  other,  is  said  to  be 
splayed. 

Spring  Bevel  of  a  Rail,  the 
angle  which  the  top  of  the  plank 
makes  with  a  vertical  plane,  that 
has  its  termination  in  the  concave 
side,  and  touches  the  ends  of  the 
rail-piece. 

Springing,  setting  the  boards 
of  a  boarded  roof  together  with 
bevel  joints. 

Springing  Course,  the  hori- 
zontal course  of  stones  whence  an 
arch  rises. 

Square,  (quadra,  Lat.)  a  figure 
of  four  equal  sides,  and  as  many, 
equal  angles;  an  area,  generally  oil 
this  form,  surrounded  by  houses 
and  ornamented  with  an  enclose 
lawn,  with  shrubs,  trees,  &c. ;  a 
instrument  used  by  mechanics,  com- 


ST  A 


ST  A 


osed  of  two  rules  fastened  perpen- 
icularly  at  one  end  of  their  extre- 
mities, so  as  to  form  a  right  angle, 
nd  used  for  measuring  and  de- 
Tibing  right  angles  and  perpendi- 
jlars:  when  one  ruler  joins  the 
ther  in  the  middle  in  the  form  of 
.3,  it  is  called  a  T  square. 

Squaring  hand  rails,  the  cut- 
mg  of  a  plank  to  the  form  of  a 
til  for  a  stair-case. 

Stadium,  (Greek,)  among  the 
{reeks,  the  open  space  where  the 
thletse  exercised  in  running,  and 
here  they  combated  for  the  prize. 
i  its  primitive  signification,  the 
ord  signified  properly  that  part  of 
ie  gymnasia,  where  the  people 
>sembled  to  witness  the  different 
thletic  exercises  :  according  to  the 
escription  of  Vitruvius,  it  was  a 
lace  so  disposed  that  those  whom 
iriosity  or  idleness  might  conduct 
uere,  could  conveniently  view  from  it 
ie  combats  of  the  athletae.  This 
ilace,  which  was  much  longer  than 
road,  was  rounded  at  one  of  its 
<tremities,  and  furnished  with  se- 
i?ral  ranges  of  seats  for  the  spec- 
itors.  In  its  other  signification, 
iie  word  stadium  was  used  for  the 
lace  itself  where  the  public  games 
ere  celebrated.  Thus  the  place 
here  they  celebrated  the  Olympic 
ames  was  called  the  Olympic  sta- 
ium :  that  where  the  Pythian 
ames  were  celebrated,  the  Pythian 
■adium.  Ancient  authors  mention 
iree  parts  of  the  stadium,  which 
ere  the  entrance,  the  middle,  and 
ie  extremity  of  the  career.  The  en- 
hance had  four  different  names. 

was  called  apheteria,  a  word 
erived  from  a  Greek  verb,  signify- 
ig  to  set  off,  or  start,  it  being  the 
lace  from  whence  the  race  com- 
menced. As  the  entrance  was 
arked  by  a  simple  line  drawn 

ross  the  stadium,  it  was  also 
illed  the  gramme  or  line,  as  the 
Tin  is  explained  by  Pollux,  and 


Suidaj.  Instead  of  the  line,  a  step 
or  slight  eminence  was  introduced, 
when  it  was  named  balbis.  Be- 
sides this  line  was  placed  a  kind  of 
barrier,  to  stop  the  racers  till  the 
signal  was  given,  which  was  a 
chord,  &e.  and  was  let  fall  at  the 
moment  of  starting  :  hence  this 
entrance  was  termed  hysplex  or 
hysplenx,  and  in  Latin  regula  the 
rule.  In  the  middle  of  the  stadium 
was  generally  placed  the  prize,  ac- 
cording to  Faber  in  his  Agonisticon. 
The  extremity  of  the  stadium  was 
sometimes  called  gramme  and  bal- 
bis, like  the  entrance,  but  it  had 
also  several  other  particular  names, 
such  as  terma,  batcr,  telos,  kamp- 
ter,  and  nyssa. 

The  stadia  often  made  part  of 
the  gymnasia.  At  Thebes  there 
was  a  gymnasium  which  bore  the 
name  of  Hercules,  and  which  con- 
tained a  stadium.  Sometimes  the 
stadium  was  a  structure  separated 
from  the  gymnasium.  The  greatest 
part  of  the  stadia  of  Greece  were 
only  surrounded  by  a  bank  of 
earth ;  though  there  were  some  of 
a  more  elegant  construction.  On 
the  Isthmus  of  Corith  there  was, 
according  to  Pausanias,  a  stadium 
built  of  white  marble.  In  the  up- 
per part  of  the  city  of  Delphos, 
there  was  a  stadium  constructed  at 
first  only  of  the  stone  of  Parnassus, 
but  which  was  afterwards  adorned 
by  Herodes  Atticus,  with  Pentelic 
marble.  Chandler  and  Pococke  in- 
form us,  that  there  was  at  Smyrna 
and  Ephesus  also  a  stadium  which 
did  not  make  part  of  a  gymnasium. 
At  Alabanda,  Chandler  saw  the  ruins 
of  a  stadium  which  serves  now  for 
a  public  market  for  the  town  of 
Karpuseli,  which  is  built  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  city.  At  Lao- 
dicea  have  also  been  discovered  the 
ruins  of  a  stadium,  figured  in  the 
Ionian  antiquities.  One  of  the 
most  magnificent  and  celebrated 

351 


ST  A 


ST  A 


stadia  of  antiquity,  was  that  de- 
scribed by  Pausanias  at  Athens, 
which  was  built  by  Herodes  Atti- 
cus,  of  Pentelic  marble,  and  of  ex- 
traordinary extent. 

Stadium,  a  measure  of  ground 
among  the  ancient  Greeks,  con- 
taining 125  paces.. 

Staff  Bead,  see  Angle  Staff. 

Stair-case,  an  ascent  of  stairs, 
enclosed  between  walls  or  balus- 
trades, with  landing-places,  &c. 
Vitruvius,  in  describing  the  houses 
of  the  ancients,  does  not  mention 
the  stairs;  as  the  ancient  houses 
appear  to  have  only  had  a  ground- 
floor,  they  were  the  part  of  least 
consequence,  and  the  stairs  for 
ascending  the  roof,  or  to  communi- 
cate between  different  floors,  where 
the  houses  had  more  than  one,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  either  on  the  out- 
side of  the  walls,  or  worked  in  them. 
However,  we  find  instances  of  the 
stair-cases  being  disposed  in  the 
same  manner  as  at  the  present  day. 
The  building  called  the  country- 
house  at  Pompeii,  and  several 
others,  have  stair-cases  of  modern 
appearance,  but  narrow  and  incom- 
modious, with  steps  sometimes  a 
foot  high.  We  find  occasionally, 
likewise,  private  stair-cases,  as  in 
Pliny's  Tusculan  villa,  where  it  was 
situated  by  the  side  of  the  dining 
room,  and  destined  for  the  use  of 
the  slaves  who  served  the  repast. 
There  were  also  stair-cases  in  many 
of  the  ancient  temples,  to  ascend  to 
the  roof,  &c. 

Great  skill  is  often  displayed 
by  modern  builders  in  the  dis- 
position of  the  stair-case,  that 
it  may  possess  convenience  of  ac- 
cess, without  interfering  with  the 
distribution  of  the  different  apart- 
ments. In  common  houses  it 
is  generally  of  wood,  but  in  pub- 
lic edifices,  and  the  residences 
of  the  nobility,  it  is  more  com- 
monly of  stone  or  marble. 

3.-2 


f*  Staircases,"  Palladio  observes 
"  will  be  commendable,  if  they  ar 
clear,  ample,  and  commodious  t< 
ascend,  inviting,  as  it  were,  peopln 
to  go  up :  they  will  be  clear,  i 
they  have  a  bright  and  equally  dif 
fused  light ;  they  will  be  sufficient 
ample,  if  they  do  not  seem  scanv 
and  narrow  to  the  size  and  qualit- 
of  the  fabric,  but  they  should  neves 
be  less  than  four  feet  in  width 
that  two  persons  may  pass  eacl 
other:  they  will  be  convenient,  witl 
respect  to  the  whole  building,  i 
the  arches  under  them  can  be  use< 
for  domestic  purposes ;  and  wit! 
respect  to  persons,  if  their  ascen 
is  not  too  steep  and  difficult,  t 
avoid  which,  the  steps  should  b 
twice  as  broad  as  high."  The  mos 
convenient  height  for  the  steps  i 
from  four  to  six  inches,  and  thei 
number,  according  to  the  directio 
of  Palladio,  s*hould  not  exceed  thir 
teen  before  arriving  at  a  restin 
place.  The  most  common  form  c 
stair-cases  in  dwelling  houses 
rectilinear,  but  they  are  capable  c 
being  made  much  more  elegant  i 
a  circular  or  elliptical  form.  Sma 
circular  stair-cases  are  generall 
formed  round  a  column,  or  newe 
and  hence  called  newel  stair-casei 
In  large  designs  the  elliptic  form  j 
preferable  to  all  others.  One  c 
the  finest  examples  may  be  seen  i 
Somerset  House,  in  the  stair-cas 
belonging  to  the  Royal  Societ 
and  the  Society  of  Antiquaries. 

In  the  construction  of  stairs,  th 
principal  thing  to  be  attended  tc 
is  their  strength  and  safety,  hot 
in  reality  and  appearance,  an, 
their  easy  ascent.  Biondel,  in  hi! 
Cours  d'Architecture,  is  believed  ti 
have  been  the  first  who  fixed  thj 
relation  between  the  height  an| 
width  of  a  step  upon  correct  prin 
ciples.  The  following  equatioj 
will  very  nearly  express  the  tru 
values  of  x  and  z:  Supposing  that ', 


S  T  A 


S  T  A 


person,  walking  upon  a  level  plane, 
move  over  a  space  =  x  at  each 
step,  and  that  the  height  that  the 
step,  anil  that  the  height  that  the 
same  person  could  with  equal  ease 
ascend  vertically,  be  z  ;  tor,  if  h 
be  the  height  of  the  step,  and  p  its 
width,  the  relation  between  p  and 
h  must  be  such,  that  when  p—x, 
hzzo,  and  when  h~z,  p—o.  These 
conditions  are  satisfied  by  an  equa- 
tion of  the  form  of  h—z  (1  1 :) 

Blondel  assumes  24  inches  for  the 
ealue  of  x,  and  12  for  that  of  z ; 
substituting-  therefore  these  values 
n  the  equation,  it  becomes  h~ 
» (24— p,)  andp=24— 2  A:  and  if 
;he  height  of  a  step  be  6  inches, 
hen  the  width  will  be  24—12=12 
riches. 

Straight  stairs  are  such  as 
tlways  fly,  that  is,  proceed  in  a 
ight  line,  and  never  wind.  Some 
tf  these  are  triangular,  or  fly  round 
ky  the  sides  of  a  triangular  newel, 
'ither  solid  or  open,  having  at 
ach  corner  a  tapering  half-step, 
aking  up  two-thirds  of  a  circle. 
"rench  fliers,  fly  first  directly  for- 
wards, till  they  come  within  the 
Length  of  a  stair  of  the  wall,  then 
ave  a  square  half-place,  which  is 
Dllowed  immediately  by  another 
alf-place,  from  which  the  stairs 
y  directly  back  again,  parallel  to 
leir  first  flight.  Winding  stairs 
ever  fly,  but  always  wind,  either 
bout  a  solid  newel,  or  an  open 
ewel.  Palladio  directs  the  newel 
)  be  one-half  of  the  diameter/>f 
ie  stair-case,  and  recommends 
lat  in  a  stair-case  6  or  7  feet  in 
iameter,  the  stairs  in  each  revolu- 
on  should  be  twelve  ;  in  a  diame- 
r  of  8  feet,  sixteen  ;  and  in  a  dia- 
meter 9  or  10  feet,  twenty  ;  and  if 
3  feet,  twenty-four  steps.  Ellip- 
cal  winding  stairs  differ  only  from 
rcular  stairs  in  having  their  newel 
i  ellipsis  instead  of  a  circle ;  and 
[uare  winding  stairs,  in  having  it 

square.  Scamozzi  mentions  a 
2Y 


double  winding  staircase,  made  by 
Pietro  del  Boyo  and  John  Cossin, 
so  contrived,  that  two  persons,  the 
so  contrived,  tnat  two  persons,  the 
one  ascending,  and  the  other  de- 
scending, should  nevpr  meet.  And 
Palladio  mentions  a  quadrangular 
one  at  the  castle  of  Chamboo,  near 
Blois.  Mixed  stairs  are  such  as 
partly  wind  and  partly  fly,  and  in- 
clude dog-legged  stairs,  or  such  as 
fly  directly  forwards,  wind  in  a 
semicircle,  and  then  fly  back;  and 
square  flyers  and  windows,  having 
a  square  newel,  by  the  side  of 
which  they  fly,  and  wind  at  each 
corner  a  quarter  of  a  circle. 

Stairs,  (stares,  Sax.)  steps  to 
ascend  from  the  lower  part  of 
buildings  to  the  upper. 

Stalk,  (Stealcan,  Sax.)  a  kind 
of  ornament  in  the  Corinthian 
capital,  which  is  sometimes  fluted, 
and  resembles  a  stalk,  and  from 
which  spring  the  volutes  and 
helixes. 

Stall,  (stal,  Sax.)  an  elevated 
seat  in  the  choir  or  chancel  of  a 
church,  appropriated  to  an  ecclesi- 
astic, as  the  prebend  stalls  in  a 
cathedral.  They  had  sometimes 
desks  and  canopies.  Stalls  or 
seats  contiguous  to  the  high  altar, 
were  for  the  priest,  deacon,  and 
sub-deacon,  who  sat  whilst  certain 
parts  were  sung  by  the  choristers. 

Stanch  eon,  (estan$on,  Fr.)  a 
prop,  or  support,  the  perpendicular 
mullions  or  upright  bars  of  a  win- 
dow or  open  screen.  Also,  a  pun- 
cheon. 

Stand,  (standan,  Sax.)  a  solid 
square  body  placed  under  pedes- 
tals, vases,  &c. 

Standard,  (etendard,  Fr.)  a 
rule  or  measure  for  regulating 
others;  a  banner  or  flag. 

Standards,  the  upright  pieces 
of  plate  rack,  used  above  a  dresser; 
the  upright  poles  in  scaffolding. 

Star-fort,  in  fortification,  a 
work   with    several    faces,  with 

353 


STE 


STO 


salient  and  re-entering  angles.  A 
star-redoubt,  is  a  redoubt  built  in 
the  same  form. 

Staves,  boards  joined  together 
laterally,  to  form  a  hollow  cylinder, 
cone,  &c.  for  the  shaft  of  a  wooden 
column,  or  any  other  purpose. 

Steel,  (stal,  Sax.)  iron  united 
with  carbon.  There  are  two  ways 
of  making  steel,  by  fusion  and  by 
cementation.  The  first  is  used  to 
convert  iron  into  steel  immediately 
from  the  ore,  or  from  crude  or  cast 
iron.  By  the  second  way  bar  iron 
is  exposed  to  a  strong  continued 
heat,  covered  with  charcoal.  The 
process  for  converting  iron  into 
steel  was  known  to  the  ancients. 
The  Romans  called  it  chalybs,  be- 
cause it  came  from  near  the  river 
Chalybs,  in  Spain,  the  water  of 
which  was  used  in  tempering  it. 
It  is  probable  that  the  famous  iron 
manufactory  at  Bilboa,  said  by 
Anderson  to  have  commenced  in 
989,  was  only  a  continuance  of 
their  ancient  skill.  The  casting  of 
steel  was  introduced  from  Germany 
into  Sheffield,  by  a  person  named 
Waller,  a  little  more  than  a  cen- 
tury after,  and,  being  much  made 
by  one  Huntsman,  was  called 
Huntsman's  cast  steel. 

Steeple,  (steopel,  stypel,  Sax.) 
an  appendage  generally  erected  at 
the  west  end  of  churches,  to  con- 
tain the  bells,  and  rising  either  in 
form  of  a  tower  or  of  a  spire. 

Stele,  (Gr.)  the  same  as  Cip- 
pus. 

Steps,  the  degrees  in  ascending 
a  stair-case,  which  are  composed 
of  two  parts,  the  tread  or  horizon- 
tal part,  and  the  riser  or  vertical 
part.  Steps  round  the  circumfer- 
ence of  a  circle  are  called  winders, 
and  when  they  proceed  straight  for- 
wards, flyers. 

Stereobate,  (Gr.)  the  bases  or 
foundation,  from  which  a  wall,  co- 
lumn, or  building  rises. 

354 


Stereographic  Projection 
that  projection  of  the  sphere  in 
which  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be 
placed  in  its  surface. 

Stereography,  (Gr.)  that  part 
of  the  geometry  of  solids,  which 
demonstrates  their  properties,  and 
shows  their  construction.  A  work! 
on  perspective,  by  Mr.  Hamilton,! 
is  entitled  Stereography. 

Stereotomy,  (Gr.  ortpzoQ,  solio, 
and  roprj,  section,)  the  branch  o 
stereography  which  teaches  us  tc! 
cut  solids  under  certain  specifier 
conditions. 

Stern,  the  hindermost  part  o 
a  ship. 

Sterlings.,  see  Stilts. 

Stiles,  (stigele,  Sax.)  the  ver 
tical  parts  of  a  frame. 

Stilts,  {stcelan,  Sax.  support 
ers,)  piles  driven  in  the  ground,  t< 
support  the  pier  of  a  bridge,  usee 
formerly  when  the  bed  of  the  rive 
could  not  be  laid  dry,  and  sur 
rounded  by  a  row  of  piles  ant 
planks,  fixed  at  a  short  distanc 
from  them,  somewhat  in  the  man 
ner  of  a  coffer-dam,  which  wa 
termed  a  Stirling  or  jettee,  an< 
the  space  between  filled  with  loos 
stones. 

Stoa,  see  Athenian  Architec 
ttire. 

Stock,  a  tool  for  boring  wood 
with  a  crank,  so  contrived  as  t 
rest  with  one  end  against  th! 
breast  of  the  workman,  while  wit 
one  hand  he  holds  the  boring  en 
steady,  and  with  the  other  turn 
the,  crank.  The  steel  borers  arj 
called  bits,  and  the  whole  instri 
ment  is  commonly  called  a  sioc] 
and  bit. 

Stone,  (Saxon,)  the  substanc 
which  is  employed  in  the  erectic 
of  all  magnificent  edifices,  whir 
are  intended  at  the  same  time 
possess  durability.  Various  kirn 
are  employed,  which  receive  the 
different  names  either  from  the  su 


STO 


STO 


stances  which  are  found  in  their 
composition,  or  from   the  places 
where  they  are  quarried.  Modern 
masonry  is  confined  more  to  the 
working  in  freestone  than  in  mar- 
ble, as  in  the  former  our  islands 
every  where  abound.  Portland  free- 
stone is  the  common  stone  made 
use  of  by  masons  in  London,  as  its 
hardness  gives  it  many  requisites  to 
produce   exquisite  masonry.  Of 
late,  however,  the  Gloucestershire 
stone  has  come  into  great  use,  ow- 
ing to  its  comparative  cheapness, 
but  Portland  stone  will  be  always 
preferred  for  internal  work,  on  ac- 
count  of  its    superior  neatness. 
Portland   stone  is  brought  from 
the  island  of  Portland,  in  Dorset- 
shire,  and   highly   esteemed  for 
building,  especially  in  London,  and 
forms  the  chief  material  in  public 
buildings.    In  erections  of  brick, 
and  common  dwelling-houses,  the 
ornamental  parts  are  of  this  stone. 
It  is  a  stone  of  a  compact  and 
beautiful  appearance,  but  fails  to 
support  great  pressure:  as  it  comes 
out  of  the  quarry,  it  is  soft,  and 
worked  with  ease,  but  by  exposure 
to  the  air  it  becomes  very  hard 
and  durable.    The  island  of  Pur- 
beck,  in  Dorsetshire,  produces  the 
stone  called  Purbeck  stone,  which 
is  suited  to  the  rougher  workman- 
ship of  paving,  and  for  steps ;  and 
where  greater  strength  and  dura- 
bility are  required,  the  Yorkshire 
stone  is  chiefly  used,  for  copings 
and  outside  work,  and  frequently 
for  paving.      Hearth  stones  and 
slabs  are  made  of  Ryegate  and 
other   similar   stones.  Scotland 
produces  abundance  of  stone  of 
the  best  kinds  for  building,  and 
particularly  the  Craigleith  stone, 
from  a  quarry  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Leith  ;  and  a  good  stone  is 
also  brought  from  Hail's  quarry. 
Two  kinds  of  stone  are  brought 
from  Craigleith,  one  of  a  fine  cream 


colour,  dug  out  of  the  rock  called 
liver  rock  ;  this  is  distinguished  by 
its  property  of  remaining  unchang- 
ed, even  after  having  been  a  long 
time  exposed  to  the  weather.  The 
Possel  stone,  and  that  from  the  Lord 
President's  quarry,  are  from  the 
city  of  Glasgow:  other  building 
stones  from  Scotland  are  of  in- 
ferior quality,  change  their  colour, 
and  yield  to  the  effects  of  exposure  to 
the  weather.  For  hewn  work,  re- 
quiring squared,  or  squared  and 
smoothed  stones,  those  chiefly  used 
are  sand  or  lime  stones.  The  sand- 
stone of  the  north  of  England  is 
generally  of  a  reddish  colour;  a 
very  fine  sand-stone  is,  however, 
found  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Liverpool.  Lime  predominates  in 
the  composition  of  the  stones  of 
the  south  and  west  of  England, 
which  are  worked  with  ease,  and 
harden  by  exposure  to  the  weather. 

In  all  works  which  require  great 
solidity  and  wear,  the  granites  of 
Cornwall,  and  the  Dundee  stone,  ot 
Scotch  granite,  are  now  generally 
employed;  their  excessive  hardness 
has  made  it  necessary  to  bring  to 
London  the  workmen  as  well  as  the 
stone,  as  there  were  found  in  Lon- 
don no  persons  who  would  undertake 
to  work  it.  It  has  been  chiefly 
used  in  the  docks  and  new  bridges. 
Granite,  being  a  compound  silici- 
ous  rock,  varies  much  in  the  pro- 
portion of  its  constituent  parts,  but 
it  may  be  considered  as  forming  a 
durable  building  stone.  Those  gra- 
nites, however,  which  contain  much 
white  felspar,  and  only  a  small  por- 
tion of  quartz,  like  the  greater  part 
of  the  granites  of  Cornwall  and 
Devonshire,  are  liable  to  decom- 
position much  sooner  than  some 
of  the  Scotch  granites,  in  which 
the  quartz  is  more  equally  and 
abundantly  disseminated.  That 
species  of  granite,  called  syenite, 
was   extensively  ouarried  by  the 


STO 

Egyptians  at  Siene,  'in  Upper 
Egypt,  and  afterwards  by  the 
Romans,  and  many  works  con- 
structed of  it  preserve  the  marks 
of  the  chisel  fresh  to  the  present 
day.  In  the  naval  hospital  at 
Plymouth,  the  granite,  which  is 
from  Cornwall  or  Devonshire,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  well  selected, 
since,  after  a  period  of  seventy 
years,  it  exhibits  no  symptoms  of 
decay,  except  in  the  columns  of  the 
front,  where  the  felspar  is  already 
disintegrating.  The  felspar  in  the 
Cornish  granite  contains  a  large 
portion  of  potass,  and  to  this  its 
more  rapid  decomposition  may  be 
ascribed. 

Some  of  the  sand-stones  in  the 
secondary  strata  are  composed  of 
grains  of  silex,  and  are  often 
almost  as  durable  as  granite.  Some 
of  these,  however,  which  appear  to 
have  been  of  alluvial  formation, 
have  their  parts  so  loosely  cement- 
ed, as  to  be  totally  unfit  for  build- 
ing. Some  of  the  lowest  beds  in 
Derbyshire  and  Yorkshire,  which 
are  commonly  called  mill  -  stone 
grit,  are  almost  purely  silicious ; 
and  the  stones  of  Kirkstall  abbey, 
which  is  now  in  ruins,  are  of  this 
kind,  and  where  they  remain,  after 
a  period  of  six  hundred  years,  they 
preserve  their  angular  sharpness  as 
fresh  as  if  they  had  just  been  worked. 
A  quarry  is  still  worked  in  the 
neighbourhood.  It  may  be  ob- 
served, that,  in  general,  purely  sili- 
cious stones  are  the  least  liable 
to  decay,  but  when  they  are  mixed 
with  other  substances,  no  one  but 
a  skilful  mineralogist  is  able  to 
judge  which  are  the  most  appro- 
priate for  durable  architecture. 

Argillaceous  and  basaltic  stones 
are  ill  suited  for  building:  in  their 
native  beds  they  are  often  found  so 
extremely  hard,  as  to  make  it  im- 
possible to  move  them  in  any  way 
but  by  blasting;  yet  when  they  have 


STO 

been  for  a  few  months  exposed  to  ! 
the  air,  they  become  soft,  and 
shiver  into  small  pieces  ;  yet  there 
are  some  basaltic  stones,  which 
appear  more  perfectly  vitrified,  and 
which  will  resist  the  action  of  the 
atmosphere  for  ages.  Lavas  are 
nearly  allied  to  basalt,  and  some 
of  them  rapidly  decompose,  and 
form  a  fertile  soil,  while  others  re- 
main unchanged  for  centuries.  In 
the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  where 
argillaceous  sand  -  stone  is  fre-  I 
quently  used  in  mending  the  roads, 
they  are  soon  reduced  to  mud. 

Under  the  head  of  calcarious 
stones  are  comprised  the  several 
sorts  of  lime-stone,  from  marble  to 
chalk  and  calcarious  lime-stone. 
That  marble  or  lime-stone  which 
is  found  in  primitive  mountains, 
among  blocks  of  granite,  gneiss, 
and  mica  -  slate,  is  generally  the 
most  durable,  as  it  is  highly  crys- 
talline, and  frequently  contains  si- 
licious earth.  Such  as  contain  cal- 
carious earth  combined  with  mag- 
nesia, are  of  a  milky  whiteness, 
and,  when  they  have  an  uniform 
texture,  are  very  durable.  The 
edifices  and  the  statues  of  ancient 
Greece,  (among  the  latter  of  which 
may  be  enumerated  the  Medicean, 
Venus,  the  colossal  Minerva,  known 
by  the  name  of  the  Pallas  of  Ve- 
letri,  the  Diana  Venatrix,  and  the 
Juno  Capitolina,)  which  are  of1 
Parian  marble,  have  retained  for! 
ages  theoriginal  polish.  This  marble 
has  somewhat  the  appearance  of 
wax  when  polished ;  it  receives  the 
most  delicate  touches  of  the  chisel, 
and  hardens  by  exposure.  The; 
marble  of  mount  Pentelicus,  near 
Athens,  was  intersected  with  veins 
of  extraneous  matter,  which  in 
some  instances  appear  more  than 
in  others.  Dr.  Clarke  remarks, 
that  while  the  works  executed  in 
Parian  marble  remain  perfect,  those 
of  Pentelic  marble  have  been  de- 


STO 


STO 


composed,  and  sometimes  exhibit  a 
|  surface  as  earthy  and  rude  as  com- 
mon lime-stone.  Of  English  mar- 
bles by  far  the  most  beautiful  are 
t'hose  of  Devonshire,  particularly 
1  the  marbles  found  at  Babicomb, 
which  are  veined,  and  spotted  with 
a  variety  of  colours.  The  Plymouth 
break-water  is  composed  of  im- 
mense blocks  of  marble  from  the 
Cat-Down  quarries.  That  called 
Anglesey  marble  is  chiefly  pure 
serpentine.  Such  of  the  secondary 
lime-stones  as  contain  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  magnesia,  which 
are  particularly  found  in  Notting- 
hamshire, Durham,  and  Yorkshire, 
where  they  are  said  to  have  been 
used  in  building  the  York  Minster, 
are  very  durable.  The  roe-stones 
of  Portland  and  Bath,  though  much 
used,  are  far  from  durable,  and 
when  used  in  ornamental  work,  the 
I  fine  chiselling  is  soon  effaced  by  the 
atmosphere. 

The  loose  texture  of  chalk,  and 
the  generality  of  magnesian  stones, 
render  them  of  little  use  in  build- 
ing. Alabaster  or  gypsum  is  some- 
times employed,  but  it  is  peculiarly 
improper  for  any  situation  that  is 
exposed  to  rain  or  water.  Alabaster 
resembles  marble  in  taking  a  fine 
polish,  but  is  much  softer  and  more 
easily  worked.  The  ancients  pro- 
cured it  from  the  district  of  Upper 
Egypt,  which  lies  between  the 
Nile  and  the  Red  Sea,  and  from 
Syria  and  Carmania. 

A  stone  dug  in  the  hills  near  Dun- 
stable, and  called  Tottenhoe  stone, 
from  the  parish  in  which  it  is  found, 
has  the  appearance  of  indurated 
chalk,  is  easily  worked,  and  har- 
dens by  exposure,  but  is  liable  to 
be  injured  by  frost,  particularly 
when  in  contact  with  the  ground. 
This  was  the  stone  chiefly  employed 
in  the  house  of  the  duke  of  Bed- 
ford, at  Woburn  Abbey  ;  and  the 
present   condition   of   many  old 


churches,  which  have  been  built 
with  it,  in  those  parts,  is  a  proof  of 
its  durability. 

Whin  and  schistus  are  used  in 
rubble  work.  The  former,  dressing 
freely  with  the  hammer  in  one 
direction,  may  readily  be  formed 
with  good  faces,  but  not  being 
stratified,  their  beds  are  uncer- 
tain, and  not  easily  improved  by 
art.  Schistus  is  just  the  reverse, 
having  naturally  good  beds,  but  is 
in  few  instances  capable  of  being 
dressed  square  across  the  layers,  or 
laminae.  Those  stones,  in  general, 
which  are  the  hardest,  and  the 
most  compact  and  uniform  in  their 
texture,  and  which  can  be  brought 
to  the  smoothest  surface,  are  the 
least  liable  to  decomposition  and 
disintegration.  Those  stones  which, 
when  im merged  in  water,  absorb 
the  smallest  quantity,  and  which 
are  the  lea  t  changed  by  the  action 
of  heat  or  of  acids,  may  be  depend- 
ed on  as  those  which  will  resist 
longest  the  effects  of  the  atmos- 
phere. It  is  now  a  common  prac- 
tice to  rub  with  oil  the  calcarious 
sand-stones,  and  this  must  in  a 
considerable  degree  contribute  to 
its  durability,  by  resisting  the  ab- 
sorption of  water. 

Modern  architects  have  been  re- 
markably injudicious  in  their  choice 
of  stones.  It  has  been  observed, 
that  "  in  modern  Europe,  and  par- 
ticularly in  Great  Britain,  there  is 
scarcely  a  public  building  of  recent 
date  which  will  be  in  existence  a 
thousand  years  hence.  Many  of 
the  most  splendid  works  of  modern 
architecture  are  hastening  to  decay, 
in  what  may  be  justly  called  the 
very  infancy  of  their  existence,  if 
compared  with  the  date  of  public 
buildings  that  remain  in  Italy,  in 
Greece,  in  Egypt,  and  the  East. 
This  is  remarkably  the  case  of  the 
bridges  of  Westminster,  and  Black- 
friars,  the   foundations  of  which 

357 


STO 


ST  O 


began  speedily  and  visibly  to  perish 
in  the  very  life-time  of  their  foun- 
ders. The  same  observation  is  ap- 
plicable to  Somerset  -  house,  and 
many  other  public  buildings  in 
London  :  the  fine  chiselling  of  the 
alto-relievo  figures  have  already 
disappeared  by  the  action  of  the  ele- 
ments mouldering  away  the  stone. 
The  most  careless  observer  may 
notice,  that  this  effect  is  more 
rapidly  taking  place  in  some  stones 
than  in  others,  though  they  are  aft 
of  Portland  stone,  a  calcarious 
stone,  called  roe-stone  by  mineral- 
ogists, and  obtained  from  the  isle 
of  Portland." 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the 
specific  gravities  of  the  different 
kinds  of  stone,  compared  with  that 
of  metals. 

Stones. 


Pvrites    4954 

Rubv   4283 

Garnet    4189 

Topaz   4011 

Sapphire   3994 

Beryl   3549 

Diamond   3521 

Lime-stone   3179 

White  Glass   2892 

White  Razor-hone   2876 

Basalt    2864 

Chalk   2784 

Chrysolite   2782 

Emerald   2775 

Porphyry    2765 

Marble    2742 

Bottle  Glass   2733 

Alabaster    2730 

Pearl   2684 

Slate   2672 

Pebble    2664 

Red  Egyptian  Granite    2654 

Crystal    2653 

Green  Glass    2642 

Agate  Onyx    2638 

Spar    2595 

Flint    2594 

Beryl   2545 

Common  Stone   2520 

Paving  Stones    2416 

Gypsum   2168 

Opal    2114 

Brick   2000 

Amber    1078 

358 


Metals. 


Hammered  Platina   20337 

Purified  Platina,  not  hammered....  19500  i 

Crude  Platina,  in  grains   15602  j 

Gold,  hammered  10302 

Gold,  pure,  melted   19258  \ 

Gold,  Gtiinea   17629 

Mercury,  solid    15632 

Mercury,  fluid    13568  i 

Lead,  melted   1 1352 

Lead,  Cubic  ore  of   7587  ' 

Virgin  Silver,  hammered   10511  i 

Virgin  Silver,  not  hammered   10477 

Coinage  SiUer  10534 

Brass,  cast,  not  hammered   8396 

Hardened  Steel   7840  ! 

Steel,  neither  tempered  nor  hardened  7933 

Nickel,  melted   7807  ! 

Copper    7788; 

Iron  Ore   7355  j 

Cast  Iron   7207 

Cornish  Tin,  melted   72:U 

Hardened  Tin    7299 

Zinc,  melted   7191 


An  ingenious  paper  by  Mr. Tread-j 
gold,  on  the  flexibility  and  strength 
of  stones,  was  published  in  the  Phi- 
losophical Magazine.  In  making 
his  experiments,  he  supported  the 
piece  of  stone  at  each  end  upon 
iron  supports ;  the  scale  for  the 
weights  was  suspended  from  the 
middle  between  the  supports ;  and 
a  silken  line  attached  to  the  mid- 
dle, moved  a  lever  index,  which 
multiplied  the  depression  so  as  to; 
render  a  very  small  quantity  visible. 
The  scale  and  its  apparatus  weighedj 
ten  pounds;  the  weights  used  were 
cubical  pieces  of  iron  cast  on  pur- 
pose, weighing  ten  pounds  each 
A  piece  of  white  statuary  marble; 
of  a  very  regular  texture,  free  frorr 
veins,  or  other  apparent  defects 
was  tried  at  three  different  lengths 
the  short  specimens  being  frag! 
ments  of  the  long  one.  The  piec< 
was  not  perfectly  uniform  in  breadtl 
and  depth,  but  the  dimensions  0, 
the  places  of  fracture  are  given  | 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  marbl-j 

was  2,706,  and  it  absorbed  -i 

of  its  weight  in  water. 


STO 


STO 


Dista  ce  V 
betwe      f  ' 
the  snp 

ports  * 
Depth  1,075 
Breadth  1.075 


Distance  N . 
between  ^ 
the  sup-  /l5 

ports,  j 
Depth  1,08 
Breadth  1,05 


Wt. 

Depres- 
sion. 

Wt. 

Depres- 
sion. 

Wt. 

Depres- 
sion. 

IbT 

in. 

lb. 

in. 

lb. 

in. 

not  sen- 

10 

AO 

,UJ 

10 

,005 

ltl 

sible. 

OA 

jIU 

,U1 

005 

30 

,06 

30 

,012 

30 

[oi 

40 

,03 

40 

,015 

40 

,012 

50 

broke. 

50 

,017 

60 

,015 

GO 

,02 

70 

,02 

70 

,021 

90 

,025 

80 

,025 

100 

,027 

90 

,03 

110 

,03 

100 

,035 

120 

,034 

110 

broke. 

130 

,037 

and 

broke. 

Distance 
between 
the  sup- 
ports. 
Depth  1,075 
Breadthl,075 


ce  . 


There  is  some  difference  in  the 
quality  of  the  Portland  stone  used 
in  London :  the  best  and  strongest 
kind  is  of  a  browner  colour  than 
the  rest.  With  a  piece  of  this, 
of  a  regular  texture,  and  appar- 
ently without  defect,  the  following 
experiments  were  made.  The  length 
between  the  supports  was  24  inches, 
the  breadth  two  inches,  and  the 
depth  1,45  inch.  The  specific 
gravity  of  this  stone  was  1,113, 

and  it  absorbed  —  of  its  weight  of 
16  to 

water. 


Weight. 


Depression. 


lb. 
10 
20 
30 
30 
40 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 


in. 
,01 
,015 
,02 
,022 
,025 
,0275 
,03 
,032 
,035 
,037 
and  broke. 


The  next  trial  was  made  with  a 
piece  of  white  silicious  sand-stone 
from  Lord  Keith's  quarries,  at  Long 


Annet.     Its  specific  gravity  was 

2,212,  and  it  absorbed          of  its 

'  276 

weight  in  water.  Its  texture  was 
regular  with  small  scales  of  mica 
distributed  through  it.  The  dis- 
tance between  the  supports  was  18 
inches;  the  breadth  1,45  inch,  and 
the  depth  1,525  inch. 


Weight. 

Depression. 

lb. 

in. 

20 

,015 

30 

,02 

40 

,022 

50 

,025 

60 

,03 

70 

,038 

80 

,045 

90 

,05 

92 

broke. 

The  following  table  contains  the 
results  of  experiments  on  the  lateral 
strength  of  stones,  in  which  the 
flexure  was  not  ascertained.  With 
the  exception  of  one  of  those  from 
Long  Annet,  they  were  laid  with 
their  natural  beds  horizontally.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  Dundee  stone 
was  2,621,  and  it  absorbed  only 

—  of  its  weight  of  water  :  that 

of  the  Craigleith  stone  2,362,  and 

it  absorbed  —  of  its   weight  of 


63 


water. 


Kind  of 

StODtt. 

Dis- 
tance 

be- 
tween 

sup- 
ports, 

Bdth. 

Dpth. 

Wt. 
that 
broke 
it. 

Wt. 
of  the 

cubic 
foot. 

in. 

in. 

in. 

lb. 

lb. 

Dundee 

Stone  . . 

14 

1,45 

1,5 

414 

163,8 

Craigleith 

Stone  . . 

14 

1,55 

1,55 

137 

147,6 

Hailes 

Stone  .  . 

14 

1,55 

"i* 

123 

134,6 

Long  An- 

net Stone 

9 

1,525 

1,45 

166 

138,25 

— another 

specimen 

7 

1,55 

1,55 

233 

Portland 

Stone  . . 

12 

2,07 

1,55 

270 

132, 

Bath 

Stone  . . 

5,5 

I, 

1, 

58 

123,4 

359 


STO 


STO 


The  Dundee  stone  was  from  the 
Mylne-field  quarry,  near  Dundee  ; 
but  the  specimen  used  in  the  above 
experiment  was  superior  to  those 
usually  obtained  from  that  quarry. 

Stone  henge,  a  celebrated 
temple  of  the  ancient  Druids,  in 
Wiltshire.  The  area  of  this  mo- 
nument is  surrounded  by  a  ditch 
369  yards  in  circumference,  and  a 
slight  agger  of  earth.  The  only 
entrance  appears  to  be  that  which 
faced  the  north-east,  and  is  marked 
by  a  bank  and  ditch  called  the 
avenue,  which  leads  directly  into 
it.  The  first  object  on  this  side, 
as  we  approach,  is  a  large  rude 
stone,  in  a  leaning  position,  which 
has  received  the  name  of  the  Friar's 
heel,  from  an  idle  tradition  con- 
nected with  it.  The  temple  con- 
sists of  two  circles  and  two  ovals  ; 
the  two  latter  constituting  the  cella 
or  sanctum.  The  outward  circle, 
about  three  hundred  feet  in  cir- 
cumference, is  composed  of  huge 
upright  stones,  bearing  others  over 
them  which  form  a  kind  of  archi- 
trave. They  evidently  show  the 
mark  of  tools,  but  are  irregular  in 
their  forms  and  sizes.  The  height 
of  the  stones  on  each  side  the  en- 
trance is  a  little  more  than  thirteen 
feet  and  the  breadth  of  one  seven 
feet,  and  of  the  other  six  feet  four 
inches.  The  inner  and  grander 
part  of  the  temple,  the  cella,  repre- 
sents two-thirds  of  a  large  oval, 
and  a  concomitant  small  oval,  as  in 
the  outward  temple  we  find  a  large 
and  a  small  circle.  The  larger 
oval  is  formed  by  five  pair  of  trili- 
thons,  placed  in  pairs,  and  increas- 
ing gradually  in  height  from  east  to 
west,  the  smallest  being  sixteen 
feet  three  inches  high,  and  the 
highest  twenty-one  feet  six  inches 
high.  From  examining  those 
which  are  standing,  and  comparing 
with  them  those  that  are  fallen,  we 
find  that  a  great  deal  of  regularity 

360 


pervaded  the  plan  of  this  building 
and  the  approach  to  the  altar  was 
rendered  more  striking  by  the  tri- 
lithons  rising  gradually  as  you  ad- 
vanced towards  it.  The  inner  oval 
consisted  originally,  according  to 
Dr.  Stukeley,  of  nineteen  stones ; 
but  only  eleven  now  remain.  They 
are  much  smoother  and  taller  than 
those  of  the  inner  circle  of  small 
stones,  and  incline  to  the  pyrami- 
dal form.  The  most  perfect  is 
seven  feet  and  a  half  high.  One 
of  these  stones  has  a  groove  cut  all 
down  it,  but  for  what  purpose  no 
conjecture  can  be  found ;  it  varies 
also  in  shape  from  the  other,  and 
bevels  off  almost  to  an  angle  on 
the  inner  side.  The  altar  stone  is 
fifteen  feet  long,  and  almost  totally 
covered  by  the  fall  of  one  of  the 
large  upright  stones  and  its  impost 
across  it.  The  inside  diameter  of 
this  whole  building  is  about  one 
hundred  feet,  and  the  width  of  the 
entrance  into  the  cella  forty-three: 
the  distance  from  the  altar-stone 
to  the  entrance  into  the  temple 
fifty-seven  feet  4  inches.  Many 
fragments  of  Roman  pottery,  and 
British  antiquities,  have  been  dis- 
covered at  different  periods,  in  dig- 
ging within  the  area,  which,  from 
the  situations  in  which  they  were 
found,  prove  the  building  to  have 
been  there  at  the  time  the  Romans 
had  possession  of  this  island. 
Stukeley  tells  us,  that  a  tablet  of 
tin  was  found  there  in  the  time  of 
Henry  VIII.,  inscribed  with  many 
letters,  but  in  so  strange  a  charac- 
ter, that  the  most  learned  antiqua- 
ries of  the  age  could  make  nothing 
of  it.  Some  have  called  it  Punic, 
others  Irish ;  and  the  doctor  says 
"  it  was  no  doubt  a  memorial  of 
the  founders,  written  by  the  Druids." 
The  avenue  is  a  narrow  strip  of 
land,  bounded  on  each  side  by  a 
slighjt  agger  of  earth.  It  issues 
from  the  north-east  entrance  of  the 


STO 


STO 


em  pie,  crosses  the  turnpike-road, 
nd  proceeds  in  a  straight  line  to- 
wards a  valley,  where  it  divides 
ito  two  branches,  one  leading  in  a 
entle  curve  to  what  is  called  the 
ircus,  and  considered  to  have 
.een  the  race-course  of  the  ancient 
kitons,  the  other  proceeding  in  a 
[ireet  line  up  the  hill,  between  two 
ows  of  barrows,  planted  with  fir 
rees. 

A  view  of  Stonehenge  is  given  in 
>late  Athenian  Architecture,  A  6. 

In  the  same  county,  at  Abury,  is 
mother  remarkable  druidical  tem- 
ple. Stukeley,  who  examined  the 
'emple  at  Abury  when  it  was  in 
nuch  better  preservation  than  at 
>resent,  observes,  "  that  the  whole 
igure  represented  a  snake  trans- 
mitted through  a  circle."  "  In 
>rder  to  put  this  design  in  execu- 
ion,  the  founders  well  studied  their 
ground ;  and  to  make  their  repre- 
sentation more  natural,  they  art- 
ully  carried  it  over  a  variety  of 
Ovations  and  depressures,  which, 
vith  the  curvature  of  the  avenues, 
produces  sufficiently  the  desired 
';ffect.  To  make  it  still  more  ele- 
gant and  picture- like,  the  head  of 
'.he  snake  is  carried  up  the  southern 
oromontory  of  Hackpen  hill,  to- 
vards  the  village  of  West  Kennet ; 
'iay,  the  very  name  of  the  hill  is 
lerived  from  this  circumstance ;" 
'or  acan,  he  observes,  in  the  Chal- 
lee  signifies  a  serpent,  and  hac  is 
10  other  than  a  snake :  in  York- 
mire  they  still  call  snakes  hags : 
*oen  in  the  British  language  signi- 
ies  a  head.  (History  of  Abury, 
3.  32.)  Dr.  Stukeley  then  observes 
'that  the  dracontia  was  a  name 
imongst  the  first  learned  nations 
'or  the  very  ancient  sort  of  temples 
)f  which  they  could  give  no  ac- 
count, nor  well  explain  their  mean- 
ing upon  it.  It  is  well  known  that 
the  serpent  was  held  in  great  vene- 
ration by  the  ancients;  and  tem- 
2  Z 


pies  were  constructed  in  the  form 
of  that  animal,  and  designated  by 
this  name  (dracontia)  and  Stukeley 
supposes  that  an  allusion  is  made  to 
a  similar  temple  by  Pausanias,  where 
he  says,  that  on  the  road  from  Thebes 
to  Glisas  was  a  place  surrounded  by 
stones,  which  the  Thebans  called 
the  serpent's  head,  (ocpeug  Ke<pa\qv,) 
and  the  same  writer,  in  his  Corin- 
thiaca,  mentions  another  circle  of 
stones  on  the  river  Chimarrus. 
The  form  of  the  temple  at  Abury 
may  be  briefly  stated  as  consisting 
of  a  grand  circle,  comprehending 
within  its  area  two  smaller  concen- 
tric circles  ;  the  avenue  to  the  vil- 
lage of  Kennet  terminating  with 
another  circle,  supposed  to  indicate 
the  head  of  the  serpent,  as  the 
large  circle  indicated  the  body, 
and  also  the  Beckhampton  avenue, 
which  alluded  to  the  tail  of  the 
same  animal.  Between  the  extre- 
mities of  the  two  avenues,  exactly 
south  of  Abury,  stands  the  vast 
tumulus  of  Silbury  hill.  (See 
Hoare's  Ancient  Wiltshire,  Stuke- 
ley's  Stonehenge  and  Abury,  and 
"  The  Celtic  Druids"  by  Godfrey 
Higgins.) 

A  fine  druidical  work,  consisting 
of  an  open  temple  of  a  circular 
form,  made  of  rough  stones  set 
upright  in  the  ground,  is  found  at 
Bowldrich  in  Oxfordshire.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are  several  barrows. 
In  Westphalia  and  East  Friesland 
are  very  curious  druidical  monu- 
ments. In  one  near  Drontheim, 
of  which  a  view  is  given  by  Keysler 
(Antiq.  Septent.  p.  6,)  the  stones 
are  from  sixteen  to  twenty-five  feet 
long,  and  from  four  to  six  thick, 
and  the  superincumbent  stones 
from  twenty  to  fifty  in  circumfe- 
rence. He  also  describes  one  on 
the  top  of  a  mountain  near  Helm- 
stadt.  At  Classerniss,  in  the 
Scotch  isle  of  Lewis,  is  a  very  fine 
druidical  temple,  consisting  of  an 

361 


STO 


STO 


avenue  and  a  circle,  with  a  stone 
in  the  middle  thirteen  feet  high,  in 
the  perfect  shape  of  the  rudder  of 
a  ship.  (See  Borlase, — Toland's 
Hist.  Druids  —  Maculloch's  Wes- 
tern Islands.)  Mr.  Hoare  has 
given  two  plates  of  very  curious 
cromlechs  discovered  in  Malabar, 
which  bear  a  striking  resemblance 
to  those  found  in  Britain.  Clarke, 
describing  the  hill  of  Kushunlu 
Tepe,  near  Gargarus,  in  the  Troad, 
observes,  that  all  the  way  up  may 
be  noticed  the  traces  of  former 
works,  but  upon  the  summit  there 
is  a  small  oblong  area,  six  yards 
long  and  two  broad,  exhibiting  ves- 
tiges of  the  highest  antiquity  ;  the 
stones  forming  the  enclosure  being 
as  rude  as  those  of  the  Tirynthians 
in  Argolis,  and  the  whole  encircled 
by  a  grove  of  oaks,  covering  the 
top  of  this  conical  mountain.  The 
entrance  to  this  area  is  from  the 
south.  Upon  the  east  and  west, 
outside  of  the  trees,  are  stones 
ranging  like  what  we  in  England 
call  druidical  circles. 

There  are  at  least  three  circles 
of  stones  known  in  America.  One 
stands  upon  a  high  rock,  upon  the 
banks  of  the  river  Winnipigon. 
The  Indians  are  accustomed  to 
crown  this  circle  of  stones  with 
wreaths  of  herbage  and  with 
branches.  A  very  fine  cromlech, 
resting  upon  the  apices  of  seven 
small  conical  pillars,  still  exists  at 
North  Salem,  New  York.  The 
horizontal  stone  is  ten  feet  broad. 
Rocking  stones,  rock  idols,  bar- 
rows, &c.  are  also  found.  Hodg- 
son's Letters  from  America.  See 
Druidical  Architecture,  and  Pier- 
res  Levees. 

The  following  terms  often  occur 
in  describing  druidical  remains. 
Cistvaens :  Three  or  four  stones 
placed  edgeways,  covered  by  an- 
other at  top,  found  under  barrows. 
Crumlechs,  or  cromlechs;  fiat  or 

362 


round  stones  standing  upon  others, 
like  a  table  tomb.  Garseddau,  a 
copped  heap  of  stones,  upon  which 
the  arch-druid  is  supposed  to  havej 
sat  in  judgment;  adjacent  to  its 
was  a  Brin-gwyn,  or  circular  hol- 
low, surrounded  with  an  immense 
agger,  a  stone  circle,  and  cromlech. 
Maen-Hir,  Meini  Horion,  or  Mei- 
ni-Gwyr,  large  stone  cippi,  set 
upright,  sometimes  two  or  more  ad- 
jacent, as  British  pillars  of  memo- 
rial. Maen-sigly  rocking  stones. 
Tolmen,  stones  with  holes  therein, 
through  which  it  has  been  sup- 
posed that  diseased  persons  were 
drawn  in  order  to  be  cured. 

Story,  (stor,  Sax.  place,)  a 
floor,  a  flight  of  rooms. 

Story-Posts,  upright  timbers, 
used  in  sheds,  workshops,  and  old 
wooden  houses,  to  support  the 
floors,  or  superincumbent  walls. 

Story- rod,  a  rod  equal  in 
length  to  the  height  of  a  story  of  a 
house,  and  divided  into  as  many 
parts  as  there  are  intended  to  be 
steps  in  the  stair,  for  measuring 
and  laying  them  out  with  accuracy. 

Stoup,  a  basin  for  holy  water, 
in  a  niche  at  the  entrance  of  a  Ca- 
tholic church. 

Stove,  (stoa,  Icelandic,  a  fire- 
place.) The  most  common  way  of 
warming  rooms  among  the  Romans 
was  by  the  hypocaustum,  (see  this 
word.)  Of  late  years  numerous 
improvements  have  been  made  in 
stoves.  The  stove  invented  by 
Franklin  was  very  ingenious,  and 
the  principle  is  much  in  use  among 
the  French.  He  completed  his 
first  stove  in  1771,  and  while  he 
was  in  France  he  contrived  another 
grate  for  burning  pit-coals,  which 
has  the  same  property  of  burning 
the  smoke,  and  at  the  same  time 
the  fire  is  exposed  in  a  grate.  The 
grate  is  a  short  cylinder,  with  its 
axis  placed  horizontally,  and  the 
end  turned  towards  the  apartment, 


ne  of  its  circular  ends  being  made 
vith  bars,  and  the  other  being-  a 
ack-plate.  The  whole  of  the 
vlindrical  grate  turns  upon  pivots 
!ixed  in  the  opposite  sides,  across 
he  centre  of  it.  Mr.  Sharp  took 
Lt  a  patent  for  an  improvement 
nd  simplification  of  this  grate,  of 
/hich  he  published  an  account, 
lie  true  German  stove  is  made 
ke  a  box,  one  side  wanting,  and 
hat  side  is  built  against  the  side 
f  the  room,  the  fuel  being  put 
nto  it  from  another  room,  or  from 
he  outside  of  the  house  :  it  warms 

room  speedily  and  thoroughly 
/ith  little  fuel,  no  quantity  of  cold 
ir  coming  in  at  any  crevice,  be- 
ause  there  is  no  discharge  of  air 
vhich  it  might  supply,  there  being 
o  passage  into  the  stove  from  the 
oom.  Mr.  John  Cutler  of  Lon- 
on,  had  a  patent  in  1815,  for  an 
nportant  improvement  in  those 
re-places,  which  are  termed  re- 
ister  stoves.  Mr.  Cutler's  stove 
5  made  of  cast-iron  plate  enclosing 
'he  fire-place  at  the  back  and 
fide,  and  open  in  front,  leaving 
nly  a  passage  for  the  smoke 
'hrough  a  register,  at  the  upper 
art  of  the  enclosed  space.  A 
hamber  or  magazine  is  placed 
!enealh  the  grate  in  which  the  fire 
f  to  burn,  containing  sufficient 
'uel  lo  supply  the  combustion  for 

whole  day,  and  so  contrived  as 

0  elevate  a  portion  of  fuel  from 
ime  to  time  into  the  grate,  without 
he  trouble  of  throwing  on  coals, 
tn  improved  kitchen  fire-place, 
ivented  by  John  Craigie,  is  de- 
cribed  in  the  Repertory  of  Arts, 
ol.  17.,  second  series,  1810.  Tu- 
ular  flues  constructed  of  bricks  of 

1  peculiar  form,  have  been  invented 
!yJohn  Hiort  of  Whitehall  office 
f  works :  its  peculiar  advantages, 
re  an  improved  draft ;  not  becom- 
ig  foul  by  adherence  of  soot  so 
oon  as  other  flues  of  chimneys, 


and  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be 
cleaned  by  mechanical  means.  It 
is  described  in  the  Repertory  of 
Arts,  vol.  3.  third  series,  1825. 

An  invention  by  J.  Parks  of 
Warwick,  of  a  new  and  improved 
method  of  lessening  the  consump- 
tion of  fuel,  and  for  consuming 
smoke,  particularly  in  furnaces  and 
steam-engines,  is  recorded  in  the 
first  volume  of  the  London  Journal 
of  Arts,  p.  401.  In  the  same 
volume  (p.  405,)  is  described  an 
improved  economical  fire-grate  by 
Mr.  Brunton  of  Birmingham. 

Great  improvements  have  like- 
wise been  made  in  hot-house  stoves. 
But  the  most  important  of  all  the 
recent  improvements  in  hot-houses, 
is  the  use  of  steam.  The  advan- 
tage arising  from  it  is  that  an  equal 
temperature  can  be  maintained  for 
a  length  of  time  with  great  ease 
and  certainty,  and  the  plants  can 
scarcely  ever  be  liable  to  suffer  a 
scorching  heat.  It  has  been  found 
also  by  experience  that  seven 
bushels  of  coal  go  as  far  in  keeping 
up  steam-heat,  as  ten  bushels  do 
in  maintaining  an  equal  tempera- 
ture the  other  way.  It  happens 
too,  fortunately,  that  steam  appa- 
ratus may  be  easily  applied  to  the 
common  hot-house  ;  a  boiler  being 
erected  over  the  usual  furnace,  the 
smoke  of  which  passes  through  the 
flues  as  formerly.  Metal  pipes 
(generally  copper)  are  laid  along 
the  top  of  the  brick  flues.  The 
boiler,  as  in  the  common  steam- 
engine,  is  supplied  from  a  cistern 
above,  and  is  made  to  regulate 
itself  by  a  simple  contrivance.  In 
the  feed-head  is  a  valve  which  is 
opened  by  the  sinking  of  a  float, 
which  descends  in  proportion  as  the 
water  is  dissipated  by  steam,  and 
being  balanced  by  a  weight,  when- 
ever a  sufficient  quantity  of  water 
is  admitted,  rises  again,  and  shuts 
the  valve.    A  safety-valve  is  added, 


STR 


STR 


loaded  according  to  the  strength  of 
the  boiler,  and  another  valve  for 
admitting  atmospheric  air. 

Straight  -  jointed  Floor: 
when  the  joints  of  a  floor  are 
continued  from  one  end  to  the 
other,  and  the  heading  joints  are 
not  in  the  same  straight  lines  as 
folding  floors,  this  term  is  applied 
to  it. 

Straining  Piece,  or  Strutting 
Piece,  a  beam  placed  between  two 
opposite  beams,  to  prevent  their 
nearer  approach,  as  rafters,  braces, 
struts,  &c.  When  it  serves  both 
as  a  straining  piece  and  a  sill,  it  is 
called  a  straining  sill. 

Strap,  (stroppe,  Dutch,)  an  iron 
plate,  to  secure  the  junction  of  two 
or  more  timbers,  into  which  it  is 
secured  by  bolts. 

Strength  of  Materials,  see 
Mechanical  Carpentry.  The  fol- 
lowing are  the  results  of  experi- 
ments and  calculations,  as  given  in 
the  article  Strength  of  Materials, 
in  Rees'  Cyclopaedia,  in  which  W 
is  the  computed  weight,  and  D  the 
angle  of  deflection. 

44  The  centre  of  tension  and  cen- 
tre of  compression  are  nearly,  or 
exactly,  coincident  with  the  centre 
of  gravity;  and  the  neutral  line, 
whatever  may  be  the  figure  of  the 
section,  is  so  posited,  that  the  rect- 
angle of  the  area  of  tension  into 
the  distance  of  its  centre  of  gravity 
from  the  said  line,  is  to  the  rectan- 
gle of  the  area  of  compression  into 
the  distance  of  its  centre  of  gravity, 
as  1  to  3. 

"  From  which  theorem,  the  neu- 
tral line  for  any  formed  beam  may 
be  determined,  and  the  absolute 
strength  may  then  be  found  as  fol- 
lows, viz.  let  d  denote  the  distance 
of  the  centre  of  tension,  and  I  the 
length  of  the  beam,  all  in  inches ; 
D  the  angle  of  deflection,  and  f 
the  strength  of  direct  cohesion  on 
a  square  inch ;  them  without  con- 

364 


sidering  the  increased  length  o 
lever : 

1 .  When  a  beam  is  fixed  at  oik 
end, 

2  fad 

W  —  

I  cos.  D. 

2.  When  the  beam  is  supported 
at  both  ends, 

8  fad 

W  =  ~  x  cos.  D. 

I 

3.  When  the  beam  is  fixed  at 
both  ends, 

\2fad 
W  =   x  cos.  D. 

And  when  the  beam  is  fixed  at 
one  end  at  any  angle,  formula  1 
will  still  apply;  only  increasing  or 
decreasing  the  angle  of  deflection 
by  the  quantity  of  the  first  angle 
of  inclination,  according  as  that 
inclination  is  downwards  or  up- 
wards. 

"  And  when  the  beam  is  sup- 
ported, or  fixed,  at  both  ends,  and 
either  resting  obliquely,  or  acted 
upon  by  an  oblique  force,  the  two 
latter  formulae  become, 

4.  For  the  beam  supported  at 
each  end, 

8  f  a  d      cos.  B 
W   x   . 

I  COS.  I 

5.  For  the  beam  fixed  at  each 
end, 

12  fad     cos.  D 
W  =  x  .  ; 

I  COS.  I. 

Where  I  denotes  the  angle,  which 
the  direction  of  the  force  makes 
with  the  direction  of  the  beam. 

"  Note  1. — It  should  have  been 
observed,  that  the  preceding  theo- 
rem for  determining  the  neutral 
line,  is  principally  drawn  from  ex- 
periments on  fir-beams.  A  differ- 
ent ratio  than  1  :  3  may  be  neces- 
sary in  other  kinds  of  wood,  but  at 


■  ;3TR 

resent  that  ratio  has  not  been 
)und. 

"  Note  2.— The  deflection  D, 
;  we  have  before  observed,  is  not 

necessary  datum  in  estimating 
le  strength  of  timber,  for  any 
ractical  purposes  of  building,  &c. 

is  merely  introduced  in  order  to 
concile  the  theory  with  the  result 
*  experiments  made  upon  the  ab- 
>lute  and  ultimate  strength,  in 
hich  cases,  particularly  in  long 
jams,  it  becomes  an  important 
nality,  and  must  not  be  omitted  ; 
id  in  all  cases  where  it  is  required, 

must  be  drawn  from  some  prior 
cperiment  on  the  same  kind  of 
ood,  by  means  of  the  following 
teorem,  viz. 

"  Let  /,  d,  D  represent  the  length, 
ipih,  and  deflection  of  any  beam; 
d',  the  length  and  depth  of  any 
her  beam,  whose  deflection,  D', 
required;  then 

I'd  D 
D'  =  

I*  d' 

"  Example  1. —  The  strength  of 
irect  cohesion  on  a  square  inch  of 
r  being  13,0001bs.  required  the 
eight  necessary  to  break  a  rect- 
igular  bar,  30  inches  long,  2 
ches  deep,  and  1  inch  in  breadth , 
hen  fixed  at  one  end  in  a  wall, 
id  the  weight  acting  at  the  other ; 
be  deflection,  computed  from  other 
:periments,  having  been  found  to 
?  5  inches. 

"  First,  find  the  neutral  line : 
?re,  since  the  section  is  a  rectan- 
e,  the  centre  of  tension  and  com- 

ression  are  each  on  the  centres  of 
eir  respective  areas,  therefore  call 
e  depth  of  tension  x,  the  depth 

|*  compression  will  be  2 — x,  which 
so  denotes  these  areas ;  and  we 
ust  have,  therefore, 
x  2 

  :   (2  —  *)*::  1  :3; 

2 


STR 

or  3  ar2  =  4  —  4  a?  +  is  or  iJ 
-f  2  x  =  2.      Whence  x  zz  — 
1  +  n/  3  =  ,732  =  a 
,732 

also  zz  ,366  ~  d ; 

2 

5  1 

tan.  of  deflection  z2  —  2S  —  — 
,16666666.  30  6 

Where  the  an?le  D  =  9°  34',  and 
its  cosine  =:  ,9860 ;  therefore,  by 
formula  1, 

2 fad  2x  1 3000 X, 732 x, 366 

W=  zz  

/.cos.D  30  x, 986 

=  2351bs. 

"  Example  2.  —  Required  the 
weight  that  would  break  the  same 
beam,  when  supported  at  each  end, 
rejecting  the  deflection,  which  is 
very  inconsiderable. 

"  Ry  formula  2, 
Sfad  8xl3000x,732x366 

W-  zz  

/  30 
=  9281bs. 

"  Example  3.  —  Required  the 
weight  that  would  break  the  same 
beam,  fixed  at  each  end. 

"  Rejecting  the  deflection,  we 
have,  by  formula  3, 

\2fad  12x  13000  X, 7 32x366 

W=  zz  . 

I  30 
zz  14921bs. 

Note. — We  have  assumed  13000 
for  the  force  of  direct  cohesion; 
this,  however,  rather  exceeds  the 
greatest  strength  of  fir,  which  varies 
from  10000  to  about  130001bs. 

"  Example  4.  —  Assuming  the 
direct  cohesion  at  13000,  and  the 
specific  gravity  of  fir  at  720  ;  how 
long  must  a  beam  be,  that  is  2 
inches  deep  and  1  inch  broad, 
which,  when  fixed  with  one  end  in 
a  wall,  will  just  break  with  its 
own  weight  ? 

"  Let  x  be  the  required  length 
of  the  beam  in  inches ;  its  weight 

3C5 


STR 

2x  X  720 
will  be   ounces, 

1728 
90  a;       5  x 

or   =  pounds ;  and  this 

1728  96 
weight  will  have  the  same  effect  as 
if  it  acted  all  at  one  point  on  the 
centre  of  the  beam,  or  at  the  dis- 
tance 5  x, 

5  x 

"  Hence,  by  substituting  ■ 

96 

for  W,  in  formula  1,  we  have 
5  x  2x  13000  X  ,732  X  ,366 
 —   ;  or 

96  \x 
5  x  2  =  192  x  2  x  13000  x  ,732 

X  ,366  =  133728;  whence  x  = 
>/ 133728 

 inches,  or  47  feet. 

5 

"  In  this  case  the  angle  of  de- 
flection is  not  introduced. 

"  When  the  deflection  is  consi- 
dered, as  it  should  be  in  this  case, 
we  find  it  to  be,  from  the  data  of 
example  1,  and  the  theorem  for  the 

5  x* 

deflection,  as  30  2 :  5  ::  \x*  :  ; 

3600 
25  z  2 


l  ;) 

annoys 


whence  the  cos 

V  (1800)2- 
and  the  above  equation  becomes 
5  x     2  x  13000  x  ,732  x  ,366 


96 


s  25  x  2  x 
(l  ) 


(1800) 

which  produces  a  cubic  equation, 
whence  the  value  of  x  may  be  de- 
termined. 

"  Mr.  Banks,  after  many  experi- 
ments made,  at  various  times,  on 
the  real  and  comparative  strength 
of  oak,  fir,  and  iron,  has  deduced 
the  following  inferences:  the  worst, 
or  weakest,  piece  of  dry  heart-of- 
oak,  one  inch  square,  and  one  foot 
long,  bore  6601bs.,  though  it  was 

366 


STU 

much  bent,  and  21bs.  more  brok< 
it.  The  strongest  piece  he  tried! 
of  the  same  dimensions,  broke  witl 
974lbs.  The  worst  piece  of  dea 
bore  4601bs. ;  but  broke  with  littlt 
more.  A  bar  of  the  weakest  kinc 
of  cast  iron  of  an  inch  square  anc 
a  foot  long,  would  break  witl 
21901bs." 

Stretching  Course,  bricks  o: 
stones  laid  in  a  wall  with  thei: 
longest  dimensions  in  the  horizon- 
tal line. 

Stride,  (stria,  Lat.  a  furrow, 
the  name  given  by  the  Romans  t( 
the  lists  or  fillets  which  separate 
the  flutings  of  columns. 

Striated,  chamfered,  or  chan 
neled. 

Strig;e,  the  Latin  name  for  th< 
flutings  of  a  column. 

Striking,  a  term  used  fo 
drawing  lines  on  the  surface  of  : 
body.  Striking  a  centre,  is  th 
removal  of  the  woodwork  after  th 
completion  of  the  arch. 

String-board,  a  board  placet 
next  to  the  well-hole  in  woodei, 
stairs,  and  terminating  the  ends  oj 
the  steps.  The  string-piece,  is  th! 
piece  of  board  put  under  the  flyin; 
steps  for  a  support,  and  forming 
as  it  were,  the  soffit  of  the  stair. 

String  course,  a  narrov 
moulding  continued  along  the  sid 
of  a  building. 

Struts,  oblique  framing  pieces 
joined  to  the  king-posts,  or  queen 
posts,  and  the  principal  rafters;-; 
they  are  sometimes  called  braces. 

Strut  Beam,  an  old  term  fo 
the  collar-beam. 

Strutting  Piece,  see  Strain 
ing  Piece. 

Stucco,  a  term  indefinitely  af 
plied  to  calcarious  cements  of  var. 
ous  descriptions.  The  chunar 
stucco,  or  maltha,  of  India,  is  aj 
invention  of  great  celebrity  and  <j 
ancient  date.  This  composition 
made  by  mixing  with  fifteen  bushei 


STU 


SUB 


>f  newly  slacked  lime,  an  equal 
juantity  of  pit-sand,  and  leaving 
he  mixture  at  rest  for  three  days, 
n  the  mean  time  twenty  pounds  of 
nolasses  must  be  dissolved  in  wa- 
er,  and  a  peck  of  a  kind  of  pea 
ailed  grarnm,  is  *o  be  boiled  with 
i  peck  of  mirabolans,  till  the  whole 
>e  reduced  to  a  jelly.  Incorporate 
he  three  ingredients  intimately,  and 
>eat  up  to  the  consistence  of  a  very 
luid  cement, with  as  much  of  the  sand 
,nd  lime  as  necessary  for  the  purpose; 
fter which  mix  into  it  a  small  quan- 
ity  of  short  tow,  and  it  will  be  fit 
or  use.  When  the  workman  leaves 
iff,  for  even  a  short  time,  some  of 
he  gelatinous  composition,  without 
he  lime,  must  be  spread  over  the 
dace  where  the  work  is  to  be  con- 
inued  from.  The  whites  of  four 
ggs,  and  four  ounces  of  butter- 
nilk,  are  to  be  added  to  each  half- 
>ushel  of  the  composition,  when 
ntended  to  be  used  as  stucco;  but 
t  must  be  added  at  the  time  it  is 
ised.  See  Mortar,  Albarum  Opus, 
,nd  Tectorium. 

The  most  common  stucco  is  com- 
posed of  pulverized  white  marble 
•nixed  with  plaster  of  lime,  the 
Vhole  sifted  and  wrought  up  with 
narble.  Architectural  and  sculp- 
ural  ornaments,  such  as  fruits, 
lowers,  garlands,  festoons,  &c.  are 
nade  with  this  composition.  Im- 
mediately when  the  stucco  is  mix- 
•d,  it  forms  a  very  soft  and  ductile 
>aste,  the  consistence  of  which, 
lowever,  soon  hardens,  and  then 
he  desired  form  is  given  to  it,  either 
vith  moulds,  or,  in  some  cases,  with 
i  little  spatula  of  iron.  During 
his  operation  it  continues  to  hard- 
n,  and  may  even  be  cut,  and  at 
his  period  those  parts  of  the  orna- 
nents  may  be  executed  which  de- 
nand  a  nice  finish.  In  time  it  be- 
omes  as  hard  as  stone,  and  takes 
i  beautiful  polish.  Vitruvius  ap- 
>ears  to  make  mention  of  stucco,  in 


the  second,  third,  and  sixth  chap- 
ters of  his  seventh  book  under  the 
name  of  Opus  Albarium,  or  Opus 
Coronarium.  The  most  eminent 
artists  in  this  branch  have  been, — 
Margaritone,  who  died  in  1317, 
and  is  generally  considered  as  the 
inventor  of  the  art ;  Barthelemi 
Ridolfi,  who  died  about.  1550; 
Giovanni  Nanni,  died  1564;  Leo- 
nard Ricciarelli,  died  about  1570; 
Luca  Romano,  about  1586  ;  Aru- 
dini  and  Branchi,  about  1640; 
Roncaioli,  1660;  G.  F.  Bezzi, 
1690;  G.  B.  Artario,  about  1700; 
G.  B.  Genone.  1700  ;  A.  Disegna, 
1710;  S.  Busi,  1730;  A.  Stazio ; 
M.  Costa;  Clerici,  1745;  C.Maz- 
zetti,  1750;  G.  Artario,  1769. 
The  following  works  may  be  con- 
sulted on  this  subject : — J.  A.  Cor- 
vinus,  Artis  Sculptoriae,  Vulgo 
Stuccatorise,  Paradigmata,  Aug. 
Vin.  1708;  J.  Melchior  Croeker, 
in  his  Instruction  a  l'Usage  des 
Peintres ;  Montamy,  in  his  Traite 
des  Couleurs  pour  La  Paintre  en 
Email ;  Appeal  on  the  Right  of 
using  Oil  Cement  or  Composition 
for  Stucco,  8vo.  1779. 

Studs,  (studes,  Sax.  a  post,)  a 
term  applied  to  posts  or  quarters, 
which  are  placed  in  partitions 
about  a  foot  distant  from  each 
other. 

Stud-work,  a  wall  of  brick- 
work built  between  studs. 

Stylobate,  or  Stylobatum, 
(Gr.)  a  term  used  by  Vitruvius  to 
signify  the  whole  uninterrupted 
basis  below  the  columns  :  it 
means  a  plane  surface  raised  either 
upon  a  certain  number  of  steps, 
which  were  continued  all  round,  or 
upon  a  podium,  which  afforded  no 
approach  but  in  front. 

Subnormal,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  foot  of  the  ordinate, 
and  a  perpendicular,  to  the  curve 
(or  its  tangent)  upon  the  axis. 

Sub-plintiis,  the  columns  o*" 

367 


SUN 

Chester-gate,  Regent's  Park,  have 
bases  and  plinths,  with  cubical  sub- 
plinths  of  granite  beneath  them, 
as  if  they  were  too  short  for  their 
places,  and  required  the  aid  of  such 
appendages,  to  raise  them  to  their  ar- 
chitraves. This  is  a  fault  never  found 
in  the  pure  and  sublime  architec- 
ture of  Greece,  and  rarely  in  that 
of  ancient  Rome,  except  where 
they  stand  as  divisions  or  piers  be- 
tween steps,  the  column  standing 
on  the  uppermost,  as  in  Wren's 
beautiful  colonnade  at  Greenwich 
Hospital. 

Sudatory,  (sudatorium ,  Lat.) 
an  apartment  in  the  Roman  baths  ; 
a  hypocaust.  In  1753,  when  the 
military  road  leading  to  Carlisle 
■was  made,  a  curious  Roman  hypo- 
caust, or  sudatory,  was  discovered 
about  two  miles  from  Newcastle- 
upon-Tyne  ;  it  was  situated  about 
three  hundred  yards  south-west  of 
the  Roman  station  Condercum, 
now  Benwall. 

Summer,  the  lintel  of  a  door, 
window,  &c;  a  beam  tenoned  into 
a  girder,  to  support  the  ends  of 
joists  on  both  sides  of  it ;  a  com- 
mon term  in  some  places  for  a 
girder. 

Summer-House,  is  a  little  edi- 
fice or  recess  embowered  among 
roses,  jesmines,  and  every  variety 
of  beautiful  flowering  shrubs,  in 
a  garden  or  shrubbery. 

Summer-Tree,  a  beam  full  of 
mortises  for  the  reception  of  the 
ends  of  joists. 

Sun-dial,  Fig.  a  and  6,  PL 
JEgesta,  are  delineations  of  an  an- 
cient sun-dial,  still  remaining  nearly 
in  its  original  situation,  on  the  rock 
of  the  acropolis  of  Athens ;  a  a 
marks  the  equinoctial,  £  b  the  sum- 
mer solstice,  and  c  c  the  winter  sol- 
stice. It  appears  to  be  of  the 
same  kind  as  the  hemispherium 
that  was  invented  by  Aristarchus 
tfie  Samian,  which  is  mentioned  in 

368 


SUN 

the  following  passage  of  Vitruvius 
"  Hemicyclium  excavatum  ex  quad 
rato  ad  enclimaque  succisum  Be 
rosus  Chaldseus  dicitur  invenisse 
Scaphen  sive  Hemispheerium  Aris 
tarchus  Samius  :  idem  etiam  discun 
in  planitia."  The  following  obser 
vations  on  this  passage  we  havt 
translated  from  Montucla,  Histoin 
des  Mathematiques.  44  The  quad 
rant  of  Berosus  ought  first  to  bi 
considered.  We  think  it  must  no 
be  considered  as  a  hemispheric  ca 
vity,  as  many  authors  have  de 
scribed  it,  but  a  cavity  simply  in  ; 
hemicycle  or  cylindric :  for  th. 
scaphe  or  hemisphere  which  w. 
shall  describe  below,  and  whicl 
has  been  preserved,  was  attribute^ 
to  Aristarchus  of  Samos.  Lei  u 
conceive  then  a  square  or  cubi 
block  of  stone,  exposed  directly  t< 
the  south,  and  let  us  again  cut  th 
surface  of  it  so  as  to  be  parallel  t 
the  axe  of  the  world,  or  to  mak 
with  the  horizon  an  angle  equal  t 
the  elevation  of  the  pole.  This  is 
I  think,  the  sense  of  the  words  bi 
enclima  succisum,  although  per 
haps  it  would  have  been  mor 
exact  to  say  excavatum  in  quad 
rato  ad  enclima  succiso.  Trac 
on  this  surface,  inclined  to  the  hori 
zon,  and  perpendicular  to  th 
equator,  a  meridian,  which  may  b 
the  axe  of  a  cylindric  cavity.  It  i 
easy  to  demonstrate  that  any  poir 
on  this  axe  will  describe  an  arc  c 
a  circle  like  the  diurnal  arc  dc 
scribed  in  the  heavens  by  the  sur 
Thus  raise  at  the  bottom  of  thi 
cylindric  cavity  a  style,  the  summ 
of  which  reaches  the  axe.  Th 
shade  of  its  summit  will  describ 
on  the  day  of  the  equinox  a  semi 
circle,  and  every  other  day  an  ar 
similar  to  that  described  on  th 
same  day  by  the  sun.  If  then  w 
divide  each  into  twelve  equal  parti  \\^ 
and  draw  lines  in  the  cavity  of  th 
cylinder  lines  through  the  simiJa 


SUN 


livisions  of  each  arc,  we  shall  have 
he  twelve  horary  lines.  It  is  true 
bat  we  shall  not  have  the  whole  of 
he  hours  in  the  long  days,  for  in 
hat  case  the  diurnal  parallels 
nn.rht  to  exceed  the  semicircle, 
ind  those  of  the  short  days  would 
>e  less.  But  we  may  remedy  this 
nconvenience,  by  prolonging  the 
vlindric  cavity  in  the  meridional 
mi,  to  the  horizontal  plan. 

"  This  was  perhaps  the  defect  of 
he  cylindric  quadrant  or  hemicycle 
if  Berosus,  which  was  succeeded 
>y  the  hemisphere  of  Aristarchus 
.f  Samos.  It  is  without  doubt  the 
nost  simple,  but  nothing  is  more 
ommon  than  to  see  genius  taking 
he  longest  road.  Let  us  conceive 
hemisphere  hollowed  in  a  cubic 
lock  of  stone,  whose  base  is  hori- 
ontal.  At  the  bottom  of  this 
avity  let  there  be  erected  a  style 
/hose  summit  coincides  with  its 
'entre.  A  little  attention  will 
how  that  the  shade  of  this  summit 
ill  describe  each  day  at  the  bot- 
im  an  arc  of  a  circle  like  the 
arallel  diurnal  described  by  the 
'un.  It  will  then  be  easy  to  de- 
crihe  there  the  equator  and  the 
>vo  tropics.  We  may  divide  each 
hto  twelve  equal  parts,  by  drawing 
urve  lines  through  the  equal  divi- 
ons ;  they  will  be  the  horary 
nes,  and  will  divide,  in  twelve 
■p>al  parts,  the  track  of  the  style, 
nd  the  uhole  day  from  sun-rise  to 
in-set. 

44 1  speak  continually  of  the  divi- 
on  of  the  day  into  twelve  equal 
larts.    I  ought  indeed  to  observe 
ere,  tha*  such  was  always  the 
3se  amongst  the  Greeks  and  the 
omans.    The  discus  that  is  attri- 
uited  to  Aristarchus  of  Samos,  was 
robably  only    the  projection  of 
•ese  lines  on  a  plain,  tangent  to 
ie   hemispheric   convexity ;  for 
us   problem    certainly  does  not 
tceed  the  capacities  of  geometers 
3A 


SUN 

of  that  period.  It  is  probable  also 
that  the  scaphe  was  only  the  same 
projection  made  in  a  cavity  less 
than  the  hemisphere.  It  could 
only  give  a  few  hours  after  and 
before  mid-day." 

What  appears  to  be  a  represen- 
tation of  the  scaphe  of  Aristarchus 
may  be  seen  in  a  bas-relief  in  the 
Monumenta  Peloponnesia  of  Pa- 
ciudi,  torn.  i.  p.  68.  See  Winck- 
elmann,  Mon.  Ined.  No.  151.  Mil- 
lin.  Gal.  Myth.  pi.  clxxi.  Several 
sun-dials  still  remain  at  Athens. 
Among  the  "  Engravings  of  Statues, 
&c.  at  Ince,"  (vol.  i.  pi.  71.)  is  a 
spherical  Grecian  dial,  with  a  head, 
perhaps  of  Aristarchus,  sculptured 
under  it.  Another  is  preserved  at 
lord  Besborough's  at  Roehampton, 
and  a  very  elegantly  formed  one 
from  Asia  Minor,  has  been  depo- 
sited in  the  British  Musseum, 
where  is  also  the  dial  of  Pheedrus, 
which  is  described  by  Delambre. 
See  Vitruvius,  lib.  ix.  c.  9.  Mon- 
tucla,  torn.  i.  p.  720-3.  Visconti, 
Memoires,  p.  78.  See  Heliotro- 
pium. 

Sunium,  the  southernmost  pro- 
montory of  Attica,  on  which  was  a 
temple  dedicated  to  Minerva  Su- 
nias,  the  remains  of  which  are 
described  in  the  "  Unedited  Anti- 
quities of  Attica."  It  was  con- 
structed with  the  white  marble 
produced  by  the  neighbouring  hills. 
It  is  of  the  Doric  order,  and  had 
six  columns  in  front.  North  of 
the  temple,  and  nearly  in  a  line 
with  its  eastern  front,  were  dis- 
covered the  remains  of  a  Propylaea 
of  the  same  order  and  proportions. 
The  exquisite  finish  observed  in  the 
execution  of  these  buildings  is  a 
proof  of  their  having  been  erected 
in  one  of  the  best  ages  of  architec- 
ture. The  fronts  of  the  Propylaea 
were  in  antis.  The  walls  of  the 
peribolus,  which  embraced  the 
temple  within  their  circuit,  were 

369 


SUR 

faced  externally  with  white  marble, 
and  may  be  traced  along  the  brow 
of  the  eminence  down  to  the  shore. 
The  columns  of  the  Propylsea 
diminish  in  lines  perfectly  straight. 
The  metopse  over  the  central  inter- 
val are  much  narrower  than  the 
others. 

Supercilium,  (Lat.)  the  trans- 
verse antepagment  of  a  doorway. 
It  is  also  applied  to  the  small 
fillets  on  each  side  of  the  scotia  of 
the  Ionic  base. 

Surb  ase,  the  mouldings  imme- 
diately above  the  base  of  a  room. 

Surbasement,  (Fr.)  the  trait  of 
any  arch  or  vault  which  describes 
a  portion  of  an  ellipse. 

Surface,  the  side  or  superficies 
of  a  body.  A  surface,  which  may 
be  cut  by  a  plane  through  any 
given  point  in  the  surface,  so  that 
the  intersection  of  the  plane  and 
the  surface  may  be  a  curve,  is 
called  a  curved  surface.  If  the 
curve  bend  inwards  it  is  a  concave 
surface,  if  outwards  a  convex  sur- 
face. If  each  of  two  straight  lines 
extended  from  any  point  of  a  sur- 
face to  two  other  points  in  the 
same  surface,  may  be  on  contrary 
sides  of  that  surface,  or,  in  other 
words,  if  the  surface  be  com- 
pounded of  the  two  (concave  and 
convex,)  the  surface  is  said  to  be 
a  concave- convex  surface.  Cylin- 
dric  surfaces,  which  may  be  ascer- 
tained from  two  dimensions,  are 
either  those  of  which  the  right 
sections  are  circular  or  semi-elliptic 
arcs.  As  the  length  of  the  arc  of 
an  ellipse  which  is  not  a  semi- 
ellipse  cannot  be  found  from  the 
base  and  height  without  something 
more  is  given,  or  without  some 
other  circumstance  respecting  it  is 
known,  as  the  length  of  one  of  the 
axes;  so  the  area  of  a  cylindric 
surface,  of  which  the  right  section 
is  an  arc  greater  or  less  than  half 
the  perimeter  of  an  ellipse,  cannot 

370 


SUS 

be  found  from  the  length  of  the 
axis  of  the  cylindric  surface,  and! 
the  two  dimensions  of  the  right 
section. 

Surmounted  arches,  are  those 
which  are  higher  than  a  semicircle. 

Suspension  Bridges. — A  new 
mode  of  constructing  suspension 
bridges  has  been  recently  intro- 
duced into  Scotland.  The  chains 
or  rods  are  placed  below,  and  the 
weight  rests  on  the  rods  by  means 
of  cast-iron  brackets,  on  which 
the  beams  are  placed.  The  rods, 
which  are  of  chain  iron,  are  bent 
round  the  ends  of  the  beam,  and 
fastened  with  a  hoop  of  iron  to| 
prevent  springing.  Buckling  screws' 
are  placed  on  the  rods  near  the 
brackets,  for  the  purpose  of  light- 
ening the  rods,  and  raising  the 
beams  to  the  level,  so  that  the 
whole  structure  can  be  adjusted 
with  the  greatest  ease.  From  the 
construction,  it  will  be  easily  seen 
that  the  whole  weight  or  pressure 
is  exerted  on  the  iron  rods  or  wires, 
in  the  direction  of  their  length,  sc 
that  they  have  no  tendency  tc 
break  or  bend  in  a  lateral  direc- 
tion. The  amazing  strength  that 
this  mode  of  connecting  the  end? 
of  a  wooden  beam  imparts  to  it 
may  be  illustrated  by  a  very  sim- 
ple experiment.  Let  the  mechanic 
take  a  piece  of  wood,  about  two  01 
three  feet  long,  and  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter ;  place  the  ends  of  it  betweer 
two  chairs  or  stones,  and  attemp 
to  stand  upon  it,  and  he  will  fine 
it  break  almost  instantaneously 
Let  him  now  take  a  similar  pieo 
of  wood,  and  bend,  round  the  tw<j 
ends,  a  pice  of  wire  so  much  longej 
than  the  wood  as  to  allow  a  smal 
wedge,  or  wooden  pin,  two  or  thre 
inches  long,  to  be  placed  verticall 
between  the  wood  and  the  wire 
and  he  will  find  that  he  will  be  un| 
able  to  break  it,  though  he  lea 
upon  it  with  all  his  force.  Th 


SYR 


SYR 


application  of  this  principle  may 
be  seen  in  all  cases  where  brackets 
and  trussed  beams  are  employed, 
though  it  has  been  seldom,  perhaps, 
carried  to  the  extent  which  it  obvi- 
ously admits  of.    See  Bridge. 

Swallow-tail,  a  mode  of  join- 
ing two  pieces  of  timber  together, 
resembling  that  termed  dove-tail- 
ing. 

Swallow-tail,  in  fortification, 
a  single  tenaille,  narrower  towards 
the  fortified  place  than  towards  the 
country. 

Sycamore,  (  acer  pseudopla- 
tanus,)  a  large  and  handsome  tree, 
which  is  a  native  of  Germany,  but 
thrives  very  well  in  England.  It  is 
much  used  by  turners. 

Syenite.  Pliny,  in  speaking 
of  the  architectural  monuments  of 
Egypt,  observes  that  this  kind  of 
stone  was  found  in  the  environs  of 
Syene,  and  was  at  first  named 
pyropcecilos.  "  It  is  of  this  stone," 
he  says,  "  that  the  kings  of  Egypt 
caused  those  stupendous  monuments 
to  be  erected,  called  obelisks."  As 
it  is  known  of  what  species  of  stone 
the  obelisks  are  constructed,  it  is 
inferred  that  the  syenite  of  the 
ancients  was  in  reality  only  a  species 
of  granite,  which  derived  its  peculiar 
name  from  the  place  whence  it  was 
procured.  M.  Stultz,  in  describing 
a  rock  composed  of  feldspar  and 
blued-ore,  mixed,  perhaps,  with 
quartz,  remarks  that  Werner  desig- 
nated it  by  the  name  of  lapis 
sienus,  and  that  it  is  precisely  the 
same  substance  as  that  of  which 
the  beautiful  obelisks  at  Rome  are 
composed.  M.  de  Veltheim,  how- 
ever, observes,  that  this  is  a  mis- 
take, and  shows  that  there  is  a 
material  difference  between  the  two 
stones.  The  finest  relic  composed 
of  this  granite  is  the  column  known 
by  the  name  of  Pompey's  Pillar. 

Syphon  Bridge,  see  Bridge. 

Syracuse,  an  ancient  city  of 


Sicily,  which  received  its  name 
from  the  marsh  Syraco,  on  the 
borders  of  which  it  stood.  Of  the 
five  parts  into  which  it  was  divided, 
that  called  Ortygia  is  the  only  one 
now  inhabited,  but  it  has  few  re- 
mains of  its  former  splendour.  The 
temple  of  Minerva,  which  is  con- 
sidered to  have. been  one  of  the 
most  ancient  in  Sicily,  is  now  con- 
verted into  a  church,  dedicated  to 
St.  Mary  of  the  columns.  The 
spaces  between  the  columns  have 
been  filled  up  with  a  modern  wall, 
leaving  a  portion  of  each  column 
exposed  both  within  and  without 
the  church:  the  columns  and  antae 
of  the  pronaos  appear  in  the  same 
way.  The  old  walls  of  the  cella 
have  been  perforated  with  several 
openings,  to  connect  the  nave  with 
the  ambulatories.  The  architecture 
is  Doric,  and  the  columns,  origin- 
ally forty  in  number,  are  fluted. 
The  columns  of  the  pronaos  are  of 
a  greater  diameter,  and  higher  than 
those  of  the  peristyles;  they  are 
placed  upon  bases,  and  their  capi- 
tals differ  considerably  from  the 
Grecian  form ;  hence  they  must 
have  been  introduced  subsequent 
to  the  building  of  the  temple. 
Length  of  the  cella  thirty-two  feet, 
its  length  cannot  be  ascertained,  as 
the  posticum  has  been  removed. 
Height  of  columns  of  peristyles 
28'  8"  including  capital ;  diameter 
6'  6"  04.  Height  of  columns  of 
pronaos,  including  base  and  capi- 
tal, 31'  0  "  75;  diameter  6'  9"  3. 
Few  traces  of  the  temple  of  Diana 
can  be  discovered.  The  part  of 
Syracuse  called  Acradina  contains 
the  catacombs,  but  has  scarcely 
any  other  monument  of  antiquity. 
In  the  Neapolis  are  considerable 
remains  of  a  Grecian  theatre,  which 
was  hewn  in  the  rock.  It  has 
three  ranges  of  seats,  separated  by 
platforms  or  galleries,  which  are 
connected  by  staircases.    The  pro- 

371 


TAB 


TAB 


ecenium  is  entirely  destroyed,  and 
the  area  and  lower  tier  of  seats  are 
covered  with  earth,  and  overrun 
with  shrubs  and  trees.  The  back 
part  of  the  theatre  overlooks  the 
quarries  of  Neapolis,  which  have 
many  very  singular  excavations  in 
the  rock,  among  which  is  that, 
which  from  its  shape  has  gained 
the  name  of  the  Ear  of  JDiony- 
sius  :  a  whisper  at  the  mouth  of 
this  grotto  is  audibly  repeated,  and 
the  reverberations  from  the  explosion 
of  a  musket  resemble  a  loud  peal 
of  thunder.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
served  for  a  place  of  confinement, 
as  there  are  remains  of  channels 
cut  to  receive  rings  of  metal,  whose 


rust  is  still  perceptible.  Tradition 
says  it  was  used  by  the  tyrant 
whose  name  it  bears.  In  the 
quarter  called  Epipolce,  may  be 
traced  the  foundations  of  the  fa- 
mous wall  with  which  Dionysiusthe 
Elder  enclosed  the  city.  Of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius,  in  the 
city  of  Olympia,  on  the  river  Ana- 
pus,  now  called  II  Fium  Alpheo, 
only  the  broken  shafts  of  two  co- 
lumns remain  :  at  the  bottom  they 
were  plain,  above  they  were  hul- 
lowed  into  sixteen  flutings. 

Systyle,  (Gr.)  that  kind  of 
intercolumniation  which  had  two 
diameters  between  the  columns. 


T. 


Taa,  see  Chinese  Architecture. 

Tabbi,  or  Tabbia,  a  mortar 
composed  of  lime  and  earth,  which 
forms  the  substance  of  the  walls  of 
most  of  the  houses  of  Morocco,  and 
many  other  Arabian  cities.  See 
Arabian  Architecture.  We  learn 
from  Livy,  that  the  walls  of  Sagun- 
tum  were  constructed  of  earth. 

Taberna,  (Lat.)  It  has  been 
supposed  by  the  generality  of  his 
commentators,  that  Horace  uses  the 
word  taberna,  not  only  for  what  we 
call  a  tavern,  but  also  for  all  kinds 
of  shops  where  idle  people  were  ac- 
customed to  meet  together  for  con- 
versation. The  bottom  of  the  grand 
circus,  on  the  outside,  amongst  the 
Romans  consisted  of  a  range  of 
shops,  formed  into  the  most  beau- 
tiful arcades.  The  shops  of  bankers 
and  of  all  kinds  of  dealers  in  money, 
which  Tarquinius  the  elder  built 
around  the  forum,  were  called  ta- 
bernce  argentarice.  The  shops  of 
the  booksellers  were  in  the  street 
Argilete,  opposite  the  Mons  Pala- 
tums, and  are  on  that  account  call- 
ed by  Martial,  taberna  argiletee. 
After  the  murder  of  Virginia  by 

372 


her  father,  the  butchers'  shops  were 
destroyed,  and  in  their  place  new 
ones  were  erected,  which  were 
named  tabernce  novce.  By  the  ap- 
pellation tabernce  nivarice,  the  Ro- 
mans designated  the  ice-houses, 
where  they  preserved  ice  during  the 
whole  year,  to  cool  their  wine,  &c. 

Tabernacle,  (Lat.  a  tent,)  the 
temporary  edifice  used  by  the  Is- 
raelites for  the  performance  of  pub- 
lic worship  until  the  erection  of  the 
temple  at  Jerusalem.  It  consisted 
of  an  open  court,  containing  within 
it  a  building,  to  which  the  name  of 
tabernacle  was  more  properly  ap-  i 
plied,  and  which  was  covered  with  I 
linen  curtains  embroidered  with 
various  colours.  There  were  in  all  ! 
ten  curtains,  each  of  them  twenty- 
eight  cubits  long,  by  four  in  breadth, 
and  five  of  them  being  fastened  to- 
gether, they  formed  two  coverings, 
which  covered  up  the  whole  of  the 
tabernacle.  Over  these  again  were 
two  other  coverings,  one  of  them 
composed  of  goat's  hair,  the  other 
of  sheep's  skins.  That  part  which 
from  its  sanctity  was  called  the 
holy  of  holies,  was  separated  from 


TAB 


TAB 


the  rest  of  the  tabernacle  by  a  cur- 
tain which  was  fastened  to  four  pil- 
lars, that  stood  ten  cubits  from  the 
end.  The  whole  length  of  the  ta- 
ibernacle  was  thirty-two  cubits,  or 
about  fifty  feet,  and  its  breadth  was 
twelve  cubits,  or  nineteen  feet. 
The  court  was  one  hundred  cubits 
long  and  fifty  broad,  and  was  sur- 
rounded by  twenty  columns,  each 
twenty  cubits  high  and  ten  broad ; 
these  columns  were  covered  with 
silver,  and  siood  upon  copper  bases, 
and  were  placed  at  a  distance  of 
five  cubits  from  each  other,  having 
curtains  drawn  between  them,  and 
fastened  by  hooks.  The  entrance, 
which  was  at  the  east  end,  was 
twenty  cubits  wide,  and  was  also 
covered  by  a  curtain,  which,  how- 
ever, hung  loose.  The  name  of 
tabernacle  is  given,  in  a  more  gene- 
ral sense,  to  a  canopied  stall,  or 
niche;  a  cabinet  or  shrine,  orna- 
mented with  open  work;  an  arched 
canopy  over  a  tomb.  See  Adytum. 
|  In  Catholic  churches,  the  name 
of  tabernacle  is  given  to  a  small 
edifice  in  form  of  a  temple,  con- 
structed of  marble,  precious  stones, 
lor  metal,  and  placed  upon  the 
i altar,  for  the  purpose  of  containing 
the  consecrated  vessels,  &c.  The 
tabernacle  or pix  in  our  old  churches 
iwas  a  small  cabinet  for  containing 
the  host,  &c.  It  was  generally 
made  of  gold  or  silver,  and  set  with 
,  precious  stones.  It  consisted  of  a 
Toot,  containing  a  niche  with  a  door, 
which  finishing  with  a  pediment, 
ihad  buttresses  and  pinnacles  on 
the  side. 

Table,  or  Tablet,  (bit.)  a  flat  sur- 
face, generally  rectangular,  charged 
i with  an  ornamental  figure.  A  table 
which,  projects  from  the  naked  of 
the  wall  is  termed  a  raised  or  pro- 
jecting table ;  when  it  is  not  per- 
pendicular to  the  horizon,  it  is  call- 
ed a  raking  table  ;  and  when  the 
surface  is  rough,  frosted,  or  vermi- 


culated,lt  is  named  a  rustic  table. 
A  table  of  glass,  is  the  original  cir- 
cular plate,  before  it  is  cut,  of  which 
twenty-four  make  a  case.  A  corbel 
table  is  a  horizontal  ornament  used 
for  a  cornice  in  Gothic  buildings. 

Table,  Water,  see  Water- 
Table. 

Tablet,  a  term  used  by  Rick- 
man,  to  denote  projecting  mould- 
ings or  strings,  among  which  he 
includes  the  cornice  and  drip-stone. 
The  tablets  (or  shelves)  in  libraries 
on  which  the  books  were  ranged, 
were  called  by  the  Romans  peg- 
mata,  or  plutei. 

Tabling,  a  term  used  by  Scotch 
builders  to  designate  the  coping  of 
the  walls  of  very  common  houses. 

Tabling,  see  Constructive  Car- 
pentry. 

Tablinum,  (Lat.)  an  apartment 
in  the  houses  of  the  Romans,  which 
was  situated  in  the  narrow  part  of 
the  atrium,  fronting  the  entrance. 
Vitruvius  does  not  tell  us  its  exact 
position,  but  we  may  easily  per- 
ceive that  it  must  have  had  this 
situation,  because  he  determines  its 
dimensions  by  the  width  of  the 
atrium,  and  that  of  the  ala?  or 
lateral  wings  of  the  edifice,  by  the 
length  of  the  atrium.  The  very 
proportion  which  Vitruvius  gives  the 
tablinum,  shows  that  it  was  much 
the  same  as  that  which  in  modern 
times  is  termed  a  cabinet.  "  It.  is 
requisite,"  he  says,  "  to  give  to  the 
tablinum  a  width  equal  to  that  of 
the  atrium,  if  the  latter  is  twenty 
feet:  if  it  be  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet,  only  half  of  the  width  of  the 
atrium  is  given  to  it,  and  if  the 
width  of  the  atrium  be  from  forty 
to  fifty  feet,  it  must  be  divided  into 
five  parts,  and  two  of  these  parts 
given  to  the  tablinum.  Its  height 
to  the  ceiling  ought  to  be  one 
heighth  part  more  than  the  width." 
As  Vitruvius  makes  no  mention  of 
its  length,  but  only  of  its  width,  it 

373 


TAB 


T  A  I 


would  appear  that  the  form  of  this 
apartment  was  a  square.  The  ta- 
blinum is  generally  considered  as 
having  been  the  place  where  the 
proprietor  of  the  house  kept  his 
accounts  and  writings.  Festus,  on 
the  word  tablinum,  and  Pliny,  in 
the  twelfth  chaper  of  his  thirty- 
fifth  book,  give  this  explanation  of 
the  word.  But,  when  we  consider 
that  it  was  necessary  for  every  one 
who  entered  into  the  interior  of  the 
house,  to  pass  through  the  tabli- 
num, we  must  confess  that  this 
room  could  not  have  been  very 
convenient  for  keeping  writings, 
&c.  which  we  do  not  in  general 
wish  to  be  exposed  to  every  body 
who  enters  the  house.  It  is  more 
probable,  therefore,  that  it  was  the 
place  where  the  master  of  the  house 
received  his  clients,  &c.  And  in 
the  more  ancient  times  of  which 
Pliny  and  Festus  speak,  it  may 
have  contained  cases  for  preserving 
the  family  papers,  and  the  like; 
for  at  that  period  the  houses  were 
not  very  spacious,  and  behind  the 
tablinum  there  was  no  peristyle, 
nor  any  other  of  the  apartments 
which  were  added  in  later  ages. 
When  the  Romans  had  increased 
the  magnitude  of  their  houses  after 
the  example  of  the  Greeks,  the 
tablinum  may  have  received  an- 
other destination,  though  still  pre- 
serving its  ancient  name.  In  the 
Pompeiana  this  apartment  is  de- 
scribed as  a  sort  of  recess  or  inter- 
vening passage,  used  in  summer 
as  a  dining-room,  separated  from 
the  cavsedium  by  an  aulceum  or 
curtain,  and  in  general  having 
a  window  occupying  the  whole 
side. 

Tabu  latum,  (Lat.)  a  term  ap- 
plied by  the  Romans  not  only  to 
the  floors,  wainscoting,  ceiling,  &c. 
of  their  houses,  which  were  con- 
structed of  wood,  but  also  to  the 
balconies  and  other  projecting  parts. 


The  latter,  Vitruvius  designates  by 
the  name  of  projectiones. 

Taenia,  (Gr.)  the  fillet  separat- 
ing the  Doric  frieze  from  the  archi- 
trave. 

Tafa,  Taeeffa,  or  Tcffa,  a  vil- 
lage and  district  in  Nubia,  which 
contain  some  remarkable  remains 
of  ancient  architecture.  These  re- 
mains are  supposed  to  mark  the 
sites  of  the  ancient  Taphis  and 
Contra  Taphis.  The  antiquities 
consist  of  several  spacious  oblong 
enclosures  of  masonry,  between 
three  and  four  feet  in  height,  some 
of  which  are  filled  with  blocks  of 
stone,  unfinished  cornices,  and 
parts  of  doorways.  These  enclo- 
sures are  at  both  ends  of  the  plain. 
In  the  centre  are  two  buildings, 
one  having  the  form  of  a  portico, 
and  the  other,  which  is  in  ruin,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  a  Christian 
church.  The  former  is  almost 
blocked  up  in  front  by  a  mass  of 
mud,  and  is  surrounded  with  the 
hovels  of  the  natives.  It  is  a  pyra- 
midal portico  facing  the  south. 
This  building  has  been  already 
described  under  the  article  Nubian 
Architecture.  The  other  remain  is  11 
open  to  the  east;  the  north  and 
south  walls  are  in  ruin;  the  west 
is  complete.  In  this  is  a  doorway,'  hil 
and  within,  in  front,  are  two  co- 
lumns, with  lotus  capitals,  support-  11 
ing  a  small  portion  of  roof.  Scrip- 
tural  paintings  in  distemper,  as 
large  as  life,  remain  on  the  walls; 
and  over  the  cornice  of  the  door- 
way is  the  winged  globe. 

Tail-in,  to  fasten  any  thing  by 
one  of  its  ends  into  a  wail. 

Tail  Trimmer,  a  trimmer  next 
to  the  wall,  into  which  the  ends  of 
joists  are  fastened  to  avoid  flues. 

Tailing,  the  part  of  a  project- 
ing brick,  stone,  &c.  which  is  in—  j  * 
serted  in  the  wall. 

Tailloir,  a  French  name  for 
the  abacus. 


T  A  L 


TAL 


Ta  lmis,  an  ancient  city  in  Nubia, 
called  now  by  the  natives  Kalabshe. 
Its  temple  is  considered  by  Burck- 
hardt,  as  ranking  amongst  the  most 
precious  remains  of  Egyptian  anti- 
quity. "  In  its  site,  it  may  be  com- 
pared with  the  temples  of  Tentyra 
and  Edfou,  and  it  belongs  to  the 
best  period  of  Egyptian  architec- 
ture." The  following  description  of 
this  noble  ruin  is  given  by  Capt. 
Light : — "  The  remains  of  the  tem- 
ple are,  a  butment  of  masonry, 
which  rises  above  the  bank  of  the 
river  at  about  one  hundred  and 
seventy  or  one  hundred  and  eighty 
feet  from  the  front  of  the  temple, 
to  which,  from  the  butment,  there 
is  a  paved  approach.  On  each 
side  of  this  pavement  there  appears 
to  have  been  a  row  of  sphinxes,  one 
of  which  lay  headless  near  the  pave- 
ment. At  the  end,  there  seems  to 
have  been  steps  leading  to  a  terrace 
thirty -six  feet  in  breadth,  from 
which  rise  two  pyramidal  moles 
with  a  gateway  between  them,  form- 
ing a  front  of  about  one  hundred 
and  ten  feet.  The  moles  are  eigh- 
teen or  twenty  feet  thick,  of  solid 
masonry :  the  upper  part  of  them 
is  in  ruins.  Inside  this  gateway  is 
a  court  about  forty  feet  in  extent, 
now  filled  with  broken  shafts,  capi- 
tals, and  other  fragments.  It  ap- 
pears to  have  had  a  colonnade  on 
the  sides,  joining  the  mole  with  the 
portico.  Of  this  colonnade  only 
one  column  remains,  with  a  capital 
much  disfigured,  supporting  a  frag- 
ment of  ceiling.  The  portico  con- 
sists of  four  columns,  engage  to 
half  their  height  in  a  wall,  raised  in 
the  centre,  to  form  an  entrance.  A 
lateral  wall  divides  the  portico  from 
a  suit  of  four  inner  apartments, 
separated  by  lateral  walls,  in  each  of 
which  are  doorways,  and  over  them 
are  winged  globes  in  the  cornice. 
"Within  the  first  apartment,  there 
appears  to  have  been  a  colonnade, 


of  which  two  columns  remain  on 
the  left  hand,  their  capitals  defaced, 
with  two  or  three  fragments  of  an 
architrave.  The  space  within  is 
filled  with  broken  shafts,  capitals, 
and  blocks  of  an  immense  size. 
This  apartment  and  the  interior  of 
the  portico,  are  ornamented  only 
round  the  sides  of  the  doorways. 
The  other  three  apartments  are 
covered  with  the  usual  hieroglyphic 
and  symbolic  figures.  Remains  of 
colouring  exist  fresh  and  bright. 
All  the  apartments  are  encumbered 
with  ruins,  and  have  scarcely  any 
ceiling  left.  Inside  the  portico  are 
scriptural  paintings,  similar  to  those 
in  modern  Greek  churches."  The 
cella,  which  is  fifteen  paces  by  nine, 
projects  several  feet  into  the  pro- 
naos,  thus  forming  an  insulated 
chamber  in  the  midst  of  the  temple. 
In  the  adytum,  Burckhardt  men- 
tions remains  of  columns  that  were 
lying  on  the  ground,  "  the  only 
instance  of  the  kind,"  he  says,  "  I 
have  seen  in  any  Egyptian  temple." 
"  In  the  walls,"  he  adds,  "  are  some 
low,  dark  recesses  and  windows  or 
loop-holes,  like  those  in  the  temple 
at  Tentyra ;  its  roof  is  formed  of 
single  blocks  of  stone,  reaching  the 
whole  breadth,  and  upwards  of 
three  feet  in  thickness.  There  is  a 
chamber  behind  the  adytum,  as  at 
Dakke,  and  communicating  with  it 
by  two  doors:  the  roof  has  fallen 
in,  but  it  may  be  seen  that  this 
chamber  was  lower  than  the  ady- 
tum, and  had  a  chamber  over  it. 
In  the  walls  of  this  chamber  are 
several  cells  or  recesses,  each  of 
which  forms  two  small  apartments, 
one  behind  the  other,  divided  by  a 
narrow  entrance,  and  just  suffi- 
ciently large  to  hold  one  person." 
The  walls  of  the  cella  and  adytum 
are  covered  with  painted  figures. 
The  exterior  walls  of  the  temple  are 
covered  with  sculptures  of  colos- 
sal figures,  like  those  of  Tentyra 

375 


T  AL 


TAP 


(Dendera)  and  Edfou,  though  not 

so  large. 

"  The  walls  of  the  portico  are 
prolonged  the  whole  length  of  the 
building,  and,  by  means  of  a  trans- 
verse wall  in  the  rear  of  the  cham- 
ber behind  the  adytum,  form  a  high 
enclosure  all  round;  at  about  twenty 
feet  beyond  which  is  the  general 
enclosure  to  the  whole  building. 
This  is  carried  to  the  foot  of  the 
hill,  which  has  been  cut  down  per- 
pendicularly, so  as  to  serve  as  the 
end  wall.  In  the  south-west  corner 
of  the  area  is  a  small  quadrangle, 
formed  on  one  side,  by  three  co- 
lumns ;  and  on  the  adjacent  interior 
side,  by  a  short  wall  built  across 
the  area.  Here  a  grotto,  or  se- 
pulchre, has  been  hewn  in  the 
perpendicular  rock,  similar  to  that 
behind  the  Umple  at  Dandour:  it 
consists  of  a  single  chamber,  with 
the  winged  globe  over  the  entrance, 
but  without  any  other  sculpture. 
A  flight  of  steps  leads  from  the 
propylon  down  to  a  paved  terrace, 
which  extends  to  the  foundations 
of  an  oblong  building  standing  just 
over  the  river,  where  are  some  frag- 
ments of  columns.  Visitors  by  wa-, 
ter,  during  the  inundations,  might 
have  stepped  from  their  vessel  into 
this  building."  About  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  distant  from  this  temple, 
on  its  north-west  side,  is  another 
small  temple  cut  out  of  the  rock. 
The  road  to  it  lies  through  the 
remains  of  the  ancient  town,  a 
heap  of  stones  and  rubbish,  cover- 
ing a  space  along  the  shore  of 
about  a  mile  and  a  quarter.  In 
front  of  the  temple  is  an  open  area, 
also  hewn  out  of  the  rock,  in  which 
is  the  entrance  to  the  cella,  which 
is  thirteen  paces  by  six,  its  roof 
supported  by  two  polygonal  pillars. 
Adjoining  to  the  cella  is  the  ady- 
tum, a  small  room  eight  feet  square, 
with  sculptures  and  hieroglyphics 
on   the  walls,    rudely  executed. 

376 


This  small  temple  is  called  by  the  I 
natives  Dar-el-Waly.     In  the  \{}\  ! 
close  by  are  the  quarries  of  line 
sandstone,  which   have   furnished  I 
the  stone  for  building  the  town  and 
temples.    On  the  rock  above  the  ; 
village  is  a  small  Grecian  temple, 
with  fluted  columns  of  the  Ionic 
order.  Abundance  of  Grecian  pot-  \ 
tery  are  found  among  the  ruins  of 
the  town.    The  tombs  of  the  an-  \ 
cient  inhabitants  are  excavated  in 
the  adjoining  rock. 

Talon,  a  French  term  for  the 
same  moulding  which  we  call  the  \ 
ogee. 

Talus,  a  term  chiefly  restricted 
to  fortification,  signifying  the  slope 
of  a  wall  which  is  thicker  at  bottom 
than  at  the  top. 

Tambour,  (Fr.  from  the  Arabic, 
tambor,  a  drum,)  the  naked  of  a 
Corinthian  or  Composite  capital ;  the 
wall  of  a  circular  temple  which  is 
surrounded  with  columns;  a  place 
enclosed  with  folding  doors,  at  the 
entrance  of  churches,  &c.  for  the 
purpose  of  breaking  the  current  ot 
air  from  without. 

Tangent,  (from  tango,  Lat.  to 
touch,)  a  line  drawn  perpendicular 
to  the  extremity  of  the  diameter  of 
a  circle,  and  consequently  only 
touching  it  in  one  point.  The  tan- 
gent, in  trigonometry,  is  a  line 
drawn  perpendicularly  from  the  ex- 
tremity of  the  diameter,  at  one  end 
of  the  arc,  and  bounded  by  a  straight 
line  drawn  from  the  centre  through 
the  other.  The  tangent  of  a  conic 
section,  or  algebraic  curve,  is  a 
straight  line  drawn  cutting  the 
axis. 

Tapestry,  (tapisserie,  Fr.)  a 
kind  of  woven  hangings,  of  wool  or 
silk,  ornamented  with  figures,  and 
used  formerly  to  cover  and  adorn 
the  walls  of  rooms.  This  species 
of  work  is  said  to  have  been  first 
invented  by  the  Pergamenians. 
From  the  earliest  period  of  anti- 


TAP 

quity,  tapestry,  more  or  less  rich, 
las  been  fabricated  in  different 
parts  of  the  east.  The  most  gro- 
tesque compositions  of  men,  planets, 
uid  animals,  were  painted  or  em- 
broidered on  these  Oriental  tapes- 
tries, and  were  carried  into  Greece 
it  an  early  period.  These  Persian, 
Median,  or  Babylonian  tapestries 
kvere  known  to  the  Greeks  by  the 
iame  of  barbarian  tapestries,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  peplum 
jeirXov)  which  was  exhibited  at  the 
•eligious  ceremonies,  and  which  re- 
presented entire  fables,  the  com- 
plete history  of  a  god  or  of  a  hero. 
These,  at  first  coarse,  were  after- 
vards  executed  with  more  art  and 
elegance.  The  Jews  carried  tapes- 
ries  to  Alexandria,  and  Calixenus 
idmired  those  which  he  saw  under 
he  Ptolemies.  When  the  taste  of 
he  Greeks  and  the  Asiatic  people 
jecame  refined,  these  grotesque 
igures  covered  no  longer,  as  they 
lid  in  more  ancient  times,  the 
vhole  surface  of  the  tapestry,  but 
vere  confined  to  the  upper  and 
ower  borders.  Aristotle  speaks  of 
i  Sybarite,  who  embroidered  a  piece 
)f  tapestry  which  contained  in  the 
:entral  part  the  six  principal  divi- 
lities  of  Greece  ;  the  top  was  bor- 
lered  with  arabesque  of  Suza,  and 
he  bottom  with  Persian  arabesque. 
Tapestry  of  this  kind  was  suspended 
!n  the  sacred  grottoes  where  they 
)ractised  the  rites  of  initiation, 
lich  Oriental  tapestries  were  al^o 
'ised  to  adorn  the  interior  of  the 
emples,  and  to  place  before  the 
tntrances. 

In  modern  times  this  kind  of 
mbroidery  has  been  executed  with 
;reat success;  and  though  the  works 
»f  Europeans,  must  be  confessed 
obe  inferior  to  the  tapestries  of  the 
^ast  in  brilliancy  of  colouring,  they 
'ar  exceed  them  in  design  and 
'omposition. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  wall-hangings 
3B 


TEC 

were  generally  silken,  and  many 
had  figures  of  golden  birds  in 
needlework,  others  woven,  and 
some  plain.  Anderson  asserts, 
that  what  we  generally  understand 
by  the  term  tapestry,  was  invented 
in  Flanders  about  1410.  In  the 
reign  of  Elizabeth,  men  in  fantas- 
tical postures,  like  morris-dancers, 
were  common  patterns.  Arras  re- 
ceived its  name  from  the  principal 
manufactory  of  it  at  Artois.  The 
old  council-house  at  Coventry  ex- 
hibited, till  1802,  a  very  perfect 
specimen  of  the  old  painted  cloth 
hangings.  The  roof  was  of  oak, 
ornamented  with  carved  figures  of 
no  mean  workmanship  ;  benches 
with  wainscoting  surrounded  the 
room  to  a  convenient  height ;  and 
the  space  between  the  wainscoting 
and  a  rich  cornice  of  gilt  vine- 
leaves,  was  covered  with  painted 
cloth.  See  Painting. 

The  art  of  working  tapestry  was 
brought  into  England  by  W.  Shel- 
don, near  the  end  of  the  reign  or 
Henry  VIII.  A  manufactory  was 
established  in  1619,  at  Mortlake  in 
Surrey,  by  Sir  Francis  Crane,  who 
received  2000  pounds  from  James  I. 
to  encourage  the  designs. 

Tarras,  see  Mortar. 

Tassels,  the  pieces  of  timber 
that  lie  under  the  mantel-piece  in 
common  country  houses. 

Tavell^,  (Lat.)  bricks  used  by 
the  ancients  seven  inches  long,  and 
three  and  a  half  broad. 

Taxis,  is  defined  by  Vitruvius 
as  that  which  gives  every  part  of  a 
building  its  just  dimensions,  ac- 
cording to  its  use.  Modern  archi- 
tects express  it  by  the  term  ordon- 
nance. 

Tectorium  Opus,  (from  tector, 
a  plasterer,)  a  name  given  by  the 
Romans  to  a  kind  of  plaster  with 
which  they  covered  the  ceilings  and 
walls  in  the  interior  of  their  apart- 
ments.   In  comparing  the  different 

377 


TEC 


TEC 


passages  of  Vitruvius,  Palladius, 
and  Pliny,  were  it  is  mentioned, 
we  perceive  that  there  was  the  fol- 
lowing difference  between  the  tec- 
toriura  opus,  and  that  which  was 
called  albarium,  or  album  opus. 
The  latter  was  the  same  as  that 
which  we  term  stucco,  the  tectorium 
on  the  contrary  was  a  mortar  com- 
posed of  a  mixture  of  lime  and 
sand.  When  marble  reduced  to 
powder  was  used  in  making  the 
mixture,  in  the  place  of  sand,  it 
was  denominated  marmoratum. 
The  Greeks  gave  both  to  the 
tectorium  and  to  the  albarium 
indiscriminately  the  names  of  ko- 
niama  (jcovm/ia,)  and  katachrisis 
(KaraxpHTiQ.)  Great  care  was  ob- 
served in  the  preparation  of  the 
tectorium,  and  Vitruvius  has  left 
us  the  details.  They  chose  not 
only  the  best  lime,  but  they  also 
made  it  undergo  a  long  course  of 
preparation  before  they  used  it  ; 
and  it  was  not  considered  fit  for 
use  until  it  had  acquired  sufficient 
tenacity  to  make  it  stick  to  the 
trowel  like  clay.  According  to  Vi- 
truvius, the  common  tectorium  was 
composed  of  three  layers  of  mortar 
of  fine  lime,  and  of  three  other 
layers  of  marble ;  and  yet  accord- 
ing to  Winckelmann,  in  his  treatise 
on  the  architecture  of  the  ancients, 
the  whole  thickness  of  these  differ- 
ent layers  was  often  not  more  than 
an  inch.  The  first  process  was  to 
cover  the  walls  and  ceiling  with 
common  lime;  when  this  layer  be- 
gan to  dry,  it  was  covered  with  a 
first  layer  of  mortar  of  fine  lime, 
which  was  smoothed  and  made 
even  with  the  utmost  care.  When 
this  layer  was  dry,  a  second,  and 
afterwards  a  third  layer  of  very  fine 
lime.  The  wall  was  next  covered 
with  a  mortar  of  marble,  coarsely 
powdered,  which  was  judged  fit  for 
use  when  it  would  no  longer  stick 
to  the  trowel.     Before  this  was 

378 


completely  dry,  another  layer  of  j 
marble,  pounded  finer,  was  applied, 
and  when  this  was  sufficiently  i 
smoothened  and  equalized,  the  J 
last  layer  was  applied,  which  was 
composed  of  marble  reduced  to  a  I 
very  fine  powder.  After  having 
reduced  this  last  to  a  smooth  and 
equal  face,  by  means  of  a  wooden 
instrument,  it  was  polished  with  j 
marble.  By  this  process,  the  walls 
and  roof  were  covered  with  a  stucco, 
which  was  very  unique,  fine,  and  ! 
at  the  same  time  formed  an  excel- 
lent  ground  for  the  paintings  with  ! 
which  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
decorated  the  interior  of  their  j 
houses ;  it  became,  moreover,  in 
process  of  time,  so  extremely  solid, 
that  it  was  never  liable  to  crack  or 
break.  This  is  proved  by  the  walls 
of  the  Grecian  nouses,  from  which 
they  could,  according  to  Vitruvius, 
detach  the  decorated  covering,  with- 
out any  fear  of  injuring  it;  and 
these  paintings,  after  having  been 
detached  from  the  Grecian  walls, 
were  carried  to  Italy  by  the  opulent 
Romans,  and  incrusted  in  the  walls 
of  their  town  and  country  mansions. 
At  Herculaneum  were  found  in  the 
room  of  a  house  such  squares 
of  plaster  covered  with  painting, 
which  had  evidently  been  detached; 
from  some  other  place,  and  which 
they  had  not  had  time  to  incrust  inj 
the  walls  of  the  house  where  they! 
were  discovered.  The  tectoriurri 
with  which  the  walls  of  Pompeii 
and  Herculaneum  were  covered] 
have  been  detached, and  transported 
to  the  Museum  of  Portici.  When 
they  wished  to  cover  with  such  a 
coating,  walls  which  w7ere  construct-! 
ed  partly  of  timber,  it  might  justljl 
be  feared  that  after  a  certain  period 
of  time,  the  plaster,  where  it  was! 
supported  by  the  wood,  woulc 
crack.  To  prevent  this  inconveni-j 
ence,  the  wall  was  covered  with 
clay,  and  on  it  was  laid  a  layer  o 


I?  ' 

TEL 

reeds,  after  this  a  second  layer  of 
argillaceous  earth  was  applied,  and 
another  of  reeds,  which  were  laid 
in  a  direction  so  as  to  cross  the 
other ;  upon  these  were  applied 
the  lime  and  marble  cements.  In 
moist  places,  great  care  was  also 
taken,  by  making  openings,  &c.  in 
the  walls,  to  ensure  a  sufficient 
dryness  to  allow  it  to  attain  a  pro- 
per solidity. 

The  tectorium  was  next  covered 
with  the  most  brilliant  colours, 
such  as  minium  or  red,  armenium 
or  blue,  purpunssum  or  deep  pur- 
ple, and  a  variety  of  others,  which 
iwere  applied  to  the  last  layer  of 
plaster,  while  fresh  laid  on,  and  to 
heighten  the  brilliancy  of  the  paint- 
ings, it  was  rubbed  over  with  white 
punic  wax,  mixed  with  the  purest 
oil.  On  this  coloured  ground  were 
painted  the  arabesques,  landscapes, 
historical  subjects,  of  which  so  many 
(remains  are  found  among  the  ruins 
of  Rome,  but  more  particularly  at 
Herculaneum,  Pompeii,  and  Sta- 
bise. 

Tela mones*  (from  -Xaw,  to  sup-  • 
oort,)  the  name  given  to  the  figures 
)f  men  which  are  used  as  sup- 
porters, in  the  same  manner  as  the 
'.aryatides  or  figures  of  women.  See 
'Caryatides,  and  Persians.  They 
ire  sometimes  called  atlantes.  See 
Atlantes.  In  the  Museo  Pio-Cle- 
nentino,  torn.  ii.  pi.  18,  M.  Vis- 
:onti  has  engraved  a  figure  of  an 
Sgvptian  telamon  of  red  granite. 

Telmessus,  an  ancient  city  of 
\sia  Minor,  of  which  considerable 
uins  still  remain.  The  theatre, 
he  porticoes,  and  the  sepulchral 
hambers,  excavated  in  the  rocks  at 
his  place,  e  re  some  of  the  most  re- 
markable remains  of  antiquity  in 
Asia  Minor.  "  The  first  and  prin- 
cipal ruin,"  says  Dr.  Clarke,  "  ap- 
pears from  the  sea,  before  landing, 
o  the  west,  of  the  town.  It  is 
hat  of  an  immense  theatre,  whose 


TEL 

enormous  portals  are  yet  standing; 
it  seems  to  be  one  of  the  grandest 
and  most  perfect  specimens  which 
the  ancients  have  left  of  this  kind 
of  building.  The  situation  selected 
for  it,  according  to  a  custom  ob- 
served throughout  Greece,  is  the 
side  of  a  mountain  sloping  to  the 
sea.  Thus,  by  the  plans  of  Grecian 
architects,  the  vast  operations  of 
nature  were  rendered  subservient  to 
the  works  of  art ;  for  the  mountains 
on  which  they  built  their  theatres 
possessed  naturally  a  theatrical 
form,  and,  towering  behind  them, 
exhibited  a  continuation  of  the  im- 
mense coilon,  which  contained  the 
seats  for  the  spectators,  giving  a 
prodigious  dignity  to  their  appear- 
ance. Indeed,  it  may  be  said,  that 
not  only  the  mountains,  but  the  sea 
itself,  and  all  the  prospect  before 
the  spectators  assembled  in  these 
buildings,  must  have  been  consi- 
dered by  the  architects  as  forming 
part  of  one  magnificent  design. 
Every  thing  at  Telmessus  is  Cyclo- 
pean :  a  certain  vastness  of  propor- 
tion, as  in  the  walls  of  Tirynthus  or 
of  Crotona,  excites  a  degree  of  ad- 
miration mingled  with  awe ;  and 
this  may  be  said  to  characterise  the 
vestiges  of  the  Dorian  colonies  all 
over  the  coast  of  Asia  Minop-." 
Some  of  the  stones  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  this  building  are  nine 
feet  long,  three  feet  wide,  and  two 
feet  thick.  Five  immense  portals, 
not  unlike  the  uprights  at  Stone- 
henge,  conducted  to  the  arena. 
Three  of  these  are  still  standing. 
The  central  gateway  consists  only 
of  five,  and  the  two  others  of  three 
stones  each,  placed  together  with- 
out either  cement  or  grooving.  The 
uprights  of  the  central  portal  are 
ten  feet  two  inches,  and  five  feet 
eleven  inches  high,  making  the 
whole  height  sixteen  feet  one  inch  ; 
they  are  three  feet  ten  inches  broad 
and  twenty  inches  thiclc.  The  trans- 

379 


TEM 


TEM 


verse  stone  is  ten  feet  seven  inches 
long.  The  stones  of  the  walls,  be- 
tween the  portals,  are  eight  feet  ten 
inches  long ;  these,  too,  are  laid  one 
upon  another  without  cement,  ex- 
hibiting the  same  simple  and  mas- 
sive structure  as  the  rest  of  the 
building.  Before  the  front  of  the 
theatre  extended  a  noble  terrace, 
to  which  a  magnificent  flight  of 
steps  conducted  from  the  sea. 
Near  this  theatre  there  are  other 
remains,  particularly  a  lofty  and 
very  spacious  vaulted  apartment, 
open  in  front,  hewn  in  the  rock  be- 
neath the  declivity  upon  which  the 
theatre  is  situated.  Dr.  Clarke 
imagines  that  it  was  an  oracular 
cave,  belonging  to  the  soothsayers, 
for  whom  Telmessus  was  renowned. 
The  most  remarkable  of  the  anti- 
quities of  Telmessus,  however,  are 
its  tombs,  hewn  in  the  face  of  the 
perpendicular  rock.    See  Tomb. 

Tempered:  this  term  is  applied 
to  bricks  which  may  be  cut  with 
ease,  and  reduced  to  any  required 
shape. 

Temp  la,  (Lat.)  timbers  in  the 
roofs  of  Roman  temples,  which  were 
placed  upon  the  canterii,  or  princi- 
pal rafters,  and  correspond  in  situ- 
ation and  use  with  our  purlins. 
See  Roof. 

Temple,  (Lat.)  an  edifice  des- 
tined for  the  public  exercise  of 
religious  worship.  In  the  earliest 
times,  people  performed  their  wor- 
ship in  the  open  air,  and  erected 
altars  of  earth  and  stones,  and  fre- 
quently offered  their  sacrifices,  in 
the  depths  of  solitary  woods.  Hence 
originated  the  custom  of  consecrat- 
ing woods  and  groves,  even  after 
they  had  learnt  to  erect  temples,  or 
at  least  they  planted  groves  about 
their  religious  edifices.  The  earliest 
temples  were  nothing  but  caverns, 
and  from  this  circumstance  the 
custom  of  consecrating  caverns  was 
long  preserved  in  Greece,  and  many 

380 


by  other  people,  but  more  particular-  \ 
ly  in  Persia  and  India.  (See  Hindu, 
Architecture,  Elephanta,  Ellorat 
&c.)  The  Troglodites  adored  their 
gods  in  grottoes.  Where  natural 
grottoes  were  not  to  be  found,  vast 
artificial  caverns  were  formed  with 
incredible  labour.  In  the  plains 
the  temple  was,  perhaps,  at  first 
merely  an  enclosure,  containing  an  j 
altar  for  sacrifice.  This  enclosure 
they  surrounded  with  upright  stones, 
forming  a  rude  kind  of  colonnade, 
as  we  find  instances  among  the 
Druids  of  the  west,  and  in  many 
scattered  remains  of  antiquity  in 
various  parts  of  the  East.  (See 
Druidical  Architecture,  Pieeres 
Levees,  Stonehenge,  and  Persian 
Architecture.) 

The  Druids  held  it  unlawful  to 
adore  the  gods  within  walls  and 
under  roofs,  and  their  places  of 
worship  were  invariably  in  the  open 
air,  and  covered  only  by  the  canopy 
of  the  heavens.  Here  they  formed 
huge  temples,  consisting  of  ranges 
of  unhewn  stone,  which  enclosed  a 
circular  area.  They  were  usually 
surrounded  with  thick  groves  of 
oak ;  and  even  the  majestic  trees 
of  which  these  groves  were  com- 
posed, were  consecrated  by  druidi- 
cal superstition,  and  associated  with 
the  attributes  of  divinity.  The  wild 
and  gloomy  spot  of  druidical  wor- 
ship was  sometimes  surrounded  by 
a  ditch  and  a  vallum  of  earth,  and 
was  often  chosen  on  an  eminence, 
as  such  a  situation  allowed  a  free 
view  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

The  religion  of  the  Persians  and 
other  Oriental  people,  we  learn  from 
ancient  writers,  forbade  the  worship 
of  the  Deity  in  any  other  way  than 
under  the  open  air.  The  part  of 
the  Egyptian  temples  in  which  pub 
lie  worship  was  performed  was  un- 
roofed, and  a  similar  idea,  perhaps, 
gave  origin  to  th_e  hypaethral  tem- 
ples among  the  Greeks. 


TEM 


TEM 


We  have  in  all  probability  a  fine 
specimen  of  the  open  temples  of 
the  Orientals  in  the  ruins  described 
by  Pococke  and  Maundrell,  near 
Ain-el-Hye,  (the  serpent  fountain  :) 
the  former  writer  characterises  it 
as  "  one  of  the  greatest  and  most 
extraordinary  pieces  of  antiquity 
that  are  to  be  seen."  A  court  fifty 
yards  square,  has  been  cut  in  the 
natural  rock ;  the  sides  of  the  rock, 
;ibout  three  yards  high,  supplying 
,;he  place  of  walls,  except  on  the 
iorth,  where  it  is  open.  Here  there 
ire  signs  of  two  entrances,  which, 
ie  thinks,  were  joined  by  a  wall  on 
:;ach  side.  In  the  centre  of  this 
irea,  a  square  part  of  the  rock  has 
jeen  left  standing,  three  yards  high, 
md  five  yards  and  a  half  square,  to 
tenre  as  a  pedestal  for  a  throne. 
The  throne  itself  is  composed  of  four 
arge  stones  ;  two  at  the  sides,  one 
it  the  back,  and  another  overhang- 
,ng  them,  in  the  manner  of  a  cano- 
py: this  is  five  yards  and  three 
quarters  square,  and  has  a  hand- 
•ome  cornice  sculptured  round  it, 
,)f  a  kind  common  in  upper  Egypt. 
The  whole  structure  is  about  twenty 
,'eet  high,  and  fronts  the  open  side 
>f  the  court.  At  the  two  inner 
ingles  of  the  area,  there  seem  to 
lave  been  two  small  apartments: 
miliars  of  the  natural  rock  have  been 
,eft  here,  apparently  for  doorways, 
here  can  be  little  doubt  that  this 
'ourt  was,  as  Maundrell  supposes, 
in  idol  temple,  and  the  pile  in  the 
entre,  the  idol's  throne.  "  It 
eems  the  more  probable,"  he  re- 
marks, "  in  regard  that  Hercules, 
.  e.  the  sun,  the  great  abomination 
»f  the  Phenicians,  was  wont  to  be 
dored  in  an  open  temple." 
!  The  early  Grecian  temples  of 
tvhich  we  have  any  account,  bore  a 
;reat  affinity  to  those  of  the  Asiatics, 
md  other  ancient  people.  Accord- 
ing: to  Pausanias,  the  oracle  of  Del- 
)hi,  in  remote  ages,  was  consulted 


in  an  arbour  of  laurels.  Pausanias 
and  Herodotus  say,  that,  in  the 
most  ancient  times,  the  oracle  of 
Jupiter,  at  Dodona,  delivered  its 
oracles  from  an  old  oak.  Near 
Magnesia  on  the  Mseander,  accord- 
ing to  the  former  writer,  there  was 
a  grotto  consecrated  to  Apollo, 
which  was  celebrated  as  contain- 
ing an  exceedingly  ancient  statue 
of  the  divinity. 

On  mount  Octra,  in  Eubcea,  are 
the  remains  of  a  very  curious  tem- 
ple. It  has  no  columns,  and  in 
short  is  like  the  mouth  of  a  cavern. 
The  roof  is  simply  a  covering  of 
stone,  which  is  made  to  support 
itself,  and  of  which  no  other  exam- 
ple is  known.  That  portion  of  the 
roof  which  lies  upon  the  walls, 
counterpoises  the  weight  of  that 
which  is  between  them,  and  thus 
forms  the  ceiling.  The  eastern 
wall  appears  to  have  been  a  little 
thicker,  to  counterbalance  the  slabs, 
which  on  this  side  were  not  bevelled 
away  and  notched,  as  were  those 
on  the  west.  The  inclination  of  the 
slabs  answered  two  purposes — to 
throw  off  the  rain,  and  to  throw 
the  weight  more  upon  the  wall. 
The  opening  between  the  opposite 
projecting  stones  must  have  been 
about  two  feet,  which  was  probably 
formed  with  a  ridged  stone,  the 
whole  being  covered  with  slab 
stones.  The  remains  are  supposed 
to  have  belonged  to  a  temple  of  the 
Cyllenian  Mercury:  (Walpole's  Me- 
moirs, 289.  Fosbrooke's  Foreign 
Topography.) 

The  Egyptian  temples  are  re- 
markable for  their  massive  dimen- 
sions, and  for  the  number  and  dis- 
position of  the  columns,  contained 
in  the  several  enclosures  within  the 
walls,  and  continue  generally  to  the 
last  small  cella,  which  appears  to 
have  been  but  a  stable,  or  kind  of 
lodging  for  the  sacred  animal  which 
it  was  the  duty  of  the  priests  to 


TEM 

feed.  But  the  more  simple  was  this 
small  chamber,  into  which  it  is  pro- 
bable that  no  one  entered  but  the 
priests;  and  the  more  magnificent 
the  entrance  and  porticoes,  which 
conducted  to  it,  the  more  magic 
and  varied  were  the  effects  of  the 
architecture.  Obelisks,  colossal  sta- 
tues of  human  beings,  sphynxes, 
and  lions,  were  generally  placed  at 
the  entrance.  On  each  side  of  the 
entrance,  two  lofty  masses  of  ma- 
sonry, of  a  pyramidal  form,  arose, 
covered  generally  with  hieroglyphic 
bas-reliefs.  A  corbel,  scooped  out 
in  the  shape  of  a  gorge,  was  the  only 
crowning  ornament  both  of  the 
gateway  itself,  and  of  the  two  lofty 
masses  which  accompanied  it.  No 
pediment  or  roof  broke  the  horizon- 
tal line  of  the  platform  above,  where 
it  is  probable  that  the  priests  passed 
their  nights,  according  to  the  custom 
of  the  country.  It  was  here  that 
they  had  the  opportunity  of  making, 
under  a  clear  sky,  all  those  astro- 
nomical observations,  which  were 
one  of  their  principal  occupations. 
The  spectators  were  struck  with  ad- 
miration, before  they  entered,  at  the 
grandeur  of  these  enormous  masses, 
at  their  imposing  simplicity,  and  at 
the  symmetrical  arrangements  of 
the  hieroglyphic  figures  with  which 
they  were  covered.  The  vast  mag- 
nitude of  the  blocks  employed  in 
their  construction,  the  difficulty  of 
transporting,  cutting,  and  polishing 
them,  all  made  them  appear  the 
works  of  more  than  human  arti- 
sans. The  scene  changed  on  enter- 
ing the  first  enclosure,  and  was 
varied  successively  by  the  different 
positions  of  the  columns,  generally 
of  colossal  magnitude,  which  were 
there  distributed,  sometimes  in  a 
peristyle  of  a  single  or  double  range, 
sometimes  in  porticoes  of  four  ranges 
deep,  and  which  presented  them- 
selves to  the  traveller  either  on  his 
side,  or  before  him,  sometimes  close 

382 


TEM 

by  him,  and  at  others  at  a  suffi- 
cient distance,  so  as  agreeably  to 
occupy  his  view  by  the  contemplaJ 
tion  of  their  richness,  of  the  bril-j 
liancy  and  tint  of  their  marbles,! 
and  of  the  varied  play  of  their  «baJ 
dows  at  different  hours  of  the  day.: 
All  these  bodies,  though  at  rest,' 
seemed  to  move  about  him  in  the, 
enclosure,  while,  at  every  step  hei 
advanced,  their  positions  varied  withj 
the  points  of  view.  Different  emo-; 
tions  occupied  his  mind  in  suc-| 
cession,  and  filled  him  with  thati 
trouble  and  inquietude  by  which 
the  priests  knew  so  well  how  to| 
profit  in  gaining  credit  to  their  fa-; 
bles  and  oracles.  It  was  thus,  with-1 
out  doubt,  that  these  men,  who 
alone  possessed  knowledge  in  the 
midst  of  an  ignorant  people,  made 
use  of  the  powers  of  architecture, 
and  the  other  arts,  to  attract  by  the 
curiosity,  and  to  astonish  by  the 
grandeur  of  the  spectacle,  the  men 
whose  actions  they  wished  to  direct. 
The  lateral  facades  were  only  im- 
mense walls,  generally  adorned  with 
hieroglyphics;  their  simplicity,  as 
well  as  their  extent,  and  the  curi- 
osity excited  by  their  mystic  figures, 
redoubled  the  desire  which  every 
one  felt  to  penetrate  into  the  in- 
terior, to  contemplate  there  the  won- 
ders of  which  he  had  heard  mention 
from  the  initiated ;  to  obtain  this 
favour,  he  willingly  submitted  to 
perform  all  sacrifices,  and  to  go 
through  all  the  probations  which 
were  required  of  him. 

The  figures  on  plate  Temple  will 
give  a  better  idea,  than  any  descrip- 
tion of  the  plan  of  Egyptian  temples; 
Fig.  7,  is  a  plan  of  the  great  tern-i 
pie  at  Dendera,  (Tentvra)  whicl| 
has  been  described  under  the  arti- 
cle Dendera.  Figures  10  and  ll 
are  temples  at  Thebes,  near  th<j 
village  of  Medinet  Abu.  Figure  10 
(as  well  as  figure  12,  which  is  ;| 
plan  of  the  palace  at  Thebes,  se 


TEM 


Palace?)  exhibits  the  general  form 
of  the  entrance,  with  thetwe  masses 
of  masonry,  the  propyla  ovpyloncs, 
[seePropylon,?LndPyl6ne.)F\g.  8  is 
a  temple  in  the  isle  of  Elephantina, 
or  Philse,  and  approaches  more  to 
the  form  of  the  temples  of  the 
Greeks.  Fig.  9,  is  the  excavated 
temple  of  Ybsambul,  which  was  ex- 
plored by  Belzoni,  (see  Ybsambul. 
See  also  the  article  Egyptian  Ar- 
chitecture. 

In  every  city  of  Greece,  and  not 
only  in  its  immediate  environs,  but 
also  in  the  open  country,  there  was 
a  considerable  number  of  temples. 
We  need  not  wonder,  therefore, 
that  the  ruins  of  temples  at  the  pre- 
sent day  occur  more  frequently  than 
those  of  other  edifices.  That  divi- 
nity under  whose  protection  each 
:ity  was  placed,  had  commonly  the 
largest  and  finest  temple.  Such  at 
Athens  was  the  temple  of  Minerva, 
that  of  Diana  at  Ephesus,  that  of 
Apollo  at  Delphi,  that  of  Jupiter  at 
Olympia,  and  those  of  Venus  at 
Paphos  and  Cythaera,  and  of  the 
Capitoline  Jupiter  at  Rome.  The 
temples  which  were  built  in  the 
:ountrywere  generally  dedicated  to 
he  rural  deities,  or  to  those  which 
ivere  common  to  whole  nations.  At 
Pan  ionium  there  was  a  temple  of 
lupiter  Heliconius,  built  by  the 
onic  colonies  who  had  come  from 
\sia  Minor  to  Attica.  The  Doric 
:olonies  of  the  lesser  Asia  had  also 
'i  common  sanctuary,  the  temple  of 
Vpollo  Trtopius.  Near  Mylassa 
here  was  a  temple  of  Jupiter  Ca- 
iu3,  which  was  common  to  the 
Marians,  the  Lydians,  and  the  My- 
ians.  At  these  temples,  the  peo- 
ple held,  at  fixed  periods,  assem- 
blies to  sacrifice  to  the  gods,  to 
elebrate  festivals,  and  to  deliberate 
n  the  affairs  of  the  whole  nation, 
'he  temples  of  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
nans  were  not  generally  of  great 
xtent.    At  first  the  cella  was  only 

I 


TEM 

large  enough  to  contain  the  statue 
of  the  deity,  and  sometimes/ an 
altar.  In  after  times,  when  the 
people  were  more  opulent,  the  large 
sums  of  money  which  they  laid  out 
in  building  temples,  were  expended 
more  in  ornamenting  them,  than  in 
making  them  large.  Their  desig- 
nation did  not  require  much  extent, 
as  none  but  the  priests  entered  the 
cella,  and  the  people  collected 
around  the  exterior  of  the  temple, 
when  they  wished  to  sacrifice  to 
the  gods.  Those  temples  only  were 
made  large  which  were  consecrated 
to  the  tutelary  deities  of  a  city,  or 
to  those  who  were  principally  wor- 
shipped, or  those  temples  which 
were  common  to  whole  nations. 
They  were  generally  made  exten- 
sive, by  enlarging  the  porticoes 
with  which  they  were  surrounded, 
and  which  served  as  a  shelter  in 
time  of  rain.  Vitruvius  gives  us 
some  information  relating  to  the 
situation  which  the  Greeks  gene- 
rally chose  for  their  temples.  Yet 
we  cannot  suppose  that  they  gene- 
rally observed  the  rules  which  he 
gives  ;  the  numerous  exceptions 
with  which  we  meet,  appear  rather 
to  prove  the  contrary.  Vitruvius 
determines  the  situation  of  tem- 
ples partly  according  to  the  dif- 
ferent divinities  to  which  they  were 
consecrated.  The  temples  of  Jupi- 
ter, of  Juno,  and  of  Minerva,  whom 
several  cities  regarded  as  their  pro- 
tecting divinities,  were  built  on  the 
most  elevated  spot,  which  over- 
looked the  whole  city,  or  at  least 
the  greater  part  of  it.  Minerva, 
the  tutelary  divinity  of  Athens,  had 
her  throne  in  the  acropolis,  so  that 
all  who  came  to  Athens  could  per- 
ceive her  from  a  considerable  dis- 
tance; and  at  Rome,  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  in  the  capitol  was  that  of 
the  protecting  god.  The  temples 
of  Mercury  were  generally  situated 
by  the  forum,  or,  like  those  of  Isis 


TEM 

reckoned  by  the  intercolumniations. 
and,  according  to  Vitruvius,  they 
gave  to  each  side  twice  the  number 
of  intercolumniations  of  the  facade, 
so  that  a  temple  which  had  six  or 
eight  columns  in  front,  would  have 
on  each  side  eleven  or  fifteen.  Thus 
the  temple  near  the  Mylassa,  had  six 
columns  on  the  facades,  and  eleven 
on  each  side ;  that  of  Fortuna 
Virilis  at  Rome,  had  four  in  front, 
and  seven  on  each  side.  Some- 
times, however,  the  columns  at  the 
sides  are  an  even  number,  and 
either  double  or  not  double  of  those 
at  the  front.  Thus  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Panhellenius,  in  the  island 
of  iEgina,  had  six  in  front,  and 
twelve  on  each  side.  The  temple 
'at  iEgesta  in  Sicily,  as  well  as  the 
grand  temple  at  Psestum,  have  six 
columns  in  front,  and  fourteen  on 
each  side.  Some  temples  at  Se- 
linus  have  six  columns  in  front,  and 
on  the  sides  one  of  them  twelve,  one 
fourteen,  and  another  sixteen.  The 
greatest  temple  in  this  city  had 
eight  in  front,  and  sixteen  on  each 
side. 

Temples  are  classed  by  Vitruvius, 
according  to  the  disposition  of  their 
columns,  &c.  into  seven  kinds — 
the  vaog  tv  7rapaaTcicriv,  or  in  antis, 
the  prostylos,  amphiprostylos,  pe- 
ripteros,  dipteros,  pseudodipteros, 
and  hypa-thros.  The  temples  of 
Victory-without-wings  at  Athens,  is 
a  perfect  model  of  the  first  kind  :  it 
has  three  columns  between  the  antse 
which  terminate  the  walls  of  the 
cella,  and  the  Doric  entablature  is 
continued  through  the  whole  extent 
of  the  side  walls.  The  temple  of 
Diana,  as  represented  in  the  Iphi- 
genia  of  Euripides,  (Iph.  in  Taur. 
v.  113,)  was  of  this  kind.  The 
temple  of  Ceres  at  Eleusis  was  in 
antis,  but  the  addition  of  the  por- 
tico made  it  prostyle,  like  that  of 
Minerva  Polias  at  Athens.  The 
^onic  temple  of  the  Ilyssus,  and  the 


TEM 

temple  of  Iackly,  near  Mylassa 
are  amphiprostyle.     The  Romar 
peripteral  temples,   according  tq 
Vitruvius,  had  six  columns  in  tht 
fronts,  and  eleven  in  the  flanks! 
including  those  at  the  angles :  be  | 
tween  the  peristyle  and  the  walls  o 
the  cella,  was  the  width  of  one  ih| 
tercolumniation.  The  number  of  co  j 
lumns  in   the  flanks  of  Greciar 
hexastyle  peripteral  temples  doe; 
not  appear  to  have  been  regulatec 
by  the  number  in  the  fronts  :  it  ha:f 
been  believed,  that  it  alway?  ex 
ceeded  double  that  of  those  in  th< 
front;  but  in  the  temples  of  ^Egina 
Paestum,  Argos,  Syracuse,  iE^esta 
and  Selinus,  it  generally  exceed 
the  double  by  two  or  more.  Tin 
dipteral  temples  were  octastyle  ii 
the  fronts,  with  fifteen  columns  ii 
the  flanks,  and  a  double  row  sur 
rounding  the  cella,  the  walls  d 
which  ranged  with  the  column: 
which  were  third  in  order  from  th<j 
angles  of  the  fronts.    The  pseudos 
dipteral  differed  from  the  diptera 
only  in  omitting  the  second  rang<i 
of  columns  which  surrounded  th<; 
cella.    The  hypaethral  were  deca 
style  in  the  fronts,  resembled  ii 
other  respects  the  dipteral,  but  ha< 
a  double  row  of  columns  within  th< 
cella  :   the  front  was  sometime 
octastyle,  and  hexastyle.  The  tern 
pie  of  Paestum,  and  that  of  Jupite 
at  jEgina,  are  hexastyle-hypsethra 
as  well  as  was  the  temple  of  Jupite 
Olympius  at  Athens.    That  of  Ju 
piter   at  Selinus  is  octastyle-h) 
psethral.    Hypaethral  temples  wei 
generally,  if  not  universally,  ded 
cated  to  Jupiter,  which  is  explaine 
by  Varro,  (De  Ling.  Lat.  lib.  iv 
"  itaque  inde  ejus  perforatum  tet 
turn,  ut  videatur  divum,  id  est  ca 
lum,"  because  he  had  observed  b< 
fore, 44  nam  olim  Diovis  et  Die: 
piter  dictus,  hoc  est  aer,  et  di< 
pater."  The  temple  of  Apollo  Did; 
mseus,  is  mentioned  by  Strabo  j 


TEM 


TEM 


and  Serapis,  in  the  market.  Those 
of  Apollo  and  Bacchus  were  placed 
besides  the  theatres.    The  temples 
of  Hercules  were  generally  built 
near  the  gymnasia,   the  amphi- 
theatres, or  the  circus.    Those  of 
Mars,  of  Venus,  and  of  Vulcan, 
were  commonly  without  the  city, 
near  the  gates.    Those  dedicated 
to  Ceres  were  placed  also  without 
the  city,  in  a  quiet  and  retired 
place,  and  were  visited   by  few, 
except  those  who  were  initiated  in 
the  mysteries  of  the  goddess.  The 
Greeks   rarely   placed   the  tem- 
ple of  Vesta  without  the  walls,  but 
■generally  consecrated   to  her  the 
imost  beautiful   site.  Esculapius 
had  his  temple  also  without  the 
walls,  generally  in  a  lofty  situation, 
that  the  sick  who  came  to  consult 
the  god  might  have  the  benefit  of 
fresh  air.  The  direction  of  the  tem- 
ple, according  to  Vitruvius,  was  in 
general  so  contrived,  that  the  sta- 
tue of  the  deity,  placed  in  the  cella, 
might  be  turned  towards  the  west, 
ind  that  those  who  came  to  sacri- 
fice or  offer  up   prayers,  might 
,.ook  towards  the  east.    When  a 
i.emple  stood  by  the  side  of  a  river, 
he  principal  facade  was  generally 
urned  towards  its  bank.  The  same 
ule  was  followed  in  building  by  the 
oublic  roads;  the  principal  front 
dways  looked  towards  the  road,  so 
,hat  travellers  might  testify  their 
eneration   for   the   deities,  even 
whilst  they  were  passing  before  their 
emples.    In  cities,  the  habitations 
f  the  people  were  generally  built 
round  the  temple  :  the  inhabitants 
,f  Tanagra  in  Boeotia  were  an  ex- 
eption  to  this;  they  erected  their 
smples  by  themselves  in  one  part 
f  the  city,  and  their  dwellings  in 
ie  other. 

The  entrance  of  the  temples  of 
ie  Athenians  was  from  the  east ; 
hile,  on  the  contrary,  those  of  the 
legarians,  and   other  people  of 

"W  3C 


Dorian  origin,  had  their  approach 
from  the  west,  corresponding  with 
the  prevailing  practice  of  the  Ro- 
mans, as  found  in  the  precept  of 
Vitruvius.  The  most  ordinary  form 
given  to  temples  was  that  of  a  long 
square  ;  though  sometimes  they 
were  of  a  circular  form.  Those 
which  were  of  the  former  shape 
were  generally  twice  as  long  as 
broad,  and  their  cella  had  gene- 
rally, on  the  exterior,  porticos,  which 
adorned  sometimes  only  the  front 
facade,  sometimes  both  the  front 
and  back  facade,  and  at  others  were 
carried  all  round  the  four  sides. 
The  enclosed  part  of  the  temple 
was  called  the  naos,  domos,  sekos, 
or  cella.  (See  Cella,  Adytum.) 
The  front  portico  was  termed  frons, 
pronaos,  prodomos,  anticum  :  the 
back  part,  when  it  had  an  entrance 
and  portico,  was  termed  posticumf 
and  opisthodomus.  (  See  these 
words.)  Above  the  entablature  of 
the  columns  of  the  two  facades  was 
the  tympanum,  or  aetos.  See 
Tympanum. 

The  facades  of  temples  had 
always  an  even  number  of  columns, 
either  four,  six,  eight,  or  ten ;  and 
from  these  numbers  they  received 
the  names  of  tetrastyle,  hexastyle, 
octastyle,  or  decastyle,  (see  these 
articles.)  On  the  two  sides  the  co- 
lumns were  generally  an  odd  num- 
ber. The  Grecian  and  Roman  ar- 
chitects, however,  were  not  agreed 
as  to  the  disposition  of  the  columns 
on  the  sides.  When  the  facade  had 
six  or  eight  columns,  the  Greeks 
placed  on  each  side  thirteen  or 
seventeen.  Examples  of  this  are 
seen  in  the  small  temple  at  Pac- 
tum, in  the  temples  of  JunoLacinia 
and  of  Concord  at  Agrigentum,  in 
that  of  Jupiter  Nemseus,  between 
Argos  and  Corinth,  in  that  of 
Theseus,  and  the  Parthenon  at 
Athens,  and  in  several  others. 
The  Romans,    on  the  contrary 


I 


TEM 


TEM 


remaining  without  a  roof  or  account 
of  its  magnitude,  (lib.  xiv.)  but  it 
is  not  necessarily  inferred  that  it 
was  of  the  hypsethral  form.  One 
instance  of  a  temple  not  dedicated 
to  Jupiter,  having  columns  within 
the  cella,  was  that  of  Minerva  at 
Tegea.  (  Pausan.  lib.  viii.  c.  45.) 
That  the  Greeks  adhered  to  estab- 
lished rules  for  determining  the  pro- 
portions of  the  several  divisions  of 
the  vaoc,  or  temple  within  the  peri- 
style, cannot  be  doubted,  but  it  dif- 
fered much  from  that  given  by 
Vitruvius  for  Roman  temples. 

The  width  of  the  cella  in  all 
hexastyle  temples,  appears  to  have 
determined  the  distance  between 
the  lines  of  the  axes  of  the  columns 
in  the  peristyles.  In  the  following 
table  this  distance  is  to  the  width 
of  the  cella  very  near  the  ratio  of 
2:1. 


Distance 

Width 

between 

of 

Temples. 

axes. 

cella. 

At  Paestum .    .  . 

71 

10"  0 

30'  2" 

5 

—  iEgina  .    .  . 

41 

7  15 

20  10 

8 

—  Syracuse    .  . 

66 

4  54 

32    1  75 

Juno  at  Agrigen- 

tum    .    .  . 

50 

0  9 

25  5 

0 

Concord    .    .  . 

50 

2  8 

24  9 

0 

Theseus  at  Athens 

41 

5  85 

20  4 

5 

Minerva  Sunias  . 

40 

5  6 

21  0 

0 

Hexastyle  at  Seii- 

nus     .    .  . 

76 

4  0 

38  0 

0 

The  Ionic  temple  of  Minerva 
Polias  at  Athens,  affords  a  beauti- 
ful example  of  the  proportion  be- 
tween the  columns,  and  their  dis- 
tances at  that  period.  The  dia- 
meter of  its  columns  is  2'  3"  8,  and 
the  projection  of  the  step  before  the 
shaft  of  the  columns  1'  3"  6.  The 
proportion  of  the  length  of  the 
shafts  to  their  diameter  is  as  8.187 
to  1 :  the  height  of  the  capitals  is 
9'5,  that  is,  only  233  of  an  inch 
more  than  a  third  of  the  diameter. 
The  same  proportions  are  found  in 
the  temples  of  Apollo  Didymaeus, 

3S6 


Minerva  Polias  at  Priene.  and  Bac- 
chus at  Teos. 

The  temple  which  has  lately  been 
discovered  at  Cadachio  in  the  island 
of  Corfu,  is  hexastyle-peripteral. 
Its  intercolumniation  is  wide,  con- 
trary to  the  general  rule  of  the 
Greeks  in  erecting  temples  in  the 
Doric  style,  but  this  is  not  the  only 
example  remaining  of  a  similar  de- 
viation :  the  portico  of  Philip  at 
Delos,  and  the  Doric  temple  at 
Gnidus,  are  instances  in  which  they 
have  even  exceeded  the  diastyle. 

It  has  been  already  observed, 
that  the  general  form  of  temples 
was  a  long  square.  Sometimes, 
however,  they  were  built  of  u  cir- 
cular form,  though  not  among  the 
Greeks  at  an  early  period.  Although 
belonging  to  more  modern  times, 
they  appear,  nevertheless,  to  have 
been  a  Greek  invention.  There 
were  two  kinds  of  these  temples,  de- 
signated by  the  names  of  Monop- 
teral  and  Peripteral.  They  were 
covered  with  a  cupola,  whose  height 
was  equal  to  half  the  diameter  of 
the  building.  At  Puzzuoli  (Pu 
teoli)  we  find  the  remains  of  a 
monopteral  temple,  built  without 
doubt  in  the  time  of  Adrian,  or  of 
the  Antonines,  and  which  is  con- 
sidered as  a  temple  of  Serapis.  It 
agrees  in  the  ensemble  of  its  archi- 
tecture with  the  description  of  Vi- 
truvius, but  it  differs  from  it  in  the! 
details.  The  Pantheon  at  Rome; 
is  another  example  of  a  circular 
temple. 

The  most  ancient  temples  of  a, 
regular  construction  in  Italy,  ap- 
pear to  be  those  called  by  Vitruvius; 
Tuscan  temples.  In  his  time  then 
was  at  Rome  an  ancient  temple 
constructed  by  Etruscan  artistsi 
and  of  which  he  has  left  us  somii 
account.  It  was  the  temple  d 
Ceres,  near  the  great  circus.  I 
dated  from  the  year  of  Rome  26C 
having  been  built  by  the  dictatoi! 


TEM 


TEM 


A.  Posthumius.  The  Tuscan  or 
Etruscan  temples  were  of  an  ob- 
long, almost  perfectly  square  form. 
The  area  covered  by  the  temple 
was  separated  into  two  parts,  that 
behind  was  occupied  by  the  body 
of  the  temple,  and  the  fore  part  by 
a  portico  of  columns.  The  temple 
itself  was  divided  into  three  cellce. 
This  arrangement  was  observed  at 
Rome,  in  the  disposition  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  in  the  capitol : 
the  central  cella  was  consecrated  to 
Jupiter,  that  on  the  right  to  Mi- 
nerva, and  the  one  on  the  left  to 
Juno. 

In  the  plate  Temple  are  depict- 
ed the  principal  forms  of  Grecian 
temples;  others  are  given  in  differ- 
ent plates,  as  in  those  of  JEgesta, 
Athenian  Architecture,  &c.  Fig. 
1,  (pi.  Temple,)  is  a  hypacthral 
temple  ;  Jig.  2,  a  dipteral  temple  ; 
3,  a  temple  in  antis ;  4,  prostyle  ; 
5,  a  peripteral ;  and  6,  a  monopteral 
temple. 

The  admission  into  the  cella  of 
some  temples  was  interdicted  to  all. 
Pausanias  relates,  upon  report, 
(Arcad.  c.  5,  and  10,)  that  at  the 
portal  of  the  temple  of  Neptune, 
near  Mantinea,  the  prohibition  was 
indicated  by  a  mere  cord  stretched 
across  the  doorway,  and  that  iEpy- 
tus,  son  of  Hippothous,  having  with 
daring  effrontery  cut.  the  cord,  was 
immediately  on  entering  the  temple 
struck  blind  by  a  wave  of  sea 
water. 

In  different  places,  and  at  differ- 
ent periods,  many  deviations  have 
been  observed  from  the  established 
rules  in  building  temples,  some  of 
which  may  be  supposed  to  have 
been  the  effects  of  ignorance,  and 
others  of  caprice. 

The  temple  of  Minerva  at  Tegea 
is  described,  by  Pausanias,  as  having 
an  Ionic  peristylium,  and  within  an 
order  of  Doric  columns,  with  an- 
other of  the  Corinthian  order  above 


them.  The  Earl  of  Aberdeen  ob- 
serves, that  "  it  is  possible  that  we 
ought  to  reverse  the  order  in  whicb 
Pausanias  speaks  of  the  exterior 
and  interior  columns ;  as  it  is  more 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  peri- 
style was  Doric,  and  that  the  less 
massive  orders  were  in  the  interior 
of  the  building.  This  is  in  some 
measure  confirmed  by  the  mode 
actually  observed  in  the  temple  of 
Apollo  near  Phygalia,  which  is 
compared,  by  Pausanias,  with  that 
of  Minerva  at  Tegea."  It  is  ob- 
served, however,  by  the  editor  of 
the  Supplementary  volume  of  Stu- 
art's Antiquities  of  Athens,  that 
"  with  the  example  before  us,  (the 
temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  at  Phy- 
galia) of  a  Corinthian  column  rang- 
ing under  the  same  entablature  in 
the  midst  of  a  series  of  those  of  the 
Ionic  order,  we  have  little  reason  to 
view  with  surprise  the  statement  of 
Pausanias  on  the  columnar  arrange- 
ment of  the  temple  of  Tegea,  before 
the  principle  of  system  had  en- 
tirely pervaded  the  practice  of  the 
art  and  science  of  architecture."  In 
PI.  Carpentry,  c.  26,  Jig.  1,  is  the 
base  of  the  Ionic  columns  of  the 
interior  of  the  temple  of  Apollo 
Epicurius,  near  Phygalia  ;  and  Jig. 
2,  the  capital.  This  capital  has 
been  beautifully  executed  by  Messrs. 
Browne,  and  Co.,  Scagliola  manu- 
facturers, after  drawings  by  Mr.  C. 
R.  Cockerell,  at  the  Grange,  in 
Hampshire,  and  at  Oakley  Park, 
near  Ludlow,  in  Shropshire. 

Dr.  Clarke  discovered,  at  Argos, 
the  remains  of  the  hieron  of  Venus. 
"  The  site  is  now  occupied  by  a 
Greek  chapel,  but  it  contains  the 
remains  of  columns  whose  capitals 
are  of  the  most  ancient  Corinthian 
order;  a  style  of  building  unknown 
in  our  country,  scarcely  a  model  of 
it  having  been  seen  in  England, 
although  it  far  exceeds,  in  beauty 
and   simplicity,   the   gaudy  and 


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crowded  foliage  of  the  later  Co- 
rinthian." 

At  the  village  of  Bashiza,  near 
Batavia,  in  Syria,  are  the  remains 
of  a  small  temple,  which  is  called 
by  the  natives  Keny set-el- Awamyd, 
the  church  of  the  columns.  It 
measures  ten  paces  long  inside  the 
walls,  by  eight  in  breadth.  The 
eastern  wall  has  fallen  down,  and 
the  southern  has  been  thrown  out 
of  the  perpendicular  by  an  earth- 
quake. The  northern  wall,  instead 
of  completing  the  quadrangle,  con- 
sists of  two  curves  about  twelve 
feet  in  depth,  vaulted  like  niches, 
as  high  as  the  roof,  which  has  fallen 
in.  In  the  midst  of  the  building 
stands  a  large  and  venerable  oak, 
whose  branches  overshadow  the 
temple,  and  supply  the  place  of  the 
roof,  rendering  the  ruin  a  highly 
picturesque  object. 

In  some  temples  there  were  stair- 
cases for  the  purpose  of  ascending 
the  roof,  and,  in  the  hypaethros,  to 
communicate  with  the  gallery  above 
the  portico.  These  stairs  were 
worked  within  the  walls,  by  the 
side  of  the  entrance,  before  the 
cella;  and  to  occupy  less  space, 
they  were  made  winding.  There 
were  staircases  of  this  kind  in  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  at  Olympia,  and 
remains  of  them  are  observed  in 
the  great  temple  at  Peestum,  and 
in  the  temple  of  Concord  at  Agri- 
gentum. 

It  appears  to  have  been  a  prin- 
ciple of  early  Grecian  architecture, 
which  is  observed  most  conspicu- 
ously in  the  temple  of  Minerva 
Polias  at  Athens,  that  antse,  when 
they  did  not  support  the  end  of  an 
irchitrave,  had  no  relation  to  the 
width  of  the  columns  of  the  same 
height.  This  is  also  observed  at 
the  sides  of  other  prostyle  temples, 
as  that  of  the  Ilyssus,  and  in  the 
Parthenon,  Theseium,  Propyleea, 
&c.    In  that  of  Minerva  Polias, 


these  interior  antse  are  wrought  on 
the  blocks  which  fill  in  the  wall 
between  the  semi-columns,  the  ma- 
sonry of  which  has  a  large  groove 
sunk,  to  receive  the  square  railing- 
in  of  the  back  of  the  columns. 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the 
practice  of  diminishing  the  upper 
part  of  doors  and  windows  was  de- 
rived by  the  Greeks  from  Egypt: 
but  the  apertures  in  Egyptian 
buildings  are  found  of  equal  width 
at  top  and  bottom,  though  the 
ornaments  around  them  have  a 
very  considerable  expansion  at  the 
lower  part. 

The  Parthenon  is,  we  believe,  the 
only  early  Greek  temple  in  which 
the  pavement  of  the  cella,  which  is 
generally  elevated  above  that  of  the 
pronaos,  is  found  to  be  level  with 
it.  The  depression1  of  the  pave- 
ment of  the  central  part  of  the 
cella  of  this  temple,  is  also  consi- 
dered to  be  conclusive  proof  of  the 
original  existence  of  an  hypaethros, 
by  its  analogy  with  that  of  other  tem- 
ples, and  with  the  compluvia  found 
within  the  edifices  of  Pompeii. 

The  statue  of  the  god  to  whom 
the  temple  was  consecrated,  was 
the  most  sacred  object  it  contained, 
and  was  the  grand  ornament  of  the 
cella.  Great  care  was  always  taken 
that  it  should  be  executed  by  a  dis- 
tinguished artist,  though  it  were  for 
a  small  temple.  In  the  most  early 
times  the  statue  of  the  divinity  was 
formed  of  earth  and  wood,  after- 
wards of  metal,  stone,  or  ivory. 
There  were  also,  in  general,  other 
statues  of  different  divinities  placed 
in  various  parts  of  the  temple.  The 
altar  for  sacrifice  was  placed  before 
the  statue  of  the  divinity  to  whom 
the  temple  was  dedicated,  a  little 
less  elevated  than  the  pedestal  of 
the  statue,  and  turned  towards  the 
east.  Sometimes  one  cella  con- 
tained the  altars  of  several  deities. 
In  the  Erectheum,  at  Athens,  there 


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TEM 


was  an  altar  dedicated  to  Neptune, 
on  which  they  also  offered  sacri- 
fices to  Erectheus ;  there  was,  be- 
sides this,  an  altar  consecrated  to 
the  hero  Butes,  and  a  third  dedi- 
cated to  Vulcan. 

The  steps  which  surrounded  the 
temples  may  be  regarded  as  one  of 
their  most  essential  parts ;  they 
served  for  a  base,  and  distinguished 
them  from  other  edifices.  In  the 
most  ancient  times,  the  Greeks 
raised  their  temples  generally  upon 
mountains  and  hills,  because  their 
most  considerable  cities  were  built 
in  such  situations.  But  when  the 
cities  by  degrees  had  been  enlarged, 
so  that  part  of  their  buildings  occu- 
pied the  plain,  the  temples  were 
raised  on  a  kind  of  base,  that 
they  might  be  a  little  elevated 
above  the  common  habitations  of 
the  people ;  and  to  reach  the 
pavement  from  the  outside,  it  be- 
came necessary  to  surround  them 
with  steps;  and  as  these  steps  were 
found  to  increase  the  majesty  of 
their  appearance,  they  were  after- 
wards adopted  even  in  those  tem- 
ples which  were  built  upon  the 
summits  of  mountains. 

The  interior  of  the  temples  was 
generally  decorated  with  paintings, 
representing  the  actions  of  the  gods, 
and  of  the  deified  heroes  of  early 
ages.  The  whole  temple  was  fre- 
quently surrounded  by  an  enclosed 
court,  called  the  peribolos,  (see 
Peribolus,)  and  within  this  court 
was  often  included  a  grove,  statues, 
buildings  appertaining  to  the  tem- 
ple, sometimes  other  temples,  and 
even  buildings  of  a  different  cha- 
racter. 

We  have  still  many  remains  of 
different  kinds  of  temples.  We 
find  also  many  representations  of 
temples  of  different  forms,  both  ob- 
long square  and  circular,  some 
raised  on  steps  which  are  continued 
all  round,  and  others  with  steps 


only  in  front.  Some  have  four, 
others  have  six,  eight,  and  ten  co- 
lumns. A  medal  of  Venus,  struck 
at  Corinth,  represents  a  temple  in 
antis ;  and  a  medal  of  Trajan, 
minted  at  Galatia,  represents  a 
prostyle  temple,  in  which  the  two 
columns  between  those  at  the  angles 
have  been  left  out,  to  give  room 
for  a  figure  of  the  statue  of  the 
god  Mensis,  whom  the  Galatians 
principally  worshipped.  Several 
medals  of  Corinth  have  different 
circular  temples ;  and  they  are  also 
found  on  some  of  the  imperial 
medals:  the  latter  represent  chiefly 
temples  of  Vesta,  of  Mars,  and  of 
Juno  Martialis  :  all  these  temples 
appear  to  have  been  monopteral. 
The  ancient  Greek  medals  have 
seldom  representations  of  tem- 
ples ;  but  they  are  frequently 
found  on  medals  of  Greek  cities, 
after  they  were  subject  to  the  Ro- 
mans. Many  of  them  have  been 
executed  by  artists  totally  ignorant 
of  the  rules  and  principles  of  archi- 
tecture, and  often  by  those  who 
were  ignorant  of  the  real  form  of 
the  building  which  they  intended 
to  represent.  On  a  medal  of  Tibe- 
rius, struck  at  Abdera,  we  have  a 
temple  with  five  columns  in  front. 
However,  all  medals  do  not  deserve 
the  reproach  of  giving  false  repre- 
sentations of  edifices.  The  finest 
representations  of  temples  are  found 
on  the  medals  of  some  Roman  fa- 
milies, such  as  those  of  the  family 
of  Petilia  and  Volteja,  and  on  the 
imperial  medals,  till  about  the  time 
of  Commodus.  Amongst  these  tem- 
ples figured  on  medals,  some  are 
dedicated  to  the  protecting  deities 
of  cities,  others  belong  to  a  nation 
in  common,  and  others  belong  to 
towns  which  had  the  dignity  of 
neocorate.  The  temples  of  the 
deities  adored  in  particular  cities 
frequently  occur  on  their  medals. 
Thus,  on  a  medal  of  Athens,  we 

389 


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'  TEM 


see  the  Acropolis  and  the  Parthe- 
non. The  temple  of  Venus  Paphia 
is  represented  on  the  medals  of  the 
isle  of  Cyprus,  of  Sardis  in  Lydia, 
and  of  the  city  of  Pergamus  in 
Mysia.  The  temple  of  Diana 
adorns  the  medals  of  Ephesus,  as 
well  as  those  of  Magnesia,  on  the 
Maeander,  of  Abydus,  and  other 
cities.  The  temple  of  Diana  Per- 
gsea  is  seen  on  the  medals  of  Perga, 
in  Pamphylia ;  that  of  Juno  Pro- 
nuba,  or  Samia,  on  the  medals  of 
Samos,  and  that  of  Apollo  on  those 
of  Apollonia,  in  Mysia;  and  on 
those  of  several  other  cities.  The 
temple  of  Jupiter  Capitolinus  is 
found,  not  only  on  a  medal  of  the 
family  Petilia,  but  also  on  those  of 
several  of  the  emperors,  such  as 
those  of  Vespasian  and  Domitian, 
who  rebuilt  it.  On  the  medals  of 
Augustus,  we  have  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  Tonans,  which  he  built  in  a 
most  magnificent  style.  Temples 
common  to  a  whole  nation  are 
found  on  the  medals  of  Proconsular 
Asia,  of  Bithynia,  Cilicia,  Galatia, 
Ionia,  Lesbus,  Macedonia,  Phoeni- 
cia, and  Pontus.  The  title  of 
neocoros  was  given,  in  early  times, 
to  those  who  had  the  care  of  the 
temple;  afterwards  it  signified  those 
who  held  the  office  of  protector  of 
the  temple,  who  watched  over  its 
rights  and  privileges,  guarded  the 
sacred  treasures,  and  had  the  care 
of  the  sacrifices  and  solemn  games. 
The  cities  themselves  were  some- 
times made  the  neocori  of  the  tem- 
ples, and  often  testified  their  pride 
in  the  office  by  their  medals,  which 
sometimes  bear  a  single  temple,  at 
others  two,  and  even  three. 

We  here  subjoin  the  length  and 
width  of  the  largest  temples  of 
antiquity  raised  in  conformity  with 
Grecian  art.  From  the  researches 
set  on  foot  by  the  Dilettanti  Soci- 
ety, the  magnitude  of  several  of 
them  has  been  recently  ascertained. 

390 


Lgth. 
in  ft. 
425 

Wth. 
in  ft. 
220 

354 
344 

171 
166 

303. G 

217 

178 

367 
358 

165 
172 

Temples 
Diana  at  Ephesus  (Pliny)  . 
Jupiter  Olympius  at  Athens 

(Stuart)   

J  uno  at  Samos(Antiq.of  Ionia) 
Apollo  Didymasus  at  Miletus 

(id.)  

Ceres    at    Eleusis    (  Uned. 

Antiq.  of  Attica)  .  .  . 
Great    temple    at  Selinus 

(Wilkins)  

Jupiter  at  Agrigentum  (id.) 

On  the  temples  of  the  ancients, 
besides  the  splendid  architectural 
works  which  have  been  published 
of  late  years,  the  reader  may  con- 
sult the  treatise  of  Buleuyer,  "  De 
TemplisEthnicorum,"in  the  seventh 
volume  of  the  Thesaurus  Antiq. 
Grsec.  of  Gronovius. — -Joh.Kool,  De 
Templis  Antiquorum,  Lug.  Bat. 
1695. — Rycquius,  De  Capitolis. — 
Castalio,  De  Templo  Pacis.  — 
I/Abbe  May,  Temples  Anciens  et 
Modernes. — Stieglitz,  on  the  Ar- 
chaeology of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
Architecture,  (in  German.) 

Temple,  Ship.  Governor  Pow- 
nall,  in  the  seventh  volume  of  the 
Archaeologia,  (p.  149.)  describes  a 
singular  monument  of  antiquity, 
near  Dundalk,  in  Ireland/which  is 
called  a  ship  temple.  It  is  called 
by  the  natives,  Fas  nahin  aoidh- 
che,  the  one-night's  work.  This 
building  is  situated  two  miles  west 
of  Dundalk,  in  the  barony  of  the 
same  name,  and  is  composed  of  a 
brownish  grit.  The  two  or  three 
first  courses  above  the  ground  are 
mostly  of  large  stones,  from  two  to 
three  feet  broad,  and  from  twelve 
to  sixteen  inches  high  ;  the  rest 
above  it  of  stones  of  all  sizes,  from 
eight  to  twelve  inches,  having  now 
and  then  a  large  stone  intermixed. 
The  mortar  seems  not  over  tena- 
cious, as  he  was  told  the  stones  are 
easily  taken  away.  The  mount  on 
which  it  stands  had  originally  two 
walks  round  it,  with  as  many  slopes, 
which  are  almost  destroyed.  The 


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country  about  it  is  very  uneven, 
being  composed  of  hillocks  and 
hollows,  which  prevent  the  sight 
from  extending  to  any  distance. 
Governor  Pownall  thinks  that  it 
has  been  the  work  of  the  Victs, 
or  Ficts,  as  the  Welsh  call  them, 
these  Picti,  Pictones,  Vic-ingi,  and 
Victones,  as  the 'Romans  in  differ- 
ent situations  pronounced  the  name, 
these  Vick-anders  and  Vick-ingers, 
as  the  word  is  written  on  their  own 
Runic  monuments,"  who  "  made 
very  early  incursions  into,  and 
even  invasions  of,  Ireland."  "These 
people  came  from  a  country,  and 
were  of  a  race,  who  paid  divine 
honours  to  the  form  of  a  ship,  as 
the  symbol,  idol,  or  rather  as  the 
temple  of  the  divinities  whom  they 
worshipped.  They  supposed  the 
gods,  whom  they  called  Ases,  to 
have  a  ship  which  the  Nani  made 
for  them,  and  that  these  gods,  when 
they  passed  through  the  metaphy- 
sical regions  of  the  world,  sailed  in 
this  ship.  To  this  ship  they  gave 
the  name  Skidbladner,  (Edda.  edit. 
Goransoni.)  Nani  fecerunt  Skid- 
bladnerum,  et  dederunt  Frejero. 
Heec  adeo  magna  est  ut  par  sit 
omnibus  Asis  et  quidem  armatis 
ferendis,  velisque  explicatis  statim 
ventum  nansiscitur  secundum,  quo- 
cunque  sit  abitura.  Cum  vero  non 
navigandum  sit  adeo  multis  constat 
partibus  ut  complicata  in  pera  in- 
cludi  possit.  Now,  if  their  religious 
faith  taught  them  to  believe  that 
the  gods  themselves  chose  this  kind 
of  vehicle,  and  that  ministering 
gods  or  priests  of  the  intellectual 
world  prepared  such  for  them, 
what  form  of  temple  could  be  more 
conformable  to  these  opinions,  or 
become  a  more  proper  symbol  of  the 
residence  of  these  gods,  than  that 
of  a  skip."  In  addition,  he  cites 
Tacitus  to  prove  that  this  form  of 
temple  or  shrine  was  in  use  among 
the  Suevi.    He  conjectures,  there- 


fore, "  that  this  ship  temple  is  the 
symbol  of  the  sacred  Skidbladner, 
built  by  the  Nani."  It  is  conjec- 
tured, by  Mr.  Ledwick,  that  these 
ship  temples  also  served  as  tombs. 
"  Antinous,  as  appears  by  a  pas- 
sage of  Epiphanius,  (Cuperi  Harp, 
p.  14.)  was  interred  in  a  boat.  One 
of  the  laws  of  the  Danish  prince 
Frotho  is,  that  each  general  or 
officer,  who  fell  in  battle,  should  be 
burnt  in  a  pile  made  of  his  ship. 
(Sax.  Grammat.  lib.  v.  p.  87.)  The 
Icelanders  buried  their  chiefs  in  a 
boat.  Asmund  would  not  suffer  his 
faithful  servant  to  lie  in  the  same 
skiff  with  him  : 

*  The  room  within  the  boat  is  too  nirrow 
A  warrior  should  have  a  belter  place; 
For  I  can  govern  a  boat  by  myself.' 

"  At  length  the  northerns  erected 
royal  tombs,  or  tumuli,  of  the  size 
and  figure  of  a  great  ship,  (Steph. 
ad  Sax.  Gram.  p.  91.)  These  tombs 
were  afterwards  temples,  whereat 
the  people  annually  assembled  to 
offer  sacrifice  for  the  prosperity  of 
the  nation."  Another  ship  temple, 
discovered  in  the  county  of  Mayo, 
is  described  in  the  same  volume  of 
the  Archaeologia,  (p.  269.)  "  On 
a  conical  isole  hill,  about  two  miles 
from  the  Mullet,  on  the  western 
coast  of  the  county  of  Mayo,  stands 
a  very  ancient  and  curious  monu- 
ment, in  good  preservation.  The 
walls  are  two  feet  thick,  and  formed 
of  courses  of  well-jointed  stones, 
but  without  cement.  Their  eleva- 
tion to  the  roofing  is  seven  feet; 
the  length  of  the  room  fifteen  feet ; 
the  breadth  unequal,  the  ground- 
plan  forming  a  curvilineal  triangle. 
The  door  placed  on  one  side  is  con- 
stituted of  three  large  stones,  two 
conveying  uprights  with  an  impost. 
The  roof  is  made  with  large  flag- 
stones, with  a  grassy  covering.  There 
is  no  tradition  respecting  it.  The 
natives  call  it  Leabba  na  Fathack, 
or  the  giant's  bed."    In  the  twenty- 


T  E  O 


TER 


second  chapter  of  the  fourth  book 
of  the  Gothic  History  of  Procopius, 
is  a  description  of  a  very  ancient 
ship  temple  on  the  shore  of  the 
Phoeacians. 

Templet,  a  mould  used  by 
bricklayers  and  masons  for  cutting 
or  setting  the  work ;  a  short  piece 
of  timber  sometimes  laid  under  a 
girder. 

Tenaille,  (Fr.)  in  fortification, 
an  outwork  resembling  a  horn- 
work,  but,  instead  of  two  demi- 
bastions,  having  only  in  front  a 
re-entering  angle  between  the  same 
wings,  without  planks,  the  two  sides 
being  parallel.  A  simple  or  single 
tenaille,  consists  of  two  faces  or 
sides,  including  a  re-entering  angle. 
A  double  or  flanked  tenaille,  has 
two  re-entering  angles.  A  tenaille 
in  the  fosse,  is  raised  before  the 
courtin,  in  the  midst  of  a  fosse.  A 
tenaille  of  the  place,  is  the  face  of 
the  place,  raised  between  the  points 
of  two  neighbouring  bastions,  in- 
cluding the  courtin,  two  flanks 
raised  on  the  courtin,  and  the 
two  sides  of  the  bastions  which 
face  one  another. 

Tenia,  see  Tcenia. 

Tenon,  see  Carpentry,  and 
Mortise. 

>  Teocalli,  see  Cholula. 

Tension,  (Lat.)  the  degree  in 
which  a  piece  of  timber  is  strained 
by  drawing  it  in  the  direction  of  its 
length. 

Teos,  an  island  of  Ionia,  cele- 
brated for  its  temple  of  Bacchus, 
the  ruins  of  which  were  visited  by 
Chandler,  and  described  in  the  first 
volume  of  the  Ionian  Antiquities. 
No  vestiges  of  the  plan,  aspect,  or 
species  of  the  temple  could  be  as- 
certained, from  the  confused  state 
of  the  ruins.  But  it  is  described 
by  Vitruvius  as  an  octostyle-dip- 
teros.  The  plinth  of  the  base  is 
formed  into  the  upper  step :  if  the 
height  of  the  uppermost  step  is  divi- 


ded into  two  parts,  three  of  them  give 
the  breadth.  The  diameter  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  columns  is  3'  3 "6, 
which  is  less  than  the  diameterof  the 
astragal  under  the  capital  by  eight-  \ 
tenths,  and  exceeds  that  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  shaft  only  by  1"8. 
The  plinth,  lower  torus,  and  scotia, 
with  its  fillets,  are  of  one  piece  of  i 
marble.  The  upper  torus,  with  an 
astragal,  is  annexed  to  the  apo-  j 
phyges  of  the  column,  perhaps  to 
strengthen  and  protect  it  from  in- 
jury, the  projecture  being  very  ; 
great.  The  small  diminution  of  the 
column,  Chandler  thinks,  proves 
that  the  two  portions  of  the  shafts 
he  measured  belonged  to  different 
columns,  the  upper  part  probably 
to  the  internal  range  of  the  dip- 
teros,  and  the  lower  to  the  outer. 

Tepidarium,  (Lat.)  the  name 
of  one  of  the  apartments  in  the 
Roman  baths.  In  the  baths  of 
Diocletian,  before  their  demolition,  I 
the  tepidarium  appears  to  have  been 
a  magnificent  structure ;  it  was  a  i 
grand  octagonal  saloon,  of  an  ob- 
long figure,  of  which  each  face 
formed  a  semicircle;  its  vaulted 
roof  was  supported  by  several  rows 
of  columns,  of  an  extraordinary 
altitude. 

Term,  or  Terminus,  a  sort  of 
pillar  in  form  of  a  reversed  pyra- 
mid, crowned  with  the  bust  of  a 
man  or  woman  as  a  capital.    See  | 
Caryatic. 

Terra-cotta, (Lat.)  baked  earth. 
Earth  or  clay  was  the  first  material 
used  by  artists,  both  in  building 
and  modelling.  In  the  time  of  Pau- 
sanias,  there  were  in  many  temples  , 
statues  of  the  deities  made  of  this 
substance,  as  at  Tritaea,  in  Achaia. 
Bas-reliefs  of  terra-cotta  were  fre- 
quently employed  to  adorn  the 
friezes  of  temples.  They  served  j 
also  for  models  to  the  artists. 
Many  tombs  found  in  the  Via 
Appia,  and  in  Campagna  of  Rome, 


I 

TET 

as  well  as  the  small  temple  of 
Honour  and  Virtue,  have  orna- 
ments of  this  substance.  The  ruins 
of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  are 
full  of  bass-reliefs  and  other  terra- 
cotta ornaments,  and  they  are  to 
be  seen  in  the  cabinet  of  almost 
every  antiquary.  In  modern  times 
terra-cotta  has  been  much  used  in 
making  architectural  ornaments,  it 
being  plastic,  easily  worked,  and 
at  the  same  time  solid,  and  not 
expensive. 

Terrace  Roofs,  roofs  which 
are  flat  at  the  top. 

Terras,  the  same  as  Tarras. 
1  Terre  Plain,  in  fortification, 
a  platform  or  horizontal  surface  of 
the  rampart,  with  a  little  slope  on 
the  outside,  for  the  recoil  of  the 
cannon. 

'  Tesselated  Pavement,  see 
Pavement. 

Tessera,  (Gr.)  a  cube  or  die;  a 
composition  for  covering  flat  roofs. 

Tester,  (from  teste,  or  tcte,  Fr. 
the  head,)  a  flat  canopy  over  a  pul- 
pit, tomb,  &c. 

\  Testudo,  (Lat.)  a  name  given 
'among  the  ancients  to  a  kind  of 
light  surbased  vault,  with  which 
they  covered  the  grand  halls  in  the 
baths  and  mansions.  They  were 
often  formed  of  iron,  or  of  wood, 
and  covered  with  mortar  or  stucco. 
These  kinds  of  vaults  have  been  dis- 
covered at  Herculaneum  and  Pom- 
peii, but,  from  their  want  of  soli- 
dity, they  have  not  been  able  to 
resist  the  catastrophe  which  over- 
threw these  two  cities. 

Tetradoron,  (Gr.)  a  kind  of 
bricks,  four  palms  in  length,  which 
were  commonly  used  by  the  Greeks 
in  building  their  private  dwelling 
houses. 

Tetragon,  ( Gr. )  a  figure  of 
four  sides  and  angles,  more  com- 
monly called  a  quadrangle. 

Tetuapastus,  (Gr.)  a  machine 
with  four  pulleys. 
■  3D 


THE 

Tetrastyle,  (Gr.)  a  portico 
consisting  of  four  columns. 

Thatch,  a  roof  of  straw  or 
reeds,  used  in  cottages,  barns,  and 
such  like  buildings. — The  antiquity 
of  thatching  is  mentioned  by  Ser- 
ous, (in  Virg.  Eel.  i.)  and  Hero- 
dotus describes  the  houses  of  Sar- 
dis  as  thatched  with  reeds. 

Theatre,  (Gr.  from  deaofiai,  to 
behold,)  a  place  appropriated  for 
the  representation  of  dramatic 
spectacles.  Next  to  the  temples, 
among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the 
theatres  were  the  most  important 
public  edifices.  The  Greeks  attri- 
buted their  invention  to  Bacchus, 
and  generally  consecrated  them  to 
that  god.  In  the  earliest  times, 
the  theatre  was  often  raised  within 
the  enclosure  of  his  temples.  Every 
town,  which  was  in  the  least  consi- 
derable, possessed  a  theatre,  be- 
cause the  dramatic  representations 
were  considered  not  only  as  an 
amusement,  but  also  as  a  part  of 
the  religious  worship,  and  they 
were  accordingly  represented  in 
honour  of  the  gods.  The  origin 
of  dramatic  entertainments  must  be 
looked  for  in  the  solemn  proces- 
sions in  honour  of  Bacchus  and 
Ceres,  at  the  times  of  harvest  and 
vintage.  At  these  festivals  they 
sung  the  dithyrambs  in  honour  of 
Bacchus,  and  accompanied  them 
with  dances.  Afterwards  appeared 
persons  disguised  as  satyrs,  sile- 
nuses,  and  nymphs,  and  the  history 
of  the  adventures  of  their  divinities 
was  related,  at  intervals,  between 
the  dances  and  the  choruses  held 
in  honour  of  Bacchus.  Thespis 
introduced  this  custom  into  Attica, 
but  before  his  time  it  had  been 
practised  in  other  parts  of  Greece. 
At  Athens  the  first  step  was  made 
towards  the  perfection  of  the  dra- 
matic art,  by  putting  into  writing 
those  declamatory  stories  which 
had  before  been  delivered  extem- 

393 


THE 


THE 


pore.  This  rude  satyric  drama  was 
transformed  by  Phrynichus  and 
Susarion,  into  the  tragic  and  comic 
choruses,  or  into  tragedy  and 
comedy. 

That  they  might  have,  in  these 
early  times,  a  place  where  they 
could  be  under  shelter  from  the 
burning  rays  of  the  sun,  while 
relating  the  adventures  of  the  gods 
and  heroes,  an  arbour  was  con- 
structed of  the  branches  of  trees, 
which  represented  the  scene.  This 
was  the  contrivance  they  made  use 
of  in  the  country.  But  similar  festi- 
vities were  soon  exhibited  in  the 
towns,  where  a  wooden  scaffold  was 
raised,  or  more  commonly  the 
spectacles  were  exhibited  on  carts, 
as  ancient  writers  report  to  have 
been  the  practice  with  Thespis. 
Such  theatres  as  these  at  first 
scarcely  merited  the  name :  but 
afterwards  particular  edifices  were 
consecrated  for  the  purpose  of  dra- 
matic representations,  and  were  ren- 
dered remarkable  by  the  vastness, 
magnificence,  and  beauty  of  their 
architecture. 

In  the  Grecian  colonies,  it  ap- 
pears that  theatres,  well  distributed, 
were  built  at  an  earlier  period  than 
even  in  Greece  itself.  At  iEgesta, 
in  Sicily,  and  in  the  isle  of  Cys- 
thena,  (now  Castella  Rosso,)  at  the 
southern  point  of  Asia  Minor,  are 
found  theatres  that  appear  to  be  of 
very  high  antiquity:  their  disposi- 
tion is  very  simple,  and  they  have 
but  a  single  stage  of  seats,  to  which 
two  stairs,  disposed  in  a  manner 
altogether  arbitrary,  and  destitute 
of  symmetry,  conduct,  which  pro- 
bably was  regulated  by  the  coi/ve- 
niences  of  the  place.  At  Adria,  a 
colony  of  the  Etruscans,  are  also 
found  the  remains  of  a  theatre, 
which  cannot  have  been  a  work  of 
the  Romans,  but  which  must  be 
dated  from  a  more  remote  anti- 
quity, as  is  evident  from  its  archi- 


tecture, and  from  the  history  o 
this   city.     These   theatres,  witl 
many  others  in  the  Grecian  colo 
nies,  were  constructed  of  stone, 
a  period  when,  in  Greece  itself 
almost  the  sole  material  used  ii 
the  erection  of  such  buildings  waJ 
wood.   In  the  time  of  the  dramatu 
poet  Pratinas,  who  lived  in  th( 
seventieth  olympiad,  there  existed! 
even  at  Athens,  only  a  woodei 
theatre.  During  the  representation 
of  one  of  his  pieces,  the  seats  gav< 
way,  and  this  accident  was  th( 
cause  that,  in  the  time  of  Themis ' 
tocles,  a  theatre  of  stone  was  erect  ! 
ed,  which  was  named  the  theatn 
of  Bacchus,  because  it  was  situater 
near  an  ancient  temple  of  that  god 
It  was  hollowed  out  of  that  flanl 
of  the  mountain  of  the  Acropolis 
which  looks  towards  mount  Hymet 
tus,  and  was   of  a  considerably 
extent,  as  was  required  in  a  city  si 
populous  as  Athens.    Athens  ap- 
pears to  have  been  the  first  city  o 
Greece  proper  which  possessed  i 
theatre  of  stone.    At  Laeedsemor 
there  was  a  theatre  of  white  mar- 
ble, and  the  ruins  of  it  still  bea: 
witness  to  its  extent  and  beauty 
A  view  of  them  may  be  seen  in  the 
first  volume  of  Le  Roy,  Monumem 
de  la  Grece,  pi.  27.    The  chief  of 
all  the  theatres  of  Greece  were 
those  of  the  isle  of  iEgina,  of  Epi- 
daurus,  and  of  Megalopolis.  The 
theatre  of  Epidaurus,  situated  in 
the  sacred  grove  of  Esculapius,  was 
built  by  Polycletus,  and  surpassed 
in  the  perfection  of  its  disposition, 
and  in  the  beautiful  proportion  oi 
all  its  parts,  every  thing  of  the 
kind  in  Greece.    Some  ruins  ol 
this  theatre  still  remain,  and  are 
described  by  Chandler,  and  also  b>; 
Villoison  in  his  prolegomena  to  his 
edition  of  Homer,  page  1.  note  (1.1 
Those  of  jEgina  and  Megalopolis 
were  equally  celebrated. 

About  the  time  when  this  theatn 


THE 


/as  built  at  Athens,  it  appears  that 
he  people  of  Magna  Grs?cia,  of 
Sicily,  and  of  Asia  Minor,  were 
ither  building  new  theatres,  or 
mbellishing  the  old  ones  in  most 
f  their  cities.  Sicily  had  many 
ne  theatres;  and,  according  to 
'icero  and  Diodorus  Siculus,  those 
f  Agyrium  and  Syracuse  were 
lore  particularly  celebrated.  The 
itter  was  remarkable  for  its  size, 
s  well  as  for  its  fine  situation',  and 
,s  ruins  are  at  the  present  day  an 
bject  of  admiration  to  travellers. 
it  Tauromenium  there  was  also 

magnificent  theatre,  which,  if  we 
lay  form  our  judgment  from  the 
lan,  is  of  Grecian  origin ;  but  it 
ppears  to  have  been  rebuilt  and 
mbellished  by  the  Romans,  from 
ne  disposition  of  the  scene,  and 
:ie  portico  behind  the  highest 
ange  of  seats.  For  an  account 
f  these  theatres,  the  reader  may 
onsult  Riedesel,  Voyage  dans  la 
icile,  &c.  and  M.  Houel,  Voyage 
'ittoresque. 

Modern  travellers  find  remains 
f  theatres  in  several  cities  of  Asia 
Iinor.  The  greater  part  are  not 
f  so  remote  a  date  as  the  times  of 
le  Greeks,  but  they  have  been 
uilt,  or  at  least  rebuilt,  by  the 
tomans,  and  distributed  according 
b  their  manner.  Chandler  and 
I'ococke  are  the  two  travellers  who 
ive  us  the  largest  details  of  the 
!?mains  of  the  Asiatic  theatres, 
'hich  are  found  at  Ephesus,  Ala- 
anda,  Teos,  Smyrna,  Hierapolis, 
'yzicus,  Alinda,  Magnesia,  Lao- 
icea,  Mylassa,  Sardis,  Miletus, 
tratonicea,  Telmessus,  Jassus,  and 
'atara. 

In  all  their  possessions,  and  in 
ie  cities  newly  conquered,  the 
tomans  erected  theatres,  or  at 
;ast  embellished  those  they  found 
lere.  They  gave  to  the  city  of  Ca- 
ma,  in  Sicily,  a  theatre  most  mag- 
ihcently  adorned,  as  is  proved  by 


THE 

the  numerous  fragments  of  co- 
lumns, entablatures,  mouldings, 
and  other  ornaments,  of  the  finest 
marble,  and  worked  with  infinite 
taste,  art,  and  precision.  At 
Oranges  and  Aries,  and  among 
the  ruins  of  ancient  Saguntum  in 
Spain,  there  are  found  remains  of 
Roman  theatres,  as  well  as  in 
different  ancient  cities  in  Italy,  as 
Pompeii,  Herculaneum,  Eugubium 
in  Umbria,  Antium,  Pola,  &c. 

It  was  not  till  the  year  391, 
after  the  foundation  of  Rome,  that 
the  first  theatrical  pieces  were 
exhihited  at  Rome,  on  account  of 
a  pestilence  which  the  people  hoped 
to  arrest,  by  games  and  rejoicings 
in  honour  of  the  gods.  Before 
this  epoch,  the  Romans  had  only 
been  acquainted  with  the  games  of 
the  circus.  For  a  long  period,  the 
theatres  at  Rome  were  made  only 
of  wood  :  when  the  representations 
were  ended,  these  edifices  were  de- 
molished ;  they  only  consisted  of 
a  scene,  without  seats  for  the  spec- 
tators, who  were  obliged  to  stand 
all  the  time.  Marcus  iEmilius 
Lepidus  was  the  first  who  erected 
a  theatre  with  seats.  When,  at  a 
later  period,  the  censors  Messala 
and  Cassius  wished  to  build  a 
similar  edifice,  they  were  warmly 
opposed  by  Publius  Cornelius  Na- 
sica,  who  feared  that  this  inno- 
vation would  corrupt  the  manners 
of  the  Romans ;  and  the  building 
was  interdicted  by  the  senate.  Pom- 
pey  was  the  first  who  built  at  Rome 
a  theatre  of  stone,  intended  to  last 
longer  than  the  first  representa- 
tions. He  embellished  it  with  the 
greatest  magnificence,  and  enriched 
it  with  the  principal  Grecian  statues 
which  were  then  at  Rome.  Tiberius 
caused  the  scene  of  this  theatre  to 
be  repaired,  but  it  was  not  finished 
till  the  time  of  his  successor,  Cah- 
gula.  It  was  also  repaired  by 
Claudius,    and    this   theatre  was 

395 


THE 


THE 


preserved  for  a  long  time,  having 
been  rebuilt  by  the  Gothic  king 
Theodoric,  when  it  had  fallen  into 
ruins.  Besides  this  theatre,  there 
were  at  Rome  two  others,  which 
were  distinguished  by  their  great- 
ness, that  of  Balbus,  and  that  of 
Marcellus.  The  first  was  built  in 
honour  of  Augustus,  by  Cornelius 
Balbus ;  the  other  was  built  by  order 
of  the  emperor  himself,  who  gave 
to  it  the  name  of  his  friend  Mar- 
cellus. A  palace  has  been,  in  more 
modern  times,  built  on  its  ruins ; 
but  a  part  of  the  exterior  wall  of 
the  theatre  may  still  be  seen,  con- 
sisting of  two  ranges  of  arcades 
placed  one  above  the  other. 

The  principal  authors  who  throw 
any  light  on  the  interior  disposition 
of  the  ancient  theatres,  are  Julius 
Pollux,  and  Vitruvius,  whose  de- 
scriptions are  unfortunately  far  from 
clear.  The  latter,  too,  makes  no 
distinction  between  Greek  and  Ro- 
man theatres,  which  often  leads  his 
readers  into  errors. 

In  the  position  of  their  theatres, 
the  Greeks  always  seized  a  locality 
where  nature  favoured  the  requisite 
arrangement  of  the  theatre,  and 
constructed  their  edifices  on  the 
side  of  a  hill,  by  which  they  in- 
curred a  much  less  expense  in  the 
erection  of  these  magnificent  struc- 
tures. When  the  immediate  na- 
ture of  the  hill  allowed,  as  at 
Chaeronea,  Argos,  and  many  other 
places,  they  cut  very  many  of  the 
seats  out  of  the  solid  rock,  or  laid 
the  stone  seats  immediately  upon 
the  soil,  and  often  sunk  the  or- 
chestra and  some  of  the  lower  rows 
of  seats  below  the  general  surface. 

The  only  instances  now  known  of 
Greek  theatres  built  in  a  plain,  are 
those  of  Mantinea  and  Megalopolis, 
in  European  Greece,  and  a  small 
one  near  Arabi-Hissar,  probably 
the  ancient  Alabanda,  in  Asia 
Minor.    When,  however,  the  situ- 


ation chosen  for  a  theatre  was 
plain,  with  no  elevations,  it  becarr 
necessary  to  erect  a  building  i 
support  the  seats ;  but  this  appea 
to  have  been  very  rarely  the  cas 
at  least  we  know  only  two  exan 
pies,  the  theatre  of  Marcellus,  ar 
that  of  Gabala  in  Syria,  figured  i 
the  29th  plate  of  the  second  volurr 
of  Pococke's  Description  of  tl 
East.  The  Grecian  theatres  wei 
often  of  very  great  dimensions. 

The  Dionysiac  theatre  at  Athen 
as  appears  from  a  passage  in  Plat 
was  capable  of  containing  mo1 
than  30,000  persons.  It  mus 
therefore,  have  been  much  mo, 
spacious  than  it  can  be  traced  i 
the  ruins.  The  diameter  of  tl 
theatre  of  Epidaurus  is  366  feel 
those  at  Argos  and  Sparta,  an 
that  near  Dramatzus  in  Epiru 
were  about  500  feet  in  diameter. 

Vitruvius  thus  describes  the  m; 
thematical  delineation  of  the  par 
of  the  theatre.  "  Describe  with] 
a  circle  three  squares  whose  angle 
touch  the  circumference ;  that  sic 
of  the  square  nearest  the  sceiv 
and  which  cuts  off  a  segment  < 
the  circle,  defines  the  limits  of  tfc 
proscenium,  and  another  line  draw 
parallel  to  the  last,  and  forming 
tangent  to  the  circle,  determine 
the  front  of  the  scene.  Throug 
the  centre  of  the  orchestra,  opp( 
site  the  proscenium,  a  parallel  lii 
is  drawn,  and  where  it  cuts  the  ci 
cumference,  the  points  form  tu 
centres,  and  the  compass  bein 
placed  upon  that  to  the  right, 
circle  is  described  by  the  left  inte 
val  towards  the  right-hand  side  < 
the  proscenium.  In  like  mannt 
with  the  centre  on  the  left,  by  tl 
right  interval,  a  circle  is  describe 
on  the  left-hand  sides.  Thus,  t 
this  delineation  from  three  centr<| 
the  Greeks  have  the  orchestra  mo 
ample,  the  scene  more  recedin: 
and  the  pulpitum,  which  they  ca 


THE 


yeiovj  narrower.  Therefore,  with 
em,  the  tragic  and  comic  actors 
>pear  on  the  stage,  but  the  other 
rformers  in  the  orchestra.  Hence 
e  Greek  distinctive  terms  scenici, 
id  thymelici.  The  logeion  should 
>t  have  less  than  ten,  nor  more 
an  twelve  feet  in  height.  The 
ghts  of  steps  between  the  cunei  and 
ats  are  opposite  the  angles  of  the 
uares  up  to  the  first  praecinctio ; 
jm  that  prsecinctio,  the  next 
ghts  are  in  the  intermediate 
naces,  and  up  to  the  summit  vary 

the  same  manner,  should  there 
!  other  prsecinctiones."  (Vitruv. 
>.  v.  c.  8.)  "  The  theatre  of  Pa- 
ra," Col.  Leake  (Tour  in  Asia 
inor)  observes,  "  is  an  exception 

this  rule  for  constructing  the 
rve  of  the  orchestra  or  cavea, 
is  curve  being  in  all  these  thea- 
i%  (those  which  he  has  before 
I  entioned)  a  segment  of  one  and 
e  same  circle,  instead  of  being 
rmed  from  three  centres." 
The  ancient  theatres  consisted 
three  principal  parts,  the  koiXov, 
lich  was  called  by  the  Romans 
vea,  the  opyjiarpa,  and  the  ffKnvrj. 
ie  cavea  of  the  Romans  was  di- 
ied  into  three  parts,  which  were 
stinguished  by  the  three  terms 
:a,  media,  summa  :  ima  was  the 
:hestra,  media  the  ranges  of 
ats  occupied  by  the  knights  and 
tter  orders  of  people,  summa  the 
•permost  rows  appropriated  io  the 
.ver  orders,  and  the  women.  The 
ilon  (koiKop)  was  composed  of  a 
ccession  of  seats,  divided  into 
,o  or  three  flights  by  hia'C^nara, 

praecinetiones.  The  number  of 
Us  in  each  flight  varied  accord- 
l  to  the  size  of  the  theatre,  and 
ey  were  again  subdivided  into 
"ictc,  or  wedge-shaped  masses, 

perpendicular  radiating  stairs, 
lied  KKifjLaKEQ.  In  some  instances, 
in  the  theatre  at  Laodicea,  there 
re  other  shorter  stairs  between 


THE 

each  of  these,  in  the  upper  rows  of 
seats.  Above  the  upper  flight  was 
a  covered  portico  {tectum  porticus,) 
which  protected  the  audience  from 
the  currents  of  air,  and  confined 
the  voices  of  the  actors  within  the 
koilon.  In  this  portico  were  the 
entrances.  The  orchestra  lay  be- 
tween the  logeum,  or  proscenium, 
and  the  koilon,  and  was  appro- 
priated to  the  dance  of  the  chorus; 
in  the  centre  was  the  thymele, 
where  was  the  altar  on  which  sacri- 
fices were  offered  to  Dionysus,  and 
where  were  placed  the  tripods, 
crowns,  and  other  prizes.  The  scene 
was  the  part  of  the  stage  more  par- 
ticularly devoted  to  the  principal 
performers,  deriving  its  name  from 
the  custom  of  exhibiting  the  first 
dramatic  performances  under  the 
shade  of  trees,  {aKnvr],  umbraculum, 
quod  olim  sub  arborum  umbraculis 
prima  dramata  fuerint  acta,  Schol. 
in  Horat.)  It  was  divided  into  two 
parts :  the  hyposcene,  vnoaicnviov, 
was  the  stage  on  which  the  princi- 
pal performers,  or  scenici,  only  re- 
cited ;  the  scene  itself  was  the 
wall  exhibiting  the  dramatic  deco- 
rations; the  parascenia,  irapaaK^via, 
was  the  enclosure,  behind  and  on 
each  side  of  the  scene,  appropriated 
to  the  convenience  of  the  actors 
when  they  retired  from  the  stage. 
In  this  division  were  disposed  the 
various  machines  which  were  used 
in  the  representation,  such  as  the 
phryctorium,  typvtcrtopiov,  or  beacon ; 
the  Siareyta,  or  house  with  two 
stories;  the  dtnXoyeiov,  or  sky  plat- 
form for  the  gods;  the  ytpavoQ,  or 
crane;  the  ppopreiov,  or  artificial 
thunder  machine ;  the  Ktpawo- 
GKoireiov,  or  lightning  machine  ;  the 
pr)x^vr),  a  machine  on  which  the 
deities  ascended  ;  the  K*ara/3A///.mra, 
or  embroidered  pictures;  the  kXkticl- 
ZtQ  ;  the  avmreiafxaTa,  &C.  See,  for 
farther  information,  the  articles 
Scene,     Orchestra,  Proscenium, 

397 


THE 


THE 


Echea,  Thymele,  Podium,  Para- 
scenium,  and  the  other  terms  men- 
tioned in  this  article. 

The  openings  or  entrances  which 
lead  to  the  orchestra,  and  to  the 
seats  of  the  spectators,  were  differ- 
ently situated,  accordingly  as  the 
seats  were  placed  on  the  declivity 
of  a  mountain,  or  on  a  particular 
edifice  constructed  to  support  them. 
When  the  theatres  had  the  former 
disposition,  the  seats  of  the  specta- 
tors descended  as  far  as  the  orches- 
tra, as  in  the  theatres  at  iEgesta, 
in  the  isle  of  Cysthenes,  at  Telmes- 
sus,  &c,  and  the  stairs  also  were 
prolonged  to  the  orchestra,  and 
from  thence  the  people  ascended  to 
the  higher  seats.  The  orchestra 
was  approached  by  two  great  late- 
ral entrances.  When  the  orchestra 
was  separated  from  the  stairs,  roads 
were  made  on  the  side  of  the  moun- 
tain, which  led  to  the  highest  range 
of  seats,  whence  people  might  de- 
scend by  the  stairs  to  the  others. 
Such  was  the  case  with  the  theatre 
of  Tyndaris,  and  that  of  Tauro- 
menium.  The  theatre  at  Syracuse 
had  particular  entrances  for  each 
of  the  three  stages,  and  each  stage 
was  destined  for  one  quarter  of  the 
city.  In  the  theatres  situated  on  a 
plain,  the  entrances  were  formed  in 
the  building  which  supported  the 
seats ;  and  each  stage  had  a  sepa- 
rate entrance,  to  facilitate  the  de- 
parture of  the  spectators,  when  the 
spectacle  was  terminated. 

From  an  inscription  found  at  the 
eastern  entrance  of  the  theatre  at 
Patara,  in  Lycia,  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing is  a  translation,  it  appears 
that  the  logeum,  which  is  generally 
considered  to  have  been  built  of 
wood,  was  often  of  more  durable 
materials. 

"  To  Antoninus  Pius,  consul  the 
fourth  time,  father  of  his  country; 
to  the  Dii  Augusti ;  and  to  the  Dii 
Penates;  and  to  her  beloved  coun- 

398 


try,  the  city  of  Patara,  the  mothei 
city  of  the  Lycian  nations;  Veli 
Procula,  of  Patara,  the  daughter  d 
Quintus  Velius  Titianus,  has  ded 
cated  and  consecrated  both  th 
proscenium  (irpoaKrjviop)  which  he 
father,  Quintus  Velius  Titianuj 
raised  from  the  foundation ;  am 
the  ornaments  upon  it,  and  th 
things  belonging  to  it,  and  th 
erection  of  the  statues  of  men  am 
of  gods,  and  the  building  of  th! 
logeum  (Xoyeiov),  and  the  incrusta 
tion  of  it  (with  marble),  which  thing 
were  done  by  herself;  but  th 
eleventh  step  of  the  second  prse 
cinctio  (diafajjia),  and  the  curtain 
(ra  fir}\a)  of  the  theatre,  raised  boti 
by  her  father  and  herself,  had  bee 
already  dedicated  and  deliverer 
over,  according  to  the  decree  of  th 
most  august  senate."  (Walpole 
Memoirs,  vol.  i.  and  ii.  See  thi 
Ionian  Antiquities,  vol.  ii.,  Beau 
fort's  Caramania,  and  Leake's  Asi; 
Minor.)  The  Vela  (jS^Xa)  here  trans 
lated  curtains,  are  supposed  to  sig 
nify  the  velarium,  or  awning,  some 
times  extended  above  the  cavea,  t< 
protect  the  audience  from  the  effect 
of  the  sun. 

On  PI.  Athenian  Architecture 
A  14,  is  given  a  plan  of  what  Stuar 
calls  the  theatre  of  Bacchus,  a 
Athens,  but  which  has  since  beei 
proved  to  be  the  theatre  of  Herode: 
Atticus,  the  site  of  the  former  havj 
ing  been  discovered  in  another  place; 
The  building  is  in  so  ruinous  a  stati 
that  it  was  with  difficulty  he  couh 
give  a  tolerable  description  of  it 
As  this  theatre  was  an  odeon,  thi 
system  of  Vitruvius  cannot  be  ex 
pected  altogether  \o  agree  with  itf 
On  the  plan,  "  we  must  observe, 
says  Stuart,  "  that  the  exterior  wait 
is  the  portion  of  a  circle,  the  eentn 
of  which  being  found,  it  will  follow 
from  the  precepts  of  Vitruvius, 
we  suppose  what  he  has  said  con! 
cerning  the  Greek  theatres  appli; 


THE 


THE 


able  to  this  building,  that  the  ex- 
2nt  of  the  proscenium,  with  the 
ituation  and  dimension  of  the  or- 
hestra,  may  be  determined.  For 
he  distance  a  b  from  the  centre  a 
f  the  exterior  circle,  to  the  front 
f  the  scene  D  b  B  will  be  the 
adius  of  a  lesser  concentric  circle, 
n  which  three  squares  being  in- 
cribed,  after  the  manner  he  has 
iirected,  the  side  of  the  square  gf 
Nearest  to  the  scene,  and  parallel  to 
X,  will  then  mark  the  limit  of  the 
uroscenium,  and  the  remaining  part 
if  the  circle,  if  we  do  not  mistake 
/itruvius,  will  form  the  space  as- 
igned  by  him  to  the  orchestra ; 
r-ithin  which  space,  I  am  persuaded, 
he  pulpitum  or  logeum  projected 
t  least  as  far  as  to  the  centre  a, 
or  I  cannot  imagine  that  the  actors 
sere  confined  to  the  narrow  space 
ssigned  by  this  scheme  to  the  pro- 
cenium,  or,  in  other  words,  that 
he  pulpitum  and  proscenium  were, 
s  Galiani  has  imagined,  only  dif- 
erent  names  for  the  same  place. 
-Mux,  whose  evidence  will  have 
reat  weight  in  this  disquisition, 
'numerating  the  parts  of  a  theatre, 
pecifies  the  orchestra,  the  logeum, 
'he  proscenium,  the  parascenia,  &c. 
s  different  and  distinct  places ;  be- 
ides,  if  they  were  not,  and  the 
ogeum  was  only  a  part  of  the  pro- 
'cenium,  it  would  follow,  that  many 
•f  the  spectators  would  be  in  a  situ- 
tion  where  they  could  see  but  very 
ttle  of  the  actors,  and  others  would 
ot  see  them  at  all,  during  the 
fhole  representation  ;  a  defect 
/hich  it  is  not  easy  to  conceive 
ould  exist  in  a  building  where 
reat  art  and  expense  were  em- 
ployed, principally  with  intention 
'o  accommodate  the  audience  in 
uch  manner  that  they  might  all 
ee  and  hear  to  the  best  advantage 
whatever  was  produced  on  the 
iage," 

In  the  plan  D  b  B  is  the  front  of 


the  scene ;  b  the  royal  folding  door 
(mediae  valvse  aulas  Regise.Vitruv.:) 
c  one  of  the  hospitalia  doors ;  BC 
the  versura,  or  return  of  the  wall , 
EFG  the  orchestra ;  d  e  the  kata- 
time,  prsecision,  or  section,  dividing 
the  extremity  of  the  pulpitum  next 
the  orchestra  ;  HH  the  parascenia, 
(others  suppose  that  the  parascenia 
were  divisions  of  the  theatre  behind 
the  scene) ;  KLM  the  external,  en- 
compassing the  seats  of  the  specta- 
tors; LN  the  portico,  containing 
the  seats  for  the  women ;  NO  the 
upper  range  of  seats;  OP  the  prae- 
cinctio,  or  circular  corridor,  sepa- 
rating the  upper  from  the  lower 
ranges  of  seats  ;  PF  the  lower 
ranges  of  seats;  R  an  aperture 
leading  from  the  staircase  to  the 
corridor  OP.  The  seats  for  the 
spectators  were  here  cut  in  the 
rock,  and  consequently  had  no 
staircases  under  them,  to  conduct 
the  spectators  to  the  upper  range 
of  seats,  as  in  the  theatre  of  Mar- 
cellus,  and  the  amphitheatres  of 
Rome  and  Verona :  no  vornitoria 
were  therefore  necessary  ;  but  there 
were  ample  staircases  at  each  ex- 
tremity of  the  front,  which  are 
marked  QQ.  S  marks  the  apart- 
ments behind  the  scene,  whereVitru- 
vius  says  the  chorus  was  prepared; 
T  appears  to  mark  the  Portus  Eu- 
menici.  The  plan  of  this  theatre  is 
remarkable  for  the  small  depth  of 
its  proscenium;  the  recesses  which 
remain  in  the  wall  indicate  the 
number  and  width  of  the  cunei, 
which  were  seven.  The  three 
ranges  of  arches  above  each  other 
display  a  Roman  style  of  archi- 
tecture; the  arches  of  the  middle 
or  second  range  have  a  descending 
soffit  towards  the  interior,  which 
proves  part  of  the  edifice  to  have 
been  covered,  which  corresponds 
with  the  statement  of  Philostratus 
concerning  the  Odeum  of  Herodes. 
(Philostrat.  in  Herod.)  Within  the 


THE 


THE 


proscenium  there  is  a  well  of  brack- 
ish water,  supplied  probably  from 
the  spring  of  the  Asclepieum.  Wa- 
ter seems  to  have  been  a  frequent 
accessary  to  the  ancient  theatres. 
In  that  of  Syracuse  there  is  an 
ancient  conduit  for  water  encircling 
the  koilon,  cut  in  the  rock  beneath 
the  seats.  At  the  theatre  of  Nico- 
polis,  in  Epirus,  there  are  three 
openings  in  the  cavea,  which  Mr. 
Hftghes  supposes  to  have  answered 
a  similar  purpose.  The  Roman 
theatres  were  not  only  refreshed  by 
water,  but  even  sometimes  per- 
fumed with  odoriferous  showers. 
See  D'Orville's  Sicula.  p.  264. 
Hughes'  Travels,  vol.  i.  pp.  100, 
420. 

The  site  of  the  theatre  of  Bacchus 
or  Dionysus,  is  now  incontestably 
identified  with  that  which  Stuart  sup- 
posed to  be  the  Odeum  of  Pericles. 
Of  this  vast  building  how  few  marks 
can  be  traced!  Above  it,  on  the 
rock  of  the  Acropolis,  is  a  cavern, 
and  the  Choragic  monument  of 
Thrasyllus,  (see  Athenian  Archi- 
tecture^) and  near  it  was  the  street  of 
Tripods.  A  representation  of  the 
Dionysiac  theatre  is  given  on  an 
Athenian  bronze  medal,  now  in  the 
British  Museum,  an  engraving  of 
which  is  given  by  Mr.  Leake, 
which  exhibits  its  position  below 
the  cavern  in  the  rock.  See  Chan- 
dler's Travels,  vol.  iii. ;  Stuart's 
Athens,  the  last  edition,  chap,  iv., 
with  the  notes  of  his  last  edition. 

The  reverse  of  a  medal,  struck 
under  Gordianus  Pius,  at  Heraclea 
in  Bythinia,  and  published  by  Bua- 
narotti,  among  the  medallions  of 
the  cabinet  Carpagna,  represents  a 
theatre,  with  a  portico  behind  the 
scene,  and  a  temple  attached  to  it. 

In  pi.  Castle,  c.  65,  Jig.  9,  is  a 
plan  of  the  theatre  of  Marcellus  at 
Rome.  Its  form  was  that  of  a 
regular  semicircle.  Around  the 
semi  -  circular  orchestra  a  were 

400 


raised  in  concentric  circumferences, 
the  walls  and  galleries  f  f  com- 
municating by  the  stairs  g  g.  The 
proscenium  b,  occupies  the  space; 
between  the  galleries  d  d.  These  \ 
communicated  with  the  porticos  of 
the  scene,  the  middle  of  which  was; 
generally  occupied  by  the  pulpitum ; 
e,  et  is  a  vestibule,  which  has  its 
entrance  near  the  stairs  which 
conduct  to  the  other  parts  of  the  : 
edifice. 

The  Olympic  theatre  at  Vicenza,! 
which  was  built  by  Palladio,  in 
1583,  was  designed  in  imitation  of 
the  ancient  theatres :  its  form  is  a 
semi-ellipse,  encompassed  all  round; 
with  a  frame-work  of  stairs,  con- 
sisting of  fourteen  steps  of  wood 
for  the  spectators.  The  greater 
diameter  of  the  ellipse  is  ninety- 
seven  feet  and  a  half,  and  its  lesser, 
as  far  as  the  stage,  is  about  fifty- 
seven  feet  and  a  half.  At  the  sum- 
mit of  this  staircase,  or  receding 
galleries  of  stairs,  is  a  corridor  of 
the  Corinthian  order,  which,  from 
the  narrowness  of  the  ground,  could 
not  be  detached  from  the  outer 
wall  all  round;  the  nine  central, 
and  the  three  external  intercolumni- 
ations,  therefore,  when  the  columns 
touched  the  external  wall,  Palladio 
filled  with  niches  and  statues.  The 
stage  is  constructed  with  two  tiers 
of  columns  of  the  Corinthian  order, 
and  surmounted  with  a  light  and 
well-proportioned  attic.  On  the 
stylobate  of  the  second  story  are 
placed  statues,  and  the  interco- 
lumniations  are  also  enriched  with 
niches  and  statues.  The  panels  of 
the  attic  are  ornamented  with  re- 
liefs representing  the  labours  of 
Hercules.  The  central  panel,  over 
the  largest  of  three  openings  in  the 
proscenium,  is  arched,  and  exhibits 
a  representation  of  an  ancient  hip 
podrome.  The  following  inscrip- 
tion, recording  the  period  of  its 
erection,  is  placed  over  the  arch : — 


THE 


THE 


VIRTUTI  AC  G  EN  10 
OLYMPICOItIM    ACADEMIA    THE  A- 
TRVM  HOC 
A  FVNDAMENT1S  EREXIT 
lANNO  M.  D.  LXXXIIII.  PALLADIO 
ARCHIT. 

In  the  front  of  the  stage  are 
three  openings,  through  which  are 
seen  three  majestic  avenues,  with 
magnificent  palaces  and  private 
dwellings  on  each  side  of  them, 
finishing  with  triumphal  arches, 
planned  and  executed  in  alto-re- 
lievo, foreshortening  and  diminish- 
ing perspectively,  by  Vincenso  Sca- 
mozzi.  A  full  account  of  this 
building  is  given  in  L'Origine  dell' 
Academia  Olympica,  &c.  opera  di 
Ottavio  Bertotti  Scamozzi,  1690. 

The  famous  theatre  of  Parma, 
which  has  often  been  attributed  to 
Palladio,  was  the  work  of  Gio. 
iBattista  Magnani,  and  Leonella 
•5pada,  who  performed  the  paint- 
ngs,  &c.  It  is  of  a  semicircular 
ibrm  with  two  straight  sides  added  ; 
t  is  in  length,  from  the  front  of 
he  stage  to  the  wall,  about  a  hun- 
dred  and  twenty-five  feet,  and  its 
oreadth,  reckoning  from  the  wall 
behind  the  boxes,  about  ninety- 
hree  feet.  Around  the  pit,  which 
s  about  forty-eight  feet  broad, 
here  is  a  gradation  of  fourteen 
ows  of  seats,  with  two  entrances 
it  the  sides,  and  a  large  ducal 
oalcony  in  the  middle.  Each  en- 
rance  has  a  large  winding  stair- 
rase.  Over  these  seats  are  two 
1  tately  boxes,  one  Do.ic,  the  other 
onic,  each  having  a  gradation  of 
our  rows  of  seats.  The  upper  de- 
oration  of  the  boxes  is  sustained 
>y  enchased  pillars,  between  which 
re  arches  sustained  by  other  pil- 
ars, the  whole  causing  a  great  con- 
usion  in  the  appearance,  and  form- 
ng  an  impediment  to  the  view  of 
he  spectators  who  are  in  the  boxes, 
lie  two  great  lateral  entrances  are 
'•etween  the  seats  and  the  stage, 
3  E 


and  in  the  middle  of  the  upper 
arch,  on  a  very  high  pedestal,  is 
an  equestrian  statue.  The  effect 
of  the  stage  and  the  orchestra  is 
hurt  by  great  projections  and  un- 
meaning arches,  and  the  front  of 
the  stage  is  extremely  narrow  and 
inconvenient.  This  theatre  is  now 
in  a  very  ruinous  state. 

The  theatre  of  Milan  begins  from 
its  foundation  with  a  curve  of  a 
diameter  of  seventy-two  feet,  which 
gradually  widens  into  two  straight 
sides.  The  length  of  its  pit  is  one 
hundred  and  forty  feet,  which  is 
almost  double  its  breadth.  This 
theatre,  in  its  form,  is  directly  op- 
posite to  most  other  modern  thea- 
tres, which  all  run  narrow  towards 
the  stage ;  whilst  this  widens.  The 
theatre  of  Fano,  which  was  built  by 
James  Torelli,  is  of  a  form  some- 
what resembling  that  of  a  dressing- 
glass,  being  eighty-four  feet  long, 
and  in  breadth  a  little  more  than 
one  half  of  its  length.  It  has  a 
convenient  double  staircase,  lead- 
ing to  the  fifth  tier  of  boxes.  On 
each  side  of  the  stage  are  two  co- 
lumns, and  in  the  niche  between  them 
are  statues,  and  in  the  centre  the 
inscription,  Theatrum  Fortune. 
The  theatre  at  Verona,  which  was 
built  by  Francesco  Galli  Bibiena, 
is  in  figure  a  curve,  which  gradu- 
ally enlarges  in  proportion  as  it 
approaches  the  stage,  and  the 
boxes  project  out  more  and  more 
as  they  are  distant  from  the  stage. 
The  orchestra  is  divided  from  the 
audience.  Between  the  auditory 
and  the  stage  are  doors  leading  to 
the  pit,  according  to  the  custom  of 
the  ancients.  Besides  the  exterior 
roof,  there  is  an  internal  one  of 
boards,  with  holes  in  certain  places, 
which,  like  the  body  of  a  musical 
instrument,  renders  the  theatre  very 
sonorous. 

The  theatres  of  Modern  Rome 
are  the  worst  in  Italy,  being  all 

*40l 


THE 


THE 


irregular,  ill-shaped,  and  incon- 
venient. The  largest  is  that  of  the 
Aliberti,  which  is  the  work  of  Fer- 
dinand Bibiena,  and  forms  an  irre- 
gular and  incommodious  curve,  with 
six  rows  of  arched  boxes.  The  pit 
is  about  fifty-five  feet  in  length,  by 
fifty-one  feet  and  a  half  in  its 
greatest  breadth.  It  has  miserable 
entrances  and  staircases.  The  thea- 
tre of  Tordinona,  which  was  built 
in  the  seventeenth  century  by  Carlo 
Fontana,  and  rebuilt  under  Cle- 
ment XII.,  is  of  a  figure  nearer  to 
a  circle  than  any  other.  Its  greatest 
diameter  is  fifty-two  feet,  and  its 
smallest  forty-eight.  The  Argen- 
tine theatre,  built  by  the  Marquis 
Girolamo  Teodoli,  is  the  most 
modern  theatre  in  Rome,  and  has 
six  tiers  of  boxes.  It  is  of  an  irre- 
gular figure,  resembling  a  horse- 
shoe. Its  greater  diameter  is  fifty- 
one  feet,  and  its  lesser  forty-six. 

The  royal  theatre  Turin,  erected 
by  Count  Benedetto  Alfieri,  prin- 
cipal architect  to  the  king  of  Sar- 
dinia, in  1740,  is  of  an  oval  figure, 
and  the  pit  is  fifty-seven  feet  in 
length  by  fifty  in  breadth.  It  is 
annexed  to  the  royal  palace.  It 
has  six  tiers  of  boxes,  in  the  second 
of  which  is  the  royal  box,  which 
includes  five  boxes,  ornamented 
with  balustrades,  and  covered  with 
a  superb  canopy  over  the  centre  :  it 
projects  out  in  a  circular  form,  and 
under  it  is  the  principal  entrance 
into  the  pit.  The  last  tier,  which 
they  call  the  dovecote  (piccionara), 
has  a  balustraded  parapet,  with  a 
circular  row  of  seats  in  front,  for 
servants  out  of  livery;  the  left  side 
is  for  the  public,  and  the  right  for 
the  servants  of  the  court,  and  those 
of  the  ambassadors.  There  is,  un- 
der the  orchestra,  a  cavity,  with 
two  tubes  at  the  ends,  which  ex- 
tend to  the  height  of  the  stage, 
intended  to  improve  the  sound. 
The  ceiling  is  arched,   and  the 

402 


convex  part  covered  with  strong 
cemented  bitumen,  to  prevent  thci 
water    from  penetrating  through, 
and  thus  damaging  the  paintings 
underneath.    Within  the  cornice 
also,  boxes  are  continued  round, 
well  caulked  and  covered  with  bitu- 
men, and  filled  with  fine  sand,  for 
the  purpose  of  absorbing  any  small 
quantity  of  water  that  may  chance' 
to  get  in.    The  proscenium  is  de- 
corated with  two  Corinthian  co- 
lumns  on    plain   pedestals,  and 
between  the  columns  are  boxes  for 
the  actors.    The  entrances,  stairs 
galleries,  lobbies,  corridors,  &c.  are' 
extremely  magnificent.    The  thea- 
trical part  is  extremely  well  fur- 
nished with  every  necessary  ma- 
chine or  other  convenience.  The 
theatre  royal  at  Naples  resemble* 
in  form  the  Argentine  theatre  a: 
Rome,  that  is,  it  is  of  the  shape  o; 
a  horse-shoe,  or  a  semicircle  whose 
extremities    elongate    in  almos 
straight  lines,  but  draw  nearer  t( 
each  other  as  they  approach  to- 
wards  the   stage.    The  greates 
diameter  of  the  pit  is  about  se 
venty-three  feet,  and  the  smalles 
sixty-seven.    The  building  is  ali 
of  stone ;  the  stairs  are  magnifi- 
cent ;  the  avenues,  vestibules,  cor-; 
ridors,  and  lobbies  are  all  very  spa 
cious. 

The  theatre  of  Bologna,  whiclj 
was  finished  in  1763,  by  Antoni; 
Galli  Bibiena,  is  of  the  shape  c 
a  bell  cut  lengthways,  its  lengt! 
in  the  pit  being  sixty-two  feet 
and  its  breadth  at  the  stage  abou 
fifty.  The  imposts  and  pilaster 
which  divide  the  boxes  are  over 
loaded  with  cartouches,  scroll? 
brackets,  and  other  wretched  orna 
ments  of  the  Roman  school  c 
architecture.  The  exterior  priri' 
cipal  front  is  ornamented  with  tw 
orders  well  divided  ;  the  first  of  ir 
sulated  Doric  columns,  with  arch( 
over  the  capitals  in  a  most  ba 


THE 


THE 


barous  style,  the  other  of  a  mixed 
Ionic,  with  windows  between.  The 
theatre  at  Montpellier  has  internally 
the  shape  of  a  bell,  is  about  forty- 
four  feet  long,  and  thirty  feet  broad. 
In  the  palace  of  Versailles,  M.  Ga- 
briel, the  king's  architect,  erected 
in  1770  a  theatre  after  the  manner 
of  the  ancients,  of  a  semicircular 
figure,  with  seats  all  round,  encom- 
passed with  a  gallery.  At  Peters- 
burg, under  the  empress  Elizabeth, 
a  magnificent  theatre  was  erected 
;  within  the  imperial  palace,  by  Count 
Rastelli,  a  Venetian.  The  stage  is 
about  seventy-two  feet  long,  and 
the  rest  of  the  theatre,  which  is 
of  an  elliptical  form,  is  a  hundred 
and  three  feet  long.  There  are  five 
tiers  of  boxes,  the  first  having  a 
balustrade,  the  second  tier  an  arch- 
ied front  to  each  box,  the  third  dra- 
pery, a  la  toilette,  the  fourth  plain 
with  flat  sides,  and  the  fifth  open, 
without  any  divisions.  The  impe- 
rial gallery  is  in  front,  and  was 
adorned  by  M.  Le  Motte,  a  French 
architect,  with  four  columns.  The 
icourt  goes  into  this  gallery,  to  see 
the  dances ;  but  to  hear  the  opera 
better,  they  go  into  a  box  near  the 
orchestra.  The  stage  has  two  co- 
lumns on  each  side. 

With  relation  to  modern  thea- 
res,  Mr.  Wyatt,  the  architect  of  the 
oresent  Drury-lane  theatre,  in  his 
'report,  arranges  the  necessary  cha- 
racteristics of  the  design  of  a  thea- 
;re,  under  four  different  heads, — 
1  first,  the  size,  or  capacity  of  the 
i.heatre,  as  governed  by  the  width 
of  the  proscenium,  or  stage-open- 
ng,  and  by  the  pecuniary  return 
o  be  made  to  those  whose  pro- 
perty may  be  embarked  in  the  con- 
ern.  Secondly,  the  form  or  shape 
If  the  theatre,  as  connected  with 
he  primary  objects  of  distinct 
ound  and  vision.  Thirdly,  the 
acility  of  ingress  and  egress,  as 
materially  affecting  the  convenience 


r  f  those  going  to  every  part  of  the 
house  respectively;  as  well  as  their 
lives,  in  cases  of  sudden  accident 
and  alarm.  Fourthly,  decorum 
among  the  several  orders  and  clas- 
ses of  the  visitants  to  the  theatre, 
as  essential  to  the  accommodation 
of  the  more  respectable  part  of 
those  visitants,  and  consequently 
of  great  importance  to  the  interest 
of  the  theatre."  These  are  more 
fully  discussed  in  the  report  itself. 
In  large  theatres,  he  recommends 
thirty-five  feet  for  the  width  of  the 
stage  opening.  The  following  will 
give  a  comparative  view  of  the  di- 
mensions of  the  stage  openings  in 
some  of  the  principal  theatres  in 


Europe: —  feet. 

Parma   40 

Turin    39 

Bourdeaux    39 

Argentine,  at  Rome. . .   3G 

Milan    40 

San  Benedetto,  Venice    40 

Theatre  Francois,  Paris   40 

Tlu-atre  Italien,  Paris   33 

Covent  Garden    37 

Former  theatre  at  Drury  Lane    . .  46 

Afterwards  reduced  to    33 


With  regard  to  the  size,  as  re- 
gulated by  the  pecuniary  return, 
amongst  other  observations,  he 
gives  the  following  statements: — "A 
theatre,  consisting  of  three-fourths 
of  a  circle,  with  a  proscenium  ac- 
cording to  my  plan,  which  shall 
limit  the  stage  opening  to  thirty- 
five  feet,  will  contain,  in  four  dif- 
ferent heights,  seventy-eight  boxes, 
holding  1004  persons ;  with  four 
boxes,  of  larger  size  than  the  rest, 
next  to  the  stage,  on  each  side  of 
the  theatre,  capable  of  containing 
188  spectators  in  addition  to  the 
1004  before  mentioned, 

Amounting,  in  the  aggregate, 

to  1192  persons,  or  £417    4  0 

A  pit,  containing  91 1  persons, 

or   159    8  0 

A  two-shilling  gallery  for  482 

persons,  or   48    4  0 

A  one-shilling  gnllery  for  284 

persons,  or    14    4  0 

Total  £'039  0~6 
403 


THE 


THE 


exclusive  of  four  private  boxes  in 
the  proscenium,  and  fourteen  in  the 
basement  of  the  theatre,  imme- 
diately under  the  dress  boxes. 
Suppose  the  four  private  boxes  in 
the  proscenium  to  be  appropriated 
to  the  managers,  and  certain  other 
persons  connected  with  the  theatre, 
who  shall  pay  no  rent  for  those 
boxes,  the  remaining  fourteen  pri- 
vate boxes  will  let  as  follows : 
namely,  the  twelve  smaller  ones 
for  £300  each,  and  the  two  larger 
ones  for  £500  each,  for  the  season, 
(being  at  the  rate  of  £23  per  night, 
for  200  nights,)  which,  together  with 
the  foregoing  amount,  produces  an 
aggregate  total  of  £662.  6s.  6d." 

On  the  subject  of  theatres,  the 
following  are  the  principal  works 
that  have  been  published  : — On 
ancient  theatres — Boindin,Discours 
sur  la  Forme  et  la  Construction  du 
Theatre  des  Anciens,  in  the  second 
vol.  of  the  Memoires  de  l'Academe ; 
Ant.  Bocchi,  Osservazioni  Sopra 
un  Teatro  antico  scoperto  in  Adria, 
Venez.,  1739,  4to.;  Girol.  del  Poz- 
zo,  Sopra  i  Teatri  degli  antichi. 
On  theatres  in  general — Trattato 
de  Teatri,Ver.,  1723,  4to.;  J.  Capi, 
opera  del  Teatro,  Ven.,  1789;  Nic. 
Sabattini,  Pratica  di  fabricar  Scene 
e  Machine,  &c,  4to.,  Rom.,  1638; 
Motta,  Trattato  Sopra  la  Strut- 
tura  de  Teatri,  fol.,  1676;  Arnaldi, 
Idea  d'un  Teatro,  4to.,  Vic,  1762; 
Projet  d'une  Sallo  de  Spectacle 
pour  un  Theatre,  8vo.,  Par.,  1766; 
Vues  sur  la  Construction  Interieure 
d  un  Theatre  d'Opera,  2  vols.,  Par., 
1766;  Exposition  des  Principles, 
&c.,des  Theatres  Modernes,  12mo. 
Par.,  1769;  Dumont,  Suite  des 
Projets,  &c,  folio,  Paris,  1773; 
Roubo,  Trait6  de  la  Construction 
des  Theatres,  &c,  fol.,  Par.,  1776; 
Noverre,  Observations  sur  la  Con- 
struction d'un  nouvelli  Salle  d'Opera, 
8vo.,  Par.,  1781 ;  Patte,  Essai  sur 
l'Architecture  Theatrale,  8vo.,  Par., 

404 


1782;  Lamberti,  La  Regolata  Con- 
struzione  de  Teatri,  fol.,  Naples 
1787;  Ricati,  Delia  Construzionc! 
de  Teatri,  4to.,  Bas.,  1790;  Gj 
Saunders,  Treatise  on  Theatres,  4toi 
Lond.,  1790;  Montenari,  Dicorsd 
del  Teatro  Olimpico,  8vo.,  Pad 
1733,  1749,  1752;  Patte,  Descrip. 
tion  du  Theatre  de  la  ville  de  Vi- 
cenza,  4to.,  Par.,  1779;  Planta  < 
Spaccato  del  Teatro  di  Bologna 
fol.,  1763  ;  Dumont,  Plans  des 
belles  Salles  des  Spectacles,  Paris 
1760  ;  Louis,  Description  de  If 
Salle  de  Spectacle  de  Bourdeaux 
fol.,  Par.,  1792;  Wyatt,  A  Descrip 
tion  of  the  Theatre  Royal,  Drun 
Lane,  4to.,  Lond. 

Thebes,  a  very  ancient  city  o 
Egypt,  formerly  renowned  for  it; 
power  and  wealth,  and  now  cele 
brated  for  the  amazing  extent  anc 
magnificence  of  its  ruins.  Th( 
space  covered  by  the  ruins  is  nov 
occupied  by  nine  distinct  town 
ships.  "  Very  imperfect  ideas/ 
Mr.  Belzoni  remarks,  "can  bi 
formed  of  the  extensive  ruins  o 
Thebes,  from  the  accounts  evei 
of  the  most  skilful  and  accurate  tra 
vellers.  The  most  sublime  concep 
tions  that  can  be  derived  from  thi 
most  magnificent  specimens  of  ou 
present  architecture,  would  fall  ver 
far  short  of  these  ruins ;  for  such  i 
the  difference,  not  only  in  magni; 
tude,  but  in  form,  porportion,  ami 
construction,  that  even  the  penei' 
can  convey  but  a  faint  idea  of  th 
whole.  It  appeared  to  me  lik 
entering  a  city  of  giants,  who,  afte 
a  long  conflict,  had  been  all  de 
stroyed,  leaving  the  ruins  of  the 
various  temples  as  the  only  prool 
of  their  existence.  The  temple  4 
Luxor  presents  to  the  traveller  i 
once  one  of  the  most  splendi 
groups  of  Egyptian  grandeur.  Th 
extensive  propylon,  with  the  tw 
obelisks  and  colossal  statues  ii 
front — the  thick  groups  of  eno; 


THE 


mous  columns;  the  variety  of  apart- 
ments, and  the  sanctuary  it  con- 
tains ;  the  beautiful  ornaments 
vvhich  adorn  every  part  of  the  walls 
and  columns;  the  battles  on  the 
propylon — cause,  in  the  astonished 
traveller,  an  oblivion  of  all  that  he 
nas  seen  before.  If  his  attention 
ae  attracted  to  the  north  side  of 
Thebes,  by  the  towering  remains 
hat  project  a  great  height  above 
:he  wood  of  palm-trees,  he  will 
gradually  enter  that  forest-like  as- 
semblage of  ruins  of  temples,  co- 
umus,  obelisks,  colossi,  sphinxes, 
Dortals,  and  an  endless  number  of 
)ther  astonishing  objects,  that  will 
convince  him  at  once  of  the  impos- 
sibility of  a  description.  On  the 
,vest  side  of  the  Nile,  still  the  tra- 
veller finds  himself  among  wonders. 
|he  temples  of  Gournou,  Memno- 
u'um,  and  Medinet  Abou,  attest 
he  extent  of  the  great  city  on  this 
ide.  The  unrivalled  colossal  figures 
jti  the  plain  of  Thebes,  the  number 
)f  tombs  excavated  in  the  rocks, 
,hose  in  the  great  valley  of  the 
cings,  with  their  paintings,  sculp- 
ures,  mummies,  sarcophagi,  figures, 
)fec.  are  all  objects  worthy  of  the 
idmiration  of  the  traveller." 
j  Dr.  Richardson  begins  his  de- 
cription  at  the  village  of  Gournou. 
;he  temple  here  is  small,  when  com- 
pared with  the  Memnonium,  and 
hat  of  Medinet  Abou,  but  is  much 
larger  than  those  of  Deir,  &c.  It  is 
,rt  a  very  dilapidated  state.  The 
)rincipal  entry  appears  to  have 
>een  from  the  south,  where  there 
|s  a  row  of  eight  columns,  which 
un  along  the  front  of  the  wall.  A 
passage  leads  into  a  chamber ;  from 
ach  side  of  which,  passages  branch 
tfF  into  other  chambers  or  courts. 
:  Proceeding  west  from  the  temple 
•f  Gournou,  at  a  distance  of  about 
hree-quarters  of  a  mile,  we  come 
,o  a  broad  avenue  that  has  been 
ormed  for  nearly  an  equal  distance 


THE 

from  the  side  of  the  precipitous 
rock.  This  beautiful  avenue  is 
exactly  opposite  to  the  grand 
propylon  of  the  great  temple  at 
Carnac,  and  has  been  lined  with 
a  row  of  sphinxes  of  quartzy  sand- 
stone, highly  crystallized.  Frag- 
ments of  gigantic  statues  are  found 
scattered  about.  This  avenue  was 
terminated  by  a  temple,  part  of  the 
walls,  and  some  of  the  chambers, 
of  which  still  remain,  but  so  much 
obstructed  with  rubbish  as  to  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  examining  it. 
Attached  to  it,  on  the  south  side, 
there  is  a  large  stone  vault,  in  the 
form  of  an  arch,  without  being  con- 
structed on  that  principle  :  the 
stones  on  the  outside  of  the  wall 
are  built  in  line ;  but  each  succes- 
sive course  projects  further  into  the 
interior  of  the  building  than  the 
one  below  it,  and  the  corners  of 
the  stones  are  rounded  away,  so  as 
to  give  it  the  vaulted  form. 

The  term  Memnonium  is  used, 
by  Strabo,  to  designate  that  part 
of  ancient  Thebes  which  lies  on 
the  west  side  of  the  river.  The 
French  savans  have  restricted  it 
to  the  magnificent  ruin  which  we 
are  proceeding  to  describe.  This 
beautiful  relic  of  antiquity  looks  to 
the  east,  and  is  fronted  with  a  stu- 
pendous propylon,  of  which  234 
feet  in  length  are  still  remaining. 
The  propylon  stands  on  the  edge  of 
the  arable  soil ;  but  the  area  for 
the  dromos  behind  it  is  floored 
with  the  solid  rock,  on  which  the 
rest  of  the  temple  is  erected.  Great 
part  of  the  eastern  wall  has  fallen 
down,  and  both  ends  are  greatly 
dilapidated.  A  stair  leads  from 
each  end  to  the  top  of  the  pro- 
pylon, from  which  passages  go  off 
into  a  number  of  chambers.  The 
figures  on  the  walls  are  very  abun- 
dant, chiefly  representing  battle- 
scenes.  There  are  fifty-six  paces 
between  the  propylon  and  the 


THE 


THE 


of  the  temple.  This  space  was 
probably  enclosed  with  a  high  wall 
at  each  end,  and  formed  the  dro- 
mos ;  but  no  traces  of  the  walls 
exist,  except  the  rough  marks  of 
their  junction  with  the  propylon. 
In  this  dromos  was  found  the 
broken  statue  of  the  hero  to  whom 
the.  building  was  dedicated,  either 
Mem non  or  Osymandyas.  The  front 
wall  of  the  temple  is  greatly  dilapi- 
dated, and  what  remains  of  it  does 
not  indicate  that  imposing  gran- 
deur and  profusion  of  ornament 
that  generally  characterize  the  fa- 
cade of  an  Egyptian  temple;  but 
when  we  pass  to  the  inside,  the 
walls  are  seen  adorned  after  the 
usual  manner.  The  columns  in 
front  of  the  wall,  forming  the  piaz- 
za, are  formed  in  front  into  statues 
representing  Osiris,  with  his  hands 
crossed  over  his  breast,  holding  the 
crook  and  scourge  ;  the  lower 
limbs  closed  up  in  the  shape  of  a 
mummy,  with  a  row  of  hierogly- 
phics passing  down  the  front. 
Four  of  these  statues  are  still 
remaining  on  the  east  side  of  the 
pronaos ;  they  consist  of  seven 
stones  each,  and  are  about  twenty- 
two  feet  high.  There  have  been 
four  on  each  side  of  the  door  of 
the  pronaos,  fronting  an  equal 
number  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
court ;  that  is,  there  were  sixteen 
in  all  ;  while  the  northern  and 
southern  sides  of  the  area  have 
been  bounded  by  two  rows  of  co- 
lums,  forming,  with  the  sixteen 
Osiris  columns,  a  magnificent  piaz- 
za all  round  the  court.  Only  two 
of  these  columns  now  remain  on 
the  northern  side,  and  three  on  the 
southern :  they  are  reeded  at  the 
base  and  at  the  top,  and  are  twelve 
feet  in  diameter.  In  the  rear  of 
the  eastern  colonnade  there  are 
fragments  of  many  statues,  of  black 
granite.  Above  eight  or  ten  paces 
from  this  part  of  the  building  is 

406 


an  area,  thirty-five  paces  long,  be- 
tween two  ruined  walls,  which  is 
filled  up  with  a  stupendous  colon- 
nade of  eight  rows  of  columns,  six 
in  each  row,  twenty-eight  of  which 
are  still  remaining.  The  ceiling 
consists  of  large  flat  stones,  orna- 
mented with  hieroglyphics.  The 
whole  of  this  noble  edifice,  of  which 
only  a  skeleton  remains,  has  been 
two  hundred  feet  wide,  and  six 
hundred  feet  long.  It  contained 
six  courts  and  chambers,  passing 
from  side  to  side  of  the  temple, 
which  were  ornamented  with  about 
one  hundred  and  sixty  columns, 
thirty  feet  high.  All  the  side  walls 
have  been  broken  down,  and  the 
materials  carried  away. 

About  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from 
the  Memnonium,  at  the  modern 
village  of  Medinet  Abou,  we  find 
another  large  temple.  Its  gateway 
leads  into  a  large  walled  court, 
crowded  with  stones  in  front  of  a 
large  propylon,  which  appears  to 
have  been  built  out  of  a  former 
edifice.  Passing  through  this,  we 
come  to  another  and  smaller  pro- 
pylon, which  leads  into  a  low 
square  court,  in  the  middle  ol 
which  has  been  erected  a  christian 
church,  many  columns  of  which 
are  still  standing.  Proceeding  on  ' 
ward,  we  come  to  the  principal 
part  of  the  temple,  which  is  adorn-! 
ed  with  a  number  of  columns:  if 
is  an  open  court,  with  a  number  o: 
side  chambers,  and,  in  the  middle 
a  spacious  insulated  apartment! 
open  at  both  ends.  Beyond  thi: 
chamber  are  two  other  apartments; 
occupying  the  middle  of  the  build' 
ing,  with  several  side-chambers,  al 
of  them  covered  with  sculpture  and 
hieroglyphics,  and  painted  in  variouj 
colours,  some  of  them  still  remark; 
ably  vivid.  Attached  to  this  tern 
pie,  on  the  south,  are  the  remain! 
of  what  has  been  called  a  statel 
palace,  though  Dr.  Richardson  il 


THE 


THE 


disposed  to  consider  them 
as  a  series  of  chambers  built  over 
the  gateway  leading-  to  the  grand 
temple,  the  original  and  regular 
entrance  to  which   passes  under 
and  through  the  middle  of  it." 
Proceeding  about  three  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  a  direct  line  to 
the  west   of  the   gateway,  over 
heaps  of  sand,  and  houses  of  un- 
burnt  brick,  we  come  to  the  pro- 
j  pylon  of  the  £rand  temple  at  Me- 
.  dinet  Abou.  The  propylon  is  about 
one  hundred  and  seventy-five  feet 
long,  the  temple  itself  is  about  five 
hundred  and  seven  feet  long,  and 
the  cella  is  about  one  hundred  and 
forty-eight  feet  broad  without  the 
walls.    The  walls  are  covered  with 
sculptures  (chiefly  battle  scenes) 
and  hieroglyphics.     The  dromos, 
I  in  the  interior,  is  a  court  of  about 
one  hundred  and  twenty  feet  square, 
,  having  a  piazza  of  nine  columns 
on  each  side;   extending  to  the 
second  propylon,  the  columns,  the 
,  ceiling,  and  the  wall,  all  round, 
are  covered  with  hieroglyphics  and 
;  sculptures.     Passing  through  the 
magnificent  doorway  of  the  second 
propylon,  we  enter  the  pronaos, 
which  is  an  open  court  surrounded 
with  a  piazza,  having  eight  columns 
on  the  east  and  west,  and  five  on 
,  the  other  sides.    The  space  occu- 
pied by  the  ruins  attached  to  this 
temple  is  about  a  mile  in  circum- 
.  ference.    At  the  south  corner  of 
I  ruins,  there  is  another  small  tem- 
ple, consisting  of  three  small  rooms. 
To  the  south  east,  near  the  village 
of  El  Barrat,  is  a  strong  embank- 
ment of  earth,  about  five  hundred 
feet  thick,  and  from  thirty  to  forty 
feet  in  height,  enclosing  an  area  of 
about  two  thousand  feet  square, 
:  supposed  to  have  been  an  ancient 
I  reservoir  for  retaining  the  waters  of 
the  river  for  the  supply  of  the  city. 

At  Dair  el  Medinet,  nearly  op- 
posite the  Memnonium,  there  is 


another  temple,  consisting  of  a 
small  propylon,  with  the  small 
chambers,  which  are  entered  sepa- 
rately from  the  pronaos. 

In  addition  to  these  temples  on 
the  west  side  of  the  river,  there  are 
traces  and  remains  of  many  more  ; 
the  walls  of  some  levelled  with  the 
ground,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
materials  carried  away. 

All  over  the  rocky  flat,  and  in 
the  face  of  the  mountain  in  several 
places,  recesses  have  been  cut  in 
upon  the  front  of  the  elevation, 
and  carried  back  so  as  to  form 
three  sides  of  a  square,  and 
numerous  excavations  have  been 
made  in  the  rock,  with  a  piazza 
running  all  along  the  line  of  en- 
trances. Each  mansion  consists  of 
a  large  chamber,  with  a  shaft  pass- 
ing from  it,  at  the  further  extremity 
of  which  is  a  niche  for  the  recep- 
tion of  a  mummy  case.  These 
have  been  considered  by  many  to 
be  the  dwellings  of  the  earliest 
inhabitants  of  Thebes.  About 
three-quarters  of  an  hour  from 
Gornou,  on  the  other  side  of  the 
mountains,  is  the  valley  of  Biban - 
el  -  Melook,  (the  caves  of  the 
kings,)  containing  the  vast  exca- 
vated tombs  of  the  ancient  Theban 
monarchs. 

The  ruins  on  the  east  side  of  the 
river  are  far  from  being  so  interest- 
ing as  those  on  the  Libyan  side : 
they  consist  almost  entirely  of  the 
temples  of  Luxor  and  Karnac. 
The  edifices  are,  however,  on  a 
grander  scale. 

The  temple  at  Luxor,  like  the 
Memnonium,  is  a  mere  skeleton  : 
the  greater  part  of  the  columns  in 
the  interior,  and  part  of  the  sanctu- 
ary, are  still  standing ;  but  the  outer 
walls  have  been  thrown  down,  and 
the  materials  carried  away.  It  is 
nearly  800  feet  in  length,  and  the 
propylon  extending  along  the  front 
measures  in  width  about  200  feet  at 

407 


THE 


THE 


its  present  base,  which  is  between 
twenty  and  thirty  feet  above  the 
foundation.  Behind  the  propylon 
is  the  dromos,  a  large  open  court, 
about  300  feet  long,  and  160  wide, 
surrounded  with  a  piazza  formed  by 
a  double  row  of  columns,  which 
appears  to  have  been  walled  and 
covered  in.  A  double  row  of  state- 
ly columns,  twelve  feet  in  diameter, 
and  between  thirty  and  forty  feet 
high,  with  spreading  capitals,  re- 
sembling the  budding  lotus,  lead  to 
the  cella,  which  is  peripteral,  hav- 
ing a  row  of  eleven  columns  on 
each  side.  We  next  come  to  an- 
other colonnade,  consisting  of  ten 
rows  of  columns,  three  columns  in 
each  row;  then  to  a  cross  wall, 
with  a  door-way  in  the  middle  of 
it;  beyond  which  is  another  colon- 
nade, consisting  of  eight  rows  of 
columns,  four  columns  in  each  row, 
and  leading  to  what  may  be  re- 
garded as  the  sanctuary  of  the 
temple.  This  communicates  with 
several  small  apartments.  Great 
and  magnificent  as  is  this  temple, 
Dr.  Richardson  observes — "  it  only 
serves  to  show  the  way  to  an  edi- 
fice much  greater,  to  which  it  bears 
only  the  proportion  of  a  lodge  to  a 
palace ;  I  mean  the  splendid  ruin  of 
the  temple  at  Karnac." 

The  distance  from  Luxor  to 
Karnak  is  nearly  two  miles,  and  the 
whole  road  was  formerly  lined  with 
a  row  of  sphinxes  on  each  side; 
for  two-thirds  of  the  way  they  are 
now  buried  under  the  rubbish ; 
but  in  the  latter  part  of  the  way, 
near  to  Karnac,  they  still  remain 
on  each  side  of  the  road.  The 
regular  approach  to  the  temple, 
which  is  considerably  more  to  the 
east,  is  likewise  bordered  by  two 
rows  of  sphinxes,  and  then  passes 
through  four  immense  propylons. 
The  gateways  are  chiefly  of  polish- 
ed granite,  and,  as  well  as  the 
sides,  are  covered  with  sculpture 

408 


and  hieroglyphics,  and  adorned 
with  numerous  colossal  statues, 
placed  at  the  distance  of  four  or 
five  hundred  feet  from  each  other. 
Entering  by  the  side,  the  travel  lor 
is  placed  in  the  centre  of  this 
splendid  ruin,  where  the  astonished 
eye  passes  over  the  wrecks  of  a 
sacred  edifice,  extending  about  six 
hundred  feet  on  each  hand,  the 
whole  length  of  the  temple  be- 
ing about  twelve  hundred  feet,  and 
four  hundred  and  twenty  feet  in 
breadth.  On  the  opposite  side, 
there  is  also  an  entrance  through 
a  magnificent  propylon,  four  hun- 
dred feet  long  and  forty  feet  thick, 
approached  by  a  double  row  ot 
sphinxes.  There  is  a  staircase  in 
the  northern  end,  leading  to  the 
top ;  and  a  passage  runs  over  the 
ceiling  of  the  door-way,  from  the 
north  to  the  south  wing.  This 
gateway  leads  into  a  spacious  court, 
containing  a  double  row  of  stately 
columns,  forty  feet  high  ;  a  row  of 
smaller  columns  passes  down  each 
side,  and  on  the  right  a  small  tem- 
ple projects  considerably  into'the 
court.  The  columns  in  the  middle 
of  the  court  terminate  in  another 
propylon.  To  this  propylon  suc- 
ceeds an  immense  colonnade,  the 
columns  running  down  the  middle, 
being  the  largest.  These  supported 
the  highest  part  of  the  roof,  in  the 
sides  of  which  are  small  windows 
for  the  admission  of  light  to  this 
part  of  the  temple.  This  colonnade 
brings  us  to  the  end  of  this  half  of 
the  temple.  The  middle  of  this 
part  of  the  temple  is  occupied  by  a 
sanctuary  constructed  of  highly- 
polished  granite.  Beyond  this  is 
another  very  extensive  colonnade. 
Many  parts  of  this  temple  are  com- 
pletely concealed  by  the  accumu- 
lation of  rubbish.  On  every  hand 
are  gateways  and  adjoining  temples, 
which,  in  other  places,  would  be 
reckoned  magnificent.    There  are 


THO 


also  some  ruins  of  a  temple  at  the 
village  of  Medamoud. 

Theodolite,  an  instrument 
used  in  surveying,  for  taking  angles 
in  vertical  or  horizontal  planes. 

Theologeion,  (Gr.)  In  the  the- 
atres of  the  ancients,  this  name  was 
given  to  a  machine  which  was  used 
to  represent  apparitions;  it  was 
placed  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
scene,  and  appears  to  have  had 
some  resemblance  to  the  ekky- 
klema.  By  a  particular  process, 
applied  in  the  interior,  they  dis- 
played a  part  of  the  decoration  of 
the  stage  above  the  scene,  by  which 
means  the  deities  appeared  to  the 
i  eyes  of  the  spectators :  probably 
they  were  always  surrounded  with 
clouds,  and,  when  they  became 
(invisible,  they  were  entirely  con- 
cealed by  them. 

Thesilium,  the  building  at 
Megalopolis,  in  which  the  deputies 
iiof  the  different  cities  of  Arcadia 
used  to  assemble,  to  deliberate  on 
their  affairs  in  common.  It  was 
so  named  from  its  founder. 
1  Theseus,  Temple  of.  See 
Athenian  Architecture. 
1  Tholus,  (Gr.)  a  term  given  to 
buildings  of  a  circular  form.  Vitru- 
vius  (iv.  7.  and  vii.  5.)  uses  it  to 
signify  the  roof  of  a  circular  build- 
ing. According  to  Suidas,  the 
building  at  Athens,  where  the  Pry- 
tanies  used  to  assemble,  was  a 
tholus.  A  circular  building  at 
Epidauria  was  distinguished  by  the 
:  same  term ;  and  it  was  also  ap- 
plied to  the  laconicum  of  a  bath, 
which  was  of  a  circular  form. 

Thoricus,  one  of  the  demi  of 
Attica,  in  a  plain  on  the  eastern 
coast,  which  derived  its  importance 
from  the  vicinity  of  the  silver  mines 
of  Lauricum.  A  little  below  a  co- 
nical hill,  which  is  supposed  to  be 
the  site  of  the  ancient  citadel,  are 
the  remains  of  a  Doric  portico, 
with  fourteen  columns  in  the  front, 
3F 


TIL 

and  seven  in  each  return.  No  re- 
mains of  a  wall  could  be  discovered 
within  the  area.  The  columns  di- 
minish nearly  a  fourth  of  their  lower 
diameter,  in  straight  lines.  The 
shafts  are  plain,  except  a  small 
portion,  which  is  fluted  at  the  top 
and  bottom.  (Unedited  Antiquities 
of  Attica.) 

Thorough  -  lighted,  a  term 
applied  to  a  room  which  has  win- 
dows on  two  opposite  sides. 

Thymele,  (Gr. )  Suidas,  ex- 
plaining the  word  <rKr]vn,  (scene,) 
says,  that  in  the  orchestra  is  the 
altar  of  Bacchus,  which  is  called 
thymele,  (0v/l/£\t/);  and  in  another 
place  he  says,  that  the  thymele  was 
an  altar,  so  called  from  the  word 
dvfjeiv,  to  sacrifice..  On  the  thy- 
mele, in  front  of  the  pulpitum,  or 
logeion,  were  seated  the  musicians 
and  choristers,  as  may  be  conjec- 
tured from  some  remains  of  seats 
cut  out  of  the  rock,  at  the  back  of 
the  thymele,  in  the  remains  of  an 
odeum  at  Athens.  These  musicians 
were  called  Thymelici,  from  the 
thymele  on  which  they  were  seated 
or  stood. 

Tiiyroma,  (Gr.)  the  doors  of  a 
temple  or  house. 

Tiiyroreum,  (Gr.  from  dvpog, 
a  door-way,  and  avpog,  a  keeper,) 
a  passage  in  the  Grecian  houses, 
leading  from  the  entrance  to  the 
peristyle,  by  the  apartments  of 
the  porter. 

Tie,  (tian,  Sax.  to  bind,)  a 
timber,  rod,  chain,  &c.  binding 
two  bodies  together  which  have  a 
tendency  to  separate  or  diverge 
from  each  other.  The  tie-beam 
connects  the  bottom  of  a  pair  of 
principal  rafters,  and  prevents  them 
from  bursting  out  the  wall. 

Tierce  Point,  the  vertex  of 
an  equilateral  triangle. 

Tiles,  plates  of  clay,  baked  in 
a  kiln,  and  used  instead  of  slates 
for  covering  the  roofs  of  houses. 

409 


T  I  L 


TIL 


"  Two  forms  of  tiles  were  used  in 
ancient  buildings.  The  imbrex, 
placed  in  regular  rows  to  receive 
the  shower,  and  the  tcgula,  which 
covered  and  prevented  the  rain 
from  penetrating  the  joints.  The 
latter  were  finished  at  the  eaves 
with  upright  ornaments, (antefixas,) 
which  were  repeated  also  at  the 
junction  of  these  tiles,  along  the 
ridge.  These  ornaments  are  called, 
by  Pliny,  persona,  from  their  being 
probably  at  first  masks.  He  refers 
their  invention  to  Dibutades,  a 
Sicyonian  potter,  established  at 
Corinth,  who  called  them  protypes, 
being  stamped  in  front  only  :  those 
upon  the  ridge,  an  after-thought  of 
the  same  artist,  and  worked  on  all 
sides,  were  named  ectypes."  Pom- 
peiana,  p.  221.  The  tiles  of  the 
temple  at  Ecbatana  were  of  silver. 
Among  modern  builders  there  are 
several  kinds  of  tiles : — 

Plane  Tiles,  or  Crown  Tiles,  are 
such  as  have  a  rectangular  form 
and  plane  surface,  are  KH  inches 
long,  6  broad,  and  |  thick,  weigh- 
ing from  2  to  2£  lbs.  —  Ridge,  Roof, 
or  Hip  Tiles,  are  formed  cylindri- 
cally,  to  cover  the  ridges  of  nouses, 
are  twelve  inches  long,  ten  broad, 
and  I  thick,  and  weigh  about  4|  lbs. 
— Gutter  Tiles  are  about  the  same 
weight  and  dimensions  as  ridge 
tiles. — Pan-tiles  have  a  rectangular 
outline,  with  a  surface  both  con- 
cave and  convex,  having  no  holes, 
but  being  hung  on  the  lath  by  a 
ledge  in  their  upper  ends,  formed 
in  the  making;  they  are  generally 
14i  inches  long,  and  10  broad, 
weighing  from  5  to  5£  lbs. 

The  following  are  the  results  of 
some  experiments  on  the  advan- 
tages of  slates  over  tiles,  as  related 
by  the  bishop  of  LlandafT.  That 
sort  of  slate,  other  circumstances 
being  the  same,  is  esteemed  the 
best,  which  imbibes  the  least  water; 
for  the  water  imbibed  not  only  in- 

410 


creases  the  weight  of  the  covering, 
but,  in  frosty  weather,  being  con- 
verted into  ice,  swells  and  shivers 
the  slate.  This  effect  of  frost  is 
very  sensible  in  tiled  houses,  but  is 
scarcely  felt  in  those  which  are 
slated;  for  good  slate  imbibes  but 
little  water ;  though,  when  they  are 
well  glazed,  tiles  are  rendered,  in 
some  measure,  similar  to  slate  in 
this  respect.  He  took  a  piece  of 
Westmoreland  slate,  and  a  piece 
of  common  tile,  and  weighed  each 
of  them  carefully ;  the  surface  of 
each  was  about  thirty  square  inches; 
both  the  pieces  were  immersed  in 
water  for  about  ten  minutes,  and 
then  .taken  out  and  weighed,  as 
soon  as  they  had  ceased  to  drip : 
the  tile  had  imbibed  about  a  se- 
venth part  of  its  weight  of  water, 
and  the  slate  had  not  imbibed  a 
two-hundredth  part  of  its  weight; 
indeed,  the  wetting  of  the  slate  was 
merely  superficial.  He  placed  both 
the  wet  pieces  before  the  fire;  in  a 
quarter  of  an  hour  the  slate  was 
perfectly  dry,  and  of  the  same 
weight  as  before  it  was  put  in  the 
water ;  but  the  slate  had  lost  only 
about  twelve  grains  of  water  it  had 
imbibed,  which  was,  as  near  as 
could  be  expected,  the  very  same 
quantity  that  had  been  spread  over 
its  surface ;  for  it  was  the  quantity 
which  had  been  imbibed  by  the 
slate,  the  surface  of  which  was 
equal  to  that  of  the  tile :  the  tile 
was  left  to  dry  in  a  room  heated  to 
sixty  degrees,  and  it  did  not  lose 
all  the  water  it  had  imbibed  in  less 
than  six  days. — The  finest  sort  of 
blue  slate  is  sold  at  Kendal  for 
3s.  6d.  per  load,  which  comes  to 
£1.  15s.  per  ton,  the  load  weighing 
two  hundredweight.  The  coarsest 
may  be  had  for  2s.  4d.  a  load,  or 
£1.  3s.  4d.  per  ton.  Thirteen  loads 
of  the  finer  sort  will  cover  forty-two 
square  yards  of  roof,  and  eighteen 
loads  of  the  coarsest  will  cover  the 


T  I  L 


TIM 


same  space :  so  that  there  is  half 
a  ton  less  weight  upon  forty-two 
square  yards  of  roof,  where  the 
finest  slate  is  used,  than  if  it  was 
covered  with  the  coarser  kind,  and 
the  difference  of  the  expense  of  the 
material  is  only  3s.  6d.  A  common 
Cambridge  tile  weighed  thirty-seven 
ounces :  they  use  at  a  medium 
seven  hundred  tiles  for  covering  a 
hundred  square  feet,  or  about  two 
tons  and  a  half  of  tile  to  forty-two 
square  yards.  Hence,  without  in- 
cluding the  weight  of  what  is  used 
for  wrapping  over,  &c.  when  a 
building  is  covered  with  copper, 
lead,  tiles,  or  slate,  it  will  be  seen 
that  forty-two  square  yards  of 
building  will  be  covered  by 

Cwt. 


Copper    4 

Fine  slate   2G 

Lead   27 

Coarser  slate    36 

Tiles   54 


Mr.  Malcolm  thinks  that  tiles  in  a 
damp  state,  lodging  on  timber  for 
at  least  six  months,  must  injure  the 
timber,  and,  together  with  the  un- 
burnt  or  place  bricks  in  the  wall, 
must  produce  an  almost  perpetual 
moisture,  and  make  a  house  damp 
and  unhealthy  at  all  seasons. 

M.  de  Chemas  obtained,  from 
the  emperor  of  Russia,  a  patent  for 
his  improvements  in  bricks  and  tiles; 
which  were,  according  to  a  Russian 
paper, — "(1.)  a  machine  for  con- 
verting every  species  of  clay,  im- 
mediately on  being  dug  up  from 
the  pit,  into  tiles,  or  bricks — (2.)  a 
furnace  for  burning  tiles  or  bricks 
to  the  consistency  of  iron,  with  a 
saving  of  one-third  of  fuel— (3.)  a 
press,  with  which  three  or  four  peo- 
ple may  form  ten  to  twelve  thou- 
sand tiles  or  bricks  in  one  day. 
This  press  furnishes  the  bricks  or 
tiles  in  almost  a  dry  state,  per- 
fectly free  from  cracks,  and  perfo- 
rated with  holes,  in  order  to  pro- 
mote the  drying,  and  to  give  the 


cement  a  better  hold  of  them ; 
while,  by  a  very  simple  apparatus 
it  may  be  so  adjusted  as  to  give 
the  bricks  or  tiles  any  shape  that 
may  be  desired ;  such  as  bent  bricks 
for  vaults  or  furnaces,  or  tiles  for 
ornamental  purposes.  The  tiles 
join,  and,  with  the  inventor's  ce- 
ment, are  more  durable  than  iron, 
by  three-fourths  less  expense,  and 
never  require  being  varnished." 

Timber.  The  species  of  timber 
chielly  used  in  carpentry  and  join- 
ery, are  oak,  the  different  species 
of  pine,  mahogany,  lime,  poplar, 
ash,  elm,  beech,  &c. 

There  are  two  species  of  Oak 
common  to  our  island;  but  the 
best  is  that  which  Linneeus  has 
named  quercus  robur,  being  of  a 
finer  grain,  less  tough,  and  not 
so  subject  to  twist  as  the  other  kind. 
The  foreign  oaks,  brought  from  the 
ports  on  the  Baltic,  from  Germany, 
and  from  America,  are  in  general 
preferred  to  our  home  species,  from 
their  being  more  free  from  knots, 
of  a  straighter  grain,  and  less  diffi- 
cult to  work. 

Oak  is  most  durable,  when  it  has 
taken  the  longest  time  to  arrive  at 
maturity.  In  a  damp  situation  oak 
decays  gradually  from  the  outside 
to  the  centre;  but  when,  on  the 
contrary,  its  decay  is  caused  by  its 
great  age,  and  commences  while 
the  tree  is  standing,  it  always  be- 
gins from  the  centre,  which  is  the 
oldest  part. 

Ash,  is  generally  toughest  on  the 
outside. 

Elm,  is  very  liable  to  warp  and 
shrink,  and  is  generally  cross- 
grained  :  but  it  is  not  liable  to 
split,  and  it  consequently  bears  the 
driving  of  bolts  and  nails  better 
than  most  timbers. 

Beech,  is  hard  and  close,  but  not 
durable,  particularly  when  exposed 
to  moisture. 

Poplar,  is  not  durable,  but  is 

411 


TIM 


TIM 


close,  and  in  general  well  adapted 
for  floors  and  stairs. — Asp  resem- 
bles poplar  in  appearance,  but  is 
soft,  tough,  and  tolerably  durable. 

Lime  and  Sycamore,  also  resemble 
poplar,  and  are  liable  to  the  same 
objections. 

Birch,  is  very  regular  in  quality, 
tough,  but  not  durable  in  an  ex- 
posed situation. 

The  timber  of  the  Spanish  or 
edible  Chesnut  is  sometimes  found 
in  old  buildings,  and  is  not  easily 
distinguished  from  oak. 

Walnut,  is  seldom  used,  except 
for  gun-stocks,  &c. 

Mahogany,  is  chiefly  used  in  fur- 
niture :  that  from  Jamaica  is  the 
hardest  and  most  beautiful. 

The  most  useful  wood  in  England, 
next  to  oak,  is  Fir,  of  which  there 
are  two  principal  kinds,  the  Memel, 
including  that  of  Dantzic  and  Riga, 
and  the  Norway,  which  also  in- 
cludes the  Swedish.  The  White 
Deal,  called  by  the  Scotch  Pine- 
wood,  is  chiefly  used  by  cabinet- 
makers. Evelyn,  speaking  of  fir, 
observes,  that  "  that  which  comes 
from  Bergen,  Mott,  Longland, 
Dranton  (called  Dram,)  being  long, 
straight,  and  clear,  of  a  yellow  and 
more  cedary  colour,  is  esteemed 
much  before  the  white  for  flooring 
and  wainscot;  for  masts,  those  of 
Prussia,  which  we  call  Spruce,  and 
Norway,  especially  from  Gotten- 
burgh,  and  about  Riga,  are  the 
best." 

People  who  work  in  wood  on  a 
small  scale,  find  a  great  difference 
in  the  materials  according  to  the 
different  times  of  the  year  when  it 
is  cut  down.  The  wood  of  the 
pear-tree,  cut  in  summer,  works 
the  toughest;  holly,  on  the  con- 
trary, works  toughest  when  cut 
down  in  winter;  box  is  mellowest 
when  cut  in  summer,  but  hardest 
when  cut  about  Easter.  Wood, 
contrary  to  what  is  the  case  in 


metals,  is  found  to  be  longest  in 
cold  weather  and  shortest  in  hot 
which  is  owing  to  the  remains  of 
the  sap  yet  in  the  wood,  which  be- 
ing condensed  by  cold,  is  enlarged 
in  its  surface,  and  shrinks  into  less 
space  again  when  liquefied  by  heat. 
Hence  it  appears,  that  all  wood 
must  change  its  surface  more  or 
less,  according  as  it  contains  more 
or  less  sap;  and  this  may  be  made  | 
a  test  of  great  use  for  the  deter- 
mining which  kinds  of  wood  have 
most,  and  what  least  sap.  It  is 
well  known  that  wood  contracts 
less  in  proportion  in  diameter,  than 
it  does  in  circumference;  and  from  | 
that  cause  a  whole  tree  always 
splits  in  drying.  Mr.  Knight  has 
shown,  that  in  consequence  of  this 
irregular  contraction,  a  board  may 
be  cut  from  a  tree,  that  can  scarcely 
by  any  means  be  made  to  retain 
the  same  form  and  position,  when 
subjected  to  various  degrees  of  heat 
and  moisture.  He  cut  some  thin 
boards  from  the  ash  and  the  beech, 
in  different  directions  relatively  to 
their  transverse  septa,  so  that  the 
septa  crossed  the  middle  of  some  of 
the  boards  at  right  angles,  and  lay 
nearly  parallel  with  the  surfaces  of 
others.  Both  kinds  were  placed  in 
a  warm  room,  under  perfectly  simi- 
lar circumstances.  Those  which  j 
had  been  formed  by  cutting  across 
the  transverse  septa,  soon  changed 
their  form  very  considerably,  the 
one  side  becoming  hollow ;  and,  in 
drying,  they  contracted  nearly  four- 
teen hundredths  in  width.  There 
is  another  kind  of  contraction  to 
which  wood  is  liable  while  dry- 
ing, which  causes  it  to  become 
curved  in  the  direction  of  its 
length,  and  is  often  observed  in  the 
long  styles  for  framing,  &c.  Mr. 
Knight  accounts  for  it  by  showing, 
that  the  interior  layers  of  wood, 
being  older,  are  more  compact  and 
solid  than  the  exterior  layers  of  the 


TIM 


TIM 


same  tree ;  consequently,  in  drying, 
the  latter  contract  more  in  length  ; 
and  it  may  be  avoided  by  cutting 
the  wood  so  that  the  parts  of  each 
piece  shall  be  as  nearly  as  possible 
of  the  same  age. 

Difference  of  atmosphere  also 
makes  a  considerable  change 
the  bulk  of  wood.  It  appears,  from 
Rondelet's  experiments,  that  in 
wood  of  a  mean  degree  of  dry- 
ness, the  extent  of  contraction  and 
expansion,  produced  by  the  usual 
changes  in  the  state  of  the  atmo- 
spheres, was,  in  fir,  from  —  to  ~ 
r  360  75 

parts  of  its  width,  and  in  oak  from 

JL  to  —  part  of  its  width.  The 
412        84  r 

mean  extent  of  variation  in  fir  is, 

therefore,  — ,  and  in  oak  -L  •  con- 
124  140  9 

sequently,  in  a  fir  board  about  1 2 J 

inches  wide,  the  difference  in  width 

would  be  one-tenth  of  an  inch. 

The  following  observations  on 
timber,  by  Evelyn,  are  many  of 
them  well  worthy  of  attention. 

"  Lay  up  your  timbers  very  dry, 
in  an  airy  place,  yet  out  of  the 
wind  or  sun,  and  not  standing  up- 
right, but  lying  along,  one  piece 
upon  another,  interposing  some 
short  blocks  between  them,  to  pre- 
serve them  from  a  certain  mould i- 
ness  which  they  usually  contract 
while  they  sweat,  and  which  fre- 
quently produces  a  kind  of  fungus, 
especially  if  there  be  any  sappy 
parts  remaining. 

"  Some  there  are  yet,  who  keep 
their  timber  as  moist  as  they  can 
by  submerging  it  in  water,  where 
they  let  it  imbibe,  to  hinder  the 
cleaving;  and  this  is  good  in  fir, 
both  for  the  belter  stripping  and 
seasoning;  yea,  not  only  in  fir,  but 
other  timber.  Lay,  therefore,  your 
boards  a  fortnight  in  the  water,  (if 
running  the  better,  as  at  some  mill- 
pond  head,)  and  there  setting  them 


upright  in  the  sun  and  wind,  so  as 
it  may  freely  pass  through  them, 
(especially  during  the  heats  of  sum- 
mer, which  is  the  time  of  finishing 
buildings,)  turn  them  daily;  and, 
thus  treated,  even  newly  sawn 
boards  will  floor  far  better  than 
many  years'  dry-seasoning,  as  they 
call  it.  But  to  prevent  all  possible 
accidents,  when  you  lay  your  floors, 
let  the  joints  be  shot,  fitted,  and 
tacked  down  only  for  the  first  year, 
nailing  them,  for  good  and  all,  the 
next;  and  by  this  means  they  will 
lie  staunch,  close,  and  without 
shrinking  in  the  least,  as  if  they 
were  all  one  piece.  And  upon  this 
occasion,  I  am  to  add  an  observa- 
tion, which  may  prove  of  no  small 
use  to  builders;  that  if  one  take  up 
deal  boards  that  may  have  lain  in 
the  floor  a  hundred  years,  and 
shoot  them  again,  they  will  cer- 
tainly shrink,  (toties  quoties,)  with- 
out the  former  method.  Amongst 
wheel-wrights,  the  water  seasoning 
is  of  especial  regard  ;  and  in  such 
esteem  amongst  some,  that  I  am 
assured  the  Venetians,  for  their 
provision  in  the  arsenal,  lay  their 
oak  some  years  in  water  before 
they  employ  it.  Indeed,  the  Turks 
not  only  fell  at  all  times  of  the 
year,  without  any  regard  to  the 
season,  but  employ  their  timber 
green  and  unseasoned ;  so  that, 
though  they  have  excellent  oak,  it 
decays  in  a  short  time  by  this  only 
neglect. 

"  Elm,  felled  ever  so  green,  for 
sudden  use,  if  plunged  four  or  five 
days  in  water,  (especially  salt  wa- 
ter,) obtains  an  admirable  season- 
ing, and  may  immediately  be  used. 
I  the  oftener  insist  on  this  water 
seasoning,  not  only  as  a  remedy 
against  the  worm,  but  for  its  effi- 
cacy against  warping  and  distor- 
tions of  timber,  whether  used  with- 
in, or  exposed  to  the  air.  Some 
again,  commend  burying   in  the 


T  1  M 


TIM 


earth  ;  others,  in  wheat :  and  there 
be  seasonings  of  the  fire,  as  for  the 
scorching  and  hardening  of  piles, 
which  are  to  stand  either  in  the 
water  or  in  the  earth. 

"  When  wood  is  charred,  it  be- 
comes incorruptible;  for  which  rea- 
son, when  we  Vish  to  preserve  piles 
from  decay,  they  should  be  char- 
red on  their  outside.  Oak  posts, 
used  in  enclosures,  always  decay 
about  two  inches  above  and  below 
the  surface.  Charring  that  part 
would  probably  add  several  years 
to  the  duration  of  the  wood,  for 
that  to  most  timber  it  contributes 
much  to  its  duration.  Thus  do  all 
the  elements  contribute  to  the  art 
of  seasoning. 

"  Timber  which  is  cleft  is  no- 
thing so  obnoxious  to  reft  and 
cleave  as  what  is  hewn  ;  nor  that 
which  is  squared,  as  what  is  round  : 
and,  therefore,  where  use  is  to  be 
made  of  huge  and  massy  columns, 
let  them  be  bored  through  from 
end  to  end.  It  is  an  excellent  pre- 
servative from  splitting,  and  not 
unphilosophical ;  though,  to  cure 
the  accident,  painter's  putty  is  re- 
commended ;  also,  the  rubbing 
them  over  with  a  wax  cloth  is 
good ;  or,  before  it  be  converted, 
the  smearing  the  timber  over 
with  cow-dung,  which  prevents  the 
effects  both  of  sun  and  air  upon  it, 
if  of  necessity  it  must  lie  exposed. 
But,  besides  the  former  remedies, 
I  find  this  for  the  closing  of  the 
chops  and  clefts  of  green  timber, 
to  anoint  and  supple  it  with  the  fat 
of  powdered  beef  broth,  with  which 
it  must  be  well  soaked,  and  the 
chasms  filled  with  sponges  dipt 
into  it.  This  to  be  twice  done 
over. 

"  We  spake  before  of  squaring ; 
and  I  would  now  recommend  the 
quartering  of  such  trees  as  will  allow 
useful  and  competent  scantlings, 
to  be  of  much  more  durableness 

414 


and  effect  for  strength,  than  where 
(as  custom  is,  and  for  want  of  ob- 
servation,) whole  beams  and  tim- 
bers are  applied  in  ships  or  houses, 
with  slab  and  all  about  them,  upon 
false  suppositions  of  strength  be- 
yond these  quarters. 

"  Timber  that  you  have  occasion 
to  lay  in  mortar,  or  which  is  in  any 
part  contiguous  to  lime,  as  doors, 
window-cases,  groundsels,  and  the 
extremities  of  beams,  &c,  have 
sometimes  been  capped  with  molten  j 
pitch,  as  a  marvellous  preserver  of 
it  from  the  burning  and  destructive 
effects  of  the  lime ;  but  it  has  since 
been  found  rather  to  heat  and  de- 
cay them,  by  hindering  the  trans- 
udation which  those  parts  require  ; 
better  supplied  with  loam,  or  strew-  i 
ings  of  brick -dust,  or  pieces  of 
boards ;  some  leave  a  small  hole 
for  the  air.  But  though  lime  be  so  ! 
destructive,  whilst  timber  lies  thus 
dry,  it  seems  they  mingle  it  with 
hair,  to  keep  the  worm  out  of  ships,  I 
which  they  sheathe  for  southern 
voyages,  though  it  is  held  much  to 
retard  their  course. 

"  For  all  uses,  that  timber  is  es- 
teemed the  best,  which  is  the  most 
ponderous,  and  which,  lying  long, 
makes  deepest  impression  in  the 
earth,  or  in  the  water,  being  float- 
ed ;  also,  what  is  without  knots, 
yet  firm,  and  free  from  sap,  which  I 
is  that  fatty,  whiter,  and  softer  part,  ! 
called  by  the  ancients  alburnum,  I 
which  you  are  diligently  to  hew 
away.  My  Lord  Bacon,  Exper.  658,  j 
recommends,  for  trial  of  a  sound 
or  knotty  piece  of  timber,  to  cause 
one  to  speak  at  one  of  the  extremes 
to  his  companion,  listening  at  the 
other ;   for  if  it  be   knotty,  the 
sound,  says  he,  will  come  abrupt." 

The  durability  of  buildings  de- 
pends much  on  the  goodness  of  the 
timber,  and  the  manner  in  which  it 
is  applied.  It  must,  in  the  first 
place,  be  selected  from  such  as  has 


T  I  M 


TIM 


been  cut  down  in  the  season  of 
autumn,  when  there  is  not  much 
sap  in  trees,  and  consequently  the 
timber  not  liable  to  shrink  quite  so 
much  in  drying,  and  by  experience 
found  less  liable  to  the  dry  rot. 
After  the  trees  are  cut  down,  they 
must  remain  till  the  succeeding 
spring,  at  least,  before  they  be  cut 
into  scantling  timber  and  boards; 
after  which,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
keep  them  exposed  to  the  sun  and 
air  till  sufficiently  dried.  Boards, 
to  be  seasoned,  ought  to  be  piled 
upright,  with  their  upper  ends  rest- 
ing between  racks,  and  the  scant- 
lings dried  in  the  same  manner  ;  or, 
according  to  the  custom  of  others, 
the  planks  and  boards  are  arranged 
so  that  the  ends  rest  on  each  other, 
forming  in  each  pile  alternate  va- 
cancies to  admit  the  air  between 
each.  If  the  timber  be  allowed  to 
lie  close  together,  the  accumulated 
sap  and  moisture  will  ferment,  and 
produce  what  is  called  the  dry  rot. 
To  preserve  timber  which  is  in  the 
foundations  of  buildings,  or  exposed 
to  moisture  and  the  weather,  the 
process  of  charring  is  found  im- 
portantly useful.  This  is  done 
either  by  exposure  to  fire,  or  by 
coating  with  pitch,  which  is  after- 
wards set  fire  to,  and  turned  round 
as  it  burns  ;  and  sometimes  a  coat  of 
tar  is  applied  after  charring  has  been 
performed.  For  paling  and  weather- 
boarding  various  methods  are  used, 
among  which  are  the  following : — 
Mix,  with  six  pounds  of  melted 
pitch,  one  pound  of  red  ochre, 
one  pound  of  grease,  and  a  little 
lamp  black,  and  apply  hot  when 
the  wood  is  quite  dry ;  or  take  eight 
pounds  of  tar,  two  pounds  of  fine 
sand,  with  a  little  red  lead  and 
soot.  The  following  will  be  found 
superior  to  either,  and  will  also 
prove  a  very  cheap  and  durable 
paint  for  out- door  work: — To  a 
gallon  of  common  fish  oil,  add 


lime  till  of  a  proper  consistence, 
with  a  sufficient  quantity  of  yellow 
ochre  and  lamp  black,  to  give  a 
proper  colour;  dilute  with  linseed 
oil,  and  use  as  a  paint. 

To  preserve  the  joints  of  frame- 
work exposed  to  the  weather,  take 
one  pound  of  pitch,  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  grease,  and  as  much 
powdered  chalk  as  will  make  the 
boiling  mixture  of  a  proper  con- 
sistence. The  mortise  and  tenon 
must  be  covered  with  this  while 
hot,  and  then  secured  by  pins. 

The  following  remedy  against 
dry  rot  has  been  published  by  Mr. 
Baker,  of  Hampstead  : — Take  two 
ounces  of  white  arsenic  in  powder, 
dissolve  it  by  boiling  in  one  gallon 
of  soft  water ;  if  boiled  in  an  iron 
or  tinned  vessel,  add  half  an  ounce 
of  copper  filings,  but  if  in  an  un- 
tinned  copper  vessel,  the  filings  are 
unnecessary;  to  a  quart  of  size  and 
half  a  pound  of  tar,  add  a  small 
quantity  of  fresh-slaked  lime,  sifted 
pretty  tine ;  beat  them  well  into  a 
paste,  which  is  to  be  dissolved  with 
the  above  solution,  gradually  add- 
ing during  the  process,  by  small 
portions,  as  much  more  of  the  pul- 
verized lime  as  will  give  the  whole 
a  proper  (rather  diluted)  body  to 
be  laid  on  with  a  painter's  brush. 
New  work,  when  finished,  as  a  pre- 
ventive, should  be  dressed  with  the 
composition  at  least  twice,  after 
well  drying  the  first  coat.  , 

The  contact  of  water  and  air  are 
the  chief  causes  of  the  decay  of 
wood  ;  therefore,  if  any  means  can 
be  devised  to  prevent  the  access  of 
air  and  moisture,  the  wood  may  be 
secured  from  decay.  This  princi- 
ple maybe  illustrated  by  supposing 
a  cylinder  of  dry  wood  to  be  placed 
in  a  glass  or  case  which  it  exactly 
fills,  and  the  two  ends  of  which 
are,  as  it  is  called,  hermetically 
sealed,  or  entirely  close.  Such  a 
piece  of  wood  might  remain,  so 


TIM 


TIM 


enclosed,  in  the  open  air,  for  a 
thousand  years  without  any  change. 
To  exclude  air  and  moisture,  vari- 
ous expedients  have  been  employ- 
ed ;  the  most  common  is  covering 
the  wood  with  a  coating  of  paint, 
or  oil-colour,  which  is  with  diffi- 
culty penetrated  by  air  or  mois- 
ture; but  the  composition  which 
experience  has  proved  to  be  the 
best  adapted  for  the  preservation 
of  wood  from  both  species  of  decay, 
either  wet  or  dry  rot,  is  as  follows : 
Melt  twelve  ounces  of  rosin  in  an 
iron  pot  or  kettle;  when  melted, 
add  twelve  ounces  of  roll-brim- 
stone, and  just  when  both  are  in  a 
liquid  state,  pour  in  three  gallons 
of  train  or  whale  oil.  Heat  the 
whole  slowly,  gradually  adding 
four  ounces  of  bees'  wax,  cut  into 
small  pieces ;  frequently  stir  the 
mixture,  and,  as  soon  as  the  solid 
ingredients  are  dissolved,  add  as 
much  Spanish  brown,  or  red  or  yel- 
low ochre,  or  any  other  colour,  (first 
ground  fine  with  some  of  the  oil,) 
as  will  give  the  whole  a  deep 
shade.  Lay  on  this  paint  or  var- 
nish as  hot  and  thin  as  possible, 
and,  some  days  after  the  first  coat 
becomes  dry,  give  it  a  second. 
What  remains  unused  will  become 
solid  on  cooling,  and  may  be  re- 
melted  for  future  occasions. 

A  patent  was  granted  to  Joseph 
Bramah,  of  Pimlico,  for  the  appli- 
cation of  Parker's  cement  to  timber 
to  prevent  the  dry-rot,  and  to  arrest 
its  progress,  where  decay  has  com- 
menced: this  is  done  by  mixing  the 
powder,  so  called,  with  water,  to 
the  consistence  of  white-wash,  and 
applying  it  to  the  surface  of  the 
timber,  previously  freed  from  impu- 
rities. 

A  valuable  treatise  on  the  decay 
of  timber,  by  Dr.  Parry,  is  inserted 
in  the  thirteenth  volume  of  the  Re- 
pertory of  arts,  for  1808,  which  was 
originally  published  in  the  Bath 


and  West  of  England  Societies' 
papers. 

The  steeping,  or  washing  timber 
with  brine  of  the  salt-springs,  is 
recommended  as  efficacious  for  this 
purpose. 

A  correspondent,  in  the  second 
volume  of  the  Mechanics' Magazine,  ! 
recommends  the  following  mode  of  \ 
preventing  the  dry-rot,  the  success 
of  which  has  been  evinced  by  ex-  : 
perience.  It  is,  to  bark  the  tree  in 
spring,  and  at  the  same  time  to  lop 
off  every  branch  too  small  or  un- 
fit for  timber.  Then,  through  the 
bottom  of  the  trunk,  bore  two  holes, 
of  about  one  inch  and  a  half  in 
diameter,  so  as  to  cross  each  other. 
Through  these  the  sap  would  run 
out  so  as  to  kill  the  tree,  and,  by 
seasoning  in  an  unright  position, 
all  the  aqueous  matter  would  be 
completely  removed,  which,  by  lay- 
ing on  the  ground,  cannot  be  done, 
except  within  two  or  three  feet  of 
each  end.  If  the  tree  were  then 
cut  down  in  the  ensuing  winter, 
timber  would  be  found  of  a  remark- 
ably hard  and  dry  quality,  so  as 
indeed  almost  to  resist  the  saw, 
and  be  at  the  same  time  free  from 
rent  or  shake.  Oak  timber  is,  on 
the  contrary,  generally  seasoned  by 
lying  on  the  ground  after  being 
felled,  though  sometimes  more  from 
necessity  than  choice ;  labour,  to  \ 
remove  it,  in  the  spring  or  summer 
being  dear,  it  is  suffered  to  lie  till 
winter,  whilst  the  sap  on  the  lower 
side  rots  off  a  considerable  portion 
of  the  wood,  and  the  upper  side  is 
rent  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and 
wind. 

Table  of  the  specific  gravity  of 
different  woods. 


Alder    800 

Apple  Tree   661 

Ash,  trunk  of   845 

B.ech    852 

Box.  Dutch  1328 

 Frencl   912 

Brazil  wood,  red ................  1031 


TOM 


TOM 


Cedar   59*3 

Cedar,  America!   560 

Cherry  Tree   715 

Cork   240 

Cypress,  Spanish   644 

Ebony   1331 

Elder  Tree    695 

Elm   67 1 

Filbert  Tree   600 

Fir                                      498  to  550 

Lignum-vitse    1333 

Logwood    913 

Mahogany   1063 

Maple                                   750  to  755 

Medlar   944 

Mulberry,  Spanish   897 

'Oak,  heart  of,  (60  years)    1170 

Olive    927 

Orange  Tree   705 

Peruvian  Bark   784 

'  Plum  Tree    705 

Pomegranate  Tree    1354 

Poplar   383 

 ,  White  Spanish   529 

Quince  Tree   793 

Sassafras   4S2 

Vine   1327 

Walnut  o   671 

Willow    585 

lYew,  Dutch   788 

 Spanish    807 


;  Ting,  see  Chinese  Architec- 
ture. 

,  Tiryns,  see  Acropolis,  Cyclo- 
pean Architecture.  In  our  plan 
,)f  Tiryns,  (pi.  Acropolis,)  the  fol- 
lowing; references  have  not  been 
described  in  the  article  to  which  it 
belongs,  a,  the  great  gate;  b,  as- 
sent to  the  gate ;  c,  a  tower ;  d, 
present  entrance  and  ruined  wall ; 
f,  galleries,  where  they  are  nov; 
risible  ;  /,  a  gate;  g,  ascent  to  the 
jate ;  h,  galleries ;  k}  cistern  ;  /, 
pedestal  ;  m,  gate. 

Tomb,  a  funeral  monument  rais- 
(1  over  the  remains  of  the  dead, 
"he  Romans  designated   by  the 
,vord  sepulchrum,  the  place  where 
lie  entire   body,   or,  when  the 
lUstom   was  to  burn  them,  the 
ishes   of  the  dead    were  depo- 
sed.   Besides  the  simple  sepul- 
hres,  they  had  also  more  magni- 
icent  tombs,  under  the  names  of 
lonumcnta,  mausolea,  sepulchral 
aults,  &c. 
3G 


The  earliest  kind  of  tombs  ap- 
pear to  have  been  grottos  and 
caverns.  In  the  plains  of  Etruria, 
many  sepulchral  grottos  have  been 
found,  hollowed  in  a  rock,  which 
is  not  difficult  to  work.  They  are 
sometimes  disposed  in  form  of  a 
cross,  or  with  three  wings,  almost 
like  our  churches  ;  others  are 
squared  in  different  proportions. 
Doors  have  been  formed,  to  lead 
from  one  grotto  to  another  ;  some- 
times they  are  above  each  other. 
These  grottos  are  not  very  deep. 
The  interior  is  often  adorned  with 
paintings. 

When,  after  having  constructed 
a  tomb,  the  funeral  was  celebrated 
without  interring  a  corpse  in  it,  it 
was  named  a  cenotaph. 

There  were,  among  the  Romans, 
family  tombs  and  hereditary  tombs; 
and  others  which  had  no  particular 
destination.  The  family  tombs  were 
those  which  a  person  caused  to  be 
made  for  himself  and  his  family. 
Hereditary  tombs  were  those  which 
the  testator  constructed  for  himself 
and  for  his  heirs,  or  for  those  who 
might  come  into  possession  by  right 
of  heritage.  Any  one  might  appro- 
priate to  himself  a  particular  tomb; 
he  could  also  hinder,  by  his  will, 
any  of  the  heirs  of  his  family  from 
being  interred  in  the  family  tomb. 
For  that  purpose  they  engraved  on 
the  tomb  the  letters  H.  M.  H.  N.  S. 
that  is,  hoc  monumentum  hceredes 
non  sequitur;  or,  H.  M.  AD.  H.  N. 
TRANS,  that  is,  hoc  monumentum 
ad  hceredes  non  transit,  which  signi- 
fied, that  the  disposal  of  the  place 
where  that  tomb  was  erected,  and 
the  tomb  itself,  formed  no  part  of 
the  heritage.  Ancient  sepulchral 
inscriptions  show  us  what  precau- 
tions were  taken  to  defend  the 
tombs  in  the  different  changes  of 
proprietors.  Besides  the  impreca- 
tions which  were  published  against 
those  who  might  dare  to  violate  the 


TOM 


TOM 


will  of  the  testator,  the  laws  estab- 
lished great  penalties.  The  sepul- 
chral inscriptions  also  show  us,  that 
not  only  the  spot  occupied  by  the 
tomb  was  considered  sacred,  but 
that  a  space  round  it  enjoyed  the 
same  privilege. 

After  the  decline  of  the  arts,  the 
tombs  were  simply  great  stones,  on 
which  was  cut  with  a  chisel  a 
rough  effigy  of  the  dead  ;  or  it  was 
figured  in  a  kind  of  Mosaic,  with 
different-coloured  stones,  as  on  the 
tomb  of  Fredegonde,  at  Sainte 
Germain  des  Pres,  which  may  be 
seen  in  the  Musee  des  Monumens 
Francois ;  or  it  was  represented  in 
enamel,  as  were  the  tombs  of  the 
counts  of  Champagne  at  Troie,  and 
those  of  the  children  of  St.  Louis 
at  Royaumont,  which  are  figured 
in  Miilin's  Antiquites  Nationales, 
torn.  ii.  art.  11.  Sometimes,  instead 
of  marble  or  stone,  was  substituted 
a  plate  of  copper,  sometimes  ena- 
melled, but  more  frequently  en- 
graved. The  deceased  is  repre- 
sented in  the  habit  which  he  wore 
whilst  living;  sometimes  with  the 
monastic  habit,  with  which  he 
wished  to  be  covered  on  the  day  of 
his  decease;  his  hands  are  joined. 
Some  animal,  which  was  a  favourite, 
which  made  part  of  his  arms,  which 
designated  his  power,  or  which  had 
an  allegorical  signification,  is  under 
his  feet;  two  angels,  near  the  pil- 
low on  which  he  rests  his  head, 
announce  his  admission  into  heaven. 
Around  the  border  is  the  inscrip- 
tion. The  same  representations  are 
found  on  elevated  tombs.  The 
dead  are  figured  in  the  same  man- 
ner, extended  on  a  square  base, 
sometimes  appearing  to  be  asleep. 
Sometimes,  but  more  rarely,  the 
body  is  naked,  and  appears  to  be 
embalmed,  as  in  the  tomb  of  Fran- 
cis i.  which  was  at  St.  Denys,  and 
which  is  now  in  the  Musee  des 
Monumens   Francois ;     at  other 

418 


times  the  body  appears  in  a  state 
of  putrefaction,  as  in  the  fine  bas 
relief  of  Jean  Goujon,  which  still 
remains  at  Gisors;  at  other  times 
it  is  almost  entirely  devoured  by 
worms.  (See  Millin,  Atiq.  Nation- 
ales,  torn.  iv.  p.  10.)  In  elevated 
tombs  the  sides  receive  a  varietv  of 
ornaments,  such  as  representations 
of  the  funeral  ceremonies,  figures  i 
of  angels,  evangelists,  saints,  and 
frequently  the  children  of  the  tie-  ' 
ceased.  Sometimes  some  celebrated 
actions  of  the  deceased  were  repre- 
sented, or  some  group  of  an  allego- 
rical signification. 

After  the  revival  of  the  arts,  the 
tombs  of  princes  and  great  men 
have  opened  a  vast  field  for  sculp- 
ture. The  monuments,  instead  of 
being  square,  with  the  sculptures 
on  an  horizontal  face,  have  been 
changed  to  upright  groups,  some- 
times of  saints  or  allegorical  figures, 
at  other  times  historical ;  and  the 
figure  of  the  deceased,  instead  of 
being  placed  in  a  reclined  position, 
is  figured  in  a  position  which  refers 
to  some  action  of  his  life — a  war- 
rior leading  his  soldiers,  or  receiving 
his  mortal  wound;  a  statesman  in 
a  declamatory  position,  &c.  In 
the  church  of  the  village  of  Hindel- 
bank,  near  Berne,  we  have  a  fine 
allegorical  monument,  which  was 
sculptured  by  Nahl.  It  is  the  tomb 
of  a  beautiful  and  virtuous  lady, 
who  died  in  child-birth.  The  mo- 
nument represents  a  simple  tomb, 
covered  with  a  common  stone.  But 
as  we  approach,  we  discover  all  of 
a  sudden  the  scene  of  the  last  day, 
when  the  earth  is  to  render  up  its 
dead.  The  stone  which  covers  the 
tomb  is  cleaved  through  the  mid- 
dle, as  though  by  the  effect  of 
a  great  commotion  of  the  earth.i 
Through  this  cleft  we  perceive  the 
mother  and  her  child,  whose  look 
and  attitude  announce  the  hol\ 
beatitude  of  which  they  are  goinp 


TOO 


TOO 


to  he  partakers.  The  mother  holds 
her  child,  which  appears  likewise 
to  be  returned  to  life,  in  her  left 
arm,  and  with  her  right  raises  the 
stone,  that  she  may  come  out  of 
the  tomb.  On  the  border  of  the 
stone  are  engraved  these  words — 
Me  void,  Seigneur,  avec  Venfant 
que  tu  mavais  donne. 

For  further  particulars  relating 
to  tombs,  see  the  article  Sepulchral 
Monuments. 

Tombellas,  the  name  given  in 
Fiance  to  the  ancient  Gaulish  tu- 
muli, which  are  found  in  various 
parts,  and  which  are  in  England 
called  barrows. 

To ntd i no,  a  round  moulding, 
representing  a  ring,  the  same  as 
the  torus. 

Tongue,  (Sax.)  the  part  of  a 
board  which  is  left  projecting, 
to  be  inserted  in  the  groove  of 
another. 
Tongue,  see  Egg  and  Tongue. 
Tools.  The  principal  instru- 
ments, used  by  masons  for  hewing 
Stones,  are  the  mallet  and  edge  tools. 
The  latter  have  the  form  of  a  wedge, 
the  vertical  angle  being  the  cutting 
edge.  These  tools  are  made  of 
iron,  with  the  exception  of  the  end 
which  enters  the  stone,  which  is  of 
steel.  The  other  tools  used  by 
the  mason  are  the  level,  plumb- 
rule,  square,  bevel,  and  rules  both 
straight  and  circular,  of  various 
kinds,  for  trying  the  surface  of  the 
work. 

In  London,  the  tools  successively 
used  to  work  the  face  of  a  stone, 
are  the  point,  inch-tool,  boaster, 
and  then  the  broad-tool.  Working 
with  the  point  is  called  pointing  ; 
and  with  the  boaster,  boasting. 
The  inch-tool  is  used  in  cutting 
away  the  ridges,  and  the  boaster  is 
used  to  make  the  surface  of  the 
work  nearly  smooth  ;  the  latter  is 
two  inches  wide  in  the  cutting  part. 
The  point  is  from  one-eighth  to 


three- eighths  of  an  inch  wide,  and 
the  broad-tool  three  inches  and  a 
half  at  the  cutting  edge.  There 
are  two  methods  of  working  the 
surface  of  a  stone  commonly  used. 
In  one  operation,  the  successive 
impressions  made  by  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  tool  follow  one  an- 
other in  the  same  straight  line,  the 
whole  length  or  breadth  of  the 
stone;  their  successive  equidistant 
parallel  lines  are  repeated  in  the 
same  manner,  giving  the  surface  of 
the  stone  the  appearance  of  being 
fluted.  This  mode  of  hewing  is 
called  stroking.  In  the  other  mode 
of  operation,  every  successive  im- 
pression is  repeated  in  new  equi- 
distant lines  throughout  the  length 
or  breadth  of  the  stone  ;  then  a  new 
series  of  impressions  is  repeated  by 
the  side  of  it,  until  the  surface  is 
covered.  This  is  called  tooling. 
In  some  parts  of  the  country  dif- 
ferent fancies  of  hewn  stone  are 
indulged,  as  herring-bone  work, 
which  consists  in  parallel  zig-zag 
lines.  In  Scotland  there  are  other 
kinds  of  work,  which  are  termed 
droved,  broached,  and  striped. 
Droving  is  the  same  as  that  which 
in  England  is  termed  random  tool- 
ing, 01  which  is  called  in  London 
boasting :  the  tool  they  use  is  call- 
ed a  punch,  and  is  the  same  as 
the  point.  Broached  work  is  first 
droved,  and  then  broached.  Striped 
work  is  first  droved,  and  then 
striped. 

When  stones  are  very  unshapely 
previous  to  being  hewn,  the  stone- 
axe,  jedding-axe,  scabbing -ham- 
mer, or  cavil,  is  used,  to  bring  the 
stone  nearly  to  the  required  shape. 
One  edge  of  the  jedding-axe  is  flat, 
for  reducing  the  very  protuberant 
angular  parts;  the  other  end  is 
pointed.  In  Aberdeen,  where  a 
kind  of  hard  granite  is  generally 
used,  they  pick  the  edge  of  the 
stone  with  a  scabbing-hammer,  and 


TOO 


TOO 


the  operation  is  termed  nidging. 
When  the  surface  is  smoothed  by 
means  of  sand  or  grit  stone,  it  is 
called  rubbed  work. 

The  tools,  used  in  setting  or 
building,  are  a  line  and  line-pins, 
the  level,  the  plumb-rule,  and  va- 
rious other  rules,  as  also  templets 
for  circular  work. 

Among  carpenters  and  joiners,  a 
great  number  of  different  tools  are 
used. 

The  operation  of  forming  a  plane 
surface,  by  taking  away  the  super- 
fluous wood,  is  called  planing  ;  and 
the  instruments  by  which  it  is  per- 
formed, planes.  Of  planes  there 
are  many  different  kinds.  Under 
the  head  of  bench  planes,  are  in- 
cluded the  jack  plane,  the  trying 
plane,  the  long  plane,  the  jointer, 
and  the  smoothing  plane.  There 
are  also  planes  for  forming  surfaces 
of  nearly  every  curve  or  shape, 
which  are  named  rebating  planes, 
grooving  planes,  and  moulding 
planes.  The  plane  employed  in 
cutting  a  square  groove  is  called  a 
plough.  To  form  the  convex  and 
concave  surfaces  of  the  rims  of 
wheels,  &c.  the  sole  of  the  plane  is 
curved  in  the  same  form,  and  the 
plane  is  termed  a  compass  plane. 
A  convex  plane  is  also  sometimes 
termed  a  round  sole  plane,  and  a 
concave  one  a  fork  staff  plane. — 
For  a  further  account  of  different 
kinds  of  planes,  see  the  articles 
Plane  and  Planing  Machine. 

In  plate  Tools,  Jigs.  14, 15,  16, 
17,  and  18,  are  descriptive  of  an 
economical  set  of  planes  invented 
by  Mr.  G.  Gladwell,  carpenter,  of 
Lower  Garden- street,  Vauxhall, 
whom  the  Society  of  Arts  rewarded 
for  the  invention.  The  object  is  to 
make  one  plane  answer  the  purpose 
of  the  pannel,  jack,  and  smoothing 
planes,  also  of  hollows  and  rounds, 
and  various  moulding  planes. 

For  this  purpose  the  upper  part 

420 


of  Mr.  GiariwelVs  plane  is  con- 
structed in  the  usual  manner;  and 
to  adapt  the  lower  or  working  part 
to  its  several  uses,  a  number  of 
shifting  soles,  answering  to  the  va- 
rieties above  mentioned,  are  pro- 
vided, which  are  attached,  as  may 
be  required,  to  the  upper  part  by 
means  of  a  dovetailed  groove ;  and 
the  workman,  being  in  possession  of 
eight  soles,  flat,  concave,  or  convex, 
in  different  degrees  and  directions, 
and  of  five  irons,  has  an  equivalent 
for  eight  separate  planes  ;  whereby 
a  great  saving  of  expense  is  made, 
as  well  as  an  increased  portability 
acquired.  The  same  letters  in  each 
of  the  figures  refer  to  the  same 
parts. 

Fig.  14  is  a  side  view  of  the 
plane ;  k  k  the  sole  or  bottom  por- 
tion of  the  plane  fitted  to  the  upper 
part  //  by  a  longitudinal  dovetail 
mm,  shown  by  dotted  lines;  n  a 
plate  of  brass  screwed  to  the  bot- 
tom piece  k,  to  prevent  its  going 
too  far,  and  o  a  plate  of  brass 
screwed  to  the  upper  portion  11,  to 
stop  the  end  of  the  dovetail. 

Fig.  15  is  an  end  view  of  the 
upper  and  lower  pieces  separate,  to 
show  the  dovetail  and  groove. 

Fig.  16  is  a  concave  sole. 

Fig.  17  a  convex  sole,  with  the 
brass  plate  n  screwed  on. 

Fig.  18  a  longitudinally  convex 
sole. 

The  following  are  the  directions 
of  the  inventor  relative  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  plane  : — 

Let  one-third  of  the  height  of  the 
plane  be  the  thickness  of  the  sole, 
having  a  dovetail  fillet,  (worked  in 
solid,  or  glued  and  screwed  on,) 
about  three-eighths  of  an  inch  thick, 
and  two  inches  wide.  In  the  upper 
part  of  the  body  of  the  plane  make 
a  fillet  for  the  groove  to  slide  in. 
The  sole  slides  in  from  the  front  of 
the  plane,  and  secures  itself  against 
two  brass  stops   or  plates,  one 


TOO 


TOO 


screwed  on  the  back  part  of  the 
plane,  the  other  on  the  sole  in 
front.  The  one  on  the  back  part 
answers  for  all  the  soles  that  may 
be  fixed ;  but  each  sole  must  have 
one  in  front. 

For  boring  cylindrical  holes,  the 
tools  are  augers,  a  stock,  with  bits 
of  various  descriptions  and  sizes, 
gimlets,  and  brad-awls  of  several 
diameters. 

The  auger  (pi.  Tools,  Jig.  19.) 
bears  some  resemblance  to  the 
gimlet.  It  has  a  great  inconve- 
nience, which  is,  that  it  cannot  be 
used  till  a  previous  perforation  has 
been  made  in  the  wood ;  and  even 
then,  till  it  has  proceeded  a  consi- 
derable depth,  it  requires  great  care 
to  hinder  it  from  going  astray. 
An  improvement  upon  it,  by  Mr. 
Phineas  Cooke,  was  rewarded  by  a 
premium  of  thirty  guineas  by  the 
Society  of  Arts.  It  consists  in  be- 
ing pointed  by  a  worm-screw  like 
a  gimlet,  and  in  having  its  body 
formed  by  a  rectangular  bar  of 
steel  twisted  in  the  shape  of  a 
bottle-screw,  whence  it  has  been 
termed  the  spiral  auger.  A  later 
improvement  terminates,  like  the 
spiral  auger,  in  a  gimlet  screw ; 
immediately  above,  it  is  of  a  prism- 
oid  shape,  tapering  a  little  out- 
wards; this  part  has  one  edge 
which  cuts  the  side  of  the  hole, 
and  another  which  cuts  the  bot- 
tom. The  core  rises  in  the  form 
of  spiral  shavings. 

The  stock  is  a  kind  of  crank, 
generally  of  wood  defended  by 
brass,  with  two  short  limbs  proceed- 
ing from  it,  at  the  end  of  one  of 
which  there  is  a  hole  to  receive  the 
bit,  or  piece  of  steel  employed  in 
boring.  The  bits  are  of  various 
forms:  the  gouge  bit,  used  for  bor- 
ing small  holes  in  soft  wood,  is 
shaped  like  a  gouge ;  the  centre 
bit,  has  a  point  projecting  from 
the  lower  end,  which,  entering  the 


wood  first,  serves  as  a  centre,  and 
preserves  the  tool  straight  in  its 
course.  The  counter- sink,  is  a 
kind  of  bit  for  widening  the  up- 
per part  of  a  hole,  to  admit  the 
head  of  a  screw. 

The  tools  used  in  paring  wood 
obliquely,  or  across  the  fibres,  &c. 
are  called  chisels ;  those  for  paring 
the  wood  across  the  fibres,  are 
called Jirmers,  or  paring  chisels; 
such  as  are  used  in  cutting  rect- 
angular cavities  are  called  mortise 
chisels  ;  those  used  for  paring  con- 
cave surfaces,  are  named  gouges. 

For  dividing  wood,  so  as  to  waste 
as  little  of  the  material  as  possible, 
an  instrument  is  used  called  a  saw, 
of  which  there  are  several  different 
kinds,  that  are  described  more  fully 
under  the  article  Saiv. 

For  cutting  off  the  superfluous 
wood  at  the  edges,  &c.  of  a  piece 
of  board,  the  joiner  frequently  uses 
a  small  axe,  called  a  hatchet. 

For  trying  right  angles,  the  in- 
strument used  is  termed  a  square  ; 
those  for  trying  obtuse  or  acute 
angles  are  called  bevels:  the  former 
has  generally  its  two  sides  fixed  ; 
in  the  latter  they  are  moveable.  A 
stationary  bevel  is  sometimes  used, 
which  is  termed  a  joint-hook.  See 
Bevel. 

When  it  is  required  to  reduce  a 
piece  of  wood  to  a  parallel  breadth, 
it  is  marked  by  an  instrument  called 
a  gauge,  which  consists  of  a  square 
piece  of  wood,  with  a  square  mor- 
tise, though  which  a  bar  slides  at 
right  angles,  with  a  sharp  point  or 
tooth  at  the  extremity,  by  means  of 
which  a  parallel  line  is  marked  on 
the  wood  which  it  is  required  to  cut. 
The  stem,  or  sliding-bar,  has  some- 
times another  sliding-bar  in  it,  with 
a  point,  which  may  be  adjusted  to 
any  distance  from  the  other  point,  so 
that  two  lines  may  be  drawn,  both 
parallel  to  the  edge  of  the  board, 
and  consequently  to  each  other. 


TOO 


TOO 


To  saw  a  piece  of  wood  across 
the  fibres,  it  is  necessary  that  it 
should  be  kept  stationary  whilst 
sawing,  for  which  purpose  joiners 
use  a  flat  piece  of  wood  with  two 
projecting  knobs  on  the  opposite 
sides,  one  at  each  end,  called  a 
side -hook. 

To  cut  a  piece  of  wood  to  half  a 
right  angle,  (called  a  mitre,)  a 
trunk  of  wood  with  three  sides  is 
used,  resembling  a  box  without 
ends:  through  each  of  the  opposite 
sides  is  cut  a  kerf  in  a  plane  per- 
pendicular to  the  bottom,  at  angles 
of  forty-five  and  one  hundred  and 
thirty-five  degrees  with  the  planes 
of  the  sides  :  this  is  called  a  mitre 
box. 

To  fix  wood,  &c.  while  working, 
various  instruments  are  used,  as 
screw-wrenches,  &c. 

In  pi.  Carpentry,  C.  44,  Jig.  F, 
represents  a  longitudinal  section  of 
an  improved  screw-wrench,  invent- 
ed by  Mr.  Thomas  Eddy,  of  Ox- 
ford street.  The  screw-wrenches 
in  general  use  are  actuated  by  a 
screw  which  passes  up  the  middle 
of  the  handle,  which  so  much 
weakens  them,  that  they  are  fre- 
quently broken  in  that  part,  when 
used  in  heavy  work  ;  and  the  chaps 
are  liable  to  open,  and  be  loosed 
from  their  hold,  by  the  handle 
turning  round.  These  defects  are 
obviated  by  Mr.  Eddy's  contrivance, 
and  the  instrument  is  rendered  much 
stronger,  more  effective,  and  more 
compact.  The  screw  is  inserted  in 
the  sliding  part  instead  of  the  han- 
dle, enabling  the  latter,  in  conse- 
quence, to  bear  any  requisite  strain, 
and  removing  the  tendency  of  the 
chaps  to  open  and  shut,  a  is  the 
fixed  chap,  b  the  fixed  bar,  c  the 
moveable  chap  which  passes  through 
and  slides  up  the  bar  6,  d  the  move- 
able bar  fixed  to  the  chap  c.  This 
bar  has  a  hollow  barrel,  screwed  at 
its  orifice,  in  which  the  solid  thumb- 

422 


screw /works.  At  the  extremity 
of  the  bar  b  is  formed  a  shoulder, 
on  which  rests  the  square  piece  g ; 
or  the  bar  may  be  turned  up  at 
right  angles,  forming  a  short  pro- 
jecting leg,  which  will  answer  the 
purpose  of  the  piece  g,  and  will  be 
both  stronger  and  cheaper.  A 
square  hole  is  to  be  made  at  g 
to  admit  the  screw /,  and  this  hole 
is  to  be  contracted  in  one  part  by 
the  insertion  of  two  square  pins, 
i  and  h,  which  confine  the  neck  of 
the  screw  so  as  to  allow  it  to  turn 
round,  but  not  to  move  backwards  | 
or  forwards:  e  is  a  plate  of  iron  wrap- 
ped round  the  end  of  the  instrument, 
in  order  to  keep  the  parts  in  their 
proper  places,  and  to  prevent  the  ! 
screws  from  being  choked  with  dirt. 
Hence  it  is  obvious,  that  when  the 
screw  f  is  turned  in  one  direction, 
the  barrel  d,  with  the  chap  c,  is 
pushed  towards  the  chap  a,  and 
that  it  is  withdrawn  when  the 
screw  is  turned  in  the  opposite 
direction. 

Fig.  E  is  another  instrument  for 
the  same  purpose  as  the  screw- 
wrench,  and  may  be  termed  a  slid- 
ing-wedge -wrench.  It  is  the  in- 
vention of  a  Mr.  Francis  Watt, 
engineer,  who  died  on  the  very  day 
that  his  invention  was  brought 
(through  the  instrumentality  of 
the  ingenious  Mr.  Smart,  of  Ped- 
lar's Acre,  Lambeth,)  before  the 
Committee  of  the  Society  of  Arts. 
The  sum  of  ten  guineas  was,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  excellence  of  the 
invention,  presented  to  Mrs.  Watt, 
the  widow  of  the  deceased,  i  i  is 
the  fixed  bar  terminated  by  the 
fixed  chap  h;  j  j  j  is  an  iron  case 
enclosing,  and  fixed  firmly  on,  the 
bar  i  i ;  k  is  the  sliding  chap,  hav- 
ing a  hole  cut  in  it  for  the  bar  i  i 
to  pass  through,  and  secured  to  the 
sliding  bar  I  I.  It  will  be  observ-  I 
ed  that  the  lower  end  of  this  bar  is 
cut  off  very  obliquely,  so  as  to  form  j  i 


TOO 


TOU 


a  long  low  wedge,  m  n  is  another 
low  wedge. 

To  make  use  of  this  instrument, 
the  wedge  m  n  is  to  be  withdrawn, 
the  chap  k  is  to  be  moved  on  the 
bar  i  i,  till  the  screw-head,  or  other 
object  to  be  acted  upon,  is  closely 
embraced  between  the  two  chaps ; 
the  lower  wedge  is  then  to  be  driven 
home.  The  long  line  of  bearing 
that  the  two  wedges  have  on  each 
other  renders  it  impossible  that 
they  should  give  way,  and  a  very 
slight  tap  at  the  point  of  the  wedge 
will  be  sufficient  to  disengage  it. 
A  pin  should  be  inserted  at  the 
point  of  the  wedge  at  m,  to  prevent 
its  slipping  out  and  being  lost. 

The  different  parts  of  cutting 
tools  have  also  their  peculiar 
names. 

Basil,  is  the  name  given  to  the 
edge  of  a  chisel,  plane  iron,  or 
similar  slanting  edge  of  a  tool. 

Fang,  is  the  part  of  a  chisel,  or 
other  iron  instrument,  which  is 
drawn  out  and  sharpened,  to  be 
inserted  in  the  handle. 

Fence  of  a  plane,  is  the  guard 
which  regulates  the  inclination  of 
cutting  iron. 

Fine  set,  is  a  term  applied  to  a 
plane  adjusted  to  a  slight  projec- 
tion of  the  edge  of  the  knife,  to 
make  it  cut  a  tine  shaving;  when 
the  projection  is  considerable,  the 
plane  is  said  to  be  rank  set. 

The  broad  part  of  a  plane  knife 
forming  the  edge,  is  called  the 
web. 

The  tools  used  in  quarrying  have 
been  described  under  the  article 
Quarry,  and  others  will  be  found 
described  under  their  respective 
articles. 

The  tools  used  in  tiling  are — 
the  lathing  hammer,  with  two 
gauge  marks;  the  lathing  staff, 
in  the  form  of  a  cross,  for  slaying 
the  cross  laths ;  the  tiling  trowel, 
which  is  longer  and  narrower  than 


the  common  trowel ;  the  bosse,  a 
wooden  instrument,  with  an  iron 
hook  for  hanging  on  the  laths, 
&c;  the  striker,  a  piece  of  lath 
used  to  separate  and  take  away  the 
superfluous  mortar  at  the  breeches 
of  the  tiles ;  and  the  broom,  to 
sweep  the  tiling 

Top-beam,  wind-beam,  or  strut- 
beam,  other  names  for  the  collar- 
beam. 

Ton,  (Sax.)  a  tower,  or  steep 
eminence.  This  term  is  often  ap- 
plied to  hills  in  Somersetshire  and 
Derbyshire,  as  Glastonbury  Tor, 
and  Mam  Tor.  Both  these  places 
are  supposed  to  have  been  origin- 
ally fortified. 

Toiieum ata,  (Gr.)  that  descrip- 
tion of  work,  particularly  vases, 
which  was  ornamented  in  bold  relief. 

Toreutic,  ( Gr. )  the  art  of 
sculpturing,  or  engraving  in  re- 
lievo. 

Tors  els,  the  same  as  Tassels. 

Torso,  (Fr.  torse,)  a  name  given 
by  artists  to  all  mutilated  statues, 
of  which  nothing  remains  but  the 
trunk.  The  term  is  also  applied 
to  columns  with  twisted  shafts,  as 
the  beautiful  examples  in  the  altar 
of  Val  de  Grace.  Of  this  kind  of 
columns  there  are  several  varieties: 
some  are  fluted,  the  flutes  follow- 
ing the  contour  of  their  shaft  in  a 
direct  line,  in  its  whole  length ; 
others  are  rudented,  their  shafts 
being  covered  with  rudentures,  in 
the  manner  of  twisted  cables. 
Some  columns  of  this  kind  are 
adorned  with  branches,  leaves, 
&c. 

Torus,  (La  .)  a  large  semicir- 
cular moulding  used  in  the  bases 
of  columns. 

Torus  of  a  Bulwark,  the 
large  semicircular  moulding  at  the 
base  of  a  fortified  edifice. 

Tout-ensemble,  (  Fr.  )  The 
expression  ensemble  is  generally 
used  of  a  single  figure.    The  term 

423 


TOW 


TR  A 


tout-ensemble,  is  used  when  speak- 
ing of  a  whole  composition.  Ob- 
jects and  parts,  which  would  be 
beautiful  by  themselves,  frequently 
injure  the  tout-ensemble. 

Tower,  {tor,  Sax.  turris,  Lat.) 
a  lofty  building,  of  several  stories, 
frequently  round,  and  as  frequently 
square  or  polygonal,  which  flanks 
the  walls  that  encircle  a  city  or 
castle.  The  tower  of  a  church  is 
that  part  which  rises  above  the 
rest  of  the  building,  and  contains 
the  bells.  See  Castle,  Round 
Tower,  Steeple,  fyc. 

Town,  (Sax.)  To  give  an  exact 
definition  of  a  town,  we  may  say 
that  it  is  a  space  enclosed  by  walls, 
containing  several  quarters,  streets, 
public  places,  and  other  edifices. 
The  first  towns  were  a  collection 
of  cottages,  or  rather  of  caves.  A 
curious  example  of  a  town  formed 
by  caves  in  the  rock  is  still  to  be 
seen  at  Ispica  in  Sicily,  and  is  de- 
scribed by  Denon.  In  Egypt  the 
towns  were  seldom  walled.  In 
Greece  and  Italy,  and  other  coun- 
tries, the  earliest  towns  were  pro- 
bably only  larger  fortresses,  in 
which  the  people,  who  dwelt  scat- 
tered over  the  country,  sought 
shelter  in  time  of  invasion  by  a 
foreign  power.  Hence  they  were 
generally  seat  on  a  rock,  or  some 
strong  situation.  After  the  people 
became  civilized,  and  the  numerous 
petty  states  were  joined  in  powerful 
kingdoms,  the  towns  were  enlarged, 
and  more  frequently  built  on  the 
plain.  The  town  of  the  ancient 
Gauls  and  Germans  was  a  strong 
hold,  situated  in  the  very  heart  of 
a  great  forest,  and  served  for  a 
place  of  resort  in  time  of  danger. 
That  towns  may  be  handsome,  it 
is  requisite  that  their  streets  should 
be  wide,  and  laid  out  with  regu- 
larity. They  should  always,  if  pos- 
sible, cross  one  another  at  right 
angles,  that  the  corner  houses  may 


be  square.  In  large  towns,  squares 
are  very  requisite,  and  the  largest 
should  be  in  the  centre,  where  all 
the  principal  streets  meet.  When 
walled,  the  principal  streets  should 
lead  to  the  gates. 

Town  Hall,  a  building  erected 
for  purposes  very  similar  to  those 
which  were  anciently  appropriated 
to  the  basilica,  generally  situated 
in  the  most  central,  open,  and 
public  part  of  a  town  or  city.  In 
his  "  Recueil  et  Parallele  des  Edi- 
fices anciens  et  modernes,"  M.  Du- 
rand  has  given  us  drawings  and 
plans  of  several  town-halls.  That 
of  Brussels,  which  is  upwards  of 
four  hundred  years  old,  is  in  a 
sort  of  Gothic-Saxon  style,  pre- 
senting great  unity  and  simplicity 
of  plan.  It  has  a  light  and  airy 
appearance,  and  at  the  same  time 
has  sufficient  solidity,  as  is  proved 
by  its  age.  The  spire  in  the  centre 
is  more  in  the  modern  Lombard 
style  of  architecture. 

Trabeation,  another  term  for 
an  entablature. 

Trabs,  (Lat.)  the  Roman  name 
for  a  wall-plate. 

Tracery,  in  Gothic  architec- 
ture, the  intersection  in  various 
forms  of  the  mullions  in  the  head 
of  a  window  or  screen.    See  Gothic. 

Trajan's  Column,  see  Column. 

Trajan's  Arch,  see  Triumphal 
Arch. 

Transept,  an  open  passage  or 
way  across  the  body  of  the  church 
in  the  direction  of  north  and  south, 
either  on  the  eastern  or  western 
side  of  the  nave;  in  some  churches, 
on  both.  These  transepts  are 
broader  than  what  are  called  aisles, 
and  there  generally  is  an  oratory 
or  chantry  at  their  extremity,  some- 
times denominated  the  north  and 
south  transepts. 

Transept  Tower,  that  over 
the  transept,  to  distinguish  it  from 
others. 


TRI 


TRI 


Transom,  a  beam  across  a  dou- 
ble-lighted window  :  if  the  window 
have  no  transom,  it  is  named  a 
clear-story  window. 

Transtra,  (Lat.)  the  horizontal 
timbers  in  the  roof  of  Roman  build- 
ings. 

Trapezium,  (Gr.)  in  geometry, 
a  quadrilateral  figure,  whose  four 
sides  and  angles  are  unequal,  but 
two  of  its  sides  parallel. 

Trapezoid,  (Gr.)  in  geometry, 
an  irregular  figure  that  has  all  its 
four  sides  and  angles  unequal,  and 
no  sides  parallel. 

Traverse,  a  gallery  or  loft  of 
communication,  in  a  church  or 
other  large  building. 

Travertino,  see  Peperino. 

Tread,  the  horizontal  part  of 
the  step  of  a  stair. 

Treasury,  a  building  for  the 
reception  of  money  or  other  pre- 
cious things.  Among  the  most  an- 
cient Grecian  cities  we  find  trea- 
suries of  a  very  singular  form.  See 
Arch,  and  Grecian  Architecture. 
Buildings  of  the  same  kind  have 
been  discovered  in  Sardinia.  The 
treasury  of  Minyas  at  Orchomenus 
is  described  by  Pausanias.  It  was 
entirely  of  marble,  and  its  form 
was  that  of  a  rotunda  gradually 
terminating  in  a  point.  In  ancient 
temples  the  back  part  of  the  build- 
ing was  generally  used  as  a  trea- 
sury.   See  Opisthodomus. 

Trefoil,  (Fr.)  in  Gothic  archi- 
tecture, an  ornament  consisting  of 
three  cusps  in  a  circle. 

Trellice,  lattice  work  of  metal 
or  wood  in  screens  or  doors. 

Trenches,  in  fortification,  are 
ways  hollowed  in  the  earth  in  form 
of  a  fosse,  having  a  parapet  towards 
the  place  besieged,  called  lines  of 
approach,  or  lines  of  attack  ;  or  a 
work  raised  with  fascines,  gabions, 
wool-packs,  &c.  to  cover  the  men 
from  the  fire  of  the  besieged. 

Triangle,  (Lat.)  a  plane  rec- 
3H 


tilineal  figure  of  three  sides,  and 
consequently  three  angles.  If  the 
length  of  any  side  of  a  triangle, 
and  the  length  of  a  perpendicular 
to  that  side,  drawn  from  the  oppo- 
site angle,  be  known,  these  two 
lengths  are  called  the  dimensions 
of  the  triangle ;  or,  if  the  lengths 
of  the  three  sides  be  known,  these 
three  lengths  are  called  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  triangle.  The  base  of 
a  triangle  is  the  side  of  which  the 
lengths  is  known,  or  rather,  the 
side  on  which  the  triangle  stands, 
or  which  is  opposite  to  the  vertex. 
The  perpendicular  is  said  to  be 
given,  when  its  length  is  known. 
When  the  base  and  perpendicular 
are  given,  we  may  find  the  area  of 
the  triangle  by  multiplying  them 
together,  and  taking  half  the  pro- 
duct. As  a  triangle  is  the  ele- 
ment of  every  rectilineal  figure, 
and  since  the  whole  of  every  thing 
is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  its  parts, 
the  area  of  a  rectilineal  figure  is 
equal  to  the  sum  of  the  areas  of 
all  the  triangles  ;  and  it  may 
easily  be  demonstrated,  that  the 
least  number  of  triangles  that  a 
rectilineal  figure  can  be  divided 
into,  is  a  number  less  by  two 
than  the  number  of  the  sides  of 
the  figure. 

Triciioron,  (Gr.)  a  building 
with  three  lodgings  or  stories. 

Triclinium,  the  room  in  the 
Roman  house  where  company  was 
received,  and  seats  placed  for  their 
accommodation.  It  was  raised  two 
steps  from  the  peristyle,  and  was 
separated  from  the  garden  by  a 
large  window.  Winter  triclinia 
faced  the  west,  and  summer  triclinia 
the  east.  They  were  sumptuously 
fitted  up  with  paintings,  gilt  beams, 
and  chandeliers.  The  Greek  and 
Roman  ladies  sat  in  the  triclinium, 
while  the  men  reclined. 

Triforium,  (Lat.)  the  space 
between  the  aisles  of  a  church 

425 


TRI 


TRI 


and  the  clerestony,  after  containing 
a  staircase. 

The  triforia  were  the  three  gal- 
leries or  ranges  of  seats  above  each 
other.  These  galleries,  or  triforia, 
so  frequently  met  with  in  cathedral 
and  parish  churches,  were  gene- 
rally added  to  buildings  of  consi- 
derable antiquity,  for  the  purpose 
of  rendering  them  more  lofty  and 
commodious. 

Triglyph,  (Gr.)  an  ornament 
of  the  Doric  frieze,  consisting  of 
three  parallel  nicks,  and  supposed 
by  some  to  represent  the  ends  of 
beams.  There  is  observed  in  the 
large  hollow  crown  moulding  of  the 
temple  of  Dendera,  a  decoration 
very  similar  to  the  Doric  triglyph, 
the  extreme  parts  of  which  are 
placed  at  the  angle  as  in  Grecian 
Doric.  In  the  Roman  Doric  the 
entablature  is  invariably  placed 
over  the  centre  of  the  column. 
In  Greek  examples,  and  in  some 
Roman  specimens,  the  triglyph  is 
surmounted  by  the  mutule,  inclin- 
ed; but  in  most  modern  profiles 
it  is  horizontal.  On  its  soffit 
are  represented  guttce,  or  drops. 
The  spaces  between  the  triglyphs 
on  the  frieze  are  called  metopes, 
and,  in  modern  examples,  are  made 
perfectly  square,  and  generally 
enriched  with  sculptures.  These 
sculptures  are  in  modern  works 
generally  a  bull's  skull  and  a  patera 
alternately.  In  ancient  works  they 
were  generally  historical  or  mytho- 
logical designs.  The  extreme  pro- 
jection of  all  these  ornaments  should 
be  less  than  the  triglyph  itself,  so  as 
to  keep  a  due  subordination  between 
mere  decorations  and  essential  parts. 

Trigon,  another  name  for  a 
triangle. 

Trigonometry,  (Gr.)  the  sci- 
ence which  teaches  the  mensura- 
tion of  triangles. 

TniLATERAL,(Lat.)  having  three 
sides. 

426 


Trimens,  pieces  of  timber  framed 
at  right  angles  with  the  joints  against 
the  wall,  for  chimneys,  and  well- 
holes  for  stairs. 

Trimmed  in,  a  term  applied  to 
a  piece  of  work  fitted  between  two 
others  previously  executed.  Trim- 
mers of  stairs,  when  brought  for- 
ward to  receive  the  rough  strings 
are  said  to  be  trimmed  out. 

Trimmer,  a  small  beam,  into 
which  are  framed  the  ends  of  seve- 
ral joists.  The  two  joists  into 
which  each  end  of  the  trimmer 
is  framed  are  called  trimming 
joists. 

Tringle,  a  small  member  fixed  j 
exactly  upon  every  triglyph,  under 
the  plat-band  of  the  architrave, 
from  whence  hang  the  gutta?  in  the 
Doric  order,  called  also  a  riglet  or 
listel. 

Trireme,  (Lat.)  in  ancient  na- 
val architecture,  a  galley  with  three 
banks  of  oars  on  each  side. 

Triumphal  Arch.  The  Ro- 
mans were  the  first  people  who 
erected  triumphal  arches,  and  the 
earliest  specimens  are  destitute  of 
any  magnificence.  For  a  long  time 
they  consisted  merely  of  a  plain 
arch,  with  the  statue  of  the  victor 
and  his  trophies  at  the  top.  After- 
wards the  span  of  the  arch  was 
enlarged,  and  the  style  enriched, 
and  the  whole  loaded  with  a  pro-  j 
fusion  of  all  kinds  of  ornaments. 
The  whole  mass  generally  formed 
a  square,  which  was  penetrated  by 
three  arcades,  and  crowned  by  a 
very  high  attic,  which  was  fre- 
quently covered  with  inscriptions 
and  bas  -  reliefs,  and  supported 
equestrian  statues,  triumphal  cars, 
and  other  ornaments  of  the  same 
description.  The  archivaults  were 
adorned  with  figures  of  Victory 
holding  palms  and  crowns.  The 
triumphal  arches  which  stiil  remain, 
may  be  arranged  into  three  classes.  |  " 
The  first  class  will  embrace  such  as 


TR  I 


TRO 


consist  of  a  single  arch,  as  that  of 
Titus  at  Rome,  that  of  Trajan  at 
Ancona,  &c.  In  the  second  may 
be  classed  those  which  are  formed 
of  two  arches  or  arcades,  as  those 
of  Verona,  &e.  which  appear  to 
have  formed  at  the  same  time  gates 
for  the  town.  In  the  third  class 
may  be  placed  all  those  which  are 
composed  of  three  arcades,  that  in 
the  centre  being  the  principal  or 
grand  arch,  and  those  at  the  sides 
much  smaller ;  such  is  the  arch  of 
Septimius  Severus,  that  of  Con- 
stantine,  &c.  The  lesser  arch  of 
Septimius  Severus,  called  also  that 
of  the  Oj'fevres,  is  of  a  class  differ- 
ing from  either  of  these  ;  it  is  not 
vaulted,  but  formed  in  plat-band. 

The  arch  which  is  known  to  us 
as  the  arch  of  Constantine,  appears, 
with  much  greater  probability,  to 
be  the  arch  which  was  erected  by 
order  of  the  senate  in  honour  of 
Trajan,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
bassi  relievi  upon  it  represent  the 
victories  of  that  emperor.  It  is 
the  best  preserved  of  all  the  an- 
cient arches,  owing  in  part  to  the 
care  bestowed  upon  it  by  pope 
Clement  XII.  It  is  at  present  bu- 
ried to  the  height  of  the  pedestals 
of  the  columns. 

The  arch  of  Septimius  Severus, 
at  the  foot  of  the  capital,  which  is 
also  partly  buried,  bears  a  great 
resemblance  to  that  of  Constan- 
tine. 

The  arch  of  Titus,  which  is  com- 
posed of  a  single  arcade,  is  the 
first  on  which  we  find  the  Compo- 
site order  employed.  From  the 
apotheosis  of  the  emperor,  which  is 
represented  in  the  centre  of  the 
vault,  it  appears  to  have  been 
erected  after  his  death. 

A  small  arch  on  the  Flaminian 
way,  called  Arcus  Portugallice, 
and  apparently  constructed  out  of 
the  ruins  of  some  other  edifices, 
was  pulled  down  by  order  of  pope 


Alexander  VII.,  and  its  sculpture 
deposited  in  the  capital. 

The  arch  at  Benevento,  which  is 
of  the  Composite  order,  was  erected 
in  honour  of  Trajan.  The  bassi 
relievi,  which  are  exceedingly  grand 
and  bold,  and  are  similar  in  point 
of  taste  to  those  of  the  arch  of 
Constantine  at  Rome,  represent 
different  actions  in  the  life  of  the 
emperor  Trajan. 

The  arch  of  Trajan  at  Ancona, 
one  of  the  most  elegant  works  of 
ancient  architecture,  stands  on  the 
pier  of  the  port,  at  the  entrance  of 
the  mole,  and  is  decorated  with 
four  Corinthian  columns  on  pedes- 
tals. It  is  in  excellent  preserva- 
tion, and  is  almost  unequalled  in 
the  beauty  of  its  construction,  the 
elegance  of  its  proportions,  and  its 
great  simplicity. 

The  arch  of  Rimini  is  the  most 
ancient  arch  now  in  existence,  and, 
for  its  size,  one  of  the  noblest.  It 
was  erected  in  honour  of  Augustus, 
on  the  occasion  of  his  repairing  the 
Flaminian  way  from  this  town  to 
Rome. 

The  arch  at  Pola,  in  Istria,  on 
account  of  the  beauty  of  its  archi- 
tecture and  ornaments,  is  regarded 
as  a  monument  of  the  Augustan 
age. 

There  are  abundance  of  represen- 
tations of  triumphal  arches  to  be 
seen  on  ancient  medals. — For  fur- 
ther information  the  reader  may 
consult  Bellori's  work,  and  that  of 
Suares  on  the  arch  of  Septimius 
Severus ;  the  arch  of  Benevento, 
published  at  Rome  in  1739  and 
1770  ;  and  that  of  Titus,  published 
at  Paris  in  1770. 

Trociulus,  moulding,  the  same 
as  the  Scotia. 

Trochoid,  (Gr.  rpn^pq,  a  wheel, 
EiSog,  shape,)  2l  figure  which  is  de- 
scribed by  a  circle  that  rolls  in 
a  straight  line,  with  a  pointer  pin 
in  the  circumference,  on  a  fixed 

427 


TUF 

plane,  parallel  to  or  in  the  plane  of 
the  moving-  circle. 

Tropiionius,  see  Agamedes. 

Trough-Gutter,  a  gutter  be- 
low the  dripping  eaves,  to  convey 
the  water  to  the  pipe  by  which  it 
is  discharged. 

Ti  UNCATED,  cut  short.  Trun- 
cated Roofs,  are  common  roofs, 
flat  at  the  top. 

Trugg,  a  tray  to  carry  mor- 
tar in. 

Truncus,  a  term  formerly  ap- 
plied to  part  of  the  pedestal  of 
a  pillar. 

Truss;  when  the  girders  are 
very  long,  or  the  weight  the  floors 
are  destined  to  support  is  very  con- 
siderable, they  are  trussed  :  that 
is,  for  a  simple  beam  is  substituted 
a  frame  so  constructed  that  the 
pressure  is  thrown  more  upon  the 
walls,  and  the  possibility  of  the 
beam  being  broken  is  prevented. 
This  frame  is  termed  a  truss.  See 
Carpentry,  Collar  Beam,  and  Con- 
structive Carpentry. 

Truss  Partition,  a  partition 
formed  by  a  truss. 

Trussels,  or  tressels,  (Fr.)  sup- 
porting props,  consisting  of  three 
or  four  legs,  attached  to  a  hori- 
zontal part. 

Trussing-pieces,  in  a  roof,  are 
the  timbers  which  are  in  a  state  of 
compression. 

Try,  to  plane  any  thing  by  the 
rule  and  square  only. 

Tuf,  (Fr.)  a  kind  of  sandy  cal- 
carious  stone,  porous,  light,  soft, 
without  being  fragile,  ductile,  and 
well  calculated  for  the  construction 
of  vaults.  Its  colour  and  consist- 
ence varies  according  to  the  predo- 
minance of  its  several  component 
parts.  The  travertino  used  in  the 
construction  of  the  cupola  of  St. 
Peter's,  at  Rome,  appears  to  be- 
long to  this  genus.  The  ancients 
give  it  the  name  of  porus,  (see 
Porus.)    The  celebrated  temple  of 

428 


TUM 

Apollo  at  Delphi  was  built  of  it.  as 
was  also  the  walls  of  the  temple  of 
Jupiter  at  Olympia,  as  well  as  the 
northern  part  of  the  temple  of  Juno 
at  Altis. 

Tuileries,  a  grand  palace  at 
Paris,  commenced,  in  1564,  by 
Catherine  de  Medicis.  It  was  built 
after  the  designs  of  Philibert  de 
Lorme,  and  was  finished  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  IV.  Some  addi- 
tions and  alterations  were  made  to 
it  by  Louis  XIV.  The  facade  con- 
sists of  five  pavilions,  and  four 
corps  de  logis,  in  a  line  which 
exceeds  168  toises  in  length.  This 
palace,  as  Philibert  de  Lorme  had 
designed  it,  was  composed  only  of 
the  pavilion  in  the  middle,  the  two 
galleries  where  are  the  walks,  and 
the  two  pavilions  which  join  them. 
The  two  great  masses  of  building, 
ornamented  with  great  pilasters, 
and  the  two  large  pavilions  at  the 
extremities  are  additions,  which 
have  made  the  facade  of  the  build- 
ing much  more  extensive,  but  have 
injured  the  harmony  of  the  ordon- 
nance.  The  palace  of  the  Tuileries 
is  joined  to  the  Louvre  by  a  long 
and  wide  gallery,  which  extends 
along  the  bank  of  the  Seine. 

Tumbled  in,  the  same  as  Trim- 
med in. 

Tumulus,  (Lat.)  a  small  conical 
hill  of  earth,  raised  as  a  memorial 
over  the  remains  of  the  dead,  by 
the  early  nations  of  antiquity.  In 
the  Troad,  and  along  the  shores 
of  the  Hellespont,  many  of  these 
tumuli  are  found,  for  a  descrip- 
tion of  which,  among  other  works, 
the  reader  may  consult  that  of 
M.  Lechevalier,  sur  la  Troade. 
Even  at  the  time  of  the  Trojan 
war,  many  of  these  tumuli  were  in 
existence,  and  were  then  regarded 
as  monuments  of  great  antiquity. 
Such  was  the  tomb  of  iEsyetes. 
Sometimes  these  tumuli  were  sur- 
rounded with  stones,  as  was  the 


TUS 


TYM 


tomb  of  CEnomaus,  near  Elis,  and 
that  of  iEpytus,  on  mount  Sepia, 
in  Arcadia,  in  the  spot  where  he 
,had  been  killed  by  a  serpent.  The 
Celts  raised  similar  mounds  of 
earth,  which  still  exist  in  many 
parts  of  ancient  Gaul  and  Britain. 
See  Sepulchral  Monuments,  Tomb, 
Druidical  Monuments,  Stonehenge. 

Tunnel,  (tonnelle,  Fr.)  a  sub- 
terranean canal,  for  carrying  a 
stream  of  water  under  a  road  or 
hill. 

i  Turkish  Architecture.  The 
architecture  of  the  Turkish  empire 
in  general  bears  a  great  assimila- 
tion to  that  of  the  Arabs  or  Sara- 
cens. (See  Arabian  Architecture.) 
The  public  buildings  are  generally 
adorned  with  a  great  number  of 
itowers  and  minarets.  The  dwell- 
ings of  the  rich  are  surrounded  by 
a  court-yard,  and  in  the  interior  is 
generally  a  magnificent  hall,  paved 
.with  marble,  and  containing  foun- 
tains of  water.  This  hall  occupies 
the  whole  height  of  the  building, 
and  is  most  commonly  surmounted 
by  a  dome.  In  the  construction  of 
private  houses,  little  art  or  regu- 
larity is  employed.  See  Constan- 
tinople. 

Turning-piece,  a  board  for 
turning  a  thin  brick  arch  upon, 
i   Turret,  a  small  tower,  often 
:rowning  the  angle  of  a  wall,  &c. 

Tuscan  Order.  The  Tuscan 
Drder  is  not  found  in  any  ancient 
buildings;  and  the  obscure  de- 
scription given  by  Vitruvius  has  left 
l  wide  field  for  the  ingenuity  of 
modern  architects.  Palladio  com- 
posed two  profiles ;  one  from  the 
'description  of  the  ancient  master, 
and  the  other  according  to  his 
'own  idea  of  an  amplification  of  the 

i  jDoric.  The  design  of  Vignola  has 
been  most  generally  approved  and 
adopted.  The  base  consists  of  a 
simple  torus,  with  its  fillet,  accom- 

i    'panied  by  a  plinth.    The  propor- 


tions, according  to  Sir  W.  Cham- 
bers, are — 

MODULES.  MINUTES. 


The  column   14    ..  0 

The  entablature  of  the 

former    3    ..  15 

The  base   1    ..  0 

The  shaft  (including 
the  astragal  that 
divides  it  from  the 
capita!)  12    ..  0 

The    capital  of  the 

entablature   1     ..  0 

The  architrave  (in- 
cluding the  fillet)     0    ..    31  £ 

The  frieze     0    ..    31 J 

The  cornice    0    ..  42 


This  order  admits  of  no  orna- 
ments, and  the  columns  are  never 
fluted.  Some  architects  represent 
rustic  cinctures  on  the  shaft,  but 
this  does  not  show  good  taste.  See 
Capital,  Order. 

Tusk,  (Sax.)  a  bevel  shoulder, 
made  above  a  tenon,  to  strengthen 
it. 

Tympan  of  an  Arch,  a  trian- 
gular tube  placed  in  its  corners, 
usually  hollowed,  and  sometimes 
ornamented  with  foliage,  &c. 

Tympanum.  (Gr. )  the  two 
sides  of  the  roof,  rising  to  an  obtuse 
angle,  form,  above  the  principal 
facade,  a  triangle,  called  the  pedi- 
ment, and,  by  the  French,  the  fron- 
ton. The  Romans  termed  \tfasti- 
gium,  and  the  Greeks  gave  it  the 
name  of  a'etos  or  a'etoma,  (  see 
Eagle,)  It  was  sometimes  named, 
from  its  form,  trichorium.  Beger 
in  his  Spicilegium,  Winckelmann  in 
his  Essay  on  Architecture,  and 
Visconti  in  II  Museo  Pio  Clemen- 
tino,  have  given  us  some  learned 
remarks  on  the  origin  of  its  Greek 
name  a'etos,  (the  eagle.)  It  ap- 
pears from  Pindar  that  the  custom 
of  adorning  the  obtuse  angle  of  the 
roof  with  an  eagle  was  taken  from 
the  Corinthians,  and  that  the  name 
a'etos,  given  first  to  this  angle,  and 
afterwards  to  the  tympanum  of  the 
pediment,  was  derived  from  this 


TYM 


T  YP 


usage.  It  has  been  supposed  that 
the  Corinthians  took  the  idea  from 
the  hawk  with  its  wings  expanded, 
which  is  often  seen  on  the  pedi- 
ment of  Egyptian  buildings.  Winck- 
elmann  thinks  that  this  eagle  was 
first  placed  on  the  pediment  of 
temples,  because  the  oldest  temples 
were  dedicated  to  Jupiter.  Shaw 
found  an  eagle  on  the  pediment  of 
a  temple  near  Tunis,  and  it  is  ob- 
served in  a  similar  situation  on 
ancient  medals  of  Tarsus  in  Cilicia, 
of  Pergamus,  and  of  other  cities. 
The  pediment  was  one  of  the  prin- 
cipal ornaments  of  the  temple,  and 
that  by  which  it  was  particularly 
distinguished.  Other  public  edi- 
fices were  rarely  decorated  in  this 
manner,  and  private  dwellings  had 
scarcely  ever  a  pediment.  Caesar 
was  the  first  who  was  permitted  to 
adorn  his  house  with  a  pediment, 
and  it  was  then  looked  on  as  a 
divine  honour;  but  afterwards  the 
palaces  of  the  emperors  and  of  dis- 
tinguished individuals  were  equally 
decorated.  The  triangular  field  of 
the  pediment  is  termed  the  tym- 
panum. According  to  Vitruvius, 
the  height  of  the  pediment  in  the 
middle  should  be  the  ninth  part 
of  the  size  of  the  cornice  of  the 
entablature  at  the  facade  of  the 
temple,  and  it  was  covered  with 
a  cornice  like  that  of  the  entabla- 
ture. The  tympana  or  pediments 
of  the  Grecian  temples,  of  which 
remains  have  been  preserved,  do 
not  agree  entirely  with  these  rules 
of  Vitruvius,  if  the  designs  and 
measures  of  the  artists  who  have 
made  us  acquainted  with  them  are 
to  be  relied  upon  ;  as  some  of  them 
are  observed  to  be  a  little  more, 
and  some  less,  elevated  ;  but,  per- 
haps, in  early  times  more  elevation 
was  given  to  the  pediment  than  in 
succeeding  ages,  or  even,  although 
certain  rules  had  been  fixed,  they 
were  not  so  strictly  adhered  to,  but 

430 


the  elevation  might  sometimes  be 
regulated  by  the  size  and  propor- 
tions of  the  entire  temple.  On  the 
cornice  at  the  summit,  and  at  the 
two  extremities,  were  often  placed 
statues,  vases,  &c.  supported  on 
pedestals,  called  acroteria,  (see 
Acroterium.)  The  pediments  of 
the  Etruscan  and  Roman  temples 
were  also  surmounted  by  statues 
In  the  most  ancient  times  the  field 
of  the  tympanum  was  without  orna- 
ment, as  in  the  temple  of  Concord 
at  Agrigentum,  the  temple  at 
iEgestum,  and  even  in  that  of 
Theseus  at  Athens.  But  the 
grander  temples  had  generally  bas 
reliefs  on  the  pediment,  represent- 
ing some  remarkable  incident  relat- 
ing to  the  divinity  to  whom  it  was 
consecrated,  or  to  the  nation  or 
city  by  whom  it  was  erected.  Win- 
dows and  doors  are  sometimes  sur- 
mounted by  pediments,  but  this 
usage,  which  originated  from  a  bad 
taste  for  ornament,  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  particularly  in  a 
facade  where  the  windows  are 
crowded,  as  so  many  pediments 
have  a  bad  effect,  from  the  great 
number  of  pointed  angles  that  crowd 
on  the  sight.  This  effect  is  still 
more  disagreeable  when  the  stories 
of  windows  are  separated  by  cor- 
nices; for  the  summits  of  the  pedi- 
ments, approaching  too  near  the 
cornices,  form  new  angles  by  their 
contact  with  the  separating  cornice. 
A  pediment  is  termed  broken,  when 
its  rising  cornices  do  not  join ;  a 
double  pediment  encloses  a  smaller  j 
one  within  its  tympanum.  On  an- 
cient pediments  may  be  consulted,  j 
Slieglitz,  Archseologie  des  Bau- 
kunst;  on  pediments  in  general,  the 
Cours  d'Architecture  of  Blonde). 
See  Tympanum,  JEtoma,  Eagle, 
Pediment.  The  term  tympanum 
is  also  applied  to  the  die  of  a 
pedestal,  or  the  panel  of  a  door. 
Type,  the  canopy  over  a  pulpit. 


V  A  L 


V  AL 


U. 


Ulam,  (Heb.)  a  building,  sup- 
posed to  be  a  large  gate,  facing  the 
grand  facade  of  the  Jewish  temple. 
See  Hebrew  Architecture. 

Under  -  pinning,  bringing  a 
wall  up  to  the  ground-sill. 

Ungula,  the  part  of  a  cylinder, 
or  cone,  comprised  by  part  of  the 
curved  surface  ;  the  segment  of  a 
circle,  and  a  plane. 

Unity.  When  an  architect  is 
charged  with  the  construction  of 
an  edifice,  he  should  first  obtain  a 
clear  and  definite  knowledge  of  its 
nature  and  destination.  By  this 
means  he  will  be  enabled  to  invent 
and  arrange  the  different  parts,  so 
that  the  tout-ensemble  shall  display 
a  building  exactly  applicable  to  the 
purposes  for  which  it  is  designed. 
This  precision  of  character  and 
design  cannot,  perhaps,  at  all  times 
be  attained  ;  in  such  a  case,  it  will 
depend  chiefly  on  the  taste  and 
experience  of  the  artist,  to  supply 
the  deficiency  ;  but,  at  all  events, 
whatever  plan  he  may  determine 
to  adopt,  that  plan  must  be  kept 


constantly  in  view,  or  the  result, 
instead  of  being  beautiful  and  har- 
monious, will  turn  out  to  be  un- 
sightly and  incongruous. 

University,  (Lat.)  a  collection 
of  buildings  for  the  education  of 
youth ;  such  as  have  studied  there 
being  admitted  to  certain  degrees 
in  different  faculties.  Universities 
in  general  comprehend  several  col- 
leges, butthis  is  not  always  the  case. 
The  university  of  St.  Andrew's  ex- 
isted long  before  either  of  its  col- 
leges were  founded. 

Uphers,  fir  poles  used  in  scaf- 
folding, four  to  seven  inches  in 
diameter,  and  twenty  to  forty  long. 

Urn,  (Lat.)  a  kind  of  round  vase, 
destined,  among  the  ancients,  to 
receive  and  preserve  the  ashes  of 
the  dead.  The  Romans  often  made 
use  of  Grecian  vases,  as  is  evident 
from  those  that  have  been  found  in 
tombs  in  the  vicinity  of  Naples. 
The  Egyptians  frequently  enclosed 
their  sacred  birds,  after  being  em- 
balmed, in  urns,  which  were  covered 
with  hieroglyphics.    See  Vase* 


V. 


Vagina,  (Lat.)  the  lower  part 
of  a  terminus,  in  which  the  statue 
is  apparently  inserted. 

Valley,  the  internal  angle  of 
two  sides  of  a  roof.  The  rafter 
which  supports  the  valley  is  called 
the  valley  rafter,  or  valley  piece, 
and  the  board  fixed  upon  it,  for  the 
leaden  gutter  to  lie  upon,  is  termed 
the  valley  board.  Valley  rafters 
are  named,  in  old  books,  sleepers. 

Vallum,  (Latin,)  a  bulwark. 
There  were  several  of  these  walls 
raised  by  the  Romans  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  our  island.  The  val- 
lum Adriani,  which  stretched  along 
the  whole  breadth  of  the  island 


from  the  river  Tyne  to  the  Solway- 
frith,  was  flanked  by  towers  at  re- 
gular distances,  and  was  erected 
for  the  purpose  of  restraining  the 
incursions  of  the  northern  barba- 
rians: this  is  called  the  Picts"  wall. 
The  vallum  Agricola,  was  also 
erected  towards  the  north  of  Bri- 
tain, as  a  restraint  upon  the  Scots, 
by  Julius  Agricola,  in  the  reign  of 
Vespasian.  The  vallum  Antonini 
Pu,  had  the  same  destination.  The 
vallum  Severi  stretched  from  sea 
to  sea,  between  the  gulfs  of  Glotia 
and  Bodotria,  now  the  Clyde  and 
the  Forth.  The  vallum  Stiliconis, 
was  thrown  up  by  Stilico,  and 

431 


V  A  R 


VAR 


readied  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Derwent  to  that  of  the  Elme.  See 
Adrian  s  Vallum,  Severus's  Wall, 
and  Castra. 

Vane,  Fane,  or  Phane,  a  plate 
of  metal,  shaped  like  a  banner, 
fixed  on  the  summit  of  a  tower  or 
steeple,  to  show  the  direction  of  the 
wind. 

Varnish.  Varnishes  may  be 
divided  into  several  classes — the 
first  comprehending  the  most  deli- 
cate varnishes,  and  those  that  are 
used  in  fine  work :  the  second,  the 
most  drying  varnishes  that  can  be 
obtained  with  spirits  of  wine :  the 
third,  different  species  of  changing 
varnishes,  of  a  less  drying  nature, 
but  nearly  similar  in  other  respects 
to  the  first:  the  fourth,  varnishes 
formed  with  essential  oils,  and  par- 
ticularly oil  of  turpentine:  the  fifth, 
such  as  are  formed  by  the  employ- 
ment of  pure  copal,  treated  with 
oil  of  turpentine,  and  even  with 
ether:  the  sixth,  varnishes  made 
with  copal,  amber,  and  caoutchouc. 

The  varnishes  of  the  first  class 
consist  of  simple  substances,  as  pure 
gum,  isinglass,  &c. 

Of  the  second,  or  drying  var- 
nishes, made  with  spirits  of  wine, 
the  following  are  the  best  :  — 
Take 

(1.)  Spirit  of  wine  ,..  32  oz. 

Purified  masticb   6 

Gum  sandarac   3 

Venice  turpentine  (very  clear)  3 
Glass  coarsely  pounded  ....  4 

The  mastic  and  sandarac  must 
be  finely  pounded ;  the  fine  parts 
of  the  glass  should  be  separated 
from  it  by  means  of  a  hair  sieve. 
Put  the  spirits  with  the  ingredients, 
which  have  been  previously  mixed 
together,  into  a  short-necked  ma- 
trass, with  a  stick  of  white  wood 
to  stir  it,  and  place  the  matrass  in 
a  vessel  filled  with  water,  which 
must  be  kept  in  a  state  of  ebullition 
cor  nearlv  two  hours. 

433 


(2. )  Gam  sandarac  ,  .    8  02« 

Pounded  mastich   2 

Clear  turpentine   2 

Pounded  glass   4 

Spirits  of  wine  32 


These  two  varnishes,  as  well  as 
the  following,  give  a  very  brilliant 
lustre;  but  the  following  has  the 
most  durability. 

(3.)  Pounded  copal  of  an  amber 

colour,  once  liquefied  ....    3  oz. 


Gum  sandarac   6 

Mastich    3 

Clear  turpentine   2^ 

Pounded  Glass    4 

Spirit  of  wine   32 


Both  these  latter  varnishes  may 
be  mixed  in  the  same  manner  as 
No.  1. 

The  third  kind  of  varnishes  are 
less  drying  than  the  second  kind, 
but  have  a  much  weaker  smell. 

(4.)  Gum  sandarac   6  oz. 

Gum  elemi    4 

Gum  anima   1 

Camphor   0£ 

Pounded  Glass   4 

Spirit  of  wine  i  32 

The  camphor  must  be  added  in 
pieces. 

(5.)  Seed  lac   6  oz.  0  grs. 

Amber  or  copal  (  finely 

ground)   2  0 

Dragon's  blood   0  40 

Extract  of  red  sandal- 
wood, obtained  by  water  0  30 

Hay  saffron   0  36 

Pounded  glass   4  0 

Spirit  of  wine  40  0 

This  varnish  will  give  a  beautiful 
gold  tint  to  articles  of  brass,  which 
must  be  exposed  to  a  gentle  heat, 
and  then  dipped  into  it. 


(6.)  Seed  lac    5  oz. 

Gum  sandarac   2 

Gum  elemi   lj 

Venice  turpentine   2 

Pounded  glass   5 

Spirits  of  wine.   24 


This  is  used  in  France  for  var- 
nishing boxes  made  of  box-wood, 
roots  of  trees,  &c. 


V  A  R 


V  AS 


(7.)  Frankincense    6  oz. 

Gnni  anima  •  2 

Gum  elemi    2 

Pounded  glass  •  4 

Spirit  of  wine   32 

This  is  a  good  varnish  for  ceilings 
and  wainscoting. 

(8.)  Gum  sandarac  •    6  oz. 

Shell  lac    2 

Resin    4 

Wbite  glass  pounded   4 

Clear  turpentine   4 

Spirit  of  wine   32 

These  varnishes  may  generally  be 
made  according  to  the  direction  for 
No.  1. 

(9.)  Gamboge   Ofoz.  grs. 

Gum  sandarac   2  0 

Gum  elemi    2  0 

Dragon's  blood    ......    1  0 

Seed  lac   1  0 

Terra  rnerita    Of  0 

Haj  saffron   0  12 

Pounded  glass   3  0 

Spirits  of  wine  20  0 

This  is  a  good  varnish  for  chang- 
ing or  modifying  the  colours  of 
those  bodies  to  which  it  is  applied. 
The  saffron  and  terra  rnerita  should 
be  infused  in  the  spirit  for  twenty- 
four  hours. 

(10.)         White  Copal  Varnish. 

Copal  (melted)   16  oz. 

Linseed  oil  (boiled)   .  8 

Essence  of  Venice  turpentine  16 

The  Venice  turpentine  must  be 
put  in  after  the  others  have  been 
boiled,  well  mixed  and  stirred,  and 
nearly  cool. 

Varnishes  are  polished  with  pu- 
mice stone  and  tripoli  earth.  The 
pumice  stone  must  be  reduced  to 
an  impalpable  powder,  and  put 
upon  a  piece  of  serge  moistened 
with  water,  and  with  this  the  var- 
nished substance  must  be  rubbed 
lightly  and  equally.  The  tripoli  must 
also  be  red  need  to  a  very  fine  powder, 
and  used  with  a  clean  woollen  cloth 
moistened  with  olive  oil.  After- 
wards the  varnished  surface  is  wiped 
with  soft  linen, cleansed  with  Span- 
31 


ish  white  or  starch,  and  rubbed  with 
the  palm  of  the  hand,  or  with  a 
linen  cloth. 

The  Chinese  varnish  is  a  resinous 
substance,  which  exudes  from  a 
tree  called  in  China  tsi-chu,  "  var- 
nish tree."  When  the  tree  has 
attained  an  age  of  about  seven  or 
eight  years,  when  its  trunk  is  nearly 
five  inches  in  diameter,  they  make 
several  rows  of  incisions  round  the 
trunk,  the  first  row  being  seven 
inches  from  the  earth,  and  the 
others  about  the  same  distance 
from  one  another.  The  liquor  only 
distils  during  the  night,  and  in  the 
summer  season.  The  incisions  are 
made  towards  evening,  and  the 
next  morning  the  varnish  has  col- 
lected in  shells,  which  they  insert 
in  the  incisions  at  the  time  they  cut 
them.  The  following  evening  they 
are  again  inserted,  and  the  opera- 
tion is  continued  during  the  sum- 
mer. A  thousand  trees  yield  in  one 
night  almost  twenty  pounds  of  var- 
nish. While  the  varnish  is  extil- 
ling,  it  exhales  a  malignant  vapour, 
against  the  bad  effects  of  which  it 
is  necessary  to  use  great  precaution. 

Vase,  a  name  given  to  the  bell, 
or  naked  form,  of  the  Corinthian 
capital,  on  which  the  leaves  are 
disposed. 

Vase.  The  Grecian  vases,  which 
have  been  from  time  to  time  dug 
up  in  various  parts  of  Italy  and 
Greece,  have  long  attracted  atten- 
tion, by  the  elegance  of  their  form 
and  decorations.  Large  collections 
have  at  various  periods  been  made, 
and  several  collections  of  drawings 
from  them  have  been  published. 
Mr.  Millingen's  work  (Peintures 
Antiques  de  Vases  Grecs)  contains 
an  introduction,  in  which  we  find 
some  positive  ideas  on  the  manu- 
facture of  the  Greek  vases. 

During  the  last  century  and  a 
half,  collections  of  painted  Greek 
vases  have  been  formed :  endea- 

433 


vours  have  been  made  to  guess  at 
the  processes  employed  by  the 
potters;  but  time  alone  has  re- 
vealed them  to  us.  It  was  neces- 
sary to  possess  a  very  great  number, 
to  discover  among  them  some  which 
showed  vestiges  of  the  first  labour ; 
and  to  have  eyes  sufficiently  exer- 
cised, to  be  able  to  recognize  and 
describe  them :  it  is  only  within 
these  few  years  that  this  could  be 
done. 

First,  a  clay  was  chosen,  in  which 
baking  would  produce  the  colour 
desired,  red,  black,  or  yellow. 
When  this  clay  was  not  to  be  had, 
they  introduced  into  that  which 
they  were  forced  to  employ,  ochres, 
(oxyds  of  iron,)  to  produce  the  co- 
lour. The  vase  thus  formed  was 
placed  in  the  oven,  where  the  first 
baking  gave  it  so  much  consistency 
that  the  fluid  colours  would  not 
sink  in.  From  the  hands  of  the 
potter  these  vases  were  transferred 
to  those  of  the  painter.  The  painter 
traced  upon  them,  with  a  metal 
point,  in  dotted  lines,  the  oval  of 
the  head  and  the  parts  of  the  limbs 
which  were  to  be  covered  by  the 
drapery :  sometimes  this  sketch  is 
done  with  a  coloured  line,  but  of  a 
colour  different  from  that  of  the 
ground :  then  he  designed,  round 
this  oval  and  the  other  dotted  lines, 
with  the  pencil,  a  broad  black  line. 
This  sketch  and  first  operation  are 
still  visible  on  two  vases  in  the 
collection  above  mentioned,  but 
they  are  generally  hidden  by  the 
colours,  which  were  laid  on  flat, 
without  degradation.  Those  vases 
are  considered  as  the  most  ancient 
which  are  of  only  one  colour,  that 
of  the  clay  of  which  they  are  made. 
Soon  after,  they  were  painted  black : 
hence  comes  the  name  of  Ai(jveq, 
which  Hesychius  gives  to  the  vases 
placed  in  the  tombs;  and  the  poor 
retained  the  use  of  them,  while  the 
rich  employed  those  which  were 


adorned  with  figures.  The  most 
common  vases  are  still  sought  af- 
ter, on  account  of  the  beauty  of  the 
forms. 

The  vases  adorned  with  painted 
figures  are  those  which  are  the 
most  highly  valued.  Antiquaries 
are  agreed  in  considering  as  the 
most  ancient,  those  of  which  the 
ground  is  yellow,  (the  colour  of 
box,)  and  the  animals  painted  on 
them,  oftener  than  human  figures, 
of  a  brick  red.  Mr.  Dodwell  found 
several  in  tombs  near  Corinth;  the 
inscriptions  painted  upon  some  of 
them  indicate  the  highest  antiquity. 

The  vases  of  the  second  period 
have  a  yellow  or  white  ground,  and 
the  figures  are  black ;  their  inscrip- 
tions are  for  the  most  part  not  to 
be  read;  the  drawing  rs  incorrect; 
the  figures  want  life  and  expression; 
the  subjects  represented  are  fre- 
quently inexplicable,  because  the 
vases  are  anterior  to  the  fourth 
century,  when  Zeuxis  created,  and 
caused  to  be  generally  adopted, 
constant  modes  of  painting  the 
gods  and  heroes.  It  is  believed 
that  the  second  sort  of  vases  is  that 
which  was  most  generally  imitated 
in  the  following  ages,  from  the  love 
of  Archaism. 

The  ground  of  the  vases  of  the 
third  sort  is  black;  the  figures  are  j 
yellow  or  red  :  these  are  the  most 
common. 

Sometimes  we  find,  on  the  Greek 
vases,  blue,  green,  carmine,  and 
even  gilding.  The  white  colour 
was  added  on  the  painting  in  the 
accessaries,  as  well  as  the  inscrip- 
tions; hence  it  happens  that  they 
have  often  been  in  part  rubbed  off. 
The  white  colour  was  partly  made 
of  white-lead. 

A  second  baking  fixed  the  co-  i 
lours  on  the  vases,  and  gave  them 
that  bright  varnish  which  distin- 
guishes the  most  precious  of  them 
As  for  ordinary  vases,  a  varnish 


V  AS 


V  AS 


was  given  to  the  whole  ground  be- 
fore the  baking,  which  in  this  case 
was  not  followed  by  a  second. 

The  figures  were  generally  copies, 
and  not  original,  of  the  invention 
of  the  painters  of  the  vases.  M.  de 
Rossi  thinks  we  may  infer  this  from 
the  circumstance,  that  no  painting 
is  found  in  which  the  artist  has 
corrected  himself,  that  is  to  say, 
where  he  has  departed  from  the 
dotted  lines,  or  even  changed  any 
attitude. 

Very  different  judgments  have 
been  passed  on  the  painters  of  the 
Greek  vases  of  baked  earth,  or  ra- 
ther on  the  designers.  If  we  exa- 
mine the  variety,  the  elegance  of 
the  draperies,  the  beauty  of  the 
figures,  the  exactness  of  the  pro- 
portions, we  shall  own  that  these 
designers  have  some  merit,  espe- 
cially when  we  consider  that  the 
figures  drawn  on  the  convexity  of 
the  vases,  and  in  the  concavity  of 
the  paterae,  are  in  true  perspective, 
so  that  they  may  not  appear  de- 
formed :  this  is  so  true,  that  if  we 
trace  the  outline  of  one  of  these 
figures,  and  lay  it  on  a  plane  sur- 
face, it  will  seem  to  lean  backwards, 
to  fall :  (it  is  the  art  of  the  painter 
of  ceilings.)  On  the  other  hand, 
the  extremities  of  these  beautiful 
figures  (the  hands  and  feet)  are 
drawn  with  as  much  negligence  as 
we  find  in  the  pictures  of  savage 
nations.  The  designers,  or  drawers, 
were  therefore  not  painters,  pro- 
perly so  called;  they  were  indiffer- 
ent copyists;  and  the  paintings  on 
the  Greek  vases  are  not  originals, 
but  copies  of  pictures,  bas-reliefs, 
or  statues,  which  had  acquired 
celebrity. 

How  could  these  designers  make 
a  collection  of  studies  of  these  fine 
works?  What  substances  did  they 
employ  in  lieu  of  our  different  kinds 
of  pencils,  of  our  transparent  pa- 
per? &c.    Is  it  probable  that  our 


mode  of  tracing  was  unknown  to 
them,  by  which  the  most  moderate 
artists  trace  faithful  copies?  what 
process  did  they  use  in  its  place? 
Perhaps  they  made  sketches  of  the 
pictures  which  they  intended  to 
imitate,  or  of  those  which  they  had 
seen  on  their  travels.  Hence  it 
comes,  that  in  the  paintings  on 
vases,  the  principal  parts  are  well 
executed,  and  the  extremities  are 
very  incorrect.  Having  trusted  the 
latter  merely  to  their  memory,  they 
were  incapable  of  drawing  them 
faithfully. 

The  name  of  Sicilian  vases  is 
improperly  given  to  those  in  which 
the  figures  are  distinguished  from 
the  ground  by  their  black  or  dark 
colour,  (whereas  in  the  others,  the 
figures  are  yellow,  on  a  dark 
ground,)  and  which  are  found  in 
other  places  besides  Sicily.  This 
mode  recals  to  mind  the  invention 
of  painting,  the  imitation  of  the 
shadow  on  a  wall :  the  style  of 
design  is  barbarous  and  incorrect; 
hence  many  antiquaries  have  as- 
signed them  the  highest  antiquity. 
They  would  have  been  in  the  right, 
if  they  had  said  that  this  style, 
appearing  to  be  appropriated  to 
masquerades,  caricatures,  and  the 
like,  was  probably  imitated  at  all 
times  in  subjects  of  this  kind. 
What  evidently  proves  it  is,  that 
the  manufacture  of  these  vases,  the 
elegance  of  their  forms,  are  the 
same  as  in  the  vases  of  the  finest 
style,  the  vases  of  Nola ;  the  same 
must  be  said  of  the  ornaments 
which  accompany  the  figures,  flow- 
ers, festoons,  &c,  which  are  the 
same,  and  equally  elegant.  How- 
ever, what  we  most  frequently  see 
on  the  vases  called  Sicilian,  are 
Bacchanalia;  that  is  to  say,  mas- 
querades, orgies,  caricatures,  for 
which  this  kind  of  painting  was 
perfectly  adapted;  and  was  pro- 
bably affected  to  be  retained  for 

435 


V  AS 


V  AU 


these  subjects,  from  a  spirit  of 
religion.  The  Athenian  coins  af- 
ford a  similar  instance  of  affecta- 
tion of  Archaism. 

Since  we  have  spoken  of  the 
festivals  of  Bacchus,  we  must  speak 
also  of  the  mysteries  and  initiations, 
because  there  has  been  established, 
since  the  time  of  Passed  and  Mont- 
faucon,  an  opinion,  which  ascribes 
all  the  painted  vases  to  the  initi- 
ated, whom  they  accompanied  in 
the  tombs.  Mr.  Millingen  has 
successfully  refuted  this  opinion. 
First,  it  is  not  founded  on  the 
authority  of  any  ancient  author. 
When  we  discover  a  collection  of 
tombs,  all  containing  vases  more 
or  less  precious,  will  it  be  asserted 
that  all  the  dead,  whose  remains 
are  contained  in  these  tombs,  were 
initiated  in  the  mysteries  of  Bac- 
chus ?  What  shall  we  say  of  those 
of  children,  who  could  not  have 
been  admitted  to  initiation,  and 
which  also  contain  vases? 

For  what  reason  were  vases 
placed  in,  or  near,  the  tombs  ? 
The  Greeks  burned  or  interred  the 
dead  indifferently,  as  is  proved  by 
the  vases  containing  bones  and 
ashes,  placed  in  some  tombs,  which 
are  surrounded  by  other  tombs,  in 
which  the  dead  are  laid  upon  leaves. 
The  first  tombs  contain  fragments 
of  vases,  which  were  broken  when 
they  were  thrown  upon  the  funeral 
pile ;  those  fragments  were  gather- 
ed up  with  the  ashes,  and  bear* 
evident  marks  of  the  action  of  fire. 
The  vases,  improperly  called  Za- 
chrymatories,  which  are  found  in 
the  tombs,  and  the  urns  of  the 
Romans,  have  the  same  origin. 
Their  arms  were  interred  with  war- 
riors ;  the  appendages  of  the  toilet, 
with  women ;  with  both,  the  vases 
which  had  been  valued,  which  had 
contained  the  wine,  the  oil,  the 
milk,  the  perfumes  used  on  the 
bodies,  the  central  water  which 


served  for  the  purifications,  the 
portion  of  the  funeral  repast  which 
was  consecrated  to  the  dead,  &c. 
Some  placed  these  vases  carefully 
in  the  tombs,  others  threw  them 
in  and  broke  them ;  hence  the 
many  fragments  of  vases,  which 
the  restorers  artfully  collect,  filling 
up  the  vacancies  with  other  pieces 
which  they  dexterously  paint.  This 
fraud  may  be  detected  by  applying 
acids  to  the  newly-painted  parts. 

It  is  not  our  design  to  retrace 
the  history  of  the  discovery  of  the 
painted  Greek  vases,  either  at  Co- 
rinth in  the  time  of  Julius  Caesar, 
or  in  Etruria  and  Campania,  on 
the  revival  of  learning,  because 
these  details  are  to  be  found  in 
numerous  works;  nor  to  repeat  the 
explanations  of  the  paintings  and 
of  the  inscriptions  which  Lanzi  has 
judiciously  restored  for  the  most 
part  to  the  Greek  fables.  We  can- 
not, however,  pass  over  in  silence 
the  explanation  given  by  M.  Aker- 
blad,  of  the  frequently  repeated 
inscription  H0BAY2  KAA02, 
which  Mazzochi,  Millin,  &c.  have 
read  the  beautiful  Hopaus.  M. 
Akerblad  reads  no  nAI2  KAA02 
(6  Traig  KaXog)  the  beautiful  child. 

Amongst  the  finest  collections 
of  published  Greek  vases  may  be 
mentioned,  the  Picturse  Etruscorum 
in  Vasculis,  by  Passeri,  and  the 
collections  published  by  D'Han- 
carville,  Tischbein,  Millin,  and  M. 
Dubois  de  Maisonneuve.  See 
Campana,  Echea,  &c. 

Vatican,  one  of  the  hills  on 
which  the  city  of  Rome  is  built ; 
on  which  stands  a  celebrated  pa- 
lace that  bears  the  same  name ; 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  is  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Peter.  See 
Peters,  St. 

Vault,  (voute,  Fr.  volto,  Ital.) 
an  arched  roof,  so  contrived,  that 
the  stones  which  form  it  sustain 
each  other. 


V  A  U 


V  A  U 


A  cylindric  vault  has  its  sur- 
face part  of  that  of  a  cylinder;  a 
vault  in  full  centre  is  formed  of 
the  surface  of  a  semi-cylinder; 
when  a  vault  formed  by  any  curve 
is  greater  in  height  than  half  the 
span,  it  is  said  to  be  surmounted, 
when  less,  surbased ;  a  rampant 
arch  has  its  springings  in  a  plane 
not  parallel  with  the  horizon;  in 
a  double  vault,  one  vault  stands 
above  another;  a  conic  vault  is 
formed  of  part  of  the  surface  of  a 
cone,  as  a  spherical  vault  is  of 
that  of  a  sphere  ;  the  plane  of  an 
annular  vault  is  contained  between 
two  concentric  circles ;  a  vault  is 
simple,  when  it  is  formed  by  the 
surface  of  some  regular  solid, 
around  one  axis ;  and  compound, 
when  compounded  of  more  than 
one  surface  of  the  same  solid,  or 
of  two  different  solids;  a  cylindro- 
cylindric  vault  is  formed  of  the 
surface  of  two  unequal  cylinders ; 
and  a  groined  vault  is  a  compound 
vault  rising  to  the  same  height  in 
its  surfaces  as  that  of  two  equal 
cylinders,  or  a  cylinder  with  a 
cylindroid. 

Neither  the  Egyptians  nor  the 
Greeks  made  use  of  the  arch  or 
ceiling  composed  of  stones,  which, 
by  acting  against  each  other,  are 
supported  by  the  same  force  by 
which  they  would  otherwise  fall. 
Their  ceilings  were  formed  of  stones 
of  an  extraordinary  size,  either 
bearing  the  whole  length  from  one 
wall  to  another  as  lintels,  or  tailed 
down  in  the  manner  of  the  steps  of 
a  stone  staircase.  The  architrave 
of  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus, 
the  temple  of  Latona  at  Buttis,  and 
the  tomb  of  Osimandyas  in  Egypt, 
have  been  cited  as  extraordinary 
examples;  the  latter  being  covered 
with  stones  eight  cubits  long, 
the  foot  of  the  statue  of  this  Osi- 
mandyas being  seven  cubits  in 
length.     The  Egyptian  cubit  was 


about  twenty-two  English  inches. 
See  Arch. 

In  a  paper  by  Captain  Mackin- 
tosh, in  the  fourteenth  volume  of 
the  Asiatic  Researches,  is  described 
the  following  curious  method  of 
building  semicircular  arches,  as 
practised  by  the  Indians  at  Nag- 
pore.  "  The  arch  was  semicircular, 
-f  22  feet  span  ;  the  piers  were 
built  in  the  usual  manner,  and  very 
substantially.  At  the  spring  of  the 
arch,  stones  of  a  considerable  length 
were  used,  having  the  inner  end 
cut,  so  as  to  suit  the  curvature  of 
the  arch.  Six  such  layers  were 
laid  on  each  side,  in  the  manner 
stones  are  placed  in  what  is  gene- 
rally termed  the  Egyptian  arch; 
the  upper  layer  having  a  groove, 
five  inches  wide,  and  two  in  depth. 
On  arriving  at  this  height,  stones 
of  a  smaller  size  were  made  use  of, 
each  having  a  groove  cut  in  two 
adjoining  faces,  two  inches  in  depth 
by  four  in  breadth,  with  correspond- 
ing projections  on  the  opposite  sides. 
These  stones  were  so  placed,  that 
when  a  layer  was  completed,  there 
appeared  a  channel  or  groove  the 
whole  length  of  the  building,  ready 
to  receive  and  bind  to  it,  by  their 
projections,  the  next  row  of  stones, 
when  applied.  The  stones  were  of 
a  fine  sort  of  free-stone,  easily  cut. 
Common  cement  was  used.  Eight 
layers  of  the  stones  last  described 
having  been  placed  on  both  sides, 
each  layer  occupying  about  six 
inches  of  the  curvature  of  the 
arch,  it  becomes  necessary  to  pre- 
vent the  work,  if  carried  on,  from 
falling  inwards.  A  space  of  ten 
feet  in  length,  on  each  side  of  the 
unfinished  arch,  was  marked  off, 
and  at  these  points  two  strong 
horizontal  beams  were  forced  into 
the  grooves,  extending  across  the 
chasm.  From  these,  as  from  a  new 
base,  the  grooved  stones  already 
described  were  used ;  the  length 


VEN 


V  EN 


of  each  succeeding  layer  contract- 
ing gradually,  until  the  application 
of  the  key-stones.  When  the  arch 
Is  of  considerable  span,  a  series  of 
bases,  such  as  now  described,  is 
placed,  each  base  higher  than  the 
other,  in  order  to  support  the  work 
until  it  is  secured  by  being  keyed. 
When  the  centre  portion  of  the 
arch  has  been  thus  completed,  the 
beams  are  removed  by  being  sawed 
asunder  in  two  places.  In  a  similar 
manner  the  arch  was  continued  in 
different  portions  at  either  end  of 
that  part  first  finished.  In  this  sim- 
ple though  ingenious  manner  was  an 
arch,  across  a  span  of  twenty-two 
feet,  erected,  without  any  frame  for 
its  support  while  building."  See 
Phials,  and  Solids,  Architectural. 

Velarii.  In  the  interior  of  the 
ancient  houses,  there  were  no  doors 
to  close  up  the  openings  between 
one  room  and  another,  but  instead 
of  this  was  suspended  before  each 
a  curtain  or  veil,  and  the  slaves 
who  had  the  care  of  this  curtain, 
and  whose  business  it  was  to  watch 
near  it,  were  named  velarii.  Un- 
der the  emperors,  the  place  of  vela- 
rius  dornus  augustce  was  an  im- 
portant charge.  Details  on  this 
subject  may  be  found  in  Pignorius, 
de  Servis ;  Sagittarius,  de  Januis 
Veterum ;  and  the  observations  of 
Lipsius  on  the  fifth  chapter  of  the 
third  book  of  the  Annals  of  Tacitus. 

Velarium,  the  great  curtain, 
anciently  spread  over  theatres  or 
amphitheatres,  to  give  shade  to  the 
spectators.     See  Amphitheatre. 

Vellar.  CuroLA,  a  term  ap- 
plied, by  Alberti,  to  a  dome,  or 
spherical  surface,  which  is  termin- 
ated by  four  or  more  walls. 

Veneer,  a  thin  piece  of  a  more 
valuable  kind  of  wood,  for  covering 
furniture,  &c.  which  is  made  of  a 
more  common  kind.  The  wood  in- 
tended for  veneering,  or  inlaying 
with  veneers,  is  first  sawed  out  into 

438 


slices  or  leaves  about  a  line  thick; 
in  order  to  saw  them,  the  blocks  or 
planks  are  placed  upright  in  a  kind 
of  vice  or  sawing  press ;  they  are 
afterwards  cut  into  slips,  and 
fashioned  according  to  the  design 
proposed.  When  the  joints  have 
been  carefully  adjusted,  and  the 
pieces  brought  down  to  their  pro- 
per thickness  with  several  planes 
constructed  for  the  purpose,  they 
are  glued  down  on  a  ground  or 
block  of  dried  wood,  with  strong 
English  glue.  When  the  pieces 
have  been  thus  joined  and  glued, 
if  small,  the  work  is  placed  in  a 
press  ;  if,  on  the  contrary,  it  be 
large,  it  is  laid  on  a  bench,  covered 
with  a  board,  and  pressed  down 
with  poles  or  pieces  of  wood,  of 
which  one  end  reaches  to  the  ceil- 
ing of  the  room,  and  the  other 
bears  on  the  boards.  When  the 
glue  is  quite  dry,  it  is  taken  out  of 
the  press  to  be  finished.  First  it 
is  smoothed  with  small  planes, 
then  with  divers  scrapers,  some 
resembling  rasps,  &c.  When  suffi- 
ciently smoothed,  the  work  is  fin- 
ished, by  polishing  it  with  the  skin 
of  a  sea-dog,  wax,  and  a  brush 
and  polisher  of  shaved  glass. 

Venetian  Blind,  see  Blind. 

Venetian  Door,  a  door  which 
is  lighted  on  each  side. 

Venetian  Window,  a  window 
in  three  separate  apertures. 

.Vent,  the  flue  or  funnel  of  a 
chimney. 

VENTiDUCTS,(Lat.)subterranean 
passages  for  the  preservation  of  fresh 
or  cool  air. 

Ventilation.  A  certain  cur- 
rent of  air  is  absolutely  necessary 
in  every  room  which  has  a  fire,  for 
the  purpose  of  carrying  the  smoke 
up  the  chimney.  Smoky  chimneys, 
in  new  houses  more  particularly,  | 
are  frequently  caused  by  the  close- 
ness of  the  room.  The  obvious 
remedy  is  to  admit  more  air,  and 


VES 


V  I  G 


the  question  will  be,  how  and  where 
it  is  to  be  admitted,  without  de- 
stroying the  comfort  of  its  inha- 
bitants. Various  methods  have 
been  tried  to  obviate  this  incon- 
venience by  letting  in  the  air  from 
without  through  the  jambs,  or  into 
the  flue  of  the  chimney,  but  they 
have  all  been  found  unsuccessful, 
and  many  of  them  have  produced 
an  effect  contrary  to  that  which 
was  intended.  The  air  that  is  thus 
required,  must,  therefore,  be  ad- 
mitted into  the  room,  and  it  is 
advisable  to  make  the  aperture  for 
its  admission  as  near  as  possible  to 
the  ceiling.  Chimneys,  which  at 
other  times  draw  well,  are  not  un- 
frequently  caused  to  smoke  by  the 
improper  situation  of  a  door.  When 
the  chimney  and  door  are  placed 
on  the  same  side  of  the  room,  if 
the  door  is  made  to  open  from  the 
chimney,  it  follows  that,  when  only 
partly  opened,  a  current  of  air  is 
admitted,  which,  being  directed 
across  the  opening  of  the  chimney, 
is  apt  to  draw  out  some  of  the 
smoke.  Other  causes  frequently 
render  chimneys  smoky — such  as, 
short  flues,  which  can  only  be 
remedied  by  contracting  the  open- 
ing at  the  bottom  ;  a  situation  near 
some  other  building,  wall,  &c.  which 
is  higher  than  the  top  of  the  chim- 
ney, when  the  only  remedy  is  to 
place  a  cap  on  the  top  of  the 
chimney,  or  to  raise  the  chimney 
higher  than  the  buildings,  &c.  which 
are  near  it. 

Vermiculated,  stones,  &c. 
worked  so  as  to  have  the  appear- 
ance of  having  been  eaten  by- 
worms. 

Vertical,  opposite. 

Vestibule,  (vestibulum,  Lat.) 
the  place  before  the  entrance  to 
the  Roman  houses,  which  was  sur- 
rounded by  a  wall.  It  was  here 
that  the  clients  of  the  master  of 
the  house,  or  those  who  wished 


to  pay  their  court  to  him,  waited 
to  be  introduced.  As  the  vestibule 
was  without  the  house,  it  was  not 
considered  as  forming  a  part  of  it. 
The  entrance  from  the  vestibule  led 
immediately  into  the  atrium,  or 
into  the  cavcedium.  In  country 
houses,  they  first  entered  the  peri- 
style. See  House.  Some  have 
derived  the  name  from  Vesta, 
whose  altar  is  said  to  have  been 
placed  in  this  area. 

Vestry,  ( vestiarium,  Lat.  a 
wardrobe,)  a  room  adjoining  the 
church,  where  the  vestments  of  the 
minister  are  kept,  and  parish  meet- 
ings generally  held. 

Vice,  (Fr.  vis,  a  winding  or 
spiral  staircase,  a  term  found  in 
old  records. 

Vidimus,  a  pattern  or  design 
for  a  painted  glass  window. 

Vigna,  a  name  given  by  somo 
to  the  villas  of  the  modern  Italians. 
See  Villa. 

Vignola.  James  Barozzi,  or 
Baroggio,  called  from  the  place  of 
his  birth,Vignola,  was  born  in  1507, 
his  father  being  a  person  of  conse- 
quence, who  had  been  obliged  to 
retire  from  his  country  on  account 
of  the  political  strife  of  the  time. 
He  was  educated  at  Bologna,  where 
he  acquired  an  early  reputation  for 
the  correctness  of  his  architectural 
designs,  which  he  drew  on  the  prin- 
ciples of  Vitruvius.  From  Bologna 
he  went  to  Rome,  where  he  was 
admitted  into  the  newly  founded 
academy  of  design,  and  afterwards 
became  acquainted  with  the  abbe 
Francisco  Primaticcio,  whom  he 
accompanied  to  France,  where  he 
was  employed  in  drawing  plans  for 
several  eminent  buildings.  On  his 
return  to  Bologna,  two  years  after, 
he  was  employed  in  forming  a  plan 
for  the  facade  of  the  church  of  St. 
Petronius  ;  he  also  built  several 
palaces  there,  as  well  as  the  canal 
of  Naviglio,  running  to  Ferrara. 

439 


V  I  L 


VIL 


Among  his  other  works  were  the 
palace  of  the  duke  of  Parma  at 
Placentia,  and  several  churches  at 
Rome;  where  he  returned  in  1550. 
Through  the  interest  of  Vasari,  he 
was  appointed  architect  to  pope 
Julius  III.,  by  whom  he  was  em- 
ployed on  a  villa  and  church,  and 
in  conducting  the  aqua  vergine  to 
Home.  He  afterwards  built  the 
castle  of  Caprarola,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  church  of  the  Jesuits  at 
Rome.  On  the  death  of  Michael 
Angelo,  he  succeeded  him  as  archi- 
tect of  St.  Peter's,  in  conjunction 
with  a  Neapolitan,  named  Piero 
Ligorio.  He  was  commissioned  by 
Gregory  XIII.  to  settle  the  limits 
between  the  territories  of  the 
Church,  and  those  of  the  duke  of 
Tuscany,  and  died  on  his  return 
in  1573,  at  the  age  of  66.  His  trea- 
tise on  architecture  has  been  long 
esteemed,  and  his  work  on  per- 
spective has  passed  through  many 
editions. 

Villa,  (Lat.)  a  country  house, 
for  the  retreat  of  the  rich.  In  the 
construction  of  their  country  houses, 
the  Greeks  were  careful  to  select  a 
situation  which  should  be  warm  in 
winter,  and  shady  in  summer.  The 
apartments  of  the  women,  here,  as 
well  as  in  the  town  houses,  were 
separated  by  halls  and  baths  from 
those  of  the  men.  In  the  age  of 
Aristides  and  Pericles,  the  country 
houses  were  very  simple.  They 
were  embellished  in  a  richer  style, 
as  the  Greeks  gave  themselves 
more  and  more  to  luxury,  and 
particularly  in  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander, when  they  gave  to  them  all 
the  magnificence  possible.  But  in 
the  embellishment  of  their  country 
houses,  the  Greeks  were  far  sur- 
passed by  the  Romans,  who  lavish- 
ed on  their  villce  all  that  riches 
and  prodigality  could  procure  for 
the  enjoyment  of  life. 

At  the  period  when  the  Romans 

440 


lived  in  simplicity,  and  when  they 
were  unacquainted  with  luxury, 
their  country  houses  differed  little 
from  their  town  houses ;  they  con- 
tained neither  paintings,  statues, 
or  even  any  kind  of  ornament.  The 
villas  of  Marcus  Cato  were  so  rustic, 
that  the  walls  were  not  even  plas- 
tered. The  villa  publica,  near  the 
Campus  Martius,  was  constructed 
with  nearly  the  same  rudeness,  as 
was  also,  according  to  Seneca,  (in 
his  eighty-sixth  epistle,)  the  villa  of 
Scipio  Africanus.  When  the  Ro- 
mans had  amassed  riches  by  their 
conquests  in  Asia,  in  Greece,  and 
in  Sicily,  and  had  learnt  the  luxu- 
ries of  those  countries,  they  began 
to  enlarge  and  adorn  their  villse. 
In  a  short  time  they  became  quite 
the  contrary  of  the  ancients:  be- 
fore, they  had  only  what  was  useful; 
now,  they  thought  only  of  what  was 
agreeablei  "  Our  ancestors,"  says 
Varro  in  the  thirteenth  chapter  of 
the  first  book  of  his  work,  De  Re 
Rustica,  "  gave  to  their  villas  an 
extent  proportionate  to  the  quan- 
tity of  fruit,  and  the  productions  of 
the  earth  ;  now,  we  see  nothing  but 
profusion :  they  gave  more  extent 
to  the  buildings  which  were  de- 
signed for  purposes  of  economy 
than  to  their  habitations;  now,  we 
do  just  the  contrary.  Formerly 
they  praised  a  villa  when  it  had  a 
good  kitchen,  large  stables,  and 
extensive  magazines  for  the  pre- 
servation of  oil  and  wine;  now,  the 
villse  of  Metellus  and  of  Lacullus 
far  surpass  the  public  buildings  of 
the  capital.  The  only  care  of  these 
men  is  to  give  coolness  to  their 
summer  dining-rooms,  and  to  ex- 
pose to  the  sun  those  apartments 
which  are  destined  for  winter  habi 
tation ;  instead  of  which,  our  ances 
tors  thought  more  of  the  situation 
most  convenient  for  the  places  de-  | 
stined  for  the  preservation  of  wine 
and  oil." 


V  I  L 


VIL 


In  the  choice  of  situation  and 
aspect,  the  Romans  were  very  par- 
ticular, especially  in  the  latter, 
as,  glass  for  windows  being  then 
little  known,  and  the  substitutes 
for  it  costly,  and  not  in  general 
use,  the  buildings  and  rooms  could 
only  be  rendered  conveniently  habit- 
able in  bad  weather,  by  a  careful 
attention  to  their  aspect. 

Vitruvius  has  left  us  the  follow- 
ing rules  for  the  arrangement  of  the 
different  parts  of  a  villa.  The  win- 
ter triclinium  and  bath  should  look 
to  the  declining  sun,  because  the 
afternoon's  light  is  sometimes  re- 
quired, and  the  sun,  when  in  the 
west,  shining  upon  them,  makes  this 
aspect  warm  and  pleasant  in  the 
evening.  Bed-chambers  and  libra- 
ries should  look  to  the  east,  for  in 
these  the  morning  light  is  required; 
and  in  libraries  that  look  to  the 
south  and  west,  the  books  are  liable 
to  damage  from  the  damps  that  are 
generated  by  the  winds  from  that 
quarter.  The  spring  and  autumn 
triclinia  should  look  to  the  east, 
for  the  windows  being  then  turned 
from  the  sun,  when  it  is  proceeding 
westward,  render  their  apartments 
temperate  at  the  time  when  they 
are  generally  used.  The  summer 
triclinium  should  look  to  the  north, 
because  this  aspect  is  not,  like  the 
others,  very  hot  at  the  summer 
solstice.  The  pinacothecce,  or  pic- 
ture rooms,  as  well  as  the  em- 
broidering and  painting  rooms, 
should  also  have  a  northerly  as- 
pect, that  the  colours  used  in  the 
works,  on  account  of  the  equality 
of  the  light,  may  remain  un- 
changed. 

In  the  situation  of  their  villse, 
the  rich  Romans  were  careful  to 
select  a  fertile  and  salubrious  coun- 
try, to  have  a  good,  and  at  the 
same  time  a  picturesque  and  agree- 
able road,  a  good  neighbourhood, 
and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  good 
3K 


water.  A  good  road,  says  Colu- 
mella, induces  the  proprietor  fre- 
quently to  visit  the  country,  and 
at  the  same  time  facilitates  the 
conveyance  of  such  things  as  are 
necessary  to  agriculture,  &c.  Pliny 
speaks  highly  in  praise  of  the  beau- 
tiful road  that  conducted  to  his 
villa  Laurentinum.  It  was  also 
considered  as  a  great  advantage  to 
a  villa  to  have  a  navigable  river 
near  it,  not  only  because  it  fre- 
quently added  much  to  the  beauty 
of  the  scenery,  but  also  for  the 
convenience  of  carriage.  The  coun- 
try most  admired  for  the  situation 
of  the  villas  of  the  Romans,  was 
Campania,  and  more  particularly 
the  neighbourhood  of  Baiae,  where 
there  were  a  great  number  of  elegant 
country  residences.  Some  districts 
of  Latium  were  not  less  beautiful, 
and  the  rich  Romans  resorted  to  the 
environs  ofTusculum  and  of  Tibur. 

The  Romans  had  three  kinds  of 
villa,  each  having  its  particular 
destination,  or  rather  each  villa 
had  three  parts — these  were  the 
villa  urbana,  the  villa  rustica, 
and  the  villa  fructuaria.  The 
villa  urbana  contained  the  habi- 
tation of  the  proprietor,  and  in  it 
were  found  all  the  conveniences  of 
a  mansion  in  the  city.  Vitruvius 
gives  this  villa  the  name  of  psendo- 
urbana;  Palladio,  Suetonius,  and 
other  authors,  name  it  prcetorium. 
The  villa  rustica  contained  not 
only  all  that  pertained  to  rural 
economy,  the  barns,  and  the  sta- 
bles, and  the  places  to  keep  the 
agricultural  instruments,  but  also 
the  kitchen,  and  the  dwelling  of 
the  steward,  and  the  other  persons 
who  were  employed  under  him. 
The  villa  fructuaria,  was  appro- 
priated to  the  preservation  of  the 
different  productions  of  the  estate, 
and  it  contained  the  granaries  for 
corn,  magazines  for  the  oil,  and 
cellars  for  wine,  &c. 

441 


V  I  L 


VIL 


The  villa  urbana  was  gene- 
rally placed  in  a  situation  some- 
what more  elevated  than  the  other 
two.  It  in  general  had  the  same 
distribution  as  the  city  habitations 
of  the  Romans,  and  only  differed 
from  them  in  this,  that  in  the 
latter  we  entered  first  the  atrium, 
beyond  which  was  the  peristyle; 
and  in  the  villse,  on  the  contrary, 
the  peristyle  was  nearest  the  en- 
trance, and  beyond  it  was  a  court, 
surrounded  by  porticos,  which,  like 
the  peristyle,  served  for  a  pro- 
menade ;  it  was  ornamented  with 
care,  paved  with  slabs  of  marble, 
and  its  walls  and  roofs  elegantly 
adorned;  the  columns  were  either 
of  marble,  or  of  marble  stucco. 
Facing  the  entrance  to  the  court 
was  a  large  dining  hall,  whose 
aspect  was  such  as  to  command 
the  finest  view.  Besides  this  large 
dining-hall,  each  villa  had  others 
smaller,  situated  on  the  sides  of 
the  edifice,  in  that  part  which 
would  afford  the  best  prospect. 
On  one  side  of  the  court  were  the 
bed-chambers,  the  sitting-rooms, 
and  the  library;  on  the  other  the 
baths,  and  the  rooms  for  the  slaves 
and  the  domestics.  The  interior 
distribution  of  the  villa  differed  ac- 
cording to  circumstances,  according 
f.o  the  situation,  and  according  to 
the  wants  or  caprices  of  the  pro- 
prietor. Sometimes  they  contained 
large  picture  galleries,  as  in  the 
villa  of  Lucullus.  Many  had  long 
vaulted  galleries,  separated  from 
the  dwelling-house,  and  generally 
running  towards  the  garden;  these 
served  as  promenades :  there  were 
such  galleries  in  Pliny's  villas,  Lau- 
rentinum  and  Tusci.  These  were 
sometimes  termed  cryptoportici. 
Care  was  always  taken  to  give  to  each 
chamber  the  aspect  which  agreed 
best  with  its  destination.  Hence 
the  villa  in  many  cases  had  summer 
apartments,  and  winter  apartments. 

442 


In  the  villa  rustica,  nearest  the 
entrance,  were  contained  the  apart- 
ments of  the  steward,  &c.  By  the 
side  of  these  was  a  chamber,  in 
which  were  deposited  the  ploughs, 
and  other  agricultural  implements. 
Near  this,  towards  the  south,  were 
the  rooms  for  the  slaves.  The  pri- 
son for  refractory  slaves  was  partly 
beneath  the  ground.  Columella 
mentions  also  an  infirmary  for  the 
slaves  who  were  sick.  The  kitchen 
was  by  the  side  of  the  court,  and 
served  not  only  for  cooking,  but 
also  for  a  place  of  retreat  for  the 
various  servants,  &c.  who  rested 
there  after  their  labour,  and  took 
their  meals  in  it.  The  rest  of  the 
villa  rustica  was  occupied  chiefly 
by  stables,  and  places  for  the  cat- 
tle, sheep,  fowls,  pigeons,  &c.  In 
the  middle  of  the  court,  which  was 
termed  cohors,  was  a  reservoir  filled 
with  water,  which  was  resorted  to 
by  the  geese,  ducks,  and  other 
aquatic  fowls. 

See  the  articles  Granary,  House, 
&c.  for  further  information  relating 
to  the  distribution  of  the  several 
kinds  of  villse.  —  The  following 
description  given  by  Pliny  of  his 
villa  at  Laurentum,  will  convey  a 
tolerable  idea  of  the  extent,  accom- 
modation, and  grandeur  of  the 
Roman  villse,  although  this  was 
considered  as  on  a  small  scale. 

After  he  has  described  the  route, 
the  views  on  the  road,  &c.  he  adds, 
"  My  villa  is  large  enough  to 
afford  a  convenient,  though  not 
sumptuous  reception  for  my  friends. 
The  part  which  first  presents  itself 
is  the  atrium,  plain,  but  not  mean; 
then  the  portico,  in  form  of  the 
letter  O,  which  surrounds  a  small 
but  pleasant  area ;  this  is  an  excel- 
lent retreat  in  bad  weather,  being 
sheltered  by  glazed  windows,  but 
more  by  the  projection  of  the  roof. 
Beyond  the  portico  is  a  pleasant 
cavaedium,    beyond   which   is  a 


V  I  L 


V  I  L 


handsome  triclinium,  which  ad- 
vances upon  the  shore,  so  that  it 
is  gently  washed  by  the  waves 
when  the  south-west  wind  blows. 
On  every  side  are  folding-doors,  or 
windows,  as  large,  so  that,  from  the 
sides  and  the  front,  you  enjoy  a 
prospect,  as  it  were,  of  three  seas, 
and  backwards  are  seen  the  cavse- 
dium,  the  portico,  and  the  area  ; 
again,  the  portico  and  the  atrium, 
terminated  by  woods  and  distant 
mountains.  On  the  left  of  the 
triclinium,  but  not  so  forward,  is  a 
large cubiculum,  and  then  a  smaller 
one,  where  one  window  admits  the 
rising,  and  another  the  setting  sun. 
From  hence  you  view  the  sea, 
rather  more  distant,  but  more  se- 
curely. The  cubiculum  and  tri- 
clinium, by  their  projecture,  form 
an  angle,  which  not  only  retains, 
but  augments,  the  heat  of  the  sun's 
rays.  Here  then  is  my  hyberna- 
culum,  (winter- apartments,)  and 
the  gymnasium  for  my  family, 
which  is  never  incommoded  by  any 
winds,  but  such  as  bring  cloudy 
weather,  and  destroy  the  otherwise 
serene  situation  of  the  place.  Ad- 
joining to  this  angle  is  a  cubiculum 
of  a  curved  form,  the  windows  of 
which  admit  the  sun  through  its 
whole  course.  In  the  walls  are 
inserted  library  presses,  furnished 
with  books  more  for  amusement 
than  study.  Close  to  this  is  the 
dormitorium,  (sleeping-room,)  se- 
parated by  a  space  having  a  cover- 
ing of  wood-work,  which  collects 
and  distributes  the  vapour  to  the 
room  in  salubrious  temperament. 
The  remainder  of  this  wing  is  al- 
lotted to  my  servants  and  slaves ; 
yet  it  is  sufficiently  neat  for  vi- 
sitors. 

"  On  the  right  side  of  the  tricli- 
nium is  a  most  elegant  cubiculum, 
with  another  large  cubiculum,  or 
moderate  ccenatio,  which  receives 
light  both  from  the  sun  and  the 


sea.  Beyond  this  is  another  cubU 
culum,  with  a  procceton,  for  height 
a  summer,  but  for  shelter  a  winter 
apartment,  being  screened  from  all 
winds ;  a  wall  only  separates  an- 
other cubiculum  with  its  procceton. 
Next  you  enter  the  spacious  and 
extensive  cella  frigidaria  of  the 
bath;  against  the  walls  of  which 
are  two  projecting  baptistei'ia,  suf- 
ficiently large  to  swim  in  ;  adjoin- 
ing to  this  are  the  unctuarium,  the 
hypocaustum,  and  propnigeum  of 
the  baths;  and  two  other  cells, 
more  elegant  than  sumptuous. 
Adjoining  is  a  skilfully  contrived 
callida piscina, (warm-bath,)  where 
those  who  swim  enjoy  a  view  of  the 
sea  ;  not  far  distant  is  the  sphceris- 
terium,  (tennis  court,)  which  en- 
joys the  wannest  rays  of  the  declin- 
ing sun.  Here  arises  a  turris, 
(pavilion  or  summer-house,)  under 
which  are  two  dicetce,  and  two  also 
above,  besides  a  ccenatio,  from  which 
is  a  beautiful  prospect  of  the  sea, 
the  distant  coast,  and  several  plea- 
sant villas;  there  is  also  another  tur- 
ris, containing  a  cubiculum,  expos- 
ed to  the  rising  and  the  setting  sun ; 
beneath  this  are  the  apotheca  and 
horreum,  (cabinet  and  store-room,) 
and  underneath  a  triclinium,  where 
the  noise  of  the  sea  is  not  heard, 
except  in  storms,  and  then  but 
faintly.  This  looks  on  the  gestatio, 
(riding- course,)  and  the  garden 
which  it  surrounds.  The  gestatio 
is  encompassed  with  box,  or  rose- 
mary where  the  box  is  wanting; 
for  box,  when  well  sheltered,  flou- 
rishes much,  but  withers,  if  exposed 
to  the  wind  or  weather,  or  to  the 
sprays  of  the  sea.  To  the  inner 
circle  of  the  gestatio  is  joined  a 
shady  row  of  young  vines,  with 
a  soft  and  pleasant  walk.  The  pros- 
pect here,  not  less  pleasant  than 
that  from  the  sea,  is  enjoyed  from 
a  ccenatio;  on  the  back  it  is  en- 
compassed  by  two  dicetce,  whose 

443 


V1L 


VIL 


windows  look  to  the  vestibule  of 
the  villa,  and  to  a  fruitful  kitchen- 
garden.  From  this  place  extends 
a  crypto-porticus,  which  may  be 
compared  for  size  to  a  public  build- 
ing; having  windows  on  both  sides, 
those  next  the  sea  the  most  nume- 
rous. When  the  day  is  serene  and 
calm,  these  windows  are  all  opened ; 
but  when  the  wind  is  troublesome 
on  one  side,  those  on  the  other  side 
are  opened  without  any  inconveni- 
ence. Before  the  crypto-porticus 
is  a  xystus,  fragrant  with  violets, 
in  which  the  warmth  of  the  sun  is 
increased  by  its  reflection  from  the 
crypto-porticus,  which  at  the  same 
time  shelters  it  from  the  north-east 
wind ;  wherefore  it  is  hot  in  the 
front,  and  cool  in  the  rear:  it  is 
also  screened  from  the  south-west 
and  several  other  winds.  All  these 
render  it  pleasant  in  winter ;  but  it 
is  much  more  so  in  summer :  for 
before  mid-day,  the  xystus,  and 
afterwards  the  gestatio  and  part  of 
the  garden,  are  made  temperate 
by  the  shadow  of  the  crypto-por- 
ticus, which  is  larger  as  the  day 
proceeds. 

"  At  the  top  of  the  xystus,  pro- 
jecting from  the  crypto-porticus, 
are  the  dicetce  of  the  garden,  and 
these  are  my  delight;  for  here,  in 
truth,  I  have  placed  my  affection. 
Here  is  an  helio-caminus,  one  side 
of  which  looks  to  the  xystus,  the 
other  to  the  sea,  and  both  to  the 
sun.  From  the  folding-doors  is 
seen  the  cubiculum ;  from  the  win- 
dows the  crypto-porticus :  on  the 
side  next  the  sea,  and  opposite  the 
wall,  recedes  a  very  elegant  zotheca, 
to  which  a  cubiculum  is  added  by 
means  of  glazed  windows  and  cur- 
tains. In  this  room  are  contained 
two  chairs  and  a  bed,  from  the  foot 
of  which  you  have  a  prospect  of 
the  sea ;  from  the  back  of  the 
neighbouring  villas ;  and  from  the 
head  of  the  woods — each  window 

444 


giving  a  different  prospect.  Adjoin- 
ing is  a  cubiculum  for  night  and 
sleep  ;  for  here  neither  the  noise 
of  servants,  the  murmur  of  the  sea, 
the  roaring  of  tempests,  the  glare 
of  lightning,  nor  even  the  light  of 
day,  is  perceived,  till  the  windows 
are  opened ;  but  all  is  profound 
silence,  which  is  caused  and  pre- 
served by  an  andron,  (open  court,) 
which  is  between  the  wall  of  tne 
cubiculum  and  that  of  the  garden ; 
so  that  all  noise  is  drowned  by  the 
void  space  between.  Close  to  this 
cubiculum  is  a  small  hypocaustum, 
the  heat  from  which,  by  a  small 
window,  may  be  regulated  at  plea- 
sure. Hence  extend  a  procatum 
and  cubiculum,  which  enjoy  the 
sun,  though  obliquely,  from  sun- 
rise till  after  mid-day.  When  re- 
tired to  these  apartments,  I  seem 
as  though  absent  from  my  villa : 
I  feel  great  pleasure  here,  particu- 
larly in  the  time  of  the  Saturnalia, 
when  the  other  parts  of  the  villa, 
by  reason  of  the  freedom  allowed 
at  that  time,  resound  with  festive  cla- 
mours ;  for  here  I  neither  obstruct 
the  diversions  of  my  servants,  nor 
they  my  study." 

-Pliny  describes  seven  others  of 
his  villse  in  different  parts  of  his 
epistles;  that  at  Tuscum  was  much 
more  spacious  ^han  the  one  now 
described.  He  mentions  several  on 
the  border  of  the  lake  Larium,  now 
lake  Como,  in  the  Milanese.  The 
larger  villas  of  the  Romans  had 
attached  to  them  parks,  menageries, 
fisheries,  rabbit-warrens,  and  some- 
times even  circuses  and  theatres. 
The  celebrated  villa  of  Adrian  has 
been  already  described  under  the 
article  Adrian  s  Villa. 

The  rage  for  building  splendid 
villas  was  carried  by  the  Romans 
into  the  different  countries  they 
conquered,  particularly  into  Gaul 
and  Britain.  Many  remains  of 
Roman  villas  have  been  found  in 


V  T  L 


V  I  L 


different  parts  of  these  coun- 
tries 

One  of  the  most  extensive  Ro- 
man villas  that  have  been  dis- 
covered in  Great  Britain,  is  that 
at  Bignor,  in  Sussex,  which  is  de- 
scribed by  Mr.  Lysons,  in  the 
eighteenth  and  nineteenth  volumes 
of  the  Archseologia.  The  first  dis- 
covery of  this  villa  occured  in  1811. 
A  farmer  who  occupied  the  land,  in 
removing  the  earth,  discovered  a 
fine  mosaic  pavement,  in  the  room 
marked  in  our  plan,  (pi.  Balusters,) 
7.  In  the  centre  of  this  apart- 
ment was  an  hexagonal  piscina,  or 
cistern,  formed  of  a  hard  white  sort 
of  stone,  four  feet  in  diameter,  and 
one  foot  seven  inches  and  three- 
quarters  in  depth,  with  a  border  of 
stone  round  it,  nine  inches  and  a 
quarter  wide,  and  a  step  within  it, 
at  nearly  half  its  depth,  five  inches 
and  a  half  wide  ;  at  the  bottom  is 
a  round  hole  three  inches  in  dia- 
meter, from  which  a  leaden  pipe 
for  carrying  off  the  water  was  after- 
wards discovered  on  the  outside  of 
the  south  wall,  running  in  a  south- 
ern direction.  The  room  appeared 
to  have  been  heated  by  an  hypo- 
caust;  and,  in  clearing  away  the 
earth,  part  of  a  small  Doric  column 
was  found.  The  next  room  dis- 
covered was  that  marked  26;  the 
walls  of  this  room  remained  to  the 
height  of  more  than  two  feet  at 
the  north-east  corner,  where  was  a 
funnel  above  the  pavement,  commu- 
nicating with  the  hypocaust  below. 
The  pavement  was  in  good  pre- 
servation, and  the  dimensions  of 
the  room  were  forty  feet  four  inches 
by  seventeen  feet.  The  first  room 
thirty-one  feet  eleven  inches  by 
nineteen  feet.  The  walls  on  the 
east,  west,  and  north  sides  were 
two  feet  six  inches  thick,  that  on 
the  south  three  feet.  This  is  con- 
jectured to  have  been  the  tricli- 
nium, or  grand  banqueting  room. 


Another  pavement  was  found  in 
the  room  No.  6.  At  the  end  of 
this  room,  opposite  from  the  room 
last  mentioned,  was  a  door-way 
three  feet  three  inches  and  a  half 
wide,  leading  into  another  room, 
twenty-two  feet  by  ten  feet  four 
inches,  the  pavement  formed  of 
coarse  red  tesserae.  On  the  south 
side  of  the  great  pavement,  the 
foundations  of  a  cryptoporticus  were 
discovered,  marked  10,  which  ap- 
pears to  have  been  of  much  larger 
dimensions  than  any  one  hitherto 
discovered  in  this  island  ;  it  was  ten 
feet  wide,  and  one  hundred  and 
fifty-seven  feet  six  inches  long.  Its 
tessellated  pavement  was  destroyed, 
except  at  the  west  end.  On  the 
north  side  of  this  gallery,  the  foun- 
dation walls  of  a  range  of  rooms 
was  discovered,  running  eastward 
in  a  line  with  the  great  room  first 
discovered  ;  the  one  which  adjoined 
that  room  on  the  east  side,  marked 
12,  was  nineteen  feet  two  inches  by 
eighteen  feet  nine  inches,  and  had 
a  floor  of  terras  of  a  light  red 
colour :  the  next  room  to  the  east- 
ward, marked  13,  was  nearly  of  the 
same  dimensions,  and  had  a  coarse 
tessellated  pavement.  Adjoining 
the  two  last-mentioned  rooms  on 
the  north  side  were  the  foundations 
of  one  sixteen  feet  square,  marked 
8,  containing  a  mosaic  pavement. 
The  prcefurnium  of  the  hypocaust, 
by  which  the  great  room  and  others 
had  been  heated,  was  discovered  on 
the  north  side  of  the  north  wall  of 
the  room  marked  6,  and  consisted 
of  two  walls  eighteen  inches  thick, 
and  eighteen  inches  asunder,  pro- 
jecting sixteen  inches  from  the  wall 
of  the  building:  between  them  was 
a  kind  of  arch  formed  by  bricks 
projecting  beyond  each  other,  and 
communicating  with  the  flues  under 
the  different  pavements.  About 
thirty  feet  north  of  the  room  marked 
5,  a  very  fine  mosaic  pavement  was 

445 


VIL 


VIL 


discovered,  and  a  magnificent  apart- 
ment marked  3,  was  traced,  to  which 
5  was  found  to  have  served  as  an 
ante-room.  The  wall  on  the  north 
side  of  this  room  was  found  to  con- 
tinue thirty-two  feet  towards  the 
west,  where  it  terminated  with  a 
projection  or  buttress  of  two  feet, 
forming  two  sides  of  what  appeared 
to  have  been  a  kind  of  court,  (1) 
enclosing  an  area  of  thirty  feet, 
filled  with  great  quantities  of  stones, 
bricks,  and  tiles.  At  a  small  dis- 
tance from  the  west  wall  of  the 
great  room,  last  described,  the  base 
and  part  of  the  shaft  of  a  small 
column  were  discovered.  At  the 
west  end  of  the  ante-room  5,  was 
a  very  small  room  4,  eight  feet 
twelve  inches  by  twelve  feet,  having 
two  door-ways,  one  on  the  east 
opening  into  5,  and  the  other  on 
the  north  communicating  with  the 
square  area  marked  1.  The  con- 
tinuation of  the  east  wall  of  the 
room  11,  at  the  west  end,  or 
rather  the  continuation,  of  the 
cryptoporticus,  was  next  explored 
to  the  southward,  and  traces  of  it 
were  found  to  the  extent  of  one 
hundred  feet.  The  room  27,  ad- 
joining 26,  had  its  walls  still  re- 
maining, on  the  east,  north,  and 
south  sides,  to  about  two  feet  high, 
which  were  covered  with  stucco  two 
inches  thick,  painted  red,  with  a 
skirting  of  plaster,  at  two  inches 
high,  projecting  two  inches  and  a 
half  from  the  wall.  On  the  east 
side  was  found  in  good  preservation 
a  fire-place  twenty-one  inches  and  a 
half  wide  in  front,  seventeen  at  the 
back,  and  eight  deep,  with  a  hearth 
formed  of  eight  bricks,  each  about 
seven  inches  square.  The  fire- 
place was  formed  by  two  brick 
tiles  on  each  side,  which  had  been 
cramped  together  with  iron,  and 
were  placed  as  on  the  sides  of  the 
stove  introduced  by  Count  Rum- 
ford.     "  I  am  not  aware,"  Mr. 

446 


Lysons  observes,  "  of  any  open  fire- 
place of  this  kind  having  been  dis- 
covered elsewhere  in  the  remains 
of  a  Roman  building,  though  it  is 
certain,  from  various  passages  in 
the  Roman  writers,  that  other 
means  were  employed  by  the  an- 
cients for  wanning  their  apartments, 
besides  hypocausts.  The  caminus 
is  mentioned  by  Cicero,  Horace, 
Vitruvius,  and  others,  but  the 
learned  commentators  on  these 
authors  are  by  no  means  agreed 
as  to  its  form  or  situation;  and 
it  has  been  much  questioned  by 
some  of  them,  on  the  authority  of 
several  passages  in  ancient  writers, 
and  from  none  having  been  dis- 
covered in  Roman  buildings,  whe- 
ther there  was  any  chimney,  or 
other  means  of  conveying  away  the 
smoke ;  though  it  is  hardly  to  be 
conceived,  that  a  room  could  have 
been  habitable  under  such  circum- 
stances, at  times  when  it  was  neces- 
sary to  close  the  doors  and  win- 
dows." This  room  was  fourteen 
feet  and  a  half  by  seventeen.  The 
room  29  was  sixteen  feet  five  inches 
by  fifteen  feet  six  inches,  and 
against  the  wall  was  another  fire- 
place resembling  the  one  described. 
The  range  of  rooms  running  east- 
ward from  the  great  triclinium  were 
found  to  extend  the  whole  length 
of  the  cryptoporticus  10,  11.  On 
the  south  side  of  the  building,  an- 
other cryptoporticus  was  discovered, 
marked  45,  which  communicated 
with  a  range  of  twelve  rooms,  con- 
taining nothing  remarkable,  except 
those  at  the  east  end,  which  fur- 
nished very  interesting  remains  of 
the  baths.  The  room  56  is  nearly 
a  square  of  twenty-five  feet,  and 
contained  a  finely  preserved  mosaic 
pavement.  Beyond  this  mosaic 
pavement  were  three  rows  of  black 
and  red  tiles,  six  inches  square, 
laid  checquer-wise,  and  next  to  the 
wall  a  row  of  bricks,  each  eleven 


V  I  L 


V  I  L 


inches  by  fifteen  and  a  half.  Great 
part  of  a  small  stone  column  was 
found  on  the  pavement,  in  the 
same  style  as  the  fragment  first 
discovered,  being  a  sort  of  irregular 
Doric,  the  tori  of  the  base  being 
both  of  the  same  size.  The  ad- 
joining room  55,  was  thirty  feet  by 
thirty-five,  the  floor  formed  of  black 
and  white  stones,  and,  next  to  the 
wall,  a  row  of  bricks.  Nearly  in 
the  middle  was  a  cold  bath,  eigh- 
teen feet  from  east  to  west,  and 
three  feet  two  inches  deep.  It  had 
three  steps  on  the  east,  west,  and 
north  sid^s.  On  the  west  side  of 
this  room  appeared  the  remains  of 
an  extensive  hypocaust  marked  53, 
54;  and  from  the  frequency  of  the 
brick  piers,  it  appeared  that  the 
apartment  over  it  must  have  been 
a  sudatory,  probably  divided  into 
several  smaller  rooms.  The  prae- 
furnium  was  on  the  outside  of  the 
wall  at  the  south  end ;  the  piers 
were  two  feet  nine  inches  high, 
and  seven  inches  and  a  half  square, 
and  consisted  of  eighteen  layers  of 
bricks,  with  a  larger  one,  ten  inches 
and  a  half  square,  laid  at  the  top 
and  bottom.  In  the  room  52,  ad- 
joining, was  another  hypocaust, 
communicating  with  the  larger  one 
by  an  arch  of  brick.  The  area 
No.  l,was,  in  another  examination, 
found  to  be  surrounded  by  an  inner 
wall,  which  appeared  to  have  formed 
a  kind  of  portico;  and  an  entire 
column  was  found,  resembling  the 
fragments  found  before,  which 
shewed  that  it  had  been  surround- 
ed by  a  colonnade.  A  cold  bath 
was  also  found  in  the  apartment 
marked  21.  Mr.  Lysons  thinks 
the  villas  to  have  been  the  resi- 
dence of  a  proprcetor,  or  at  least 
of  the  legate  or  goveinor  of  the 
province.  At.  the  time  Mr  Lysons 
first  communicated  an  account  of 
this  villa  to  the  Archaeologia,  the 
discovery  was  confined  to  the  rooms 


marked  No.  1  to  26,  and  28  to  44. 
During  the  years  1816  and  1817, 
by  tracing  the  foundations  of  the 
walls  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of 
the  great  court,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  cryptoporticus  extended 
all  round.  The  western  crypto- 
porticus 46,  was  eight  feet  wide, 
and  one  hundred  and  eight  long, 
including  a  small  room,  45,  at  the 
north  end,  which  had  a  mosaic 
pavement.  "  Several  rooms,  No. 
27,  51,  52,  53,  54,  55,  56,  and  57, 
besides  the  cryptoporticus  and  pas- 
sages, were  discovered  on  the  west- 
ern side  of  the  great  court,  most  of 
them  extending  into  an  arable  field, 
belonging  to  the  rector  of  Bignor. 
No  remains  of  pavements  were  dis- 
covered in  this  division  of  the  build- 
ing, except  those  in  the  crypto- 
porticus above  mentioned,  and 
some  fragments  of  the  coarser  kind 
in  the  rooms  Nos.  28  and  29. 
Many  large  tesserae  were  found 
among  the  rubbish  in  the  passage 
No.  50.  By  digging  further  to  the 
eastward  of  the  single  wall  men- 
tioned in  the  former  account,  that 
wall  was  ascertained  to  be  part  of 
an  eastern  cryptoporticus,  Nos.  60 
and  61,  which  completed  the  en- 
closure of  the  great  court ;  and 
the  foundations  of  buildings  were 
discovered  in  the  field  called  the 
Town-field,  extending  one  hundred 
and  eighty-one  feet  eastward,  Nos. 
62  to  71.  Several  of  these  build- 
ings were  of  large  dimensions,  and 
they  were  enclosed  within  a  boun- 
dary wall  of  considerable  thickness, 
not  built  at  right  angles  with  the 
eastern  side  of  the  principal  court, 
but  in  a  very  irregular  manner;  the 
following  being  dimensions  of  the 
several  sides  of  this  court:  viz.  the 
eastern  side,  two  hundred  and  se- 
venty-seven feet  four  inches;  the 
west  side,  three  hundred  a?id  eighty- 
five  feet  five  inches;  the  north  side 
two  hundred  and  eighty-six  feet ; 

U7 


VIL 


VIL 


and  the  south  side,  three  hundred 
and  twenty-two  feet,  eight  inches." 
Other  remains  of  Roman  villas,  of 
different  dimensions  and  disposition, 
are  described  in  the  volumes  of  the 
Archseologia,  before  referred  to. 

The  name  of  villa  is  still  given 
to  the  country  houses  of  the  rich 
modern  Romans,  which,  though  not 
equal  in  splendour  and  extent  to  those 
of  the  ancients,  may  still  be  termed, 
with  equal  propriety,  palaces.  In 
the  gardens  which  surround  them, 
it  is  customary  to  plant  fine  hedge- 
rows of  laurels  of  every  description, 
which,  besides  forming  an  agreeable 
variety,  preserve  their  verdure  in 
the  midst  of  winter.  The  princ'pal 
are  the  villa  Albani,  the  villa  Bor- 
ghese,  or  Pinciana,  the  villa  Pam- 
phili,  Mattsei,  Barberini,  Farnese, 
Piombino,  with  a  multitude  of 
others,  on  which  the  granite  and 
porphyry  of  Egypt,  the  marbles  of 
Africa  and  Paros,  the  sculptures 
and  bas-reliefs  of  ancient  Greece 
and  Rome,  and  the  paintings  of  the 
most  eminent  modern  masters,  are 
lavished  with  the  most  unsparing 
hand. 

Some  observations  relating  to 
English  country  houses  will  be 
found  under  the  articles  House, 
Rural  Architecture,  and  Cottage. 

The  following  extracts  from  Fos- 
brook's  "  Tourist's  Grammar,"  will 
give  a  tolerable  idea  of  the  styles  of 
the  old  English  houses,  particularly 
those  in  the  country.  "  From  the 
twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  century, 
houses  were  so  low,  that,  in  the 
former  era,  those  in  London  are 
presumed  to  have  been  only  sixteen 
feet  high ;  and  at  Southwell  College, 
first  built  in  1399,  there  were  only 
two  stories,  the  upper  one  being  in 
the  roof,  which  was  so  deep  as  to 
reach  to  the  ceilings  of  the  lower 
rooms."  Even  in  the  fifth  century, 
the  houses  continued  very  low;  and 
'h  the  "  Paston  Letters,"  it  is  said, 

448 


"  Zvr  housis  her  ben  so  low,  yat 
yer  may  non  man  schet  out  wt  no 
long  bowe."  The  old  part  of  the 
manor-house  of  Wootton,  Kent,  is 
supposed  to  be  of  the  time  of  the 
Edwards.  It  was  built  of  flint, 
the  walls  very  thick,  with  here  and 
there  lancet  windows ;  it  had  a  little 
round  tower,  with  a  newel  staircase, 
and  thick  studded  folding  doors 
under  a  pointed  arch,  which  led  to 
a  chapel.  The  hall  had  formerly 
a  carved  wooden  roof,  painted  with  I 
stars  and  other  ornaments,  two 
stories  high,  with  Gothic  windows. 
The  Chronicle  of  Dunstable  men- 
tions the  erection  of  carpenters'  and 
wheelers'  houses  within  the  court  of 
a  manor-house,  as  early  as  the 
thirteenth  century ;  so  that  all  these 
encumbrances  of  offices  are  quite 
ancient,  indeed  they  are  Anglo- 
Saxon.  In  the  illuminations  of  the 
Roman  d' Alexandre,  are  several 
views  of  fortified  houses  with  high 
gables,  a  fashion  which  was  intro- 
duced from  Flanders  in  the  time  of 
the  first  Edward.  A  specimen 
may  be  seen  in  Beverstone  Castle, 
Gloucestershire,  built  during  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  of  which  a 
view  is  engraved  in  Grose.  "  In 
the  sixteenth  century  there  is  a 
great  elegance  in  the  houses.  Su- 
perb gateways  ;  slender  turrets  ; 
octangular  stair-case ;  towers  with 
or  without  domed  tops,  covered 
with  lead ;  large  projecting  chimney 
stacks,  topped  by  two,  three,  or 
four  chimneys;  tall,  and  often 
richly  modelled  brick  ;  great  square 
windows  in  profusion ;  projecting 
bay  windows ;  lofty  porches  ;  and 
many  other  minute  distinctions,  of 
which  the  instances  are  frequent." 
"  Escalloped  gables  are  ascribed  to 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century."  Figures,  badges,  and 
arms  carved  in  wood,  are  generally 
of  the  sixteenth  century  ;  as  are 
also  overhanging  projecting  stories, 


V  I  L 


V  I  L 


though  these  latter  sometimes  occur 
in  buildings  of  the  latter  end  of  the 
preceding  century.  Brick  was  not 
in  use  before  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  then  very  rare ;  for  we  hear  of 
no  good  brick  walls  till  the  time  of 

;    Charles  I.    In  the  time  of  James  I. 

i  plain  chimneys  began  to  come  into 
use,  and  the  ornamental  moulded 
chimneys  were  then  laid  aside.  Of 
old  country  houses,  as  distinguished 

\   from  castles,  there  were  two  styles  : 

|  the  first,  the  English  low  style,  of 
only  two  stories,  which  was  suc- 
ceeded by  the  Flemish,  with  high 
gables,  which  fashion  continued  till 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  Tnigo 

:  Jones  introduced  a  style  entirely 
new,  characterized  by  a  long  hand- 
some front,  full  of  large  windows. 
At  Walford,  in  Herefordshire,  we 
have  a  tolerable  specimen  of  the 
fortified  manor-houses,  during  the 
wars  of  Charles  I.  "  The  house 
was  of  the  Flemish  high-gable  cha- 
racter, but  it  was  thus  guarded  :  in 

i  front  it  had  a  small  raised  recess, 
balustraded,  and  ascended  by 
steps;  this  commanded  a  side-long 

i  entrance  (the  principal  one)  into  a 
walled  court  of  offices;  that  walled 
court,  and  a  barn  opposite,  com- 
manded the  high  road.  Before  ar- 
riving at  the  entrance,  was  a  little 
walled  court,  which  enfiladed  the 
road.  The  south  side  of  the  house 
was  flanked  by  a  walled  bowling- 
green    and    farmyard,    (in  which 

i  cannon-shot  have  been  found,)  and 
the  side  of  the  house  here  consists 

i  of  a  long  room,  where  the  soldiers 
were  lodged.  Supposing  this  court 
carried,    beyond   is    an  orchard, 

,  walled,  and  ha-haed  on  the  inner 

!  side,  with  a  mount  in  the  centre ; 
which  orchard  and  mount  again 
commands  the  bowling-green  and 
farmyard.  The  road,  winding  in 
the  rear,  is  enfiladed  by  a  receding 

i  part  of  the  orchard  wall,  by  which 
shot  could  be  fired  straight  up  the 
3L 


road.  The  north  side  is  protected 
by  a  walled  garden  and  court, 
which  are  again  commanded  by  the 
orchard.  It  was  thus  fortified,  says 
tradition,  in  check  of  the  neigh- 
bouring garrison  at  Goodrich  castle  ; 
and  very  possibly  could  not  have 
been  taken  without  cannon,  and  a 
regular  siege." 

Village,  a  collection  of  coun- 
try houses  and  cottages,  with  a 
church,  &c. 

The  Roman  vicus  signified  a 
quarter  of  a  town,  as  well  as  a 
village;  and  every  vicus  had  a  sa- 
cellum,  or  chapel,  like  our  villages, 
which  served  to  fix  the  limits;  and 
a  magister  (called  vico-magister)y 
who  discharged  the  offices  both  of 
surveyor  of  the  roads,  and  of  con- 
stable. 

Viminal;  the  Viminal  hill,  to- 
gether with  the  Esquiline  hill,  form 
the  fifth  part  of  Rome  ;  it  was  si- 
tuated between  the  Esquiline  hill 
to  the  east,  and  the  Quirinal  to  the 
west. 

Visual  Angle,  in  perspective, 
the  angle  which  the  two  rays,  is- 
suing from  the  two  extreme  points 
of  an  object,  form  at  the  centre  of 
the  eye. 

Visual  Point,  a  point  in  the 
horizontal  line  where  the  ocular 
rays  unite. 

.Visual  Rays,  lines  of  light, 
supposed  to  come  from  the  object 
to  the  eye. 

Vitrification,  the  hardening 
of  argillaceous  stones  by  heat.  The 
remains  of  vitrified  forts,  in  some 
parts  of  Scotland,  prove  that  the 
North  Britons  were  acquainted  with 
the  durability  imparted  to  argilla- 
ceous stones  by  exposure  to  great 
heat.  Several  of  them  are  described 
in  different  volumes  of  the  Ar- 
chseologia.  In  situations  at  a  great 
distance  from  durable  building 
stones,  it  would  be  advantageous  to 
have  the  bricks  emploved  in  the 

449 


VIT 


V  IT 


construction  of  bridges  exposed  to 
a  greater  degree  of  heat,  and  vitri- 
fied on  the  surface.  This  may  be 
more  easily  effected  by  a  mixture 
of  calcareous  earth  with  the  clay. 

The  walls  of  the  vitrified  forts 
in  the  highlands  and  northern  parts 
of  Scotland,  have  the  appearance 
of  having  been  melted  into  a  solid 
mass,  and  have  from  their  appear- 
ance caused  some  people  to  imagine 
that  they  are  not  works  of  art,  but 
that  they  have  been  formed  by  the 
action  of  early  volcanoes.  They 
are  generally  situated  on  the  top  of 
small  hills,  commanding  an  exten- 
sive view  of  the  adjacent  valley  or 
low  country.  The  area  on  the  sum- 
mit is  surrounded  by  a  high  and 
strong  wall,  of  which  the  stones  are 
melted,  most  of  them  entirely; 
while  others,  in  which  the  fusion 
has  not  been  so  complete,  are  sunk 
in  the  vitrified  matter  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  be  quite  enclosed  in 
it;  and  in  some  places  the  fusion 
has  been  so  perfect,  that  the  ruins 
appear  like  masses  of  coarse  glass. 
Mr.  Williams,  one  of  the  first  au- 
thors who  has  described  them  care- 
fully, has  advanced  a  conjecture  on 
the  mode  in  which  they  were  con- 
structed. Two  parallel  dikes  of 
earth  or  sod  being  raised  in  the 
direction  of  the  intended  wall,  with 
a  space  between  them  sufficient  for 
its  thickness,  the  fuel  was  put  in, 
and  set  on  fire.  The  stones  best 
adapted  for  the  purpose,  called 
the  plum-pudding  stone,  are  every 
where  to  be  found  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood. These  were  laid  on  the 
fuel,  and,  when  melted,  were  kept 
by  the  frame  of  earth  from  running 
off ;  and  by  repeating  the  operation, 
the  wall  was  raised  to  a  sufficient 
height.  Mr.  Williams  mentions, 
in  confirmation  of  his  hypothesis, 
that  a  brick-kiln,  situated  on  the 
declivity  of  one  of  these  eminences, 
so  as  to  be  exposed  to  the  wind, 

450 


which  happening  to  rise  briskly  one 
time  when  the  kiln  was  burning,  the 
heat  was  so  much  increased,  that 
the  bricks  were  melted,  and  ran  like 
lava  for  a  considerable  way  down 
the  hill 

This  conjecture  of  Mr.  Williams, 
though  warmly  advocated  by  other 
writers,  was  opposed  by  Mr.  Bar- 
rington,  the  summary  of  whose 
opinion  on  them  is  as  follows. 
Having  travelled  for  twenty-one 
years  the  most  mountainous  cir- 
cuit in  Wales,  he  frequently  ob- 
served enclosures  of  dry  stones, 
particularly  a  long  tract  in  the 
western  part  of  Merionethshire, 
called,  in  the  language  of  the  coun- 
try, Duffryn,  i.  e.  the  Vale.  On 
first  viewing  these  enclosures,  made 
within  walls  of  thick  stones,  he  was 
at  a  loss  to  imagine  how  it  should 
be  worth  while  to  construct  such 
strong  fences  for  so  inconsiderable 
a  piece  of  ground  as  they  enclosed; 
but,  on  examining  the  adjacent 
country,  he  says  that  he  found  it 
almost  entirely  covered  with  stones 
of  a  similar  kind,  and  consequently 
the  smaller  the  space  to  be  cleared, 
the  less  expensive  would  be  the 
removal.  "  For  the  same  reason, 
such  dry  walls  are  often  of  a  great 
thickness,  and  sometimes  the  cor- 
ners of  the  enclosures  are  filled  with 
stones  to  a  great  width,  this  being 
the  only  possible  means  of  procur-  : 
ing  pasture."  To  a  practice  of  the 
same  kind  he  would  ascribe  the 
works  in  Scotland  :  but  it  is  a 
strong  objection,  that  the  walls  of 
these  latter  are  vitrified,  and  it  can 
hardly  be  supposed  that  such  trou- 
ble would  be  taken  with  fences 
made  in  so  fortuitous  a  manner; 
and  there  is  great  difficulty  in 
ascribing  the  vitrification  to  na- 
tural causes 

Mr.  Cardonnell,  who  follows 
the  opinion  of  Mr.  Williams,  has 
given  detailed  accounts  of  some  of 


VIT 


V  IT 


these  structures.  The  largest  is 
situated  on  the  hill  of  Knockfarrill, 
to  the  south  of  the  valley  of  Strath- 
petfer,  two  miles  to  the  west  of 
Dingwall,  in  Ross-shire.  The  enclo- 
sure is  a  hundred  and  twenty  feet 
long,  and  forty  broad,  within  the 
walls ;  and  is  strengthened  on  the 
outside  with  works  at  each  end. 
A  range  of  habitations  seem  to  have 
been  erected  against,  or  under,  the 
shade  of  the  outward  wall,  of  which 
those  on  the  south  side  appear  to 
have  been  larger  and  higher  than 
those  on  the  north.  There  are  two 
wells  in  the  middle,  which,  on  being 
cleared  out,  filled  with  water.  On 
the  skirts  of  the  hill  to  the  south 
are  many  detached  buildings, 
which,  from  the  stratum  of  dung 
found  on  removing  the  ruins,  have 
evidently  been  used  for  securing 
cattle.  This  seems  to  have  been  a 
place  of  consequence  in  ancient 
times,  and  the  residence  of  some 
powerful  chief,  from  a  road  which 
leads  through  the  hills  on  the 
north-west  to  the  sea.  To  the  east 
of  the  works  are  a  number  of  vitri- 
fied ruins,  extending  for  a  consider- 
able way  along  the  ridge  of  the 
hill.  The  end  next  the  fort  seems 
to  have  joined  the  outer  wall,  and 
consisted  either  of  two  parallel  walls 
closed  above,  with  a  passage  be- 
tween them  under  cover,  or  a  high 
wall,  broad  enough  to  walk  on.  In 
this  wall  there  are  the  vestiges  of  a 
break  about  the  middle,  over  which 
a  bridge  has  been  laid,  to  be  drawn 
up  or  removed  as  occasion  might 
require. 

The  fort  next  in  consequence  to 
this,  is  that  of  Knockfarril,  on  the 
hill  of  Craig-Phadrick,  near  Inver- 
ness, which  appears  to  have  had 
two  vitrified  walls  quite  round  the 
area,  the  inner  one  very  high  and 
strong,  and  the  outer  one  but  low, 
the  area  within  the  inner  wall  be- 
ing nearly  eighty  paces  long  by 


twenty-seven  broad.  The  best  ac- 
count of  this  ruin  is  given  by  Mr. 
Tytler,(  in  the  Edinburgh  Philoso- 
phical Transactions,  vol.  ii.  The 
hill  itself  is  a  small  conical  emi- 
nence, forming  the  eastern  extre- 
mity of  the  ridge  of  mountains 
which  bounds  Loch  Ness  on  the 
north-west  side.  It  is  accessible 
both  from  the  west  and  south-east, 
on  the  former  side  being  approach- 
ed by  a  narrow  level  ridge  which 
joins  the  hills  on  Loch  Ness,  and 
the  latter  by  an  easy  access  from 
the  high  ground  above  Inverness. 
On  approaching  the  hill  from  the 
west,  we  first  meet  with  a  road  cut 
through  the  rock  from  the  bottom 
to  the  top,  in  most  places  ten  feet 
broad,  and  nearly  as  deep,  having 
a  serpentine  wind  of  about  seventy 
feet,  which  leads  us  to  an  ascent 
over  a  steep  rock,  otherwise  on 
that  side  quite  inaccessible.  This 
road,  Mr.  Tytler  thinks,  there  is 
no  doubt  is  the  work  of  art,  and 
the  vitrified  matter  at  the  top  is 
the  only  thing  which  indicates  the 
effects  of  fire,  there  being  no  ap- 
pearance of  pumice-stone,  lava,  or 
basalt,  or  any  thing  of  a  volcanic 
nature,  about  the  hill.  "  But  the 
circumstance,"  he  says,  "  which  in 
his  apprehension  evinces,  in  the 
most  satisfactory  manner,  that 
these  appearances  of  the  effect  of 
fire  on  the  summit  of  this  hill 
are  not  the  operations  of  nature, 
but  of  art,  is  the  regular  order 
and  disposition  of  the  materials, 
the  form  of  the  ground,  and  the 
various  traces  of  skill  and  contri- 
vance which  are  yet  discernible, 
though  considerably  defaced,  either 
by  external  violence,  or  the  obli- 
terating hand  of  time."  In  ascend- 
ing by  the  road  above  mentioned, 
there  appears,  towards  the  middle, 
on  the  right  hand,  a  small  plat- 
form overhanging  the  passage,  and 
inclining  by  a  very  gentle  declivity 

451 


V  IT 


VIT 


to  the  very  edge  of  the  rock.  Four 
enormous  stones  are  placed  upon 
the  platform,  and  on  the  edge  and 
extremity  of  it,  which  have  evi- 
dently been  guided  by  art  into 
that  position ;  it  being  impossible 
that  they  could  have  rested  there, 
had  they  been  rolled  down  from  the 
higher  parts.  The  obvious  reason 
for  placing  them  in  such  a  position 
has  been,  that  on  an  alarm  of  dan- 
ger they  might  be  projected  into 
the  path  below,  which  could  be  done 
by  the  efforts  of  a  very  few  men ; 
and  when  this  was  done,  the  pas- 
sage would  be  entirely  obstructed,  or 
at  least  rendered  so  difficult,  that 
it  could  be  defended  by  a  few 
against  any  number  of  assailants. 
Some  other  large  stones  are  placed 
on  an  eminence  to  the  left,  pro- 
bably with  a  view  to  block  up  a 
hollow  channel,  by  which  an 
enemy  might  have  attempted  to 
ascend.  When  we  come  to  the 
top  of  the  hill,  a  few  feet  below 
the  rampart  which  crowns  the 
whole,  there  appears  an  outward 
wall,  approaching  on  the  sides  of 
the  hill  so  near  the  upper  rampart, 
as  to  leave  only  a  trench  of  ten  or 
twelve  feet  between  them.  This 
outward  wall  is  in  some  places  so 
low  as  to  be  almost  level  with  the 
rock,  though  in  other  places  it  rises 
to  the  height  of  two  or  three  feet ; 
but,  even  where  lowest,  it  may  be 
traced  by  a  line  of  vitrified  matter 
sticking  fast  to  the  rock  all  along, 
and  nearly  of  the  same  breadth, 
which  is  about  nine  feet.  The  re- 
mains of  this  wall  are  strongly  vitri- 
fied, except  in  one  place  on  the 
north  side,  where,  for  about  seventy 
yards,  the  rampart  is  formed  only 
of  dry  stones  and  earth.  At  the 
east  side,  where  the  hill  is  more 
accessible,  there  is  a  prodigious 
mound  of  vitrified  matter,  extend- 
ing to  a  thickness  of  about  forty 
feet.  At  the  south-east  corner,  and 

452 


adjoining  to  this  immense  mound, 
is  an  outwork,  consisting  of  two 
semicircular  vitrified  walls,  with  a 
narrow  pass  cut  through  them  in  the 
middle,  which  appears  to  have  been 
another,  and  perhaps  the  principal, 
entrance  to  the  fort.  The  inner 
wall,  surrounding  the  summit  of 
the  hill,  encloses  an  oblong  level 
area,  rounded  at  each  end  like  the 
outer  wall.  It  is  of  considerable 
height,  and  nearly  of  the  same 
thickness  as  the  outer  one.  It  has 
some  appearance  of  having  been 
defended  by  four  turrets  or  bas- 
tions, but  the  traces  of  them  are 
very  imperfect.  A  number  of  small 
earthen  tumuli,  with  a  stone  in  the 
centre,  were  more  discernible.  On 
the  east  side,  a  portion  of  the  in- 
ternal space  appears  separated  from 
the  rest  by  two  ranges  of  stones 
fixed  strong  in  the  earth,  and  form- 
ing a  right-angled  parallelogram. 
"  This  separation,"  Mr.  Tytler  says, 
"  is  immediately  discernible  by  the 
eye,  from  this  circumstance,  that 
the  whole  of  the  enclosed  summit 
has  been  most  carefully  cleared 
from  stones,  of  which  there  is  not 
one  to  be  seen,  unless  those  that 
form  this  division,  and  the  single 
one  in  the  middle  of  the  circle  of 
tumuli  above  mentioned.  What 
has  been  the  design  of  this  sepa- 
rated space,  it  is  difficult  to  con- 
jecture. It  might,  perhaps,  have  i 
marked  the  residence  of  those  of  a 
higher  rank,  or  served  as  a  temple 
for  the  purposes  of  devotion."  On 
the  east  end  of  the  large  area  on 
the  summit,  is  a  well  of  about 
six  feet  in  diameter,  which  has 
ptobably  been  sunk  very  deep  in 
the  rock,  though  now  it  is  filled 
up  with  rubbish  to  within  a  yard 
of  the  top. 

The  other  fortified  hills  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Cardonnell,  are  those 
of  Dun-Evan,  in  Nairnshire,  Tor- 
dun  Castle,  near  Fort  Augustus, 


V  IT 


V  IT 


and  another  on  the  west  side  of 
Gleneves,  in  Lochaber,  three  miles 
to  the  south  of  Fort  William.  The 
Castlehill  of  Finhaven,  in  Angus- 
shire,  has  likewise  some  considerable 
ruins  of  the  same  kind,  as  has  also 
the  hill  of  Noth. 

The  opinions  of  different  writers, 
on  the  origin  of  these  structures, 
are  so  various  and  contending-,  that 
it  would  serve  no  purpose  to  intro- 
duce them  ;  and  the  difficulties  that 
occur,  to  whatever  opinion  we  in- 
cline, are  so  numerous,  that  it 
would  require  an  article  of  too  great 
length,  to  give  them  all  a  proper 
consideration. 

Vitruvius,  M.  Pollio,  a  cele- 
brated ancient  architect,  supposed 
to  have  flourished  under  Julius 
Csesar  and  Augustus,  and  who  oc- 
cupied the  place  of  military  engineer 
under  one  of  the  emperors.  He  is 
generally  supposed  to  have  been 
born  at  Formiae,  though  Verona 
and  Placentia  both  put  in  their 
claim  for  being  his  birth-place.  He 
mentions  one  edifice  on  which  he 
was  employed,  a  basilica  at  Fano. 
Some  of  the  best  editions  of  his 
works  are  those  edited  by  Dan. 
Barbari,  fol.  Venet.  1567.  J.  de 
Laet,  fol.  Amst.  1649.  Galiani, 
fol.  Neap.  1758,  with  an  Italian 
version.  It  has  been  translated 
into  French,  by  Claude  Perrault, 
fol.  Par.  16S4;  and  we  have  two 
good  translations  in  English,  by 
Mr.  Newton,  Lond.  1791,  and  by 
Mr.  Wilkins.  This  work  was  dis- 
covered in  MS.  by  Poggio,  in  the 
fifteenth  century. 

Volute,  a  spiral  scroll,  which 
forms  the  principal  characteristic  of 
the  Ionic  and  Composite  capitals. 
See  Capital,  Canal,  &e. 

In  plate,  Carpentry ,  C.  xix.  Jig. 
5,  is  shown  the  manner  of  de- 
scribing the  volute  of  the  Ercctheion 
at  Athens,  as  given  by  Nicholson. 
From  the  centre,  which  is  marked 


by  a  point  on  the  cathetus,  set  off 
20  upwards,  which  will  give  the 
extremity  of  the  first  radius  up- 
wards. Upon  the  second  radius  to 
the  left,  set  18.3  from  the  centre. 
This  will  give  another  point  in  the 
curve.  Then,  following,  round  in 
the  same  progression,  from  the 
centre  set-off,  upon  each  succeed- 
ing radius  respectively,  16.74; 
15.32;  14.01;  12.82;  11.73; 
10,73;  9.82,  &c.  to  2.37;  and 
three  points  will  have  been  found 
in  each  quadrant :  in  the  first 
quadrant,  take  the  length  of  the 
middle'  radius,  18.3,  set  one  foot 
of  the  compass  in  20,  then  describe 
an  arc  near  the  centre ;  set  the  foot 
of  the  compasses  again  in  16.7, 
and  with  the  same  radius  describe 
an  arc  cutting  the  former.  From 
the  point  where  the  two  arcs  inter- 
sect, as  a  centre,  describe  an  arc 
cutting  the  three  points,  20,  18.3, 
16.7.  Proceed  in  the  same  manner 
with  every  quadrant,  till  you  arrive 
at  2.37,  and  with  the  radius  2.37 
describe  a  circle,  which  will  complete 
the  spiral.  This  operation  must  be 
repeated  for  every  line  in  the  volute, 
as  no  two  are  struck  from  the  same 
centre. 

Other  examples  of  volutes  will 
be  found  in  different  plates  of  our 
work,  as  in  those  which  illustrate 
the  article  Athenian  Architecture. 

In  plate,  Carpentry,  C  41,  is 
given  a  capital  from  an  Ionic  co- 
lonnade, near  the  Lantern  of  De» 
mosthenes  at  Athens  ;  and,  in  one 
of  the  volutes  is  shown  the  mode 
of  striking  it,  which  Mr.  Revett 
discovered  by  some  marks  of  the 
compass  in  the  eye  of  the  volute  of 
the  original  capital.  Below  is 
shown  the  eye  on  a  larger  scale. 
In  the  three  figures  in  the  centre  of 
plate  Carpentry,  C  28,  is  shown 
a  method  of  finding  centres  for 
drawing  spirals  to  any  number  of 
revolutions;  the  centre,  C,  being 


WAL 


WAL 


given,  and  also  the  perpendicular 
line  CG.  Make  CD  both  perpen- 
dicular, and  equal  to  CG ;  divide 
CD,  beginning  at  C,  into  as  many 
equal  parts  as  you  intend  to  have 
revolutions ;  divide  the  first  of  these 
from  the  centre  C,  that  is,  C  1,  into 
two  equal  parts,  at  the  point  I ; 
through  the  point  DG,  draw  DB 
and  GB  respectively,  parallel  to 
CG  and  CD,  cutting  each  other  at  B ; 
in  the  line  BG,  join  CA  and  CB  ; 
through  I,  draw  IE,  parallel  to  CA, 
cutting  BD,  produced  atE;  through 
the  same  point  I,  draw  IF,  parallel 
to  CB  ;  then,  through  the  point  D, 
fig.  is  and  1,  D,Jig.  2  :  1,2,  D, 


jig.  3,  &c,  draw  the  lines  parallel 
to  BE,  cutting  the  diagonal  El  and 
BC.  From  the  points  where  the 
diagonals  are  cut,  draw  lines  pa>- 
rallel  to  BA,  cutting  the  other  dia- 
gonals AC  and  FI ;  and,  through 
the  points  which  are  cut  in  the  dia- 
gonals AC  or  FI,  draw  lines  again 
parallel  to  BE,  and  it  will  complete 
the  centres  for  turning  the  volute. 

Vomitoria,  (Lat.)  gates  or  doors 
in  the  ancient  amphitheatres,  by 
which  the  spectators  entered,  and 
which  led  to  the  seats. 

Voussoirs,  (Fr.)  stones  placed 
like  wedges,  and  employed  in  form- 
ing the  arch  of  an  arcade,  &c. 


Waggon-headed  Ceiling,  see 
Cylindric  Ceiling. 

Wainscot,  the  wooden  lining  of 
walls,  generally  in  panels.  The 
wood,  originally  used  in  this  work, 
was  a  foreign  oak,  known  by  this 
name,  and  hence  the  name  by  de- 
grees became  applied  to  the  work 
itself. 

Wall,  (vallum,  Lat.)  a  body  of 
masonry,  of  a  certain  thickness, 
formed  of  stone  or  bricks.  The 
early  Greeks  constructed  their  walls, 
particularly  those  which  surrounded 
their  cities,  of  rough  stones  of  an 
immense  size ;  such  were  those  of 
Mycenee  and  Tiryns.  See  Cyclo- 
pian  Architecture,  Tiryns,  and  the 
articles  there  referred  to.  The  in- 
terstices that  were  left  between 
these  shapeless  blocks,  were  filled 
up  with  small  stones.  According 
to  the  report  of  travellers,  there  still 
exist  in  the  isles  of  Gozzo  and 
Malta  circular  edifices  of  this  con- 
struction. When  the  ancients  be- 
gan to  cut  their  stones,  they  did 
not  cut  them  rectangular,  but  gave 
them  an  irregular  figure  of  three, 
four,  or  six  sides,  but  fitted  them 
together,  so  that,  when  in  their 

454 


places,  they  left  no  interstices  be- 
tween them.  The  ruins  (  f  the  an- 
cient wall  about  the  city  of  Cora, 
near  Velletri,  are  an  example  of  this 
mode  of  building.  Winckelmann 
makes  the  same  remark  on  the  walls 
of  Corinth  ;  on  those  of  Eretria,  in 
Eubcea  ;  and  of  Ostia,  in  Cyprus. 
We  also  find  in  the  ancient  Lesbos, 
now  called  Metelino,  and  in  differ- 
ent parts  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
vestiges  of  similar  walls.  Chandler 
gives  to  this  construction  the  name 
of  incertum,  and  takes  it,  without 
doubt,  for  the  incertum  of  Vitruvius. 
But  the  mode  of  building  which  the 
Roman  architect  speaks  of  under 
that  name,  is  of  a  very  different 
character.  The  ancients  next  em 
ployed  stones  cut  at  right  angles, 
and  of  an  oblong  form,  but  their 
size  was  not  uniform.  We  find  the 
remains  of  such  walls  in  Greek  and 
Etruscan  buildings.  The  stones  are 
generally  from  nine  to  twenty-two 
feet  long,  and  from  two  to  six  high, 
in  the  walls  of  Volaterra,  Cortona, 
and  Psestum  ;  those  of  the  latter 
city  have  been  restored  by  the  Ro- 
mans. Sometimes  they  gave  to  the 
exterior  of  these  stones  the  form  of 


W  A  L 


WAL 


a  rhombus  or  lozenge,  as  we  see 
in  the  ancient  walls  in  the  isle  of 
Syra,  and  in  Samos.  As  by  degrees 
the  Greeks  brought  their  architec- 
ture to  perfection,  they  constructed 
their  buildings  in  a  manner  more 
agreeable,  more  regular,  and  less 
gigantic.  There  were  three  differ- 
ent modes  of  building: — the  isodo- 
mum,  which  was  formed  of  ranges 
of  large  stones  of  equal  height,  and 
which  consequently  gave  to  the 
buildings  in  which  it  was  employed 
a  handsome  appearance,  and  was, 
therefore,  chiefly  employed  in  the 
construction  of  temples  ;  thepseud- 
isodomum,  which  consisted  of  ranges 
of  stones  of  unequal  height;  and 
the  emplecton,  which  was  em- 
ployed when  it  was  requisite  to  give 
a  thickness  greater  than  ordinary 
to  the  walls,  and  in  which  the  out- 
side only  of  the  walls  was  built  up 
of  regular  hewn  stones,  and  the 
interior  part  rilled  with  rough  stones 
and  mortar.  For  the  sake  of  greater 
solidity,  they  placed  with  care  at 
certain  distances  cross-stones,  which 
served  to  bind  the  two  outer  faces. 

The  Romans  at  first  imitated  the 
Etruscans  in  their  manner  of  build- 
ing. But  in  later  times,  independent 
of  the  use  of  bricks  and  hewn  stones, 
the  Romans  had  two  modes  of 
building,  which  they  called  reticu- 
latum,  and  incertum  or  antiquum. 
The  incertum  consisted  in  employ- 
ing the  stones  just  as  they  came 
from  the  quarries,  ranged  in  any 
order,  as  they  could  best  fit  them 
together.  What  was  called  reticu- 
latum  opus,  was  a  wall  composed 
of  square  stones,  which  were  not 
placed  in  a  horizontal  direction, 
but  in  such  a  manner,  that  the 
junctures  lay  in  a  horizontal  line, 
which  gave  the  wall  the  appearance 
of  net- work,  whence  it  received  the 
name  of  reticulatum,  and  was 
called  by  the  Greeks  dictyotlicton. 
Vitruvius  assures  us,  that  in  his 


time  this  was  the  mode  of  building 
most  commonly  practised.  Many 
edifices  of  this  construction  still  re- 
main. The  Romans  imitated  the 
emplecton  of  the  Greeks,  but  they 
did  not  execute  it  with  the  same 
care  or  the  same  solidity.  They 
employed  also  stone  and  brick  at 
the  same  time;  and  the  order  and 
symmetry,  which  is  observed  in 
walls  of  this  construction,  lead  us 
to  conclude,  that  their  aim  was  to 
adorn  and  embellish  them. 

The  Romans  built  sometimes  also 
with  wood,  filling  up  the  intervals 
with  masonry  of  stones  and  bricks. 
This  construction,  however,  was  only 
admitted  in  the  interior  of  build- 
ings, in  some  particular  houses, 
and  in  theatres,  &c,  which  were  not 
intended  to  last  long.  Walls  of 
earth  and  clay  were  not  unknown 
to  the  Romans,  who  learnt  this 
mode  of  construction  from  the  Car- 
thaginians. It  has  been  renewed 
in  late  years  under  the  name  of 
pise.    See  Pise. 

The  walls  of  Armaira,  in  Persia, 
are  described  by  Sir  R.  K.  Porter. 
Some  of  the  towers  are  of  pro- 
digious magnitude;  and  exhibit  the 
finest  specimens  of  the  ancient 
high-finished  Armenian  masonry, 
being  composed  of  white  and  red- 
dish stones,  joined  in  alternate 
lines  with  the  nicest  art.  The  com- 
mon thickness  of  Grecian  walls  was 
seven  or  eight  feet.  Those  of  the 
Acropolis  of  Pharsalia  are  fifteen 
and  a  half  feet  thick.  They  are  con- 
structed sometimes  with  one  single 
row  of  blocks,  but  more  generally 
with  a  double  row,  united  without 
any  space  in  the  middle.  Those  on 
Pharsalia  and  other  places,  where 
they  are  of  an  unusual  thickness, 
are  lined  on  both  sides  with  large 
blocks,  while  the  interstices  are 
filled  up  with  smaller  stones,  and 
earth  or  mortar,  the  emplecton  of 
Vitruvius.    The  ancient  Cyclopean 


WAL 


W  A  L 


walls  were  an  exception,  being 
twenty-five  feet  thick  at  Tiryns, 
and  solid  throughout.  The  walls 
of  Platara,  which  in  some  parts 
are  in  a  high  state  preservation, 
exhibit  the  mode  of  building  walls 
in  Greece,  in  the  age  of  Alexander, 
when  they  were  rebuilt.  They  are 
in  general  composed  of  regular  ma- 
sonry, with  some  irregularity  in  the 
size  of  the  stones,  which  does  not 
appear  to  be  symmetric.  They  are 
about  eight  feet  thick,  and  are  for- 
tified by  square  towers,  with  a  few 
of  a  circular  form. 

The  process  of  laying  the  foun- 
dations of  walls  has  been  described 
under  the  article  Foundation. 

When  bricks  are  laid  in  dry  wea- 
ther, and  the  work  Is  required  to 
be  firm,  the  bricks  should  be  wetted 
by  dipping  them  in  water,  or  by 
throwing  water  over  them  before 
they  are  used.  This  is  particularly 
serviceable  where  work  is  carried 
up  thin,  or  in  putting  in  furnaces, 
grates,  &c.  In  frosty  and  stormy 
weather,  walls  newly  built  should 
be  covered  with  straw  or  boards; 
the  former  is  the  best,  because  it 
protects  in  »ome  measure  the  top 
of  the  wall  from  frost,  which,  par- 
ticularly after  rain,  is  very  destruc- 
tive, as  it  freezes  and  expands  the 
water,  which  has  already  penetrated 
into  every  part  of  the  wall.  In 
working  up  a  wall,  it  will  be  proper 
not  to  work  more  than  four  or  five 
feet  at  a  time;  for,  since  all  walls 
have  a  tendency  to  shrink  imme- 
diately after  building, the  part  which 
has  been  first  raised  will  remain 
stationary ;  and  when  the  part  which 
adjoins  to  it  has  been  raised  up  to 
the  same  height,  it  will  shrink,  and 
consequently  separate  itself  from 
that  part  previously  raised,  causing 
a  crack. 

The  term  bond  is  given  to  any 
disposition  of  bricks,  which  inter- 
rupts the  continuity  of  the  joints  of 


a  wall  in  a  straight  line  ;  and, 
although  a  bond  might  be  intro- 
duced, that  would  interrupt  the 
rectilinear  direction  both  of  the  hori- 
zontal and  veitical  joints  of  a  wall, 
yet  two  kinds  of  bonds  only  are  used, 
and  these  both  interrupt  only  the  ver- 
tical joints,  the  horizontal  ones  being 
continued  in  the  same  line  round 
the  whole  building.  When  the 
wall  is  only  required  to  be  half 
a  brick  in  thickness,  all  the  bricks 
are  laid  in  such  a  position  as  to 
form  what  are  termed  stretchers, 
that  is,  their  length  is  laid  in  the 
direction  of  the  wall,  the  bond  be- 
ing formed  merely  by  making  the 
vertical  joints  in  every  course,  ex- 
actly opposite  the  middle  of  the 
bricks  above  and  below.  When, 
however,  the  wall  is  of  a  greater 
thickness,  as  of  the  length  of  a 
brick  or  upwards,  the  bricks  must 
be  connected  in  their  breadth,  as 
well  as  their  length,  or  it  would  be 
liable  to  split  open,  if  it  consisted 
only  of  two  walls  separately  bonded. 

The  two  ways  of  bonding  thick 
walls,  which  materially  differ  from 
each  other,  are  known  by  the  deno- 
mination of  the  English  bond,  and 
Flemish  bond.  The  following  ob- 
servations are  chiefly  taken  from  a 
pamphlet  on  this  subject,  by  Mr.  G. 
Saunders  : — Old  English  bond  is  a 
continuation  of  one  kind  through- 
out in  the  same  course  or  horizon- 
tal layer,  and  consists  of  alternate 
layers  of  headers  and  stretchers, 
(or  of  bricks  laid  crossways,  and 
bricks  laid  lengthways,)  the  headers 
serving  to  bind  the  wall  together  in 
a  longitudinal  direction,  or  length- 
ways; the  stretcher,  to  prevent  the 
wall  splitting  crossways  or  in  a  trans- 
verse section.  Of  these  two  evils, 
the  former  is  by  much  the  worst 
kind,  and  is  therefore  most  dread- 
ed by  the  bricklayer.  The  old  Eng- 
lish brickwork  is  the  best  security 
against  these  accidents,  as  work  of 


WAL 


W  A  L 


this  kind,  when  so  much  under- 
mined as  to  cause  a  fraction,  never 
separates  in  either  of  these  ways, 
but  breaks  through  the  solid  brick, 
as  though  the  wall  were  composed 
of  one  entire  piece.  The  Roman 
brickwork  was  generally  of  this 
kind  of  bond,  but  the  specimens 
that  remain  of  Roman  work  are  ge- 
nerally of  great  thickness,  and  have 
three  or  more  courses  of  brick, 
laid  at  certain  intervals  of  the  height, 
stretchers  on  stretchers,  and  headers 
on  headers,  opposite  the  return 
wall,  and  sometimes  at  certain  dis- 
stances  in  the  length,  forming  piers, 
that  bind  the  wail  together  in  a 
transverse  direction.  Flemish  bond 
consists  in  placing  in  the  same 
course  alternate  headers  and 
stretchers,  which  disposition  is  in- 
ferior in  every  thing  but  appear- 
ance, and  even  in  this  the  difference 
is  trifling.  Bricks  of  two  qualities 
are  used  in  this  method :  a  finer 
brick,  often  rubbed,  and  laid  in 
what  the  workmen  call  a  putty- 
joint,  for  the  exterior,  and  an  in- 
ferior brick  for  the  interior,  sub- 
stance of  the  wall.  As  these  did 
not  correspond  in  thickness,  the 
exterior  and  interior  surface  of  the 
wall  would  not  be  otherwise  con- 
nected together,  than  by  an  out- 
side heading-brick,  that  was  here 
and  there  continued  of  its  whole 
length.  But  these  headers  some- 
times cannot  occur  for  a  consi- 
derable space,  as  the  work  does 
not  admit  of  them  at  all  times, 
from  the  want  of  agreement  in  the 
exterior  and  interior  courses,  and 
they  can  only  be  introduced  where 
such  a  correspondence  takes  place. 
Walls  of  this  kind  consist  of  two 
faces  of  four-inch  work,  with  very 
little  to  connect  them  together:  and 
the  interior  face  often  consists  of 
brick  little  better  than  rubbish. 
The  practice  of  the  Flemish  bond 
vas  introduced  in  the  time  ot  vVil- 
3M 


liam  and  Mary,  and,  notwithstand- 
ing its  inferiority,  has  become  the 
method  in  general  practice. 

To  the  Flemish  bond  alone  must 
be  attributed  the  frequent  splitting 
of  walls  into  two  thicknesses  ;  and 
various  schemes  have  been  adopted 
to  prevent  this  defect,  but  with  little 
success.  In  the  old  English  bond, 
the  outside  of  the  last  course  points 
out  how  the  next  is  to  be  laid,  so 
that  the  workman  cannot  easily  err. 
The  outside  appearance,  Mr.  Saun- 
ders observes,  is  all  that  can 
be  urged  in  favour  of  Flemish 
bond  ;  but  he  thinks  that,  were  the 
English  bond  executed  with  the 
same  attention  and  neatness  that 
is  bestowed  on  the  Flemish,  it 
would  be  considered  as  equally 
handsome ;  and  he  strongly  advo- 
cates the  adoption  of  the  old  En- 
glish bond,  recommending  the  fol- 
lowing as  directions  for  the  use  of 
it.  1.  Let  each  course  be  alter- 
nately of  headers  and  stretchers. 
2.  Every  brick  in  the  same  course 
ought  to  be  laid  in  the  same  direc- 
tion ;  but  in  no  instance  must  a 
brick  be  placed  with  its  whole 
length  along  the  side  of  another, 
but  to  be  so  situated,  that  the  end 
of  one  may  reach  to  the  middle  of 
the  others  which  lie  contiguous  to 
it,  except  the  outside  of  the  stretch- 
ing course,  where  three  quarter 
bricks  necessarily  occur  at  the  ends, 
to  prevent  a  continued  upright  joint 
in  the  face-work.  3.  A  wall  which 
crosses  at  a  right  angle  with  another, 
will  have  all  the  bricks,  in  the  same 
level  course,  in  the  same  parallel  di- 
rection, which  will  completely  bond 
the  angles. 

Wall-Plates,  pieces  of  timber 
which  are  placed  as  to  form  the  sup- 
ports to  the  roof  of  a  building. 

Wall,  Adrian's,  see  Adrians 
Wall. 

Wall,  Long,  at  Athens.  See 
Macra  Teichc. 

457 


WAT 


WAT 


Warping,  see  Lasting. 

Water.  In  erecting  buildings, 
&c.  which  are  exposed  to  the  ac- 
tion of  streams  of  water,  it  is  very 
requisite  to  understand  the  theory 
of  the  motion  of  water  in  different 
cases.  It  is  asserted,  as  a  leading 
proposition,  that,  "  when  water 
flows  uniformly  on  any  channel  or 
bed,  the  accelerating  force  which 
obliges  it  to  move,  is  equal  to  the 
sum  of  all  the  resistances  which  it 
meets  with,  whether  arising  from 
its  own  viscidity,  or  from  the  fric- 
tion of  its  bed."  The  truth  of  this 
proposition  is  evident;  and  it  is 
the  basis  of  all  uniform  motion. 
As  the  nature  of  our  work  will  not 
allow  our  running  out  to  too  great 
a  length  on  this  subject,  we  shall 
content  ourselves  with  stating  some 
of  the  principal  propositions. 

Water  issuing  from  a  small 
orifice  in  the  bottom  or  sides  of 
a  very  large  vessel,  almost  instantly 
acquires  and  maintains  the  velocity 
which  a  heavy  body  would  acquire 
by  falling  to  the  orifice  from  the 
horizontal  surface  of  the  stagrment 
water:  this  may  be  termed  its 
natural  velocity .  If,  therefore,  we 
multiply  the  area  of  the  orifice  by 
this  velocity,  the  product  will  be 
the  quantity  of  water  discharged, 
which  may  be  called  the  natural 
discharge,  and  may  be  designated 
by  N.  Let  O  represent  the  area 
or  section  of  the  orifice,  and  h  its 
depth  under  the  surface ;  g  the 
velocity  acquired  by  a  heavy  body 
during  a  second,  while  falling;  V 
=  the  medium  velocity  of  the  wa- 
ter's motion,  Q  the  quantity  of 
water  discharged  during  a  second. 
Now  V  =  sj'fg  x  ^h~;  therefore, 
N  =  OV^V^  Now,  since  a 
body  acquires  the  velocity  of  32 
feet  two  inches  in  a  second,  we 
have — 


458 


2g  =  772  inches, 
ands/ity  =27.78=27|  inches  nearly 
V=V772V1  =  27.78  vT, 
and  N  =  O  27.78VA; 

However,  it  appears,  upon  trial, 
that  if  we  calculate  the  discharge 
for  every  orifice  by  this  simple  rule, 
owing  to  various  trifling  circum- 
stances which  do  not  enter  into  the 
calculation,  we  always  find  it  greater 
than  it  really  is.  Of  these  circum- 
stances,! hat  termedcontraction  is  the  I 
most  important.  When  water  issues 
through  a  hole  in  a  thin  plate,  the 
lateral  columns,  pressing  into  the 
hole  from  all  sides, cause  the  issuing 
filaments  to  converge  to  the  axis  of 
the  jet,  and  contract  its  dimensions 
at  a  little  distance  from  the  hole. 
In  this  place  of  greatest  contrac- 
tion, the  water  acquires  that 
velocity,  which  we  observe  in  our 
experiments,  and  which  we  assume 
equal  to  that  acquired  by  falling 
to  the  surface.  It  is  the  most  con- 
venient way,  therefore,  to  compute 
from  the  real  dimensions  of  the 
orifice,  and  to  correct  this  com- 
puted discharge,  by  means  of  an 
actual  comparison  of  the  computed 
and  real  discharges  in  a  series  of 
experiments  made  in  situations  re- 
sembling those  cases  which  most 
frequently  occur  in  practice.  The 
principle  of  contraction  holds  good 
in  a  great  degree  in  all  cases  where 
fluids  are  made  to  pass  through 
narrow  places,  as  in  the  entry  of 
pipes,  canals,  and  sluices,  and 
even  at  the  heads  of  dams,  and 
weirs.  Michelotti  and  Bossut  made 
many  experiments  to  determine  the 
effects  of  contraction  in  these  cases. 
The  results  of  their  experiments, 
which  scarcely  differ  from  each 
other,  are  as  follow.  The  num- 
bers in  the  last  column  are  the 
cubical  inches  of  water  discharged 
in  a  second,  when  the  height  (k)  is 
one  inch. 


WAT 


W  AT 


N,  the  natural  discharge   —  10000  rz  27.78^ 

Q,  for  a  thin  plate  almost  at  the  surface     .    .  =  6526  ~  [8A3s/h 

—  ditto,  at  the  depth  of  eight  feet    .    .    .    .  =  6195  zz  17.21 

—  at  the  depth  of  sixteen    zz  6173  zz  \l.\5s/h 

Q,  for  a  tube  two  diameters  long      .    .    .    .  zz  8125  zz  22. 57*/ A 

—  ditto,when  projecting  inwards  and  flowingfull  zz  6814  zz  18. 93,/ A 

—  ditto,  with  a  contracted  jet    zz  5137  zz  14.27^/^ 

Q,  for  a  weir   =  9536  —  2^.49^/i 

Q,  for  a  bar   =  9730  zz  27.03  V h 

The  calculations  for  the  weir  and  head  of  water  (h)  which  has  actu- 

bar  relate  only  to  the  contractions  ally  produced  this  velocity, 

occasioned  by  the  passage  over  the  V2 

edge  of  the  board:  the  weir  may     A  for  the  natural  discharge—  . 

also  suffer  a  diminution  by  the  con-  772 

tractions  at  its  two  ends,    if  it  V2 

should    be    narrower    than    the     h  for  a  thin  plate    .    .  zz  

stream,  which  is  generally  the  case,  290 

because  the  two  ends  are  commonly  V2 

of  square  masonry  or  woodwork,     h  for  a  tube  2  diam.  long  zz  

when  the  contraction  is  nearly  the  505 

same  as  that  at  the  edge  of  a  thin  V2 

plate.  h  for  a  dam  or  weir     .  zz  

The   diminution   of  discharge  726 

through  a  sluice,  also,  could  not  Vs 

be  expressed  in  the  foregoing  table,     h  for  a  bar    ....  zz  

because  when  a  sluice  is  drawn  up,  746 
its  lower  edge  still  remaining  under 

water,  the  discharge  is  contracted  The  following  are  the  results  of 
both  above  and  at  the  sides,  and  M.  Buat's  experiments  on  the  uni- 
the  diminution  of  the  exchange  by  form  motion  of  water, 
each  is  proportionate  to  its  extent.  Let  V  represent  the  mean  velocity 
We  may  often  observe  the  water,  in  inches  per  second,  of  any  cur- 
when  coming  out  of  a  sluice  into  a  rent  of  water,  running  uniformly  in 
mill-course,  quit  the  edge  of  the  a  pipe  or  open  channel,  whose  sec- 
aperture,  and  show  a  part  of  the  tion,  figure,  and  slope,  are  constant, 
bottom  quite  dry.  This  is  always  but  its  length  indefinite, 
the  case  when  the  velocity  of  the  e?zz  the  hydraulic  mean  depth, or 
efflux  is  considerable  ;  but  if  the  the  quotient  arising  from  the  division 
sides  of  the  entry  have  a  slope,  of  the  section  of  the  channel  (ex- 
this  void  space  can  never  appear,  pressed  in  square  inches),  by  its 
though  there  is  always  this  ten-  border,  (expressed  in  linear  inches.) 
dency  to  conveyance,  which  dimi-  s  zz  the  slope  of  the  pipe  or  sur- 
nishes  the  quantity  of  the  dis-  face  of  the  current,  found  by  divid- 
charge.  ing  the  expanded  length  of  the 
When  the  water  is  observed  to  pipe  or  channel,  by  the  difference 
be  actually  moving  with  a  velocity  of  height  of  its  two  extremities. 
V,  and  we  know  whether  it  is  com-  g  zz  the  velocity  (in  inches  per 
ing  over  a  dam,  through  a  thin  second)  of  a  heavy  body  falling 
plate,  tube,  &c.  the  following  are  during  one  second, 
the  formulas  for  the  pressure,  or  n  zz  an  abstract  constant  num- 

459 


WAT  WAT 

ber,  determined  by  experiment  to  the  quantity  to  which  it  is  pre- 
be  2=  243.7.  fixed. — Then  we  shall  have,  in  every 

L  =  the  Napierian  logarithm  of  instance, 

v  =  v^(n/3-o.i) 

—  —  0.3  (VJ  —  0.1) 

s/s  —  Ws+1.6) 
=     307(^5  —  0.1) 

 0.3  ( >/d  —  0.1) 

Vs  —  LVs+1.6 

Among  other  experiments  made  were  made  with  a  wooden  canal, 
by  different  people,  the  following    The  values  are  all  giveti  in  inches. 


(1)  With  a  canal  of  trapezium  form. 


Spr*f  Inn 

of 
Canal. 

Border 

of 
Canal. 

Values 

of  v7 

ofO) 

IMean 
velocity 
observed. 

velocity 
calculated. 

18.84 

13.06 

1.20107 

212 

27.51 

27.19 

50.6 

29.5 

1.3096 

212 

28.92 

29.28 

83.43 

26. 

1.7913 

412 

27.14 

28.55 

27.2 

15.31 

1.3329 

427 

18.28 

20.39 

39.36 

18.13 

1.4734 

427 

20.3 

22.71 

50.44 

20.37 

1.5736 

427 

22.37 

24.37 

56.43 

21.5 

1.6201 

427 

23.54 

25.14 

98.74 

28.25 

1.8696 

432 

28.29 

29.06 

100.74 

28.53 

1.8791 

432 

28.52 

29.23 

119.58 

31.06 

1.9622 

432 

30.16 

30.60 

126.2 

31.91 

1.9887 

432 

31.58 

31.03 

130.71 

32.47 

1.0064 

432 

31.89 

31.32 

135.32 

33.03 

1.0241 

432 

32.32 

31.61 

20.83 

13.62 

1.2367 

1728 

8.94 

8.58 

34.37 

17. 

1.4219 

1728 

9.71 

9.98 

36.77 

17.56 

1.4471 

J  728 

10.45 

10.17 

42.01 

18.69 

1-4992 

1728 

12.34 

10.53 

The  following  experiments  were  made  with  a  rectangular  canal. 

34.5 

21.25 

1.27418 

458 

20.24 

18.66 

86.25 

27.25 

1.77908 

458 

28.29 

26.69 

34.5 

21.25 

1.27418 

929 

13.56 

11.53 

35.22 

21.33 

1.28499 

1412 

9.2 

10.01 

51.75 

23.25 

1.49191 

1412 

12.1 

11.76 

76.19 

26.08 

1.70921 

1412 

14.17 

13.59 

105.78 

29.17 

1.90427 

1412 

15.55 

15.24 

69. 

25.25 

1.65308 

9288 

4.59 

4.56 

156.25 

35.25 

2.09868 

9288 

5.7 

5.86 

460 


WAT  WAT 

ft 

The  following  were  made  on  the  canal  of  Jard. 


Section 

of 
Canal. 

Border 

of 
Canal. 

Values 

Values 
of(» 

Mean 
velocity 
observed. 

Mean 
velocity 
calculated 

16252 

402 

6.3583 

8919 

17.42 

18.77 

11905 

366 

5.7032 

11520 

12.17 

14.52 

10475 

360 

5.3942 

15360 

15.74 

11.61 

7858 

21827 

9.61 

88.38 

340 

4.8074 

7376 

337 

4.6784 

27648 

7.79 

7.07 

6125 

324 

4.3475 

27648 

7.27 

6.55 

And  those  which  follow  on  the  river  Haine. 


31498 

569 

7.43974 

38838 

601 

8.03879 

30905 

568 

7.37602 

39639 

604 

8.10108 

The  numerator  of  the  fraction 
which  expresses  the  velocity  of  a 
river,  &c.  in  uniform  motion  has 
a/J2  for  one  of  its  factors,  and, 

therefore,  that  form  is  the  most 
favourable  to  the  motion,  which 
gives  the  greatest  value  to  d ;  that 
form  is  the  semicircle,  which  makes 
d  zz  half  the  radius.  This  form 
should  be  adopted  for  all  aque- 


6048 

35.11 

27.62 

6413 

31.77 

28.76 

32951 

13.61 

10.08 

35723 

15.96 

10.53 

ducts,  &c.  formed  of  masonry,  but 
on  account  of  the  ease  and  accu- 
racy in  the  execution,  engineers 
have  generally  preferred  a  rectan- 
gular form. 

In  the  following  tables,  the 
values  of  the  formulas  of  M.  Buat, 
before  mentioned,  are  calculates 
for  every  declivity  that  can  occu" 
in  water-pipes,  canals,  or  rivers. 


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The  use  of  these  Tables  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  following  exam- 
ples, taken  from  the  Encyclopedia 
Britannica,  in  the  articles  River, 
and  Water,  from  which  we  have 
taken  in  a  great  measure  the  pre- 
sent article. 

(1)  Water  is  brought  into  the 
city  of  Edinburgh  in  several  mains, 
one  of  which  is  a  pipe  of  five 
inches  in  diameter ;  its  length  is 
14637  feet,  and  the  reservoir  at 
Comiston  is  44  feet  higher  than 
the  reservoir  into  which  it  delivers 
the  water  at  Castle-hill :  what  is 
the  number  of  Scotch  pints  it 
should  deliver  in  a  minute  ? 

First,  we  have  d  —  \  —  1.25 
inches,  the  log.  to  which  is 
2.49472. 

Seondly,  we  have  s  =  3 
332.7,  whose  log.  is  1.18533.** 
2.49472 
1.18533 

1.30939 

which  is  the  log.  of  20.385  inches. 
In  the  third  column  of  Table  I. 
opposite  to  d  =  1.2  and  d  =  1.3 
are  3,  and  .31,  of  which  the  mean 
is  .305  inches,  the  correction  for 
viscidity. 

Therefore,  the  velocity  in  inches 
per  second  =  20.385  —  .305  = 
20.08. 

To  obtain  the  Scotch  pints  per 
minute,  (each  containing  103.4 
cubic  inches,)  multiply  the  velocity 
by  60,  and  this  product  by  52, 
and  this  by  .7854  (the  area  of  a 
circle  whose  diameter  is  1)  and 
divide  by  103.4.  This  operation, 
performed  by  logarithms,  is — 

log.  20.08  =  ,   1.30276 

—  1.77815 

52      =    1.39794 

  9.89509 

4.37394T 
2.01451 
— .  2.35943 


log.  60"  = 


log.  .7854  = 


(2)  A  canal  is  18  feet  broad  at 
the  surface,  and  seven  feet  at  the 
bottom  ;  it  is  four  feet  deep,  and 
has  a  declivity  of  four  inches  in  a 
mile  :  what  is  its  mean  velocity  ? 

The  slope  of  the  canals  corre- 
sponding to  four  feet  deep,  and  5j 
projection,  is  6.8  feet,  therefore  the 
border  touched  by  the  water  is 
6.8  +  7  +  6.8=  20.6.    The  area  = 


square  feet. 


3**2±!  zz  50 

Therefore  d  =  ^  =  2.427  feet, 

or  29.124  inches.  The  log.  cor- 
responding to  this  in  Table  I.  is 
3.21113,  and  the  correction  for 
viscidity  from  the  third  column  of 
the  same  table  is  1.58.  The  slope 
is  \  of  a  foot  in  a  mile,  or  one  foot 
in  3  miles;  therefore  s  =  15.84, 
whose  log.  2S  2.08280. 

3.21113 

2.08280 


log.   103.4  =  

which  is  the  log.  of  228.  8  pints. 

466 


1.12833 

which  is  the  log.  of  13,438  inches, 
13.438 
1.58 

11.858  =  the  velocity  per 
second.  —  For  further  information 
on  this  subject,  the  reader  is  refer- 
red to  the  articles  of  the  Ency. 
Brit,  before  mentioned. 

Water,  power  of,  when  stopped 
by  obstructions,  see  Obstructions. 

Water-Table,  a  string-course 
moulding,  or  other  projection,  placed 
to  carry  off  water. 

Ways,  (waeg,  Sax.)    It  is  very 
uncertain  which  nation  of  antiquity 
first  established  military  ways.  The  j 
Persians  seem  to  have  constructed 
them  at  a  very  remote  period.  Ac- 
cording to  Isidore,  the  Carthaginians 
were  the  first  who  paved  their  pub- 
He  ways.    Ancient  authors  do  not  j 
furnish  us  with  many  data,  whereby  | 
we  might  judge  of  the  degree  of  j 
care  bestowed  on  their  roads  by  the  ! 


WAT 


WEI 


Grecian  states.  Herodotus  simply 
says,  that,  among  the  Lacedeemo- 
nians,  the  management  of  their 
ways  was  wholly  invested  in  their 
kings.  Strabo  says,  that  the  Greeks 
neglected  three  objects  to  which 
the  Romans  paid  an  especial  atten- 
tion —  the  cloacae,  or  common 
sewers ;  the  aqueducts ;  and  the 
public  ways.  See,  for  further  par- 
ticulars, the  articles  Road,  Pave- 
ment, &c.  The  curator  viarum,  or 
overseer  of  the  ways,  was  an  officer 
of  great  dignity  among  the  Romans. 
Julius  Caesar  was  the  first  person  of 
high-rank  among  them,  who  ac- 
cepted the  situation  of  curator  of 
the  public  ways,  which  was  after- 
wards rarely  ever  conferred,  except 
upon  those  who  were  of  consular 
dignity.  Thernus,  a  noble  Roman, 
according  to  Cicero,  served  this 
office,  and  became  curator  of  the 
Flaminian  way,  and  was  a  colleague 
of  Caesar's.  Pliny  says,  in  a  letter 
to  Pontius,  that  the  news  of  Cor- 
nutus  Tertullus  having  accepted 
the  surveyorship  of  the  iEmilian 
way  affected  him  with  great  joy ; 
and  Statius  also,  in  his  Sylvae, 
mentions  among  his  eulogiums  on 
Victorius  Marcellus,  who  was  of 
the  praetorian  order,  that  he  had 
been  selected  by  the  emperor  Do- 
mitian  to  be  surveyor  of  the  via 
Latina. 

"  Quique  tnos  alio  subtexit  munere  fasces  ; 
Et  spatia  antiquje  raandat  renovare  Latinas.' 

He  also  mentions,  as  a  mark  of  sin- 
gular dignity,  that  Plotius  Grippus, 
whom  he  calls  majoris  gradus  ju- 
t>ewem,had  been  trusted,  by  the  same 
emperor,  with  two  of  the  most  ho- 
nourable offices  of  the  empire,  prce- 
fectum  annonce  et  curatorem  via- 
rum, lib.  iv.  Sylvarum,  in  ritu  Sa- 
turnalitio  ad  Plotinum. 

Water-shoot,  a  wooden  trough 
for  discharging  rain-water  from  a 
building;. 


Feather-boarding,  beards 
la'pped  over  each  other,  to  prevent 
rain  &c.  from  passing  through. 

Weather-tiling,  covering  a 
wall,  or  vertical  surface,  with  tiles. 

Weepers,  small  sepulchral  sta- 
tues in  old  monuments. 

Weights  and  Measures.  Of 
weights  and  measures  there  are 
various  kinds,  as  they  are  used 
for  different  things,  or  in  different 
countries :  in  this  article  we  shall 
give  only  such  as  more  particularly 
concern  architects  and  builders. 
Of  measures,  those  which  belong 
to  our  subject,  are  such  as  are 
used  in  calculating  length,  super- 
ficies, or  solidity.  The  measures  of 
length  are  as  follows : — 

Scripture  Long  Measures. 


Digit  

Palm  =  4  digits  ...... 

Span  ccs  3  palms   

Cubit  =  2  spans 
Fatliora  =  4  cubits    . . .  . 
Ez  -kiel's  reed  =  1|  fath. 
Arabian  pole  =  2  fatbom 


ft. 

in. 

.912 

3.648 

10.944 

1 

9.888 

7 

3.552 

10 

11.328 

14 

7.104 

145 

1.104 

Another  span,  used  in  the  East, 
was  equal  to  one-fourth  of  a  cubit. 

Grecian  Long  Measures. 


ENGLISH 


paces. 

Dactylus  (digit)   

Doron,  doebme,  palista 

=  4  d  a  c  t  >  1  i  

Licbas  =10  dactyli. . . . 
Ortbodoron  =  11  dactyli 
Spitbame  =  12  dactvli  . . 
Pons  (foot)  =  10  dactyli 
Pyguie  (cubit)  =  18  dact. 
Pygon  =  20  dactyli..., 
Pecus  (largercubi()=  24 

dactyli  

Orgya  (pace)  =  4  pecus 
Stadium  =  100  orgyae  .  100 
Millium  (mile)  =8  stad.  805 


ft. 


inch. 
.7555 

3.0219 
7.5547 
8.3102 
90656 
0875 
1.5984 
3.109 

6.1312 

.525 
4.5 


In  Greece  there  were  used  two 
kinds  of  long  measure,  the  Olympic 
and  the  Pythic :   the  former  in 


4G7 


W  EI 


WEI 


Peleponnesus,  Attica,  Sicily,  and 
the  Grecian  colonies  in  Italy;  the 
latter  in  Thessaly,  Illyria,  Phocis, 
Thrace,  and  Marseilles  in  Gallia. 
The  Olympic  foot,  properly  called 
Greek,  contained, 

English  inches. 
According  to  Dr.  Hntton  ....  12.108 

 -Folkes  12.072 

 Cavallo  12.084 

The  Pythic  foot  contained, 

English  inches. 

According  to  Hutton  9.768 

.   Paucton   9.731 

Hence  it  appears,  that  the  Olympic 
stadium  is  20 U  English  yards 
nearly  ;  and  the  Pythic  or  Delphic 
stadium,  162£  English  yards  nearly. 
The  Macedonian  foot  was  13.92 
English  inches,  and  the  Sicilian 
foot  of  Archimedes  8.76  English 
inches. 

Jewish  Long  or  Itinerary  Measures. 


ENGLISH 

miles. 

pac. 

ft.  dec. 

1.824 

Stadium  =  400  cubits  . . 

145 

4.6 

Sabbath-day's  journey  = 

729 

3 

Eastern  mile  =  10  stad.  1 

403 

1 

Parasang  =  3  miles  ...  4 

153 

3 

Day's  journey =24  miles  33 

172 

4 

Roman  Long  Measures. 


ENGLISH 


paces 

Digitus  transversus  .... 

Uncia  (inch)  

Palm  a  minor  =  3  uncia}  . 
Pes  (foot)  =  12  unciae  . 
Palmipes  =  15  unciae  . . 

Cubitus  =  1J  pes  

Gradus  =  21  pedes.... 
Passus  =  2  gradus  .... 
Stadium  =  625  pedes  .  .120 


ft. 


inch. 
.726 
.967 
2.901 
11.604 
2.505 
5.406 
5.01 
10.02 
4.5 


Milliare  =  1000  passus  967 

The  smaller  Roman  measures 
were, 

6  scrupula    =    1  sicilicum. 
8  scrupula    =    1  duellum. 
1£  duellum  ==    1  seminaria. 
18  scrupula    =    1  digitus. 

Two  passus  were  equivalent  to  one 
decempeda. 

468 


The  length  of  the  Roman  foot  in 
English  inches  is  stated  as  follows, 

By  Bernard   11.640 

Picard  and  Hutton.   11.604 

Folkes   11.592 

Raper  ^before  Titus). . . .  11.640 

  (after  Titus)   11.580 

Schuckburgh  (from  rules)  11.6064 

  (from  buildings)  11.6172 

 (from  a  tombstone)11.6352 

Hence  11.6  English  inches  seems 
to  be  a  medium,  and  therefore  the 
Roman  mile  —  161 1  English  yards, 
being  149  yards  less  than  the  En- 
glish mile.    See  Hecatompedon. 

The  following  are  a  collection  of 
ancient  measures,  taken  from  Folkes, 
Schuckburgh,  Hutton,  Raper,  Ca- 
vallo, &c.  reduced  to  English. 

Arabian  foot   1.025  H. 

Babylonian  foot   ....    <  ^  ^  ^ 

Drusian  foot   1.090  H. 

Egyptian  foot    1.421  H. 

Egyptian  stadium....  730.8 
Greek  foot    1.009  H. 

1.006  i  ff 

1.007  S 
1.007  C. 

Greek  Phyleterian  foot      1.167  H. 

Hebrew  foot   1.212  H. 

Hebrew  cubit    1.817  H. 

Hebrew  sacred  cubit  .      2.002  H. 
Hebrew  great  cubit  =  6  common  cubits,  H. 
Ptolemaic  foot       =  Greek  foot,  H. 

Greek  Superficial  Measures. 

Olympic  Land  Measure. 

36  Olympic  square  feet  =  1  Hexapodon. 
6  Hexapoda  =  1  Hemihectos. 

2  Hemihecti  =  1  Hectos,  or  Modius. 
6  Modii      =  1  Medimnus,  or  Jugerura. 

Hence  it  appears  that  the  Olympic 
jugerum  was  equal  to  103  English 
perches,  or  nearly  five-eighths  of 
an  acre. 

Pythic  Land  Measure. 

1666§  square  cubits        =  1  Hemihectos. 
2   Hemihecti  =  1  Modius. 

6  Modii  =  1  Medimnus,  or  jugerum. 

The  Pythic  jugerum,  therefore,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  equal  to  109 


WEI 


W  EI 


English  perches,  or  nearly  eleven- 
sixteenth  of  an  acre. 

The  pletkron,  or  acre,  is  said  by 
some  to  contain  1444,  by  others 
10,000  square  feet;  the  aroura 
was  half  of  the  plethron.  The 
aroura  of  the  Egyptians  was  the 
square  of  100  cubits. 

Roman  Land  Measures. 

100  square  Roman  feet  —  1  scrupulum. 

4  scrupula  =  I  sextulus. 

1£  sextulus  =  1  actus. 

6  sexluli,  or  5  aotus  =  1  uncia. 

6  unciae  —  1  square  actus. 

2  square  actus  =  1  jugerum. 

2jugera  =  1  berediura. 

100  heredia  =  1  centuria. 

The  actus  was  a  slip  of  ground  four 
Roman  feet  broad  and  120  long. 
The  jugerum,  or  acre,  was  consi- 
dered as  an  integer,  and  divided, 
like  the  libra,  or  as,  in  the  follow- 
ing manner: — 

unciae.  ' 
1  as  12  as. 

$  deunx  11  deunx. 

|  dextans  10  dextans. 
|  dodrans         9  dodrans 

5j  bes  8  bes. 

septunx         7  septunx. 
£  semis  6  semis. 

^  quincunx       5  quincunx. 

£  triens  4  triens. 

£  quadrans        3  quadrans. 

I  sextans  2  sextans. 

^  uncia  1  uncia. 

If  we  take  the  Roman  foot  at  11.6 
English  inches,  the  Roman  jugerum 
was  5980  English  square  yards  = 
1  acre,  37 £  perches.    See  Foot. 

English  Measures. 

By  the  late  act  relating  to  weights 
and  measures,  in  the  first  and  se- 
cond clauses,  it  is  enacted,  that  the 
old  standard  yard  of  1760,  in  the 
custody  of  the  clerk  of  the  house  of 
commons,  shall  continue  to  be  the 
standard  unit  of  extension,  or  lineal, 
superficial,  and  solid  measures,when 
the  temperature  is  at  62°  of  Fah- 


renheit's thermometer.  In  the  third 
clause,  it  is  enacted,  that  if  the 
standard  yard  should  be  lost  or 
injured,  it  is  to  be  restored  by  a 
reference  to  the  length  of  the  pen- 
dulum, vibrating  seconds  in  the 
latitude  of  E&ndon,  at  the  level  of 
the  sea,  and  in  vacuo.  This  length 
has  been  found,  and  is  by  the  act 
declared  to  be,  39.1393  inches. 
Hence  the  length  of  the  yard  to 
that  of  the  pendulum,  is  in  the 
proportion  of  thirty-six  inches  to 
39.1393  inches,  or  of  the  number 
360,000  to  the  number  391,393; 
so  that  if  the  length  of  the  pendu- 
lum be  divided  into  391.393  equal 
parts,  then  will  10,000  of  these 
parts  be  the  length  of  an  inch, 
according  to  the  imperial  standard. 

Long  Measure. 

1  pendulums. 
1  inch  ==  80.1393  of  pendulums  .02555 

1  foot  =  12  inches  30G597 

1  yard  =  3  feet   919792 

1  pole  or  perch  =  5£  yards    . .  5.058854 

1  furlong  =  40  poles    202.354156 

1  mile  =  8  furl.  =  1760  yds.  1618.833244 

The  English  land  chain  =  22  jards. 

a  link  =7.92  inches. 

A  palm       =  3  inches. 

A  span       s=  9  inches. 

A  cubit       =  18  inches. 

A  pace        =  5  feet. 

A  fathom     =  2  yards. 

Square  Measure. 

square  pendulums. 

linch=i5TiWsofs<1-pend-  -000653 

1  foot  =  144  inch«w  094002 

1  yard  =    9  feet  840017 

1  pole  =  30£  yards    25.592003 

1  rood  =  40  poles   1023.680107 

1  acre  ==  4  roods  4094  720426 

The  square  chain  =  484  square  yards. 

An  acre  =    10  square  chains. 

Cubic  Measure. 

cubic  pendulums. 

1  inch  =   !   0000176 

59950.8989 

1  foot  =  1 728  inches  0238207 

1  yard  =  27  feet   7781587 


WEI 


WEI 


French  Measures, 

(1)  According  to  the  old  system, 
previous  to  the  revolution. 

English  inches. 
A  point     zz     .0148025  zz  nearly. 
Aline      zz      .088815   zz  ^  nearly. 
An  inch  (pouce)zz  1.06578z:  $  nearly. 
A  foot      zz  12.78933 
An  ell  (aune)  zz  46.8947  zz  44  Fr.  in. 
A  sonde        =3  63.9967  zz   5  Fr.  ft. 
A  toiseorfath.zz  76.736     2?    6  Fr.  ft. 
Aperche       =230.208  zzl8Fr.ft. 
A  perch  (mesure  royale)     zz  22  Fr.  ft. 
A  square  inchzz  1.13582     Eng.  sq.  in. 
An  arpsnt     zz    about  §  acre  English. 
An  arpent  {mesure  royale)~zb\..\  Eng.ac. 
A  cubic  inch  zz   1.21063  Eng.  cub.  in. 
A  litron        zz  65.34 

(2)  According  to  the  new  sys- 
tem. 

Measures  of  Length, 

English  miles. 
Millimetre    =  .03937 
Centimetre    =  .39371 
Decimetre     —  3.9371 
Metre  39.371 


Decametre    =  393.71 
Hecatometre  =  3937.1 
Chiliometre  ==  39371. 
Myriometre  =  393710.         or  6  miles 
[1  furlong,  136  yds.  6 in! 
An  inch    is         .0354  metres. 
2441  indies  is    62  metres. 
1000  feet     is    305     metres  nearly. 

Square  Measure. 

sq.  yds.  English. 
Are  (sq.  decametre)  =  119.6046  =  3.95 

Decare  =  1196.046  [perches. 

Hecatare  =11960.46 

Solid  Measure. 

cubic  Ceet. 

Decistere  =  3.5317 

Stere  (a  cubic  metre)  =  35.317 
Decastere  =  353.17 

In  order  to  express  decimal  pro- 
portions in  this  system,  the  follow- 
ing terms  have  been  adopted: — 

Deca  prefixed  donotes       10  times. 

Heca    100  times. 

Cbilo    1000  times. 

Myrio   10000  times 

Deci  expresses  the    10th  part. 

Centi  lOOdth  part. 


English  Avoirdupois  Weighty  ( new  Standard.) 


Cubic  in.  of  water.  New  gal.  of  water. 

27$  grains  zz  1  dram  zz        .10831015625  zz  ^ 

16   drams  zz  1  ounce  zz       1.7329625  z=  ^ 

16   ounces  zz  1  pound  zz     27.7274  zz  \ 

28  pounds  zz  1  qr.  cwt.  zz   776.3672  zz  2| 

4   quarters  zz  1  cwt.  CS  3105.4688  zz  llf 

20  cwt.  ZZ  1  ton.  =  6210.9376  =£  224 


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to  b  w  Cft     '*>  a  w     ^     s  w  bi 


II 


WEI 


W  EI 


Weir.  A  weir  or  bar  is  a  dam 
erected  across  a  river,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  raising  its  waters,  either  in 
order  to  take  off  a  draft  for  a  mill, 
or  to  deepen  the  channel.  A  weir 
consists  of  a  dam  of  solid  masonry, 
or  built  of  timber,  properly  fortified 
with  shores  and  banks :  on  the  top 
is  set  up  a  strong  plank,  called  the 
waster,  voider,  or  offset,  over  which 
the  water  flows,  and  which  is  brought 
to  an  accurate  level.  Such  voiders 
are  frequently  made  in  the  side  of 
a  mill-course  for  the  purpose  of 
letting  the  superfluous  water  run 
off.  In  the  weirs  represented  in 
plate  M.  17.  Jigs.  3,  4.  the  latter 
of  which  is  the  usual  form,  FR  is 
the  wasteboard  or  waster. 

The  theory  of  the  discharge  of 
water  over  a  weir,  is  comprised  in 
the  following  proposition.  **  Given 
the  length  of  an  offset  made  in  the 
face  of  a  reservoir  of  stagnant  wa- 
ter, and  the  depth  of  its  lip  under 
the  horizontal  surface  of  the  water, 
to  determine  the  discharge,  or  the 
quantity  of  water  which  will  run 
over  in  a  second."  Let  AB  be  the 
horizontal  surface  of  the  still  water, 
and  F  the  lip  of  the  waster ;  call 
the  depth  BF  under  the  surface  h, 
and  the  length  of  the  waster  I.  The 
water  is  supposed  to  flow  over  into 
another  basin  or  channel,  so  much 
lower,  that  the  surface  HL  of  the 
water  is  lower,  or  at  least  not 
higher  than  F.  If  the  water  could 
be  supported  at  the  height  BF, 
BF  might  be  considered  as  an 
orifice  in  the  side  of  a  vessel,  in 
which  case  the  discharge  would  be 
the  same  as  if  the  whole  water  were 
flowing  with  the  velocity  acquired 
from  the  height  g  BF,  or  |  h.  And 
if  we  suppose  that  there  is  no  con- 
traction of  the  orifice,  the  mean  velo- 
city would  be  s/TjTCh  =:  ^772  $  h, 
in  English  inches,  per  second.  The 
area  of  this  orifice  is  I  h,  therefore, 
the  discharge  would  be  Ih^rn^h. 

472 


This  is  the  old  theory,  but  is  not  an 
exact  representation  of  the  manner  | 
in  which  the  efflux  really  happens. 
The  water  cannot  remain  at  the 
height  BF,  but,  in  drawing  towards 
the  waster  from  all  sides,  it  forms 
a  convex  surface  A1H,  so  that  the 
point  I,  where  the  vertical  drawn 
from  the  edge  of  the  waster  meets 
the  curve,  is  considerably  lower  than 
B.  But  as  all  the  mass  above  F 
is  supposed  to  be  perfectly  fluid, 
the  pressure  of  the  incumbent  wa- 
ter is  propagated,  according  to  M. 
de  Buat's  opinion,  to  the  filament 
passing  over  at  F,  without  any 
diminution.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  any  filament  between  F  and  I. 
Each  tends,  therefore,  to  move  in 
the  same  manner,  if  it  were  really 
impelled  through  an  orifice  in  its 
place.  Therefore,  the  motions 
through  every  part  of  the  line  or 
plane  IF,  are  the  same  as  if  the 
water  were  escaping  through  an 
orifice  IF,  made  by  a  sluice  let 
down  on  the  water,  and  keeping  up 
the  water  of  the  reservoir  to  the 
level  AB.  There  is  no  doubt, 
M.  de  Buat  observes,  that  the 
height  IF  must  depend  on  the 
whole  height  BF,  and  that  there 
must  be  a  certain  determined  pro- 
portion between  them.  From  his 
own  experiments  he  concludes,  that 
this  proportion  is  that  of  one  to 
two,  or  that  IF  is  always  one  half 
of  BF. 

The  foregoing  is  the  reasoning 
adopted  by  M.  de  Buat,  but  some 
parts  of  it  have  been  objected  to 
by  other  writers.  However,  on  the 
whole,  his  results  are  tolerably 
accurate,  and  we  may  adopt,  as  a 
good  approximation  to  the  truth, 
the  formula  he  gives  for  the  value 
of  the  discharge  (D). 

~D-A^\x{sj2~G.h\xJ).  If 
we  substitute  26.49  for  ^2  0,  or 
the  velocity  with  which  a  head  of 
water  of  one  inch  will  impel  the 


WEI 


WEI 


water  over  a  weir,  and  multiply 
this  by  .431,  we  get  11.4172,  or 
ll£  (nearly)  of  cubic  inches  dis- 
charged per  second  over  every  inch 
of  a  waster,  when  the  edge  of  it  is 
one  inch  below  the  surface  of  the 
reservoir,  and  this  must  be  multi- 
plied by  k  | ,  or  by  the  cube  of  the 
square  root  of  the  head  of  water. 
Thus,  suppose  the  edge  of  the 
wasteboard  to  be  four  inches  below 
the  surface ;  the  root  of  this  is  2, 
whose  cube  is  8;  therefore,  a  waster 
of  this  depth  under  the  surface, 
and  three  feet  long,  will  discharge 
every  second  8  X  36  x  ll£  cubic 
inches  of  water,  or  &  cubic  feet. 
The  following  are  the  results  of 
some  of  M.  de  Buat's  experi- 
ments, and  will  show  how  much 
this  calculation  may  be  depend- 
ed upon.  The  greatest  error  is 
in  the  first,  and  must  be  attri- 
buted to  a  much  smaller  lateral 
contraction  under  so  small  a  head 
fo  water. 


Cub.  inch, 
discharg'd 
per  second 
by  each 
inch  of  the 
waster. 

28.98 
69.83 
123.03 
214.29 


The  board  was  18^  inches  long. 
It  may  be  observed,  that  IF  de- 
pended very  much  on  the  form  of 
the  wasteboard ;  when  it  was  a  very 
thin  board  of  considerable  depth, 
IF  was  much  greater  than  when 
the  board  was  thick,  or  narrow, 
and  set  on  the  top  of  a  broad  dam- 
head,  as  in  Jig.  4.  We  may  give 
the  formula  a  form  that  will  corre- 
spond to  any  ratio  which  experience 
may  discover  between  BF  and  IF, 


Depth  of 
edge  of 
water. 

Discharge 
found  by 
theory. 

Discharge 
actually 
observed. 

1.778 

506 

524 

3.199 

1222 

1218 

4.665 

2153 

2155 

6.753 

375t) 

3771 

by  making  BI  zz  —  BF  ;   then  we 

nil 

\ 


In  the  following  table,  the  first 
column  contains  the  depth  in  Eng- 
lish inches  from  the  surface  of  the 
stagnant  water  in  the  reservoir  to 
the  edge  of  the  waster,  and  the 
second  the  cubic  feet  of  water  dis- 
charged in  a  minute  over  every 
inch  of  the  waster. 


Depth. 

Discharge* 

1 

.403 

2 

1.14 

3 

2.095 

4 

3.225 

5 

4.507 

6 

5.925 

7 

7.466 

8 

9.122 

9 

10.884 

10 

12.748 

11 

14.707 

12 

16.756 

13 

18.895 

14 

21.117 

15 

23.419 

16 

25.8 

17 

28.258 

18 

30.786 

have  for  the  formula 
30 


It  has  been  observed,  that,  in 
making  the  experiment,  a  result 
has  generally  been  obtained  greater 
by  about  -fe  than  that  in  this  table, 
and,  therefore,  it  is  recommended 
to  add  to  the  result  found  by  this 
table,  which  will  give  an  answer 
very  near  the  truth. 

When  D  is  known  and  h  re- 
quired, we  have  h—  (fj~T/)*  very 
nearly. 

The  next  proposition  of  import- 
ance is  this  :  "  The  discharge  and 
section  of  a  river  being  given,  to 
determine  how  much  the  waters 
will  be  raised  by  a  weir  of  the 
whole  breadth  of  the  river,  dis- 
charging the  water  with  a  clear 
fall,  that  is  the  surface  of  the  water 
in  the  lower  channel  being  below 
the  edge  of  the  weir." 

Here  we  have  2G  =  746  nearly, 
because  there  will  be  no  contraction 
at  the  sides,  when  the  weir  is  the 

473 


WEI 


WEI 


whole  breadth  of  the  river :  and 
the  water  which  was  before  stag- 
nant,  is   now   moving  with  the 
D 

velocity  -7,  S  being  the  section  of 
s 

the  river.  Let  a  ~  height  of  weir 
from  the  bottom  of  the  river,  and  h 
=:  height  of  water  above  the  edge 
of  the  weir.  We  shall  find  the 
velocity  with  which  the  water  ap- 
proaches the  weir  ==  |  (a-\-h)  ^ 
being  the  length  of  the  weir,  or 
breadth  of  the  river.  Therefore, 
the  height  producing  the  primary 

mean  velocity  is  \  - — :=-; — r-t\  \ 


and  the  equation   for  h  becomes 

D  u 


when  the  wa- 


e  .431  I  s/TgS 

ter  above  the  weir  is  stagnant  ; 
therefore,  when  it  is  already  mov- 
D 


in 


g  with  the  velocity  iJ^Tfo 


we 


shall  have  h  —  | 


1) 


431 


n/2  G 
This  equation 


I  s/2g  (a  +  h)  S 
would  be  troublesome  to  solve  in 
the  regular  way,  because  the  un- 
known quantity  h  is  found  in  the 
second  term  of  the  answer ;  but  as 
we  know  that  the  height  producing 
the  velocity  above  the  weir  is  very 
small  in  comparison  with  h  and 
a,  and,  if  only  estimated  roughly, 
will  make  a  very  insensible  alter- 
ation in  the  value  of  h,  and,  by 
repeating  the  operation,  we  may 
correct  this  value,  and  obtain  h  to 
every  degree  of  exactness. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  a  river,  the 
section  of  whose  stream  is  150  feet, 
discharges  174  cubic  feet  of  water 
in  a  second ;  how  much  will  the 
waters  of  this  river  be  raised  by  a 
weir  of  the  same  width,  and  three 
feet  high  ?  Suppose  the  width  to 
be  50  feet;  this  will  give  three  feet 
for  the  depth,  and  we  see  that  the 
water  will  have  a  clear  fall,  because 
474 


the  lower  stream  will  be  the  same 
as  before.  The  section  being  150 
feet,  and  the  discharge  174,  the 

,     .  .174 
mean  velocity  is  y^'  or  1.16  feet 

=  14  inches  nearly,  which  re- 
quires an  height  of  £  of  an  inch 
very   nearly.       Therefore    h  = 

\  A3lyrolV-  *■  Now 

\/ 2  G  is  in  the  present  case  zz 
27.313,  I  —  600,  and  D  =2  174  x 
1728  =b  300.672.  Therefore  h  = 
12.192  —  0.25  =  11.942.  Now, 
correct  this  value  of  h,  by  correct- 
ing the  second  term,  which  is  £  of  an 

inch,  instead  of  \    , —  -77 — p,  \* 
\  s/lG  I  (aJrh  S 

or  .141.  Then  we  get  h  =a  12.192 
—  .141  =  12.051,  which  is  a  suffi- 
ciently near  approximation.  Thus 
we  see,  that  a  weir,  which  dams  up 
the  whole  of  the  former  current  of 
three  feet  deep,  will  only  raise  the 
water  of  this  river  one  foot.  The 
same  rule  serves  to  show  how  high 
we  ought  to  raise  this  weir,  to  pro- 
duce any  given  rise  in  the  waters. 

The  following  table  exhibits  a 
comparison  of  some  results  found 
by  this  rule  with  those  found  by 
experience,  (in  inches.) 


Dis- 
charge 
of  the 
weir 
per  se- 
cond. 

Head 
pro- 
ducing 
the  ve- 
locity 
at  the 
weir. 

Head 
pro- 
ducing 
the  ve- 
locity 
above 
it. 

Calcu- 
lated 
height 
of  the 
river 
above 
the 

waster. 

Ob- 
served 
height. 

3888 

7.302 

.025 

6.677 

6.583 

2462 

5.385 

.35 

5.035 

4.75 

1112 

3.171 

.116 

3.035 

3.166 

259 

1.201 

.0114 

1.1S9 

1.250 

As  to  their  contraction,  weirs  are 
made  in  different  ways,  as  of  tim- 
ber alone,  sometimes  of  bricks,  or 
stones,  and  timber,  and  of  different 
other  materials ;  they  have  com- 
monly from  two  to  eight  or  ten 
openings  to  let  the  water  pass 
through,  according  as  the  breadth 
of  the  stream  and  other  circum- 


WEI 

stances  may  require.  In  slow-mov- 
ing waters,  strong  wooden  beams 
thrown  across  the  stream,  and 
made  close  by  means  of  boards 
well  secured,  are  in  many  cases 
sufficient.  In  a  small  river,  a  weir 
may  consist  of  several  rows  of 
stakes,  firmly  driven  down,  inter- 
twined with  branches  of  trees,  and 
the  intervals  filled  with  stones. 
But  for  more  powerful  rivers,  the 
weirs  must  be  of  stronger  construc- 
tion. They  may  consist  of  strong 
frameworks  of  wood,  having  the 
different  compartments  all  paved 
with  large  stones ;  they  must  rise 
very  gradually  against  the  stream, 
and  be  made  to  slope  gradually 
away  before  it,  as  it  flows  over. 
In  Rees's  Encyclopedia,  we  have 
the  following  account  of  a  weir 
constructed  under  the  direction  of 
the  Rev.  W.  H.  Coham,  in  Devon- 
shire. 

"  In  this  weir,  which  was  formed 
on  a  large,  rapid,  and  strong  river, 
after  the  stream  had  been  tempo- 
rarily diverted,  and  every  thing 
removed  for  a  proper  foundation, 
a  double  row  of  pits  was  dug  into 
a  rocky  substratum,  directly  across 
the  bottom  or  bed  of  the  river,  at 
about  five  feet  asunder  lengthways, 
by  four  feet  in  breadth,  and  about 
two  feet  in  depth  ;  and  into  these 
pits,  oak  posts  of  about  six  or 
seven  inches  square  were  fixed. 
The  mason  then  raised  a  perpen- 
dicular wall,  without  any  cement, 
about  five  feet  and  a  half  thick, 
entirely  enclosing  the  posts,  the 
labourers  being  employed  in  the 
mean  time  in  backing  up  the  wall 
on  the  higher  side  with  some  of 
the  stiffest  clay  to  be  had.  This 
was,  however,  afterwards  found  to 
be  wrong ;  it  should  have  been 
done  in  the  puddle  manner,  by 
means  of  mould  and  gravelly 
earth. 

"  When  the  wall  was  raised  to 


WEI 

such  a  height  as  was  deemed  ne- 
cessary, in  relation  to  the  level 
required,  and  the  preservation  of 
the  lands  adjacent,  the  upper  parts 
of  the  oak-posts  were  sawn  off,  in 
order  to  receive  cross-pieces  and 
joists,  the  front  posts  being  then 
left  to  stand  about  six  inches 
higher  than  the  hinder  ones ;  and 
on  these  joists  oak  planks  were 
pinned,  about  six  feet  and  a  half 
long,  by  three  inches  thick.  These 
planks  were  brought  forwards  to 
project  about  one  foot  and  a  half 
over  the  perpendicular  of  the  wall, 
on  the  lower  side,  forming  a  sort 
of  lip,  as  it  has  been  termed ;  the 
clay,  together  with  these  planks, 
constituting  an  inclined  plane,  and 
terminating  at  the  distance  of  about 
fifteen  feet  up  the  stream,  on  the 
common  bed  of  the  river. 

"  The  entrance  for  the  leat  was 
cut  at  about  thirty  feet  above  the 
lip  of  the  weir,  where,  to  regulate 
the  quantity  of  water  to  be  admit- 
ted, three  strong  flood-hatches,  to 
be  lifted  or  let  down  by  a  lever 
and  windlass,  were  placed  ;  and 
through  which  a  column  of  water, 
of  about  eight  feet  in  width,  by  four 
feet  in  depth,  may  be  introduced  at 
any  time.  Between  the  leat  and 
the  river,  a  stone  wall,  strongly 
cemented,  is  erected,  which  is  about 
eight  feet  in  height,  and  carried 
from  the  head  of  the  leat  to  about 
thirty  feet  below  the  weir,  in  a 
parallel  line  with  the  river,  and 
at  the  end  of  which  wall  another 
flood-hatch  is  fixed  on  a  level  with 
the  bed  of  the  river.  This  latter 
hatch  will  always  be  of  great  ad- 
vantage when  any  reparations  may 
be  wanted  on  the  weir  ;  as  on 
drawing  it  up  when  the  water  is 
low,  the  weir  in  a  few  hours  will 
be  left  perfectly  dry,  and  the  work- 
men, with  the  greatest  conveniency 
may  proceed  in  their  operations. 
From  the  top  of  the  side  wall, 


WEI 


WEL 


above  tlie  weir,  the  ground  is  made 
sloping  to  the  river,  and  below  it 
is  covered  with  turf,  and  levelled 
as  a  foot  path. 

"  Immediately  below  the  weir, 
in  this  case,  there  is  an  outlet 
regulated  by  another  floodhatch, 
and  conducted  through  a  shoot 
formed  of  oak  plank,  from  the 
leat,  and  contrived  for  the  admis- 
sion of  salmon,  which  are  there 
sometimes  taken ;  and  below  the 
lower  floodhatch,  a  trap,  or  willey, 
as  it  is  there  termed,  is  made  for 
the  catching  of  smaller  fish  :  this 
part  of  the  work  does  not,  however, 
properly  belong  to  this  kind  of 
weir,  therefore  it  need  not  be  more 
noticed. 

"  The  height  of  the  weir  is  about 
four  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
river  where  it  is  fixed  ;  and  its 
length,  from  bank  to  bank,  di- 
rectly across,  or  at  right  angles 
with  the  stream,  is  about  forty- 
eight  feet ;  forty  feet  of  which  is 
carried  at  a  perfect  level,  and  over 
which  the  water  falls  precisely  at 
the  same  depth,  forming  a  beau- 
tiful cascade.  The  remaining  por- 
tions of  the  length  of  the  weir, 
namely,  four  feet  on  each  side,  are 
raised,  gradually  ascending  to  the 
banks,  for  the  purpose  of  warding 
off  the  torrent,  from  them  in  time 
of  floods,  when  the  river,  in  this 
.case,  is  very  tumultuous. 

"  The  lip  part  of  the  weir  is 
found  to  answer  perfectly ;  as  in 
proportion  to  the  force  of  the  water 
behind,  so  is  the  distance  which  it 
is  thrown  over  the  weir  from  the 
foundation  of  the  perpendicular 
wall. 

"  If  the  writer  had  not  been 
foiled,  and  had  part  of  the  work  to 
perform  over  again,  in  consequence 
of  the  use  of  clay,  as  already 
noticed,  being  under  the  necessity 
of  driving  on  the  weir  in  a  direct 
line  with  the  former  work,  into  the 

476 


side  of  the  opposite  bank  as  before; 
and  after  removing  as  much  of  the 
clay  as  could  be  got  at,  which  will 
not  unite  completely  with  the  soil, 
but  become  liable  to  be  undermined 
by  the  water,  by  making  a  puddle, 
as  used  in  canals  of  mould  and 
gravel,  in  its  stead,  which  suc- 
ceeded in  a  complete  manner ;  the 
whole  cost  of  the  weir  would  not 
have  exceeded  £75. 

"  This  weir  or  wear,  from  its 
present  appearances,  may  now,  it 
is  said,  seem  to  bid  defiance  tc 
time  ;  and  be  safely  recommended 
as  a  pattern  to  those  who  may 
have  occasion  to  construct  any 
thing  of  a  similar  kind,  either  for 
watering  land,  for  machinery,  or 
other  uses." 

For  further  information  on  this 
subject,  the  reader  may  consult 
Dr.  Anderson's  "Treatise  on  the 
Erection  of  Weirs,  &c." 

Well,  a  deep  circular  pit,  or 
sort  of  shaft,  sunk  by  digging  down 
through  the  different  strata,  or  beds 
of  earthy  and  other  materials  of  the 
soil,  so  as  to  form  an  excavation 
for  the  purpose  of  containing  the 
water  of  some  spring,  or  internal 
reservoir,  by  which  it  may  be  sup- 
plied. 

It  is  customary  to  have  wells 
built  round  with  stone,  or  brick, 
from  the  bottom  to  the  top;  and 
pumps  are  frequently  fixed  in  them. 
There  are  two  methods  of  building 
the  stone,  or  brick,  within  the  well, 
which  is  called  the  steining.  By 
one  of  these  methods,  a  circular 
ring  is  first  formed,  whose  diameter 
is  the  same  as  that  of  the  intended 
well ;  this  ring  is  composed  of  tim- 
ber, which  is  the  same  size  as  the 
brick-courses  with  which  the  well  is 
to  be  lined.  The  lower  edge  of  this 
circular  ring  is  made  sharp,  and  is 
shod  with  iron,  so  that  it  may  have 
a  tendency  to  cut  into  the  ground ; 
and  it  is  then  placed  flat  upon  the 


WEL 


W  EL 


ground,  and  the  bricks  are  built 
upon  it  to  a  considerable  height,  in 
the  manner  of  a  circular  wall.  The 
well-digger  next  gets  within  this 
wall,  and  begins  to  dig  away  the 
earth  at  the  bottom,  and  the  weight 
of  the  wall  forces  the  circular  ring, 
or  kirb,  and  with  it  the  brick-work 
with  which  it  is  loaded,  to  descend 
into  the  earth,  and  it  continues  to 
sink  as  fast  as  the  earth  is  removed. 
When  this  brick  or  stone  work  is 
sunk  a  considerable  depth,  the 
building  may  be  continued,  and 
more  added  to  the  top,  and  the 
wall  may  thus  be  raised  at  top,  as 
fast  as  the  kirb  sinks.  When, 
however,  it  gets  very  deep,  and 
particularly  if  it  pass  through  a  soft 
strata,  it  will  sink  no  longer;  and 
when  this  is  the  case,  a  second  kirb 
of  a  smaller  size  is  sometimes  com- 
menced within  the  first.  When, 
owing  to  the  softness  of  the  strata, 
a  kirb  will  not  sink,  or  when  it  is 
required  to  stop  out  water,  the 
bricks,  or  stones  must  be  laid,  one 
by  one,  at  the  bottom  of  the  work, 
taking  care  that  the  worfc  is  not 
left  so  unsupported  as  to  allow  the 
bricks  to  fall  as  they  are  laid :  this 
process  is  termed  under -pruning. 

The  process  of  digging  wells  is 
chiefly  performed  by  means  of  a 
small  short-handled  spade,  and  a 
small  implement  resembling  a  pick- 
axe, the  earth  being  drawn  up  in 
buckets  by  the  hand,  or  a  windlass 
fixed  over  the  opening  for  the 
purpose.  The  following  ingenious 
mode  of  digging  a  well  has  been 
proposed  by  a  French  philosopher, 
who  advised  that  the  ground  should 
be  perforated  to  a  sufficient  depth 
by  means  of  an  auger,  or  borer : 
a  cylindrical  wooden  pipe  being 
then  placed  in  the  hole,  and  driven 
downward  with  a  mallet,  and  the 
boring  continued,  that  the  pipe 
may  be  forced  down  to  a  greater 
depth,  that  it  may  reach  the  water, 


or  spring.  Tn  proportion  as  the  borer 
becomes  filled  with  earth,  it  must 
be  drawn  up  and  cleansed  ;  and  by 
the  continual  addition  of  fresh 
pieces  of  pipe,  the  boring  may  be 
carried  to  a  considerable  extent 
under-ground,  and  water  may,  in 
the  greatest  number  of  cases,  be 
reached  by  means  of  this  process. 
Wells,  it  is  added,  constructed  in 
this  manner,  are  superior  to  those 
which  are  formed  according  to  the 
common  method,  both  in  point  of 
cheapness,  and  likewise  because 
they  afford  a  more  copious,  and 
also  a  more  certain,  supply  of  water ; 
however,  it  must  be  observed,  that 
to  bore  to  any  considerable  depth 
in  this  manner,  would  require  a 
large  and  expensive  boring  instru- 
ment ;  it  would  also,  when  worked 
deep,  require  a  great  power  at 
the  top  to  bore,  and  it  might  be 
entirely  stopped  by  the  nature  of 
the  strata  which  it  had  to  bore 
through.  However,  in  some  cases 
it  might  answer;  and  it  would  in 
those  cases,  from  its  readiness,  be 
extremely  convenient.  But  by  far 
the  best  mode  would  be  to  have 
metallic  pipes  cast  on  purpose,  so 
formed  as  to  fit  exactly  upon  each 
other,  to  any  depth  that  might  be 
requisite;  as  the  wooden  pipes, 
from  the  difficulty  that  would  be 
found  in  driving  them  down,  and 
making  them  fit  so  nicely  as  to 
admit  the  borer,  would  be  fre- 
quently a  great  obstruction  to  the 
work. 

With  regard  to  the  strata  for 
digging,  we  may  observe,  that  when 
differently  formed  strata  of  sand, 
to  a  considerable  depth,  rest  upon 
beds  of  clay,  and  have  a  free  issue 
at  the  lowest  ends  of  them,  if  wells 
were  sunk  into  the  sand  beds  higher 
up,  no  water  can  be  there  perma- 
nently found,  till  the  strata  of  sand 
be  completely  penetrated  through, 
and  till  we  have  gone  to  some 

477 


WEL 


WEL 


depth  into  the  beds  of  clay  that  are 
below  them.  The  water  would 
never  rise,  in  such  cases,  much 
higher  than  a  certain  point  in  the 
wells;  for,  as  soon  as  it  rose  to 
the  porous  sand,  it  would  imme- 
diately flow  through  it,  and  would 
thus  make  its  escape  below.  If 
the  streams  that  run  beneath  the 
beds  of  sand  be  small,  and  the 
draught  of  water  at  any  time  from 
the  well  be  particularly  large,  the 
well  may  be  so  much  sunk  as  to 
be  made  nearly  dry,  and  will  re- 
quire some  time  to  fill  again,  which 
will  cause  great  inconvenience ; 
this  can  only  be  obviated  by  making 
the  wells  very  wide,  and  by  sink- 
ing them  very  deep  into  the  clay 
strata. 

As  springs,  from  which  wells  are 
supplied,  are  formed  by  water  per- 
colating through  the  upper  strata 
of  the  earth,  and  descending  down- 
wards until  it  meets  with  a  stratum 
of  clay,  or  other  impervious  mate- 
rial which  intercepts  its  course,  it 
may  naturally  be  concluded  that  an 
abundant  spring  for  this  use  need 
never  be  expected  in  places  that  are 
covered  to  a  great  depth  with  sand, 
without  any  stratum  of  clay  to  force 
the  water  upwards;  nor  can  we 
expect  abundant  springs  in  cases 
where  the  soil  consists  of  a  uni- 
form bed  of  clay,  that  continues  to 
a  great  depth  from  the  surface;  for, 
to  flow  in  abundance,  the  water 
must  always  have  a  porous  stratum ; 
and  it  can  be  made  to  flow  hori- 
zontally in  that  only,  when  it  is 
supported  by  a  stratum  of  some 
substance,  as  clay,  which  is  im- 
permeable to  water.  Hence  we 
have  as  a  rule,  that  wells,  if  begun 
with  sand,  or  gravel,  or  any  rich 
strata,  will  very  seldom  be  supplied 
with  water,  until  they  have  arrived 
at  clay;  and  that,  if  they  com- 
mence with  clay,  no  water  can  be 
hoped  for  in  abundance,  till  they 


have  come  to  sand,  gravel,  or  some 
kind  of  porous  rock. 

As  facts  are  the  support  and 
illustration  of  theory,  and  as  they 
frequently  shew  circumstances  bet- 
ter than  theory  can  exhibit  them, 
the  following  examples  of  the  pro- 
cess and  effects  observed  in  digging 
wells  have  been  collected,  princi- 
pally from  the  Report  on  Agricul- 
ture, and  other  works  of  a  similar 
nature. 

A  well  was  sunk  in  1794,  at 
Norland  House,  on  the  road  to 
Uxbridge,  to  the  depth  of  two  hun- 
dred and  thirty-six  feet;  and  after 
this  a  hole  of  five  inches  and  a 
quarter  was  bored  down,  and  a  cop- 
per pipe,  whose  diameter  was  the 
same  as  that  of  the  borer,  was 
driven  down  to  the  additional  depth 
of  twenty-four  feet,  into  a  stratum 
of  sand  which  was  filled  with  water, 
and  a  mixture  of  sand  and  water 
instantly  rushed  up  through  the 
pipe  so  abundantly,  that  in  eleven 
minutes  it  had  risen  to  the  height 
of  one  hundred  and  twenty-four 
feet ;  thkt  is,  one  hundred  feet  in 
the  well  part,  and  twenty- four  in 
the  pipe ;  and  in  the  course  of  one 
hour  and  nine  minutes,  it  rose  one 
hundred  and  nineteen  feet  more, 
that  is,  on  the  whole,  two  hundred 
and  forty-three  feet  in  one  hour 
and  twenty  minutes.  On  letting 
down  a  sounding-line,  it  was  dis- 
covered, that  sand  had  arisen  in 
such  quantity  as  to  fill  the  well  to 
the  height  of  ninety-six  feet,  which, 
by  repeatedly  digging  out,  was  at 
last  so  considerably  reduced,  as  to 
permit  the  water  to  rise  through  it 
more  freely,  until  it  flowed  over  the 
top  of  the  well  at  the  rate  of  forty- 
six  gallons  per  minute;  and  if 
quantity  had  been  requisite,  it  is 
said,  that  by  clearing  out  the  sand 
till  the  obstruction  it  afforded  were 
of  small  consequence,  it  might  cer- 
tainly have  been  obtained  after  the 


W  EL 


W  EL 


rate  of  several  hundred  gallons  per 
minute.  However,  quality  was  what, 
in  this  instance,  was  most  requisite, 
and  the  water,  by  filtering  through 
the  great  body  of  sand  that  was 
left  at  the  bottom  of  the  well  in  its 
ascent,  was  rendered  very  pure. 

At  Mr.  Munday's  brewery,  at 
Chelsea,  in  1793,  a  well  was  dug 
to  the  depth  of  three  hundred  and 
ninety-four  feet,  within  twenty  or 
thirty  feet  of  the  edge  of  the  river, 
chiefly  through  a  stratum  of  blue 
clay,  or  marl.  At  about  the  depth 
of  fifty  feet,  they  discovered  a 
quantity  of  loose  coal,  twelve  inches 
thick,  and  about  the  same  depth 
was  discovered  a  little  sand  and 
gravel.  The  well-digger,  generally 
as  he  went  on,  bored  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet  at  a  time  below  his 
work,  and  on  the  last  boring,  when 
the  rod  was  about  fifteen  feet  below 
the  bottom  of  the  well,  he  distinctly 
felt  a  rolling  motion  :  on  continuing 
to  bore,  the  water  gushed  out  with 
great  force  by  the  side  of  the  auger; 
and  he  had  scarcely  time  hastily  to 
withdraw  his  boring  instrument, 
put  it  with  his  other  tools  into  the 
bucket,  and  be  drawn  up — as  the 
water  rapidly  rose  to  the  height  of 
two  hundred  feet. 

The  following  case  happened  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  metropolis.  A 
gentleman  bought  a  house  and 
farm  a  little  below  Kensington 
gravel-pits,  on  the  right-hand  side 
of  the  road,  nearly  opposite  to 
Holland  House.  The  premises  were 
entirely  destitute  of  water,  which 
appeared  to  the  occupier  to  be  so 
great  an  inconvenience,  that  he 
determined  to  try  if  he  could  find 
any  there  by  sinking  a  well,  even 
if  he  should  be  obliged  to  go  to  a 
very  great  depth.  With  this  intent 
he  commenced  digging,  and  had 
got  a  great  depth  without  finding 
any  symptoms  of  water:  at  length, 
however,  he  did  find  water ;  and, 


to  his  surprise,  (for  he  feared  that, 
being  so  deep,  it  would  require  ex- 
pensive works  to  raise  it  artificially,) 
it  rose  very  quickly  till  it  reached 
the  top,  when  it  ran  over  in  a  very 
copious  stream,  overflowing  the  field 
around  it,  till  it  found  a  level,  and 
formed  thus  a  rill  that  continued  to 
flow  at  all  times  of  the  year. 

The  usual  mode  of  clearing  wells 
from  noxious  air,  which  sometimes 
fills  them,  is  by  means  of  a  large 
pair  of  bellows  and  a  long  leathern 
pipe,  which  is  suspended  in  the 
well,  and  fresh  air,  by  means  of 
the  bellows,  forced  through  it  to  the 
bottom  of  the  well.  The  following 
apparatus,  however,  is  recommend- 
ed as  being  more  efficacious,  and 
equally  convenient.  Let  six  lengths 
of  metal  pipe,  each  eight  feet  long 
and  two  inches  in  diameter,  be 
made  of  tin-plate,  all  except  the 
upper  one,  which  must  be  of  cop- 
per, that  it  may  bear  the  heat 
better :  let  a  cylindrical  vessel  also 
be  made  of  copper,  large  enough  to 
hold  about  two  gallons ;  and  let  it 
be  fixed  to  the  upper  pipe,  having 
through  its  sides  a  number  of  holes, 
for  the  admission  of  air  to  support 
a  fire,  which  is  to  be  kindled  within 
it.  This  vessel  must  be  so  fixed, 
that  it  may  have,  at  least,  five  feet 
of  pipe  above  its  top.  To  place 
this  in  the  well,  lower  down  the 
bottom  length,  the  lengths  being 
carefully  fitted  together  and  secured 
from  any  danger  of  drawing  apart, 
and  the  joints  rendered  air-tight  by 
the  application  of  oil-putty.  They 
must  be  let  down  until  the  bottom 
nearly  touches  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  the  fire-pan  may  be 
supported  on  two  timbers  placed 
across  the  wall  of  the  well.  Fill 
the  fire-coal  with  lighted  charcoal, 
or  wood,  then,  the  copper  pipe 
becoming  heated,  the  internal  air 
will  be  rarefied ;  and  the  external 
denser  air  continuing  to  press  to 


WES 


WES 


the  bottom  of  the  pipe  to  supply  its 
place,  the  noxious  air  will  pass  up 
the  pipe  as  through  a  chimney,  and 
the  well  will  be  thus  cleared  from 
it,  and  filled  with  pure  air  from 
above.  The  effect  will  be  greater 
when  the  fire-pan  is  placed  lower 
on  the  pipe;  but  it  must  not  be 
placed  too  low,  or  the  charcoal  fire 
will  produce  carbonic  gas  in  great 
abundance  in  the  well. 

Well,  the  space  occupied  by  a 
flight  of  stairs  :  the  space  left  in 
the  middle,  beyond  the  ends  of  the 
steps,  is  called  the  well-hole. 

Westminster  Abbey.  The 
architecture  and  history  of  the 
abbey  church  of  Westminster,  so 
splendid  and  comparatively  so  per- 
fect a  monument  of  the  architec- 
tural style  and  skill  of  our  ancestors, 
deserves  a  more  detailed  account 
than  the  extent  of  our  work  will 
allow  us  to  give  to  it.  The  site  of 
the  church  and  monastery  of  St. 
Peter  was  in  early  times  an  island, 
enclosed  on  the  east  by  the  main 
channel  of  the  Thames,  and  on  the 
west  by  a  collateral  branch.  Its  old 
name  was  Thorney,  which  some 
suppose  to  be  given  it  from  the 
Saxon  Thorn-eg,  an  isle  of  bram- 
bles and  thorns;  and  its  situation 
is  described  in  an  authentic  charter 
of  OfTa,  as  "  Torneia  in  loco  terri- 
bili  ad  Westminster."  The  monas- 
tery is  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  Sebert,  the  king  of  the  East 
Saxons,  one  of  the  earliest  converts 
to  Christianity;  but  it  owed  its 
principal  splendour  to  Edward  the 
Confessor,  who  rebuilt  the  church 
and  monastery  in  a  magnificent 
style,  and  endowed  them  with 
ample  revenues.  Matthew  Paris 
informs  us,  that "  it  was  constructed 
in  a  new  kind  of  arrangement,  from 
which  many  persons,  in  erecting 
churches,  took  a  pattern,  and  strove 
to  imitate  it."  And  Sir  Christopher 
Wren  gives  the  following  descrip- 


tion of  it  after  an  ancient  manu- 
script :  --"  The  principal  area,  or 
nave,  of  the  church  being  raised 
high,  and  vaulted  with  square  and 
uniform  ribs,  is  turned  circular  to 
the  east.  This  on  each  side  is 
strongly  fortified  with  a  double 
vaulting  of  the  aisles  in  two  stories, 
with  their  pillars  and  arches.  The 
cross-building,  contrived  to  contain 
the  choir  in  the  middle,  and  the 
better  to  support  the  lofty  tower, 
rose  with  a  plainer  and  lower  vault- 
ing; which  tower  then  spreading 
with  artificial  winding  stairs,  was 
continued  with  plain  walls  to  its 
timber  roof,  which  was  well  covered 
with  lead."  Some  have  supposed 
that  the  novelty  of  this  structure, 
mentioned  by  Matthew  Paris,  was 
the  introduction  of  the  form  of  a 
cross  in  the  plan.  While  Laurence 
was  abbot  in  1163,  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  II.,  the  privilege  of  using  the 
mitre,  ring,  and  gloves,  distinguish- 
ing marks  of  episcopal  dignity,  was 
obtained  from  pope  Alexander  III. 
and  in  the  sequel  the  mitred  abbots 
were  allowed  to  sit  in  parliament, 
and  enjoyed  all  the  honours  of 
bishops.  In  1540,  the  abbey  church 
was,  by  Henry  VIII.,  constituted  a 
cathedral,  with  a  bishop,  a  dean, 
twelve  prebendaries,  &c.  and  Tho- 
mas Thirlby  was  made  bishop  of 
Westminster;  afterwards  the  see 
was  united,  by  Edward  VI.,  to  that 
of  London ;  and  by  an  act  of  his 
reign,  it  was  declared  to  be  still 
a  cathedral.  Mary  restored  the 
monastery  to  its  pristine  condition  ; 
but,  in  1560,  the  monks  were  dis- 
placed, and  the  church  again  ren- 
dered collegiate,  on  a  basis  very 
similar  to  that  which  had  been 
established  by  Henry  VIII. 

The  building,  in  its  present  state, 
consists  of  a  nave  and  two  side- 
aisles,  separated  by  ranges  of  tall, 
slender,  clustered  columns,  support- 
ing the  roof,  which  is  raised  to  a 


WES 


WES 


great  elevation.  The  length  of  the 
whole  edifice,  within  the  walls,  is 
three  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  the 
breadth  of  the  nave  and  aisles  se- 
venty-two feet,  and  the  length  of 
the  cross,  or  transept,  one  hundred 
and  ninety-five  feet.  On  entering 
the  great  western  door,  the  whole 
body  of  the  church  displays  itself 
to  view  in  a  manner  very  striking; 
loftiness,  lightness,  and  elegance, 
being  its  marking  features ;  but 
these  features  are  now  much  dis- 
tracted by  the  numerous  monu- 
ments which  fill  up  the  open  spaces 
and  cover  the  walls.  The  nave 
is  separated  from  the  choir  by  a 
screen  ;  to  the  east  of  the  choir  is 
a  chapel,  raised  to  contain  the 
shrine  of  Edward  the  Confessor, 
and  raised  considerably  above  the 
level  of  the  pavement.  At  the  east 
end  is  a  sumptuous  chantry,  to  the 
memory  of  Henry  V.  The  north 
and  south  sides  of  the  choir  are 
occupied  by  aisles,  and  small  cha- 
pels dedicated  to  different  saints. 
In  the  reign  of  George  II.  many 
parts  of  the  exterior  of  this  church 
were  coated  over  with  stone,  and 
otherwise  repaired,  at  the  public 
expense.  The  rich  sculpture,  how- 
ever, and  the  statues  which  formerly 
adorned  the  buttresses,  could  not 
be  restored  ;  and  these  parts  seem 
now  ill  suited  to  the  highly  orna- 
mented building  to  which  they  are 
attached  :  and  the  two  western 
towers,  completed  from  the  designs 
of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  labour 
under  a  similar  defect.  The  choir, 
in  the  form  of  a  semioctagon,  was 
surrounded  by  eight  chapels ;  but, 
by  the  appropriation  of  the  central 
chapel  to  be  the  porch  of  that  of 
Henry  VII.,  they  are  now  reduced 
to  seven.  The  cross-aisles,  or  tran- 
septs, have  long  been  consecrated 
to  the  interment  of  distinguished 
personages.  But  the  greatest  archi- 
tectural curiosity  is  the  chapel  of 
3P 


Henry  VII.,  which  is  entered  by 
a  flight  of  steps  leading  to  a  magni- 
ficent gateway. 

The  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  was 
built  by  the  monarch  whose  name 
it  bears.  According  to  Stow,  he 
caused  to  be  taken  down  the  Virgin 
Mary's  chapel,  which  was  built  by 
Henry  III.,  and  a  tavern  called  the 
White  Rose,  both  of  which  occu- 
pied the  site  of  the  present  building. 
In  the  king's  will,  which  is  preserved 
at  the  Chapter-house  at  Westmin- 
ster, and  which  is  dated  at  Rich- 
mond on  "  the  laste  daie  of  the 
moneth  of  Marche,"  1509,  orders 
were  given  for  the  finishing  this 
building,  and  for  the  erection  of  the 
tomb  of  the  king.  As  some  of  the 
documents  relating  to  these  works 
will  be  considered  curious  to  the 
architect,  we  shall  give  selections 
from  them.  With  respect  to  the 
tomb,  in  the  British  Museum,  among 
the  Harleian  MSS.  is  one  bearing 
the  title,  "  An  estimate  for  the 
charge,  for  the  making  of  a  tomb 
for  king  Henry  VII.,  which  plott 
was  afterwards  disliked  by  king 
Henry  VIII.,  and  altered  according 
as  it  now  stands."  In  this  are  the 
following  items : — 

"  Lawrence  Ymber,  Karuer, 

"  For  makinge  the  patrones  in 
timber,  of  different  images,  some  of 
which  were  to  be  kneeling  and  some 
lying,  lxiiij  li.  / 

"  Memorandum.  That  Draws- 
werd,  sherife  of  York,  saith,  that 
the  two  images  wh'  ben  lyenge  in 
the  tombe,  and  the  kinges  image 
wh'  is  kneelinge  upon  the  tombe, 
yf  he  should  make  them  as  well  as 
he  can,  he  would  deliver  one  of 
them  redie  wrought  wh*  xij  weeks, 
wherefore  he  judgeth  every  peare 
of  those  three  images  redy  wrought 
at  lxvj  s.  viij.  d.  som  is  x  li.  &c.  &c. 
Total  som  is  xxxvj  li. 

"  Humfray  Walker,  Founder. 

"  Item,  the  founder  saithe,  that 

481 


WES 


WES 


vj  m.  and  iiij  c.  pound  weight  of 
fine  yellow  mettal,  will  perform  ihe 
making  of  the  images  for  the  whole 
tomb,  which  ben  in  n timber,  grete 
and  small,  xix — the  price  of  every 
c  of  mettal,  is  xx  s.  Som  is  lxiiij  li. 

"  His  whole  work  to  be  delivered 
in  one  year  and  a  half,  at  som 
total  1  vi  c.  iiij  IL 

"  Nicholas  Ewen,  copper  smithe 
and  gilder. 

"To  finish  his  work  in  half  a 
year,  and  receive  cccx  li. 

"  John  Bell,  John  Maynard, 
paintors. 

"  For  painting  to  be  performed 
by  iiij  mens  hands  within  three 
quarters  of  a  year,  xl  li. 

"  Robart  Vertue,  Robart  Jenins, 
and  John  Lebons,  the  kings 
iij  mr  masons, 

"  Say  that  the  workmanship  on 
the  black  toivch  stone  and  white 
marble  for  the  tombe,  after  the 
maner  of  the  moldings  of  the  pa- 
trone  wh'  master  Pageny  hath 
made,  will  cost  lxxx  li.  wh'  will  be 
deliv'd  redy  wrought  within  the 
space  of  one  year,  lxxx  li. 

"  Mr.  Finche  and  RogerThorney, 
marchats. 

"Say  that  100  foote  of  blacke 
towche-stone  is  sufficient  for  the 
ligger  and  the  base  of  the  said 
tombe — price  of  ev'y  foot  in  Lon- 
don, is  ij  s.  Som  x  lu  Item  lxxx 
foote  of  whit  marble  will  be  suffi- 
cient for  the  sides  and  the  ends  of 
the  said  tombe,  wh'  will  cost,  to  be 
deliv'd  in  London,  as  Mr.  Ffinch 
saith,  xiij  li.  vj  s.  viij  d. 

"  Som  totalis  is  m.  cc.  Ivij  li. 
vj  s.  viij  d. 

"Memorandum.  That  my  lord 
of  Darby  hath  an  image  made  of 
copper  5  foote  and  half  long,  which 
weyed,  when  it  was  caste,  and  re- 
paired redye  to  the  gildinge,  v  c  and 
a  half  weight : — for  the  casting  and 
repairing  of  the  same,  the  founder 
had  JxxxZz.    Item,  there  went  to 

482 


the  gildinge  of  the  same  image, 
xxxv  li.  Item,  the  gilder  had  for 
his  labore,  x  li.  Item,  James  Hales 
had  for  the  making  of  the  patren 
of  the  image  in  timber,  c  s. 

"  c  xxx  lLn 

Torrysany,  mentioned  in  the 
next  document,  is  Torrigiano,  of 
whom  some  particulars  are  related 
by  Vasari,  Cellini,  Vertue,  and 
Walpole.  He  was  a  competitor 
in  the  academy  of  Florence  with 
Michael  Angelo.  He  was  engaged 
by  Henry  VIII.  to  erect  the  tomb 
of  his  predecessor;  and  it  was  the 
monarch's  intention  also  to  have 
one  erected  for  himself  and  his 
queen  by  the  same  artist.  The 
following  indenture  was  copied  by 
Britton  from  a  MS.  roll  in  the  pos- 
session of  the  dean  of  Westminster, 
and  contains  several  particulars  in- 
teresting to  the  architect.  The  first 
part  of  the  MS.  is  much  torn,  and 
consequently  imperfect. 

Agreement  between  ihe  executors 
o  f  king  Henry  V II.  and  Peter 
Torrysany. 

"  of  our  Lorde  God 

M.  d.  xvi.  and  in  the  ....  the  xiij. 

Between  the  right  Reverend  fader 
in  God  ......  . .  Thomas  Bisshop 

of  Duresme,  John  Bisshop  of  Ro- 
chester, the  right   sourer 

of  England,  Charles  erle  of  Wor- 
cester the  Kings  of  the 

Kings  Benche,  Robert  Reed  Knyght 

Chiefe  Justice  owrer  of 

the  Kings  Household,  John  Cutt 

Knyght  vndir   tament  and 

last  wille  of  the  late  King  of  most 

famous  John  Islepe  Abbot 

of  Westmr  on  the  oon  ptie,  and 

 the  other  ptie:  Witnesseth, 

that  it  is  covenanted  

bitweene  the  said  pties  in  maner 
and  forme  following. 

"  That  is  to  say,  the  foresaid 
Petir  covenanth  promyttith  and 
graunteth  and  hym  and  hys  exe- 
cutors by  thise   pnts  byndith  to 


WES 


WES 


make  and  work  or  doo  to  be  made 
and  wrought  wel  clenly  vvorkmaly 
curiously  and  substancyally  ffoure 
basements  of  blake  marble  square 
of  the  gretenesse  every  square  oon 

foote  half   in  length  oon 

foote  of  assise  and  in  the  same  he 
shall  sett  iiij  other  basementts  of 
white  marble  squared  wyth  levys 
and  crests  and  upon  the  same  iiij 
basements  of  white  marble  he  shall 
set  iiij  pillours  of  copper  gylt 
wrought  with  bases  cuppes  capi- 
tells  and  other  garnysshmente  and 
of  heith  gretenes  and  proporeyon 
according  to  the  worke  and  upon 
the  same  iiij  pillours  of  copp.  gilt 
he  shall  set  a  creste  of  copp.  gylt 
rounde  aboute  the  worke  squared 
wyth  porcullies  and  fflowredelis 
and  upon  the  same  he  shall  make 
of  white  marble  a  vault  wt  archy- 
traves  and  frese  and  creste  with  all 
 anships  and  colours  there- 
unto belonging  according  as  ap- 
pereth  by  the  patren  and  upon  the 
said  crests  he  shall  sett  iiij  aungells 
of  erthe  bakid  in  an  oven  after  the 
colour  of  white  marble  ev'y  of  them 
kneeling  of  the  heith  of  ij  foote  of 
assise  ftrom  the  knes  upward  of  the 
whiche  iiij  aungells  oon  shall  holde 
the  pillour  wt  a  cockNupon  the 
same  all  of  copper  gilt  in  the  oon 
hand  and  the  scourge  of  copp.  gilt 
in  the  other  hand  another  aungell 
shall  holde  the  crosse  of  copp.  gilt 
in  oon  hand  and  the  iij  nayles  of 
copp.  gilt  in  the  other  hande  an 
othir  aungell  shall  holde  the  sphere 
of  copp.  gilt  in  the  oon  hande  and 
the  hammer  of  copp.  gilt  in  the 
othir  hande  and  the  iiijth  aungell 
shall  holde  in  oon  hande  a  sphere 
staff  with  a  sponge  on  the  ende  of 
copp.  gilt  and  in  the  other  hande 
the  pynsons  of  copp.  gylt  and  upon 
the  same  crests  upon  the  former 
parte  and  the  hynder  parte  he  shall 
make  the  kings  amies  of  white 
marbyll  coloured  as  app'teynith  wt 


the  crowne  Imp'rall  ou'  the  same 
armes  of  copp.  and  gilt  and  at  the 
right  ende  the  armes  of  the  late 
king  and  queue  in  a  scochyn  of 
white  marble  wt  braunches  and 
roses  on  efther  side  of  the  same 
scochyn  of  white  marble  all  colour- 
ed as  appteynith  and  a  crown 
Imprall  of  copp.  gilt  on  the  saide 
scochyn  and  at  the  other  ende  an 
other  scochyn  of  white  marble  wt 
the  Armes  of  England  and  Spayne 
and  a  branche  of  roses  of  white 
marble  ou'  either  side  all  coloured 
as  appteynith  wyth  a  crowne  Im- 
peryall  of  copp.  gilt  on  the  saide 

scochin.  And  all  the  saide  gar- 

nysshment  shall  conteyne  from  the 
nether  parte  of  the  said  iiij  base- 
ments of  blak  marble  unto  the 
upper  parts  of  the  crests  next  the 
saide  iiij  Aungells  ix  foot  of  assise, 
and  in  length  also  ix  foot  of  assise 
and  also  that  under  all  the  saide 
garnishment  shall  be  made  an  awl- 
ter  of  the  height  of  iij  foote  di'  of 
assise  and  of  length  vj  foote  of  as- 
size and  brede  iij  foote  and  iv  yn- 
ches  of  assise  and  the  basements 
of  the  same  awlter  shalbe  made  of 
blake  marble  and  upon  the  same 
basements  iiij  square  pillours  of 
white  marble  with  levys  and  crests 
with  their  proportions  all  coloured 
as  app'teynith  to  the  worke  and 
under  the  saide  awlter  shalbe  set 
xvj  pillours  of  copper  gilt  wrought 
according  to  the  saide  patron  and 
upon  the  saide  pillours  shalbe  leyde 
and  set  a  blake  marble  stone  and 
under  the  same  awlter  shalbe  leyde 
a  bakyn  ymage  of  erthe  coloured 
of  crist  dede  and  upon  the  bake- 
syde  of  the  saide  awlter  shalbe  set 
a  table  of  copp.  gilt  in  length  and 
brede  after  the  proporcion  of  the 
worke  and  in  the  sides  of  the  same 
table  shalbe  made  ij  historyes  the 
oon  of  the  resurreccion  of  oure 
Lorde  ou'  the  foreparte  all  gilt  and 
upon  the  bakesyde  of  the  same 

483 


WES 


WES 


table  shall  be  made  the  hystory  of 
the  nativite  of  oure  Lorde  in  lyke- 
wise  gilt  and  at  ev'y  ende  of  the 
same  table  shall  be  set  a  square 
pyllour  of  copper  gylt  wrought  wt 
levys  bases  and  capitells  according 
to  the  proporcion  and  height  of  the 

saide  Awlter  And  the  forsaid 

Peter  cov'nn'tith  promythth  and 
g'nn'tyth  by  these  p'nts  that  all  the 
whyte  marble  aforsaid  whiche  shal 
be  necessary  for  all  the  forsaid 
worke  shalbe  of  oon  p'fitt  white 
coloure  and  that  also  all  the  saide 
blake  marble  requisyte  to  the  said 
p'mysses  shalbe  in  lykewyse  of  oon 
p'fite  coloure.  And  all  the  copp. 
convenyent  to  the  forsaid  worke 
shalbe  good  pure  fayre  and  clene 
copp.  and  that  he  the  same  Peter 
at  hys  ovvne  propre  costs  and  ex- 
pensys  shall  fynde  and  bye  aswel 
alma'n  of  white  marble  and  blake 
marble  as  alman  copp.  and  other 
things  necessary  and  requysyte  for 
the  making  fynysshing  and  p'fyght- 
ing  of  the  same  Awlter  and  other 
the  pmysses.    And  that  all  and  all 

things  necessary  to  the  same  

Moreover  the  said  Peter  cov'n- 
n'tyth  and  gun'tyth  by  these  p'nts 
that  he  the  same  Peter  at  hys  owne 
propre  costs  and  expensys  shall 
wele  surely  puerly  clerely  suffici- 
ently and  workemanly  gylde  or  do 
to  be  gylt  with  fynde  golde  all  the 
forsaid  copp.  work  in  and  aboute 
the  forsaide  Awlter  and  other  p'- 
mysses. And  that  all  the  forsaid 
blake  marble  and  white  marble 
necessary  and  requysite  to  all  the 
forsaid  worke  shalbe  grav'd  and 
workmanly  wrought  according  to 
the  said  patren.  All  the  which 
basements  Aungells  Awlter  and 
other  the  p'myssys  above  specifyed 
and  to  the  same  necessary  as  ys 
aforesaid  the  forsaid  Peter  coven- 
n'tyth  and  gun'tyth  by  these 
p'sents  fully  to  make  ende  and 
fynysh  and  the  same  at  his  owne 

484 


propre  costs  clerely  to  set  up  wife 
the  new  chapell  which  the  forsaid 
late  king  caused  to  be  made  at 
Westmr  that  is  to  say  in  suche 
place  wtin  the  said  chapsll  as  bv 
the  forsaid  lords  and  executours  or 
any  of  them  or  their  assignes  shall 
be  assigned  before  the  first  day  of 
the  moneth  of  Novembere  the 
which  shalbe  in  the  yere  of  oure 
Lorde  God  m:v:xix  ffor  all  the 
whiche  p'mysses  togeder  wt  the 
workemanship  fynysshing  and  set- 
ting up  of  the  same  and  all  othir 
the  p'mysses  the  foresaid  Peter 
knowlachith  and  confessith  him  by 
these  p'nts  to  have  receyved  and 
had  of  the  said  lordes  and  execu- 
tours beforehand  at  their  sealyng 
of  these  endentures  the  some  of 
Oon  Thousand  pounds  st'ling — 
Of  the  which  said  Oon  Thousand 
pounds  the  said  Peter  knowlachith 
and  confessith  hymself  fully  con- 
tentid  paide  and  satisfied  in  full 
contenta  con  and  payment  of  all 
the  said  Worke  and  thereof  clerely 
acquytith  and  discharchith  the 
same  lordes  and  executors  and  the 
executors  of  them  and  euyhe  of 
them  by  these  p'nts — Fpurther- 
mo  re  this  endenture  witnessith 
that  where'  the  said  Peter  and 
Benedyk  Morovellj  and  hys  feli'- 
ship  m'chaunts  of  Luka  John  Cam- 
pua  and  John  Baptist  Morvellj 
also  m'chaunts  of  Luka  by  their 
wryting  obligatory  bering  date  of 
the  making  herof  be'n  holde  and 
bounde  unto  the  forsaide  lordes 
and  executers  and  the  said  Abbot 
in  m:  m:  marc  sterlings  to  be  paid 
at  the  ffest  of  Pentecost  next  com- 
yng  after  the  date  herof  as  in  the 
same  wryting  oblygatory  therof 
made  more  plainly  it  ys  conteyned 
Neverthelesse  the  forsaid  lordes 
and  executors  and  the  said  lorde 
Abbot  for  them  and  their  executors 
woll  and  grauntyn  by  thise  p'nts 
that  yf  the  said  Petre  his  executors 


WES 


WES 


or  assigns  or  any  of  them  well  and 
truly  holde  kepe  and  pfo'me  all 
and  singular  covn'nts  graunts  pro- 
•mysses  and  aggrements  and  all 
other  things  on  the  partie  of  the 
same  Peter  above  rehersid  accord- 
ing to  the  maner  and  fourme  above 
declared,  that  then  the  said  wryting 
obligatory  shalbe  voide  and  holde 
for  nought  or  els  to  stond  in  ail  his 
full  strength  elTecte  and  vertue  thys 
endenture  in  any  thing  notwtstand- 
ing — In  Witnesse  whereof  the 
p'ties  aforsaid  to  thise  endentures 
enterch'ungeablv  have  set  their 
sealys.  Yovyn  the  day  moneth 
and  yeres  above  specifyed." 

The  screen  of  this  chapel,  in  its 
perfect  state,  was  an  object  of 
splendour,  beauty,  and  costliness, 
being  an  immense  brass  enclosure, 
perforated  with  almost  innumerable 
small  arches,  quatrefoils,  and  vari- 
ous other  figures,  and  decorated 
with  numerous  pinnacles,  canopies, 
statues,  crowns,  &c.  some  of  which 
were  richly  gilt  and  enamelled.  On 
viewing  the  plan  of  this  chapel, 
Mr.  Britton  observes,  "  We  feel 
some  surprise  at  the  apparent  slight- 
ness  of  the  superstructure,  or  of  the 
space  occupied  by  walls  and  sup- 
ports; as  the  principal  weight,  and 
quantity  of  the  building,  rests  on  a 
few  detached  piers,  and  the  lateral 
buttresses.  This  is  a  peculiar  cha- 
racteristic of  ancient  ecclesiastical 
structures,  and  manifests  great  sci- 
ence and  skill  in  the  architects. 
For  the  nicest  geometrical  accuracy 
is  required  to  raise  lofty  walls,  and 
poise  ponderous  wide  -  spreading 
roofs  on  piers  and  columns."  The 
porch  is  lighted  only  by  two  small 
windows  on  each  side.  The  gates 
are  of  brass,  and  are  divided  into 
several  small  compartments.  The 
tracery  of  the  blank  arches  is  very 
elegant.  The  lower  compartment 
represents  a  series  of  seven  blank 
windows,  with  their  proper  mullions 


and  tracery  ;  in  the  upper  compart- 
ment is  displayed  a  blank  window, 
divided  into  twelve  panels,  by  ele- 
ven perpendicular  and  one  hori- 
zontal mullion,  over  which  is  a 
profusion  of  ornamental  tracery. 
This  space  is  subdivided  into  four, 
constituting  that  number  of  sepa- 
rate blank  windows,  of  which  the 
two  central  have  rather  flattened 
arches,  and  the  others  the  regular 
pointed  arch.  In  the  great  western 
window  the  lower  division  is  blank, 
as  the  roof  of  the  porch  rises  to 
that  height.  The  upper  part,  at 
the  sides,  is  very  elaborate  in  tra- 
cery, but  the  central  division  seems 
unfinished.  The  side  aisles  of  the 
chapel  are  separated  from  the  nave 
by  two  rows  of  stalls  on  each  side, 
which,  with  their  fretted  canopies, 
rise  as  high  as  the  aisles.  Of  the 
screens,  which  originally  separated 
the  nave  from  the  aisles,  one  is 
entirely  destroyed,  and  its  place 
supplied  by  wainscot  stalls,  and  the 
upper  part  of  the  other  has  been 
removed.  The  large  pier  between 
these  screens,  separating  the  square 
part  of  the  chapel  from  that  part 
which  is  of  a  semi-octagonal  form 
at  the  east  end,  is  highly  enriched 
with  sculpture,  tracery,  &c.  Over 
the  arches,  and  immediately  beneath 
the  clere-story  windows,  is  a  tier  of 
tabernacle  work,  in  detail  elaborate, 
and  in  effect  beautiful :  between 
every  two  piers  are  five  statues, 
with  pedestals  and  canopies.  The 
whole  of  the  interior  walls  of  the 
aisles  were  covered  with  tracery, 
consisting  of  perpendicular  mul- 
lions, divided  by  groining  into  nu- 
merous compartments.  The  inner 
roof  of  this  chapel  is  most  com- 
plete in  its  principle  of  construction, 
and  elaborate  in  its  groining  and 
ornaments.  At  the  west  end,  over 
the  tomb  of  the  founder,  the  groin- 
ing is  subdivided  into  numerous 
compartments,  consisting  of  varied 

4B5 


W  1  N 


W  I  N 


figures,  circles,  squares,  &c.  and 
ornamented  with  one  central  and 
six  surrounding1  pendants,  at  which 
the  groins  converge  and  unite.  The 
exterior  of  the  chapel  is  almost  as 
much  ornamented  as  the  interior: 
but  nearly  the  whole  of  its  external 
surface  is  much  dilapidated,  and 
many  of  the  sculptured  and  chisel- 
ed parts  entirely  destroyed,  owing 
to  its  being  built  of  a  soft  friable 
stone,  which  is  liable  to  corrosion 
by  the  atmosphere.  The  excellent 
plates  of  the  architecture  of  this 
building,  given  by  Britton,  in  the 
second  volume  of  his  Architectural 
Antiquities,  will  give  the  best  pos- 
sible idea  of  its  magnificence.  The 
nave  of  this  chapel  is  thirty-three 
feet  six  inches  wide,  and  the  side 
aisles  each  eleven  feet  three  inches 
wide :  the  extreme  length  of  the 
whole  chapel,  including  the  porch, 
is  one  hundred  and  thirty-four  feet, 
and  the  corresponding  breadth  is 
eighty-two  feet  six  inches. 

Wheel-window,  a  circular  win- 
dow, in  form  of  a  wheel. 
Whispering  GALLERY,seei?c/iO. 

Winchester  Cathedral.  As 
connected  with  the  primary  estab- 
lishment of  Christianity  in  Britain, 
and  as  the  place  of  coronation  and 
sepulture  of  Anglo-Saxon,  and 
Anglo-Norman  monarchs,  the  ca- 
thedral of  Winchester  is  eminently 
important  to  the  historian  ;  and,  as 
containing  the  finest  example  of 
the  splendid  architecture  of  the 
time  of  Wykeham,  it  is  not  less 
important  to  the  architect.  Ac- 
cording to  the  old  Chronicles,  the 
first  church  of  Winchester  was 
erected  by  Lucius,  the  first  chris- 
tian British  king.  Rudborne  tells 
us,  that  this  church  was  upon  a 
scale  of  grandeur  and  magnificence 
which  has  never  since  been  equal- 
led ;  "  its  length  being  209  paces 
(about  600  feet),  its  breadth  88 
paces,  its  height  92  paces,  and  its 


width  from  one  horn  (corner)  across 
the  church  to  the  other,  180  paces." 
According  to  the  same  authority, 
Lucius  bestowed  on  his  new  church 
the  privileges  of  sanctuary,  agree- 
ably to  the  laws  of  Dunwallo 
Malmutius,  a  British  king,  who  is 
said  to  have  lived  500  years  before 
Christ.  These  and  other  accounts, 
however,  are  so  absurd  in  the  par- 
ticulars, as  to  need  no  confuting. 
By  the  Saxons  we  are  told  the 
cathedral  was  converted  to  a 
heathen  temple,  and  made  subser- 
vient to  the  gloomy  and  impure 
rites  of  Thor,  Woden,  Frea,  and 
Tuisco.  After  the  conversion  of 
the  Saxons,  the  place  was  again 
appropriated  to  Christianity,  and 
it  may  with  more  certainty  be 
stated,  from  the  concurrence  of 
historians,  that  the  cathedral  and 
see  of  Winchester  were  founded  by 
Kenewalsh,  the  son  and  successor 
of  Kinegils,  king  of  the  West 
Saxons ;  Kinegils  himself  had  be- 
gan to  build  there,  where  he  died 
and  was  buried  in  643. 

King  Ethelbald  raised  fortifica- 
tions round  the  cathedral  and 
cloisters,  to  protect  them  from  the 
destructive  fury  of  the  Danes,  and 
by  this  means  they  escaped  unhurt. 

On  the  accession  of  William  the 
Conqueror,  Walkelyn,  a  chaplain 
and  relation  to  the  king,  was  made 
bishop  of  Winchester,  and  in  1079 
he  commenced  building  a  large 
and  magnificent  cathedral.  In 
1093,  the  church  and  conventual 
offices  were  so  near  completion, 
that  "  almost  all  the  bishops  and 
abbots  of  England  assembled  in 
this  city  to  honour  the  solemn 
dedication  of  them  which  took 
place  on  the  fifteenth  of  July, 
being  the  festival  of  St.  Swithun, 
the  patron  saint  of  the  place."  In 
1101,  (or  1107,  according  to  the 
annals  of  Wilton,)  the  tower  of  this 
cathedral  fell.    During  the  civil 


WIN 


W  I  N 


broils  of  the  12th  century,  the 
cathedral  suffered  in  various  ways, 
and  the  town  was  entirely  deprived 
of  its  importance. 

The  cathedral  of  Winchester  will 
be  best  described  by  the  following 
extracts  from  the  letter  of  Mr.  Gar- 
bett  to  Mr.  Britton,  and  published 
in  his  history  and  antiquities  of  the 
cathedral. 

"  From  the  historical  notices  we 
meet  with,  we  shall  find  no  diffi- 
culty in  admitting,  that  great  im- 
provements were  made  in  the  fabric 
of  the  cathedral,  at,  or  about  the 
following  stated  periods :  viz.  in 
the  year  313,  "  by  the  contribu- 
tions of  private  Christians,"  when 
Constans  was  bishop  of  the  see  ; 
about  the  year  584,  by  the  Saxon 
king  Kenewalch  :  about  the  year 
980,  by  bishop  Ethelwold  ;  and 
again  in  the  year  1079,  by  bishop 
Walkelyn,  of  whom  it  is  particu- 
larly recorded,  that  he  built  the 
tower  which  was  at  that  time  consi- 
dered a  stupendous  work. 

"  When  we  attentively  compare 
the  architecture,  and  the  workman- 
ship of  the  tower,  with  that  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  adjoining  tran- 
sept, we  shall  not  hesitate  to  ascribe 
to  the  latter  a  much  earlier  date ;  for 
it  is  not  difficult  to  trace  distinctly 
the  junction  of  the  Norman  with 
the  Saxon  work,  not  only  by  the 
superiority  of  the  masonry,  but  by 
the  shape  of  the  arches.  The  two 
arches  of  every  story,  on  each  side 
of  the  transept  next  to  the  tower, 
and  the  respective  piers  between 
them,  were  evidently  rebuilt  with 
the  tower;  and  this  maybe  con- 
sidered the  extent  of  Walkelyn's 
work  in  masonry,  as  far  as  respects 
the  cathedral.  In  addition  to  this, 
which  was  certainly  a  work  of  con- 
siderable magnitude,  it  may  with 
great  reason  be  admitted,  that  he 
entirely  new-roofed  the  whole  of 
the  transept  and  nave  in  a  manner 


that  might  well  entitle  it  to  be 
termed  new  and  magnificent. 

"  The  Norman  roof,  now  remain- 
ing, is  that  of  the  whole  of  the 
transept  south  of  the  tower,  and 
that  of  the  whole  nave  west  of  the 
tower,  with  the  exception  of  about 
fifty  feet  in  length  from  the  west 
end,  which  was  evidently  destroyed 
by  fire. 

"  It  is  presumed,  that  what  has 
been  said  of  the  architecture  and 
workmanship  of  the  tower  and 
transept  will  prove  that  some  por- 
tions of  the  latter  existed  previous 
to  the  time  when  Walkelyn  is  said 
to  have  rebuilt  it  from  the  ground. 
It  now  remains  to  show,  that  in  the 
ancient  parts  there  now  exists  the 
clearest  evidence  of  additions  to 
the  fabric,  at  a  period  still  more 
remote  ;  this  is  to  be  seen  in 
the  design  rather  than  in  the 
execution  of  the  work.  The  alter- 
ation now  speaking  of,  was  proba- 
bly the  work  of  Ethelwald,  and 
consisted  of  an  increase  of  the  sub- 
stance, and  alterations  of  the  shape, 
of  four  principal  pillars  of  the  tran- 
septs, unquestionably  for  the  pur- 
pose of  supporting  a  tower  at  the 
extremity  of  each  of  the  side-aisles. 
It  may  be  objected,  that  there  is 
no  historical  notice  or  tradition  of 
the  existence  of  such  towers,  but 
the  evidence  of  the  present  state  of 
the  structure  is  of  the  most  deci- 
sive nature  ;  for  the  imposts  of  the 
arches,  which  supported  the  flanks 
of  such  towers,  are  now  to  be  seen 
distinctly  in  the  spaces  between  the 
roof  and  vaulting  of  the  aisles ;  and 
whoever  examines  with  due  atten- 
tion the  side  arches  of  the  third 
story  of  the  transept,  will  perceive 
that  those  nearest  the  extremities, 
(into  which  windows  have  been  in- 
troduced,) were  not  originally  win- 
dows, but  open  arches  of  commu- 
nication with  the  edifice,  similar  to 
those  between  the  body  and  aisles. 


WI  N 


W  I  N 


"  We  now  came  to  the  investi- 
gation of  the  work  of  a  period  still 
more  remote,  which  is  the  Crypt, 
under  the  part  of  the  church  be- 
tween the  high  altar  and  the  Virgin 
chapel.  The  workmanship  in  this 
crypt,  though  plain  and  simple  in 
its  design,  is  far  superior  to  any 
that  is  to  be  seen  in  the  whole 
edifice,  excepting  those  parts  which 
will  be  hereafter  spoken  of  as  the 
works  of  De  Lucy,  and  Fox.  This 
work  is  as  much  superior  to  the 
work  of  the  greater  crypt,  to  which 
it  adjoins,  as  the  Norman  is  to  the 
Saxon  work  in  the  transept ;  but 
its  inferior  dimensions  seem  to  indi- 
cate, that  it  is  not  the  work  of  the 
high-spirited  Walkelyn,  and  the 
circular  termination,  shows  it  not 
the  work  of  a  much  later  period; 
we  may,  therefore,  conclude,  that 
this  is  a  remnant  of  the  work  of 
our  pious  British  or  Roman  ances- 
tors, in  the  early  part  of  the  fourth 
century;  and  in  conformity  with 
the  observations  before  made  upon 
the  existing  appearances  of  the 
fabric,  as  well  as  with  the  histori- 
cal notices  mentioned  by  Milner 
and  his  authorities,  we  may  proceed 
to  define  the  works  of  the  various 
builders  from  that  period  down  to 
the  eleventh  century." 

What  remains  of  the  work  of 
king  Kenelwalch,  he  supposes  to 
be  the  first  story  of  the  transept, 
except  the  part  described  as  being 
rebuilt  by  the  Norman  bishop,  and 
some  other  innovations  in  the  win- 
dows. Also,  much  of  the  pillars  in 
the  nave,  though  since  remoulded 
and  repaired  by  Wykeham. 

Ethelwold's  work,  he  thinks,  be- 
gins from  the  base  of  the  second 
tier  of  Saxon  arches  in  the  tran- 
sept, and  was  continued  from  thence 
upwards  to  the  height  of  the  present 
parapet,  including  the  tower  before 
spoken  of,  and  an  increase  in  the 
length  of  the  nave.    "  The  further 

488 


work  of  Ethel  wold  may  be  seen  m 
the  greater  crypt,  upon  which  he 
of  course  added  a  superstructure, 
though  the  work  now  standing  over 
that  foundation  is  of  a  much  later 
date." 

The  work  of  Walkelyn,  as  be- 
fore mentioned,  he  supposes  to  be 
confined  to  the  building  of  the 
central  tower,  and  such  parts  of 
the  edifice  as  immediately  abutted 
upon  it,  and  to  the  new  roofing  of 
the  transept  and  nave. 

"  We  now  come  to  the  work  of 
De  Lucy,  in  the  consideration  of 
which  we  are  again  interrupted  by 
a  tower  of  the  old  Saxon  church, 
that  was  left  standing  in  the  part 
eastward  of  the  choir  by  Walkelyn; 
and  this  occasions  some  difficulty 
in  understanding  what  was  the 
state  of  that  part  of  the  fabric 
when  De  Lucy  began  his  work ; 
for  we  are  to  recollect,  that  the 
weather-cock  falling  from  the  tower 
in  the  year  1214,  broke  the  shrine 
of  St.  Swithun,  which,  Dr.  Milner 
justly  observes,  must  have  stood 
near  the  high  altar,"  and  this  he 
attributes  to  the  failure  of  one  of 
the  old  towers,  before  described  as 
having  stood  at  the  extremities  of 
the  side  aisles  of  the  choir;  and 
from  various  circumstances  he  con- 
cludes, that  we  must  look  for  De 
Lucy's  tower,  which  was  begun  and 
finished  in  the  year  1200,  at  the 
eastern  portion  of  his  work,  "  and 
we  may,  therefore,  accordingly,  re- 
cognize a  portion  of  it  in  the 
western  part  of  the  present  Lady 
Chapel,  which  has  evidently  been 
of  greater  height  at  some  former 
period  than  it  is  at  present;  as 
part  of  the  stair-cases  that  led  to 
another  story  are  now  to  be  traced, 
though  they  are  nearly  filled  up  by 
rough  masonry,  in  effecting  subse- 
quent alterations.  With  respect 
to  the  other  works  executed  by 
De  Lucy,  there  is  some  reason  to 


W  I  N 


W  I  N 


suspect,  however  extraordinary  it 
may  appear,  that  he  did  not  abso- 
lutely take  down  the  whole  walls 
of  that  part  of  the  church  situated 
between  the  old  high  altar  and  his 
new  tower,  but  that  the  upper  part 
of  the  ancient  walls  were  by  some 
means  supported  while  the  arches 
and  pillars  were  inserted  under 
them  ;  for  there  are  indications  of 
those  walls  having  been  orna- 
mented, above  the  present  vault- 
ing, with  sculpture  of  a  very  sin- 
gular pattern,  which  is  so  situated, 
that  it  can  hardly  be  considered  as 
the  accidental  application  of  old 
materials  re-used  ;  it  may,  however, 
be  observed,  that  in  all  (even  the 
most  ancient)  parts  of  the  fabric, 
old  materials,  exhibiting  mutilated 
mouldings,  and  other  ornaments, 
are  to  be  seen  indiscriminately  used 
in  the  successive  repairs  and  alter- 
ations, from  the  time  of  the  Saxons 
down  to  a  very  late  period."  He 
suspects,  that  in  De  Lucy's  plan  a 
considerable  alteration  was  made 
after  his  decease. 

The  next  person  who  made  any  con- 
siderable repairs  or  improvements, 
was  William  de  Edington,  a  pre- 
late, who  was  u  in  his  virtues  and 
talents  only  inferior  to  Wykeham 
himself."  Mr.  Garbett  observes, 
"  It  seems  highly  probable,  that 
the  part  between  the  tower  and 
the  altar-screen  was  built  by 
Edington,  and  that  the  stalls  in 
the  choir  were  also  the  work  of 
the  same  prelate,  or  of  his  exe- 
cutors ;  for  upon  minute  inspec- 
tion it  may  be  fo\^pd,  that  there 
are  many  similarities  in  the  exe- 
cution of  these  works,  and  those 
about  his  tomb  and  its  enclosures. 
He  also  thinks,  that  at  the  west 
end  of  the  fabric,  Edington,  or  his 
executors,  completed  '  the  two 
first  windows  from  the  great  west 
window,   with   the  corresponding 

buttresses,  and  one  pinnacle  on 
3Q 


the  north  side  of  the  church  ;  as 
likewise  the  first  window  towards 
the  west,  with  the  buttress  and 
pinnacle  on  the  south  side.'"  He 
also  supposes,  that  the  two  west 
windows  of  the  side  aisles  were 
executed  at  the  same  time,  and 
probably  the  two  hexagonal  tur- 
rets. 

We  now  come  to  the  works  of 
the  skilful  and  munificent  Wyke- 
ham, commenced  in  the  seventieth 
year  of  his  age,  and  diligently 
prosecuted  through  the  remaining 
ten  years  of  his  life.  "  In  pro- 
ceeding to  trace  the  works  of 
Wykeham,  we  have  an  unerring 
guide  in  the  bishop's  own  will,  as 
far  as  it  is  applicable  to  this  pur- 
pose. By  it  we  find,  that  within 
fifteen  months  previous  to  his  de- 
cease, so  much  of  his  undertaking 
remained  unfinished,  that  he  di- 
rected 300  marks  to  be  applied 
for  its  completion  (a  sum  far  ex- 
ceeding what  he  had  formerly 
directed  the  prior  and  convent  to 
expend  in  seven  years)  :  and  we 
find,  by  his  directing  the  walls, 
the  windows,  and  the  vault  to  be 
finished  throughout,  accord ing  to 
the  new  mode  in  which  he  had 
already  completed  some  parts  on 
the  south  side,  that  a  considerable 
part  on  the  north  side  still  re- 
mained unfinished  :  but  as  we  find 
no  mention  of  the  great  west  win- 
dow, we  may  conclude,  that  he 
commenced  his  work  in  that  part." 
This  window,  we  judge  to  be  Wyke- 
ham's  work,  as  also  the  judicious 
and  elegant  alteration  of  the  Saxon 
pillars,  the  whole  of  the  windows 
of  the  nave  and  the  aisles,  except 
those  by  Edington,  and  the  vault- 
ing of  the  aisles  "  with  which  the 
flying  buttresses  are  so  ingeniously 
combined  for  resisting  the  pressure 
of  the  greater  vault."  The  vault 
of  the  nave  may  be  considered  as 
the  work  of  Wykeham's  executors, 


W  I  N 


W  I  N 


probably  assisted  by  his  successor, 
Cardinal  Beaufort." 

"  The  next  work  in  chronological 
order  is  the  alteration  and  addition 
to  the  Lady  Chapel,  which  Dr. 
Milner  sufficiently  proves  to  have 
been  executed  by  the  priors  Hun- 
ton  and  Skilstede."  "  The  ehaste- 
ness  of  the  design  will,  I  believe, 
be  generally  considered  to  have  a 
more  pleasing  effect  than  the  pro- 
fusion of  ornaments  spread  over 
the  neighbouring  chapel,  which 
was  fitted  up  by  bishop  Langton 
about  the  same  time,  for  his  se- 
pulchral chantery,  and  exhibiting 
many  beautiful  specimens  of  curved 
oak,  though  they  are  rather  too 
much  crowded  to  be  seen  with 
advantage." 

The  last  who  made  any  exten- 
sive repair  or  improvement  on  the 
fabric  of  the  cathedral  was  bishop 
Fox,  who,  in  taste,  in  skill,  and 
in  munificence,  "  is  entitled  to  be 
considered  as  the  worthy  successor 
of  Wykeham  and  of  Waynflete." 
Mr.  Garbett  supposes  his  works  to 
be  the  two  turrets  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  presbytery — the 
magnificent  window  between  them 
— the  whole  of  the  ornamental 
wall  over  it,  terminating  with  an 
elegant  tabernacle  ornamented  by 
the  pelican,  his  favourite  emblem, 
and  containing  his  statue — the  tim- 
ber-framed vaulting  of  the  presby- 
tery— the  whole  of  the  aisles  north 
and  south  of  the  presbytery,  in- 
cluding their  windows,  roofing,  and 
stone  vaulting,  with  the  flying  but- 
tresses and  pinnacles  : — the  whole 
of  which  was  executed  in  the  most 
perfect  style ;  and  the  open  screens 
between  the  presbytery  and  aisles. 

Mr.  Britton  does  not  entirely 
agree  with  the  whole  of  Mr.  Gar- 
bett's  observations.  He  is  inclined 
to  think,  that  there  are  no  remains 
of  pure  Saxon  architecture  in  the 
building,  and  he  thinks  that  the 


old  church  was  destroyed,  and 
the  new  one  built,  by  Walkelyn, 
entirely  anew. 

"  The  cathedral  church  of  Win- 
chester," Mr.  Britton  observes,  "  has 
been  called  '  a  school  of  ecclesias- 
tical architecture,'  and  with  some 
decree  of  propriety ;  for,  as  a 
school  is  intended  to  instruct  no- 
vices in  any  branch  of  art  or 
science,  so  this  edifice  is  calcu- 
lated to  display  to  the  student  an 
interesting  and  varied  series  of 
examples  of  the  ancient  architec- 
ture of  England,  from  an  early  age 
up  to  a  recent  period."  The  ex- 
terior is  not  distinguished  by  beauty, 
but  by  its  length  of  nave,  its  plain- 
ness of  masonry,  the  shortness  and 
solidity  of  its  tower,  the  width  of 
its  east  end,  and  the  boldness  of  .its 
transepts.  But  the  interior  will 
amply  compensate  for  any  defi- 
ciences  in  the  outside.  In  the 
nave  and  aisles  the  sublime  archi- 
tecture of  Wykeham  produces  the 
most  impressive  effect,  while  the 
works  of  Walkelyn  in  the  tower 
and  transepts,  substantial  and  plain, 
are  at  the  same  time  imposing  and 
grand.  The  north  transept  exhi- 
bits this  style  with  all  its  effect  and 
character.  Every  member  is  in 
unison  with  the  rest;  each  is  large, 
bold,  and  unadorned:  the  bases, 
capitals,  clustered  piers,  and  single 
shafts,  are  equally  devoid  of  orna- 
ment. In  the  carving  of  the  stalls, 
on  the  contrary,  and  the  wood- 
work of  the  Lady  Chapel  and 
Layton's  Chapel,  we  have  a  re- 
dundancy of  ornaments,  and  the 
designers  seem  to  have  wantoned 
in  a  licentiousness  of  fancy :  these 
parts,  even  from  their  very  caprice, 
give  us  pleasure.  The  elaborate 
and  sumptuous  altar  screen  is 
covered  with  niches,  canopies, 
buttresses,  pinnacles,  pediments, 
crochets,  and  similar  ornaments. 
The  combined  group  of  chantries, 


W  I  N 


W  I  N 


including  those  for  Fox,  Beaufort, 
Waynflete,  Wykeham,  and  Eding- 
ton,  with  the  screens  and  clustered 
columns,  is  superior  to  any  in 
Europe.  "  With  such  a  splendid 
feast  before  him,"  Mr.  Britton  ob- 
serves, "  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
if  the  architectural  enthusiast  in- 
dulges himself  to  excess,  and 
almost  satiates  his  senses." 

The  nave  is  characterised  by 
Gilpin,  as  "  perhaps,  the  most 
magnificent"  in  England.  The 
transepts  and  tower  are  unrivalled 
specimens  of  Norman  architecture. 
The  transepts,  open  to  the  timber 
roof,  though  very  lofty,  are  offen- 
sive from  the  effect  of  the  rafters 
and  ragged  timbers.  The  choir 
and  eastern  end  are  elevated  above 
the  nave  and  aisles  by  an  ascent  of 
several  steps.  This  portion  of  the 
building  exhibits  several  different 
styles  of  architecture.  The  presby- 
tery is  a  large  open  space  between 
the  choir  and  the  altar,  separated 
from  the  aisles  by  stone  screens, 
and  from  the  altar  by  carved  rail- 

dae. 


Bishops. 

Kings. 

Walkelyn 

William  I. 

Henry  de  Blnis 

Henry  I. 

De  Lucy 

S  Rich.  I.  } 
I  John.  S 

N.  Eliensis 

f  Henry  HI  ) 
{  Edw.I.II  S 

Edington 

Edward  III. 

Wykebam 

5  Edw.HM 

(  Rich.  I.  $ 

Beaufort 
Way  nfle  te 
Couitney 
Langton 

Henry  IV. 
Henry  IV. 
Edward  IV. 
Henry  VII. 

Henry  VII. 

Gardiner 
Richard  ISeile 

Henry  VIII. 
Charles  I. 

1079 

to 
1093 

1129 
11G9 

to 
1205 
12S0 

to 
1310 

1330 

1370 
to 
1400 
1410 


1480 
1493 

1500 

1540 
1627 


ing.  The  eastern  end  of  the  build- 
ing consists  of  there  distinct  cha- 
pels, of  which  the  central  or  Virgin 
Mary  chapel,  is  by  much  the 
largest. 

In  the  nave  and  aisles  of  this 
splendid  structure,  the  effect  is 
in  some  degree  spoiled,  and  the 
architecture  disfigured,  by  the  mar- 
ble slabs  attached  to  the  walls  ;  and 
the  beauty  and  symmetry  of  the 
designer  are  injured  by  the  monu- 
mental chantry  of  the  builder. 
The  screen  between  the  nave  and 
choir,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
designed  by  Inigo  Jones,  is  a  "  bad 
and  unsightly  object."  Several 
other  things  of  this  kind  might  be 
noticed,  most  of  them  modern  ad- 
ditions, which  tend  to  injure  con- 
siderably the  effect  of  the  architec- 
ture of  the  original. 

The  following  is  a  chronological 
table  of  the  ages  and  styles  of  dif- 
ferent parts,  taken  from  that  given 
by  Mr.  Britton  at  the  end  of  his 
history. 

Parts  of  the  Edifice. 


f  Crypts  under  the  presbytery  and  aisles, 
j  and  under  De  Lucy's  work  ;  part  of  the 
chapter  house;  transepts  and  tower;  in- 
j  ternal  parts  of  the  piers  and  walls  of  the 
Lnave. 

Arches  in  the  south  transept. 
f  Aisles  of  chantry,  east  of  the  altar  screen  ; 

part  of  the  La<iy  chapel  ;  the  two  side 
^chapels  ;  the  stair-case  turrets. 

{  Presbytery  from  the  tower  to  the  altai 
£  screen  ;  old  screen,  with  niches,  &c. 

Stalls  of  the  choir;  west  front;  two 
windows  on  the  north  ;  one  on  the  south  : 
^Edington's  chantry. 

$  Nave  and  ailes  ;  Wykeham's  chantry  and 
{  tomb. 

Beaufort's  chantry. 

AVaynfiete's  chantry;  the  altar  screen. 
St.  Mary's  chapel,  pulpit. 
Langton's  chapel. 

{  Fox's  chantry  ;  windows  and  ailes  of  the 
(  presbytery  j  screens. 
Gardiner's  chantry. 

Fitting  up  altar  screen  J  screen  to  choir. 

491 


W  1  N 


W  I  N 


Wind.  The  following  is  Mr. 
Smeaton's  Table  of  the  velocity  and 
force  of  the  wind. 


Miles 
per 
hour. 

Feet  per 

Perpendicular  force  on  one  square 
foot,  in  pounds  avoirdupois. 

*-econ<i. 

1 

1.47 

.005    hardly  perceptible 

2 
3 

2.93 
4.4 

.044  \3  perceptible. 

4 

5 

5.87 
7.33 

123  \  &   y  pieasant 

10 
15 

14.67 
22. 

•492  ?nIeasant,_hrisk 
1  107  \  P'easaf1tij  busk. 

20 
25 

29.34 
86.07 

3  075  |  Ver^  hrisk 

30 
35 

44.01 
5134 

4.12J  )  jijorh  wind 
6.027  S 

40 
45 

58.68 
66.01 

7.873  )        ...     .  , 
9.963  J  Very  h,gh  W,nd 

50 

7  3.35 

12.3        storm  or  tempest 

60 

88.02 

17.715    great  storm 

80 

L  17.36 

;1.490  hurricane 

100 

146.7 

49.2        hurricane  that  tears 
up  trees,  and  carries  build- 
ings before  it. 

Wind  Beam,  an  old  term  for  a 
collar  beam. 

Window,  an  opening  in  the  wall 
of  a  building,  for  the  admission  of 
light  into  the  interior.  In  early 
ages,  the  windows  of  habitations 
were  very  small  and  narrow.  Ac- 
cording to  Seneca,  the  windows 
of  the  bath  of  Scipio  were  so 
small,  that  they  scarcely  deserved 
the  name  ;  and  they  resembled  ra- 
ther nicks,  or  crevices,  in  the  wall. 
When  the  Romans  began  to  give 
their  habitations  a  more  commo- 
dious disposition,  they  began  also 
to  increase  the  dimensions  of  their 
windows,  for  the  sake  of  having 
more  light,  and  a  more  extended 
prospect.  In  the  country  seats  of 
Pliny,  at  Laurentinum  and  Fusci, 
the  windows  were  very  extensive. 
The  houses  in  Pompeii  show  that  it 
was  not  a  general  custom  in  towns 
to  have  windows  on  that  side  of  the 
houses  which  looked  into  the  court. 
We  find  there  few  houses  which 
have  their  windows  on  the  outside ; 
and  those  which  do  look  out  into 
the  street  are  so  small,  and  so  high 
up,  that  they  could  serve  no  other 

492 


purpose  than  that  of  letting  in  the 
light.  Those  rooms  in  the  houses 
at  Pompeii,  which  were  situated 
around  the  court  have  no  windows, 
but  were  lighted  by  the  door  :  win- 
dows only  are  observed  in  those 
apartments  which  look  into  the 
garden.  The  use  of  glass  was  of 
late  introduction,  and,  at  first,  its 
place  was  supplied  by  other  trans- 
parent substances.  See  Phengites. 
The  fragments  of  glass,  however, 
found  in  Herculaneum,  prove  that 
this  substance  was  used  for  windows 
at  the  time  at  which  that  city  was 
destroyed.  The  windows  of  the 
temple  of  Jerusalem  were  formed 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  wall,  or  in 
the  roof,  for  the  purpose  of  admit- 
ting light  into  the  interior  of  the 
temple.  Others  think  that  their 
use  was  principally  to  furnish  a 
means  of  escape  for  the  smoke  of 
the  offerings,  and  the  incense  that 
was  continually  burning  within. 
The  temples  of  the  ancients  in  ge- 
neral had  no  windows,  though  they 
occur  sometimes  in  the  Egyptian 
temples.    See  Temple. 

Windows  are  a  most  essential 
part  of  every  edifice  intended  for 
a  habitation,  as  light  is  one  of  the 
greatest  requisites  of  domestic  life. 
At  the  same  time,  windows,  by  a 
proper  disposition,  may  be  made  to 
decorate  the  exterior  of  a  building, 
as  much  even  as  columns  or  pi- 
lasters. The  proportions  of  win- 
dows necessarily  ought  to  differ  in 
different  climates.  In  countries 
where  the  sun  has  little  force,  and 
where  the  winter  is  cold,  the 
windows  should  be  of  large  dimen- 
sions, that  all  the  warmth  and 
light  may  be  admitted  which  the 
sun  can  yield. 

With  regard  to  windows,  the 
first  considerations  are  their  num- 
ber and  their  size.  They  must  be  so 
arranged,  as  to  admit  neither  more 
nor  less  light  than  may  be  requisite. 


W  I  N 


W  I  N 


In  the  determination  of  this  sub- 
ject, regard  must  be  had  to  the 
climate,  the  aspect,  the  extent,  the 
elevation  of  the  building;,  and  its 
destination,  and  also  to  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls  in  which  the  win- 
dows are  to  placed  ;  on  this  circum- 
stance will  partly  depend  the  greater 
or  less  quantity  of  light  that  will  be 
admitted.  Where  the  walls  are 
thick,  as  they  commonly  are  in  stone 
buildings,  the  windows  should  have 
a  considerable  splay  on  the  inside, 
which  will  admit  almost  as  much 
light  as  if  the  windows  were  exter- 
nally of  the  same  size  with  the  in- 
creased internal  dimensions. 

Sky-lights  are  sometimes  used  to 
light  staircases,  but  unless  they  are 
made  with  great  care,  they  are  very 
subject  to  leak,  in  a  country  like 
ours,  where  so  much  rain  and  snow 
fall;  when  they  are  introduced  for 
stairs,  they  ought  to  be  double, 
with  a  large  space  between  :  other- 
wise they  contribute  greatly  to  ren- 
der houses  colder,  because  they 
form  an  easy  communication  be- 
tween the  internal  warm  and  the 
external  cold  air.  In  hot  countries, 
where  the  sun  is  seldom  clouded, 
and  where  its  rays  dart  more  in- 
tensely upon  the  earth,  the  light  is 
stronger  than  in  those  which  are 
temperate  or  cold ;  therefore,  a 
smaller  quantity  of  it  will  suffice, 
and  more  than  a  sufficiency  should 
not  be  admitted,  as  the  consequence 
would  be  the  admission  of  heat. 
The  same  happens  in  respect  to 
a  southern  aspect,  which  receives 
more  heat,  and  consequently  more 
light,  than  a  northern,  or  even  an 
eastern  or  western  one.  A  large 
lofty  space  requires  a  greater  quan- 
tity of  light  than  one  circumscribed 
in  its  dimensions;  and  art  demands, 
that  the  quantity  introduced  should 
be  so  regulated,  that  it  may  excite 
gay,  cheerful,  or  solemn  sensations 
in  the  mind  of  a  spectator,  accord- 


ing to  the  nature  and  purposes  for 
which  the  structure  is  intended. 

Wherever  sunshine  predominates, 
light  must  be  admitted  and  dis- 
tributed with  caution ;  for  where 
there  is  an  excess  of  light,  the  heat 
becomes  dreadfully  incommodious 
to  the  inhabitant,  and  injurious  to 
the  furniture.  In  Italy,  and  some 
other  hot  countries,  although  the 
windows  in  general  are  less  than 
ours,  their  apartments  cannot  be 
made  habitable,  but  by  keeping 
the  window-shutters  almost  closed 
while  the  sun  appears  above  the 
horizon.  But  in  regions  where 
clouds  prevail  eight  months  in  the 
year,  it  will  always  be  right  to  ad- 
mit a  sufficiency  of  light,  to  coun- 
teract the  gloom  of  wet  and  cloudy 
seasons,  and  have  recourse  to  blinds 
or  shutters  whenever  the  appear- 
ance of  the  sun  renders  it  too 
abundant. 

The  proportions  for  the  apertures 
of  windows  depend  upon  their  situ- 
ation. Their  width  in  all  the 
stories  must  be  the  same;  but  the 
different  heights  of  the  apartments 
make  it  necessary  to  vary  the  height 
of  the  windows  likewise.  In  the 
principal  floor,  it  may  be  from  two 
and  one-eighth  of  the  width,  to 
two  and  onf-third,  according  as  the 
rooms  have  more  or  less  elevation. 
In  the  ground  story,  where  the 
apartments  are  lower,  the  apertures 
of  the  windows  seldom  exceed  a 
double  square  ;  and  when  they  are 
in  a  rustic  basement,  they  are  fre- 
quently made  much  lower.  The 
height  of  the  windows  of  the  se- 
cond floor  may  be  from  one  and  a 
half  of  their  width,  to  one  and  four- 
fifihs;  and  attics  and  mezzanines 
may  be  either  a  perfect  square,  or 
somewhat  lower. 

The  windows  of  the  principal 
floor  are  generally  most  enriched. 
The  simplest  method  of  adorning 
them,  is  with  an  architrave  sur- 

493 


W  I  N 


W  I  N 


rounding  the  aperture,  and  crowned 
with  a  frieze  and  cornice.  The 
windows  of  the  ground  floor  are 
sometimes  left  entirely  plain,  with- 
out any  ornament,  and  at  others 
they  are  surrounded  with  rustics, 
or  a  regular  architrave,  with  a  frieze 
and  cornice.  Those  of  the  second 
floor  have  generally  an  architrave 
carried  round  the  aperture;  and 
the  same  method  is  adopted  in 
adorning  the  attic  and  mezzanine 
windows :  but  the  two  last  have 
seldom  either  frieze  or  cornice, 
whereas  the  second-floor  windows 
are  often  crowned  with  both.  The 
breasts  of  all  the  windows  on  the 
same  floor  should  be  on  the  same 
level,  and  raised  above  the  floor 
from  two  feet  nine  inches,  to  three 
feet  six  inches  at  the  most.  When 
the  walls  are  thick,  the  breasts 
should  be  reduced  under  the  aper- 
tures, for  the  conveniency  of  look- 
ing out.  When  the  building  is 
surrounded  with  gardens,  lawns,  or 
other  beautiful  objects,  the  French 
method  of  continuing  the  windows 
quite  down  to  the  floor,  renders  the 
room  exceedingly  pleasant  ;  but 
when  this  mode  is  adopted  in  close 
streets,  where  it  contributes  to  no- 
thing but  rendering  houses  colder, 
it  is  truly  ridiculous.  The  inter- 
vals between  the  apertures  of  win- 
dows depend  in  a  great  measure 
on  their  enrichments.  The  breadth 
of  the  apertures  is  the  least  dis- 
tance that  can  be  between  them; 
and  twice  that  breadth  should  be 
the  largest  in  dwelling-houses; 
otherwise  the  rooms  will  not  be 
sufficiently  lighted.  The  windows 
in  all  the  stories  of  the  same  aspect 
must  be  placed  exactly  above  one 
another.  The  mathematical  rule  of 
apportioning  light  to  rooms,  is  as 
follows  : — multiply  the  length  of 
the  room  by  the  breadth,  and  mul- 
tiply the  height  by  the  product  of 
the  le.igth  and  breadth  ;  and  out 

494 


of  that  product  extract  the  square- 
root,  which  is  the  light  required. 
For  example,  suppose  a  room  to  be 
forty  feet  by  thirty,  and  the  height 
sixteen  feet,  the  square-root  will  be 
one  hundred  and  thirty-eight  feet 
four  inches;  which  may  be  divided 
into  four  windows,  and  each  win- 
dow will  contain  thirty -six  feet, 
superficial.  The  height  of  each  of 
these  windows  will  be  nine  feet 
and  the  width  four  feet.  Suppose 
a  room  to  be  thirty-six  feet  by 
twenty- four,  and  fifteen  feet  in 
height,  the  square-root  will  be  one 
hundred  and  thirteen  feet;  which 
divided  into  four  parts,  or  windows, 
will  give  twenty- eight  feet  three 
inches  to  each  window.  The  height 
of  the  windows  will  be  eight  feet 
six  inches,  and  the  width  three  feet 
four  inches ;  and  so  for  any  others, 
by  the  same  rule  of  proportion. 

Windsor  Castle.  This  castle 
was  built  first  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, probably  more  for  a  mili- 
tary post,  for  which,  by  its  situation, 
it  was  well  adapted,  than  for  the 
residence  of  himself,  or  of  his  suc- 
cessors. A  new  out-work,  or  bar- 
bican, is  recorded  to  have  been 
built  by  Henry  II.  Edward  I.  and 
his  successor,  Edward  II.,  frequently 
made  it  their  place  of  residence.  It 
is,  however,  agreed  by  all  historians, 
that  this  castle  owes  its  splendour 
to  Edward  III.  In  1334,  Wal- 
singham  relates,  he  built  a  chamber, 
which  he  called  the  round  table, 
200  feet  in  diameter,  which,  how- 
ever, appears  to  have  been  only 
a  temporary  structure.  In  1356, 
William  of  Wykeham  was  made 
clerk  of  the  works,  (see  Wykeham;) 
and,  in  1359,  Hollingshed  tells  us, 
that  "  the  king  set  workmen  in 
hand,  to  take  down  much  old 
buildings  belonging  to  the  castle  of 
Windsor,  and  caused  divers  other 
fair  and  sumptuous  works  to  be 
set  up  in  and  about  the  same  cas- 


W  I  N 


W  I  N 


tTe,  so  that  almost  all  the  masons 
and  carpenters,  that  were  of  any 
account  within  the  land,  were  sent 
for,  and  employed  on  the  same 
works."  The  next  year,  three 
hundred  and  sixty  workmen  were 
impressed,  to  be  employed  on  the 
buildings  at  the  king's  wages,  some 
of  whom  having  clandestinely  left 
"Windsor,  and  engaged  in  other 
employments  for  greater  wages, 
writs  were  issued  to  prevent  persons 
from  employing  them,  on  pain  of 
forfeiting  all  their  goods  and  chat- 
tels, and  threatening  to  commit 
such  of  the  workmen  as  were  ap- 
prehended, to  Newgate.  The  plague 
having  carried  off  a  great  number 
of  the  king's  workmen  in  1362,  new 
writs  were  issued  to  the  sheriffs  of 
several  counties,  to  impress  three 
hundred  and  two  masons  and  dig- 
gers of  stone,  to  be  employed  in  the 
king's  works ;  and  the  counties  of 
York,  Salop,  and  Devon  were  to 
furnish  sixty  each.  Very  few  com- 
missions were  issued  after  1369, 
and  none  after  1373,  so  that  it  may 
be  presumed  that  this  noble  work 
was  then  completed  —  comprising 
the  king's  palace,  the  great  hall  of 
St.  George,  the  lodgings  on  the 
east  and  south  sides  of  the  upper 
ward,  the  round  tower,  St.  George's 
chapel,  the  canons'  houses  in  the 
lower  ward,  and  the  whole  circum- 
ference of  the  walls,  with  the  towers 
and  gates.  The  castle  continued 
to  be  the  occasional  residence  of 
our  monarchs,  who  from  time  to 
time  made  various  alterations  in  the 
buildings,  particularly  Henry  VII. 
Soon  alter  the  breaking  out  of  the 
civil  war,  it  was  garrisoned  by  the 
parliament,  and  sustained  an  attack 
in  1642,  by  prince  Rupert,  who  was 
unsuccessful.  On  the  restoration, 
Charles  II.,  finding  the  buildings 
of  the  castle  much  dilapidated  by 
plunder  and  neglect,  caused  it  to 
be  thoroughly  repaired,  and  richly 


furnished;  and,  during  the  greater 
part  of  his  reign,  he  made.  Windsor 
his  summer  residence.  Later  im- 
provements were  made  under  the 
direction  of  Wyatt. 

The  castle  consists  of  two  courts, 
between  which  is  the  keep,  or  round 
tower.  The  upper  court,  or  ward, 
contains,  on  the  north  side,  the 
state  apartments,  chapel,  and  hall 
of  St.  George. 

St.  George's  hall  was  built  by 
Edward  III.  as  a  refectory  for  the 
knights  companions  of  the  garter, 
and  is  a  noble  room,  of  a  hundred 
and  eight  feet  in  length.  The  ceil- 
ing and  walls  were  painted  by 
Verrio,  the  subject  being  the  tri- 
umphs of  Edward  III.  and  Edward 
the  Black  Prince,  his  son.  In  the 
area  of  (his  upper  court  is  a  bronze 
statue  of  Charles  II.,  by  Stada. 
On  the  north  side  of  the  castle  is 
the  terrace  made  by  queen  Eliza- 
beth, and  extended  by  Charles  II. 
along  the  east  and  south  sides ;  its 
whole  length  is  1870  feet,  and  it  is 
considered  as  the  noblest  of  the 
kind  in  Europe. 

The  keep,  or  round  tower,  for  the 
residence  of  the  governor  of  the 
castle,  situated  between  the  two 
wards,  or  courts,  consists  of  a  lofty, 
artificial,  cone-shaped  mount,  sur- 
rounded by  a  mote,  and  surmounted 
by  a  strong  fortified  tower,  which  is 
approached  by  a  flight  of  a  hun- 
dred steps. 

The  chapel  of  St.  George  is  situ- 
ated on  the  north  side  of  the  lower 
court  of  the  castle.  The  collegiate 
chapel  of  St.  George  is,  as  Mr. 
Britton  observes,  u  the  largest  in 
dimension,  the  most  chaste  and 
elegant  in  architectural  style  and 
character,  and  the  most  diversified 
in  external  and  internal  arrange- 
ment, of  the  three  royal  chapels  in 
England."  The  whole  building,  it 
is  evident,  has  been  designed  and 
constructed  at  different  times;  and 

4«J5 


WIN 


W  I  N 


we  may  perceive  in  it  readily  the 
styles  of  periods,  various  and  dis- 
tinct, from  the  reign  of  Henry  III. 
to  that  of  Henry  VIII. ;  but  we 
have  no  documents  to  determine 
the  commencement  and  termination 
of  each  respective  part.  We  have 
authentic  documents  to  prove,  that 
part  of  it  was  built  during  the 
reigns  of  Henry  HI.  and  Edward 
III.,  who  was  particularly  partial  to 
Windsor.  In  his  reign  we  learn 
that  the  prices  of  labour  were,  per 
day:  —  For  master  mason,  Is.  ; 
common  mason,  5\d.  ;  mason's 
apprentice,  2c?. ;  porter,  or  labour- 
er, 3d. ;  scaffold-maker,  3ld. ;  car- 
penter, Ad.  and  5d. ;  plasterer,  6c?.; 
tyler,  3d.;  painter,  6c?.,  7c?.,  8c?., 
9c?.,  10c?.,  and  Is. — Of  materials, 
gobetts,  or  gobbets,  (stones  so  call- 
ed, from  Caen,)  41.  per  hundred  ; 
Caen  stones,  called  coins,  12s.  6d. 
per  hundred  ;  Ryegate  stones,  (for 
muliions,  dressing  of  windows,  &c.) 
alder- tree  beams  for  scaffolding, 
and  hurdles  for  the  same  purpose, 
2c?.  each ;  wax,  to  make  cement, 
6d.  a  pound  ;  pitch,  for  the  same 
purpose,  lc?.  a  pound;  lime,  for 
mortar,  3s.  6c?.  per  hundred  ;  sand, 
for  mortar,  lc?.  a  cart-load;  white 
plaster,  Is.  3c?.  a  bushel;  white  glass, 
4c?.  a  foot.  In  1390,  the  fourteenth 
year  of  Richard  II.,  Geoffrey  Chau- 
cer, the  poet,  was  made  "  clerk  of 
the  works"  to  St.  George's  chapel, 
which  is  described  as  then  being 
upon  the  point  of  failing  to  the 
ground.  The  design,  and  greater 
part  of  the  present  edifice  are 
generally  attributed  to  Richard 
Beauchamp,  bishop  of  Salisbury, 
who  was  master  and  surveyor  of 
the  works  in  the  fifteenth  year  of 
Edward  IV.  and  who,  according  to 
Gough,  was  accounted  the  Wyke- 
ham  of  his  day.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  the  superintendence  of 
the  work  by  Sir  Reginald  Bray, 
the  prime  minister  to  Edward  VII. 

496 


To  his  skill  and  munificence  the 
chapel  of  St.  George  owes  much, 
and  his  arms  occur  frequently  on 
the  ceiling  and  windows.  The 
chapel  on  the  south  side,  still  called 
Bray's  chapel,  was  built  by  him 
to  receive  his  body.  The  roof,  or 
groined  ceiling,  of  the  choir,  was 
not  begun  till  the  twenty-first  year 
of  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  when 
John  Hylmer  and  William  Vertue, 
freemasons,  agreed  by  indenture, 
dated  June  5,  a.  d.  1507,  after 
Sir  Reginald's  death,  to  construct 
that  part  of  the  vaulting  for  the 
sum  of  £700,  and  to  complete  it 
by  Christmas  1508. 

The  building  stands  on  a  sloping 
ground,  with  a  gradual  declivity 
from  east  to  west.  It  presents  a 
uniform  arrangement  of  parts  in 
the  plan.  Each  side  of  the  nave 
consists  of  seven  similar  compart- 
ments, with  corresponding  piers, 
panelling  over  the  arches,  windows, 
and  panelling  in  the  aisles,  upper 
tier  of  windows,  also  groining 
spring  from  the  clustered  columns. 
A  fascia,  or  frieze  of  half  angles, 
beneath  the  upper  windows,  ex- 
tends all  round  the  building. 
Above  these  heads  is  shown  an 
elegant  ornament  of  lozenge-shaped 
leaves,  &c.  a  genuine  mark  of  the 
Tudor  style.  Each  transom  of 
the  windows  has  an  embattled 
moulding.  The  west  window  fills 
up  the  whole  width  of  the  nave, 
and  is  divided  into  three  large 
compartments,  each  of  which  is 
subdivided  by  smaller  muliions  into 
five  lights  :  horizontally  it  is  com- 
posed of  six  tiers  of  lights,  each 
having  a  cinque-foil  head.  The 
groining  of  the  roof  in  the  vault- 
ings of  the  nave,  choir,  side-aisles, 
and  transepts,  is  a  just  object  of 
admiration,  and  is  distinguished 
by  its  elegant,  forms  and  nu- 
merous ramifications.  The  com- 
partment over  the  organ  screen 


W  I  N 


W  I  N 


is  the  most  elaborate.  The  bosses 
are  charged  with  the  badge  of 
Sir  Reginald  Bray,  and  the  initials 
of  his  name. 

The  arrangement  of  the  parts  in 
this  chapel,  in  the  plan,  and  in 
the  elevation  of  the  ends  and  sides, 
is  uniform,  except  in  the  following 
particulars.  A  modern  chapter- 
house occupies  the  north-east  an- 
gle, and  varies  considerably  from 
the  Lincoln  chapel  at  the  corre- 
sponding angle  ;  near  it  is  a  stair- 
case turret,  and  a  recess  cut  in  one 
of  the  buttresses.  There  is  also  a 
modern  perch  at  the  south  tran- 
sept, which  does  not  accord  with 
the  rest  of  the  building.  The 
chantries  or  monumental  chaptls 
are  numerous:  each  was  originally 
founded  by  a  private  person,  and 
intended  to  contain  his  own  or  a 
family  tomb.  The  Beaufort  chapel, 
or  chantry,  contains,  among  others, 
a  gorgeous  monument  of  white 
marble,  with  four  Corinthian  co- 
lumns, so  the  memory  of  Henry 
Somerset,  duke  of  Beaufort,  who 
died  in  Jan.  16,  1699.  This  cha- 
pel was  greatly  injured  during  the 
civil  wars,  but  has  since  been 
restored.  The  Urswick  chapel 
received  its  name  from  Dr.  Chris- 
topher Urswick,  dean  of  Windsor, 
who  appears  to  have  contributed 
towards  the  completion  of  the  cha- 
pel. Rutland  chapel,  or  the  north 
transept,  was  founded  by  Sir  Tho- 
mas Sr.  Ledger,  or  Sentlynger,  for 
the  interment  of  his  wife,  Anne, 
duchess  of  Exeter,  sister  of  Edward 
IV.  Hastings  chantry,  which  was 
built  by  Elizabeth,  the  wife  of  Wil- 
liam, Lord  Ha>tings,  who  was 
chamberlain  to  Edward  IV.  corre- 
sponds in  design  and  shape  with 
the  Oxenbridge  chantry,  occupying 
the  whole  width  between  two  piers 
of  the  choir,  and  consisting  of  an 
open  screen,  with  a  door-way  to  the 
aisle,  and  a  flat  wall  towards  the 
3R 


choir,  its  roof  groined,  and  its  sides 
ornamented  with  niches.  The  Lin- 
coln chantry  contains  the  tomb  of 
Edward,  earl  of  Lincoln,  who  died 
in  1584.  The  Oxenbridge  chantry 
was  erected  by  John  Oxenbridge, 
a  canon,  in  1522,  and  dedicated  to 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  whose  history 
is  represented  in  three  compart- 
ments at  the  back;  in  the  spandiils 
of  the  door,  the  name  of  the  foun- 
der is  symbolically  represented  by 
the  figure  of  an  Ox,  an  N,  and 
a  Bridge.  Oliver  King's  chantry, 
called  also  the  Aldworth  chapel, 
which  is  an  extraneous  little  build- 
ing, is,  on  account  of  its  bad  style,  a 
blemish  to  the  southern  side  of  the 
building :  it  is  said  to  have  been 
built  by  Oliver  King,  bishop  of 
Bath  and  Wells.  The  south  tran- 
sept, or  Bray  chapel,  contains  a 
modern  front,  and  several  tablets 
and  monuments.  A  monument 
erected  to  William  Fitzwilliam,  who 
died  Oct.  13,  1659,  is  worthy  of 
attention,  as,  according  to  Mr. 
Britton,  "  the  design  and  mode  of 
workmanship  shew  the  decline,  the 
last  struggle,  of  the  Tudor  style  of 
church  architecture/' 

At  the  east  end  of  the  chapel  is 
a  distinct,  though  attached  build- 
ing, called  the  tomb-house,  which 
was  commenced  by  Henry  VII., 
and  intended  for  his  burial-place; 
it  was  granted  by  Henry  VIII.  to 
cardinal  Wolsey,  who  began  in  it 
a  sumptuous  monument  for  him- 
self :  this,  however,  was  destroyed 
in  the  civil  wars.  James  II.  fitted 
up  the  building  as  a  Roman  catho- 
lic chapel,  and  publicly  attended 
the  celebration  of  mass.  After  his 
time  it  was  deserted,  but  it  was 
repaired  by  George  HI.,  and  ap- 
propriated for  the  interment  of  his 
family. 

The  circumference  of  the  whole 
castle  is  estimated  at  four  thou- 
sand one  hundred  and  eighty  feet; 

497 


woo 


woo 


its  length  from  east  to  west  is 
one  thousand  four  hundred  and 
eighty  feet ;  and  its  area,  exclusive 
of  the  terrace  walks,  is  about  twelve 
acres. 

Wire. — Colonel  Dufour  erected 
at  Geneva  suspension  bridges  of 
iron  wire,  instead  of  bars,  on  the 
well-ascertained  principle,  that  a 
small  wire  of  iron  is  capable  of 
supporting  a  much  greater  weight, 
in  proportion  to  its  size,  than  a 
larger  cylinder  of  the  same  ma- 
terial. This  increased  tenacity  or 
strength  appears  to  be  produced 
in  a  great  measure  by  the  opera- 
tions of  hammering,  rolling,  and 
drawing,  which,  it  is  believed,  ren- 
der the  metal  more  compact  and 
solid,  the  particles  being  brought 
into  closer  compact  by  compression, 
and  their  cohesive  force  conse- 
quently increased.  Colonel  Dufour 
found,  from  the  experiments  that 
he  made,  that  iron  wires,  of  from 
one  to  four  millimetres  in  diameter, 
supported  at  least  1 32  lbs.  for  each 
square  millimetre  of  their  section ; 
those  of  six  millimeters,  from  88  to 
100  lbs.  per  square  millimetre  ;  and 
larger  cylinders  of*  iron,  from  55 
to  60  lbs.  only— which  sufficiently 
demonstrate  the  great  advantage  of 
employing  wire  in  preference  to 
bars  of  iron,  in  suspension  bridges, 
as  a  greater  tenacity  is  acquired 
with  only  half  the  weight  of  metal. 
An  account  of  Colonel  Dufour's 
bridges  is  given  in  the  first  volume 
of  the  first  series  of  the  Register  of 
Arts. 

Withs,  (Sax.)  the  partitions  of 
chimney-flues. 

Wood.  An  account  of  the  dif- 
ferent kinds,  &c.  of  Wood  has  al- 
ready been  given,  under  the  article 
Timber.  We  shall  here  only  give 
some  observations  on  the  best 
mode  of  staining  it  of  different 
colours. 

The  following  are  the  best  pro- 

498 


cesses  for  staining  common  woods, 
in  imitation  of  the  finer  sorts. 

Artificial  Ebony,  is  made  by 
boiling  smooth  clean  box  in  oil, 
till  it  becomes  perfectly  black ;  or 
by  washing  pear-tree  wood  with 
aquafortis,  and  drying  it  in  a  shady 
place  in  the  open  air ;  after  which, 
common  writing  ink  should  be  re- 
peatedly passed  over  it,  and  the 
wood  dried  in  a  similar  manner, 
till  it  acquire  a  deep  black  colour. 
It  may  then  be  polished  with  wax 
and  a  woollen  cloth,  which  will 
give  it  a  fine  lustre.  A  very  fine 
black  is  also  produced  by  a  solu- 
tion of  copper  in  aquafortis,  and 
afterwards  brushed  over  with  a  de- 
coction of  logwood. 

Rosewood,  may  be  admirably 
produced  by  brushing  over  the 
wood  repeatedly  a  strong  decoction 
of  logwood,  and,  after  it  is  dry, 
applying  with  a  piece  of  cane 
bruised  very  coarsely,  to  be  used  as 
a  brush,  a  solution  of  copperas,  or, 
which  is  better,  of  iron  filings  in 
vinegar,  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
imitate  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

Mahogany.  An  excellent  imi- 
tation of  mahogany  may  be  ob- 
tained by  heating  over  a  fire  some 
dragon's  blood  dissolved  in  oil  of 
turpentine,  in  which  is  immersed 
some  plane-tree  wood.  This  mode 
is  practised  in  Germany,  and  pro- 
duces a  beautiful  colour;  but,  as 
some  danger  is  incurred  from  the 
liability  of  the  oil  of  turpentine  to 
take  fire,  it  has  been  recommended 
to  boil  the  wood  well  in  simple 
water,  and  then  to  take  it  out,  and, 
while  hot,  to  brush  it  over  re- 
peatedly with  the  solution  of  dra- 
gon's blood  in  oil  of  turpentine. 
Another  method, which  answers  well, 
particularly  with  elm,  maple,  and 
sycamore,  is,  to  dissolve  two 
drachms  of  dragon's  blood,  one 
drachm  of  alkanet  root,  and  half  a 
drachm  of  aloe,  in  half  a  pint  of 


woo 


woo 


rectified  spirits  of  wine  :  the  wood 
should  be  first  moistened  with  aqua- 
fortis, and  two  or  three  layers  of  the 
mixture  applied,  each  being  allowed 
to  dry  before  the  next  is  applied. 

A  light  red-brown  Mahogany 
colour  may  also  be  given  to  wood, 
by  means  of  a  decoction  of  madder 
and  fustic  wood,  ground  in  water, 
in  the  proportion  of  half  a  pound 
of  madder,  and  a  quarter  of  a 
pound  of  fustic,  to  a  gallon  ;  or,  in- 
stead of  the  fustic,  an  ounce  of 
French  berries  may  be  used.  The 
wood  must  be  brushed  over  with 
this  solution,  while  boiling  hot,  till 
the  proper  colour  be  obtained.  By 
substituting,  for  the  fustic,  two 
ounces  of  logwood,  a  dark  Maho- 
gany colour  will  be  obtained.  When 
the  wood  has  been  brushed  over  se- 
veral times,  and  is  dry,  brush  it  over 
with  water  in  which  pearl-ashes 
have  been  dissolved,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  to  a 
quart.  The  wood,  in  the  better 
kind  of  work,  should  be  afterwards 
varnished  with  three  or  four  coats 
of  seedlac  varnish. 

To  dye  wood  a  fine  yellow,  dis- 
solve gamboge  in  spirit  of  turpen- 
tine, and  wash  it  over  the  wood  : 
the  addition  of  dragon's  blood  will 
produce  an  orange  tint.  Turmeric 
dissolved  in  spirits  of  wine  also  an- 
swers well. 

Wood  may  also  be  stained  yellow 
by  brushing  it  over  several  times 
with  the  tincture  of  turmeric  root, 
made  by  putting  an  ounce  of  the 
powdered  root  to  a  pint  of  spirit, 
and,  after  it  has  stood  some  days, 
straining  ofF  the  tincture.  To  this 
also  a  little  dragon's  blood  may  be 
added,  to  give  it  a  redder  cast.  A 
cheaper  and  less  bright  yellow  may 
be  given  by  rubbing  the  wood  over 
with  the  tincture  of  French  berries 
made  boiling  hot,  and,  when  the 
wood  is  dry,  brushing  it  over  with 
weak  alum-water  used  cold. 


For  a  deep  black,  the  wood  may 
be  brushed  over  four  or  five  times 
with  a  warm  decoction  of  logwood, 
made  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound 
of  logwood  to  a  gallon  of  water, 
and  boiled  for  an  hour  or  more. 
Afterwards  black  it  over  as  often 
with  a  decoction  of  galls,  allowing 
it  to  dry  thoroughly  between  each 
application  of  the  liquor.  Thus 
prepared,  it  receives  a  fine  deep 
colour,  from  being  washed  over  with 
a  solution  of  vitriol,  in  the  propor- 
tion of  two  ounces  to  a  quart ;  in 
the  room  of  which,  some  use  a  so- 
lution of  iron  in  vinegar,  keeping 
the  vinegar  for  this  purpose,  upon 
a  quantity  of  iron  filings,  and  pour- 
ing off  a  little  as  it  is  wanted.  A 
pretty  good  black  is  also  obtained 
by  brushing  over  the  wood  first 
with  the  logwood  liquor,  and  after- 
wards with  common  ink.  A  very  fins 
black  maybe  produced  by  brushing 
over  the  wood  several  times  with 
a  solution  of  copper  in  aquafortis, 
and  afterwards  with  the  decoction  of 
logwood,  repeated  till  the  colour  be 
of  sufficient  force,  and  the  greenness 
produced  by  the  copper  overcome. 

To  die  wood  a  fine  blue,  put  two 
drachms  of  the  best  indigo  in 
powder  in  a  glass,  with  two  ounces 
of  oil  of  vitriol,  and  stir  them  with 
a  new  clay  pipe.  When  it  has  stood 
for  ten  or  twelve  hours  in  a  tem- 
perate place,  pour  it  into  a  large 
glass  or  earthen  vessel,  and  add  as 
much  clear  water  as  is  requisite  to 
produce  the  tint  required.  Another 
method  is,  to  dissolve  verdigris  in 
distilled  vinegar,  and  making  a  se- 
parate solution  of  two  ounces  of 
pure  pearl  ashes  in  a  pint  of  water, 
first  applying  the  former  to  the 
wood  several  times,  till  it  be  of  a 
sufficiently  deep  green,  and  then 
applying  the  latter  with  a  soft 
painter's  brush,  till  it  becomes  of 
the  blue  tint  required.  If  a  green 
stain    is   required,    the  dissolved 


WRE 


WRE 


verdigris  may  be  used  alone. 
— To  dye  wood  purple,  boil  a 
quart  of  water,  two  ounces  of  Brazil 
wood,  and  one  ounce  of  logwood, 
till  one  half  is  evaporated;  strain  it 
off  and  lay  it  on  with  a  painter's 
brush.  Afterwards  apply  a  weak 
solution  of  pearl  ash. 

To  dye  wood  red:  take  two 
ounces  of  Brazil  wood,  and  two 
drachms  of  purified  potash ;  mix 
them  in  a  quart  of  water,  and  in- 
fuse for  two  or  three  days,  then 
strain  it,  and  make  it  boiling  hot, 
and  brush  over  the  wood  with  it, 
until  it  is  highly  coloured,  when, 
while  wet,  it  must  be  brushed  over 
with  a  solution  of  alum,  (in  the 
proportion  of  two  ounces  to  a  quart.) 

To  dye  wood  pink  or  rose-red, 
add  to  this  infusion  of  Brazil  wood 
a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  pearlash, 
and  use  it  as  before,  applying  the 
alum-water  several  times. 

To  increase  the  brilliancy  of  any 
of  the  foregoing  stains,  use  a  var- 
nish of  seed  or  shell  lac.  For 
coarser  work,  a  varnish  of  resin  and 
lac  may  be  used,  or  drying  oil ;  or 
even  a  little  bees'  wax  only. 

Wreathed  Columns,  columns 
twisted  in  the  form  of  a  screw. 

Wren, Christopher,  a  learned 
and  illustrious  English  architect, 
was  nephew  to  bishop  Wren,  and 
the  son  of  Dr.  Christopher  Wren, 
who  was  fellow  of  St.  John's  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  and  afterwards  chap- 
lain to  Charles  I.  His  father  was 
also  a  skilful  architect  and  mathe- 
matician ;  and,  in  the  state  papers 
of  the  earl  of  Clarendon,  vol.  i.  p. 
27,  is  an  estimate  of  a  building  to 
be  erected  for  her  majesty  by  Dean 
Wren.  Christopher  Wren  was  born 
at  Knoyle,  Oct.  20,  1632,  and, 
while  very  young,  discovered  a  sur- 
prising turn  for  learning,  especially 
for  mathematics.  He  was  sent  to 
Oxford,  and  admitted  a  gentleman 
commoner  at  Wadham  College,  at 

500 


about  fourteen  years  of  age.  In 
1652,  he  took  his  master's  degree, 
having  been  chosen  fellow  of  All 
Souls'  College,  and,  soon  after,  be- 
came one  of  that  ingenious  and 
learned  Society,  who  then  met  at 
Oxford,  for  the  improvement  of  na- 
tural and  experimental  philosophy. 

In  August,  1657,  Wren  was 
chosen  professor  of  astronomy  in 
Gresham  College,  and  his  lectures, 
which  were  much  frequented,  tended 
greatly  to  the  promotion  of  real 
knowledge ;  and  on  the  fifth  of 
February,  1660-1,  he  was  chosen 
civilian  professor  of  astronomy  at 
Oxford,  in  the  room  of  Dr.  Seth 
Ward,  on  which  he  entered  in  May, 
and  in  September  was  created 
doctor  of  civil  law. 

Among  his  other  eminent  accom- 
plishments, Wren  gained  so  consi- 
derable a  skill  in  architecture,  that 
he  was  sent  for  the  same  year  from 
Oxford,  by  order  of  Charles  II.,  to 
assist  Sir  John  Denham,  surveyor- 
general  of  his  majesty's  works.  In 
1663,  he  was  chosen  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  being  one  of  those 
who  were  first  appointed  by  the 
council,  after  the  grant  of  their 
charter.  He  did  great  honour  to 
this  illustrious  body  by  many  cu- 
rious and  useful  discoveries  in  as- 
tronomy, natural  philosophy,  and 
other  sciences. 

In  1665,  he  went  over  to  France, 
where  he  not  only  surveyed  all  the 
buildings  of  note  in  Paris,  and  made 
excursions  to  other  places,  but  took 
particular  notice  of  what  was  re- 
markable in  every  branch  of  me- 
chanics, and  contracted  acquaint- 
ance with  all  the  considerable 
virtuosi.  "  The  great  number  of 
drawings  he  made  from  their  build- 
ings," Walpole  observes,  "  had  but 
too  visible  influence  on  some  of  his 
own  ;  but  it  was  so  far  lucky  for 
Sir  Christopher,  that  Louis  XIV. 
had    erected     palaces    only,  no 


W  R  E 


W  R  E 


churches.  St.  Paul's  escaped,  but 
Hampton  Court  was  sacrificed  to 
the  god  of  false  taste.  Yet  I  have 
been  assured,  bv  a  descendant  of  Sir 
Christopher,  that  he  gave  another 
design  for  Hampton  Court,  in  a 
better  taste,  which  queen  Mary 
wished  to  have  executed,  but  was 
over-ruled." 

On  his  return  from  France,  he 
was  appointed  architect,  and  one 
of  the  commissioners  for  the  re- 
paration of  St.  Paul's  cathedral. 
Within  a  few  days  after  the  fire, 
which  began  September  2,  1666,  he 
drew  a  plan  for  a  new  city ;  but  the 
execution  of  his  noble  design  was 
unhappily  prevented  by  the  dis- 
putes which  arose  about  private 
property,  and  the  haste  and  hurry 
of  rebuilding,  though  it  is  said  that 
the  practicability  of  Wren's  whole 
plan,  without  infringement  on  any 
property,  was  at  that  time  demon- 
strated, and  all  material  objections 
fully  weighed  and  answered. 

In  1668,  Wren  succeeded  Sir 
John  Denham  in  the  office  of 
surveyor-general  of  his  majesty's 
works,  and  in  1669  finished  the 
theatre  at  Oxford,  which  will  be  a 
lasting  monument  of  his  great 
abilities  as  an  architect.  In  this 
building,  the  admirable  contrivance 
of  the  flat  roof,  which  is  eight  feet 
over  the  one  way,  and  seventy  the 
other,  without  any  arched  work  or 
pillars  to  support  it,  is  particularly 
remarkable.  The  conflagration  of 
the  city  of  London  gave  him  many 
opportunities  of  employing  his  ge- 
nius; and  the  variety  of  business 
in  which  he  was  by  this  means  en- 
gaged, requiring  his  constant  at- 
tendance and  concern,  he  resigned 
his  civilian  professorship  at  Oxford 
in  1673,  and  the  year  following  re- 
ceived from  the  king  the  honour  of 
knighthood. 

Soon  after  this,  he  married  the 
daughter  of  Sir  Thomas  Coghill,  of 


Belchington,  in  Oxfordshire,  by 
whom  he  had  one  son,  Christopher  ; 
and  after  her  death,  which  happened 
soon  after,  he  married  a  daughter 
of  William  Lord  Fitzwilliam,  baron 
of  Lifford  in  Ireland,  by  whom  he 
had  a  son  and  a  daughter.  In 
1680,  he  was  chosen  president  of 
the  Royal  Society.  In  1684,  he 
was  principal  officer  or  comptroller 
of  the  works  in  the  castle  of  Wind- 
sor. He  sat  twice  in  parliament 
as  a  representative  for  two  different 
boroughs,  which  were  Plympton  in 
Devonshire,  and  Melcomb-Regis  in 
Dorsetshire.  In  consequence  of  a 
court  intrigue,  in  April,  1718,  his 
patent  for  royal  works  was  super- 
seded, after  he  had  reached  his 
eighty-sixth  year  ;  and  Walpole  has 
well  observed,  "  that  the  length  of 
his  life  enriched  the  reigns  of  se- 
veral princes,  and  disgraced  the  last 
of  them."  He  died  on  the  25th 
of  February,  1723,  at  the  age  of 
ninety-one,  and  was  interred,  with 
great  solemnity,  in  the  vault  under 
the  south  wing  of  the  choir,  near 
the  east  end  of  St.  Paul's  cathe- 
dral. On  the  side  of  a  pillar  is  the 
following  inscription : — 

SUBTUS  CONDITUR 
HUJUS  F.CCLESIiE  ET  U  R  BIS  CONDITOR, 

CHRISTOPIIERUS  WREN, 

Ql!I  VIXIT  ANNOS  ULTRA  NONAGINTA, 

NON  SIBI  SI  D  BONO  PUBLICO. 
LECTOR,  SI  MONUMENTUM  REQUIRIS, 
CIliCUMSPICE. 
OBUT  XXV.  FEB.  ANN.  MDCCXXIII. 
jETAT.  XCI. 

"  As  to  his  person,"  observes  the 
writer  of  the  General  Biographical 
Dictionary,  to  whom  we  are  in- 
debted for  the  greater  part  of  our 
notice  of  his  life, "  he  was  of  low 
stature,  and  thin;  but  by  tempe- 
rance and  skilful  management,  for 
he  was  not  unacquainted  with 
anatomy  and  physic,  he  enjoyed  a 
good  state  of  health  to  a  very  un- 
usual  length   of  life.     He  was 


W  R  E 


WRE 


modest,  devout,  strictly  virtuous, 
and  very  communicative  of  what 
he  knew.  Besides  his  peculiar  emi- 
nence as  an  architect,  his  learning 
and  knowledge  was  very  extensive 
in  all  the  arts  and  science?,  and 
especially  in  the  mathematics.  Mr. 
Hooke,  who  was  intimately  :  c- 
quainted  with  him,  and  very  able  to 
make  a  just  estimate  of  his  abilities, 
has  comprised  his  character  in  these 
few  but  comprehensive  words  :  '  I 
must,  affirm/  says  he,  i  that  since 
the  time  of  Archimedes,  there 
scarcely  ever  has  met  in  one  man, 
in  so  great  a  perfection,  such  a  me- 
chanical hand,  and  so  philosophical 
a  mind.'  And  a  greater  than 
Hooke,  even  the  illustrious  and  im- 
mortal Newton,  whose  signet  stamps 
an  indelible  character,  speaks  thus 
of  him,  with  other  eminent  men : 
— *  D.  Christopherus  Wrennus, 
Eques  Auratus,  Johannes  Wallisius, 
S.  T.  D.,  et  D.  Christianus  Huge- 
nius,  hujus  setatis  geometriarum 
facile  principes.' " 

Among  the  many  public  build- 
ings erected  by  Wren  in  the  city  of 
London,  the  church  of  St.  Stephen, 
in  Walbrook  ;  that  of  St.  Mary-le- 
Bow;  the  monument;  and  the 
cathedral  of  St.  Paul — may  be 
cited  as  the  most  celebrated.  To 
defray  the  expenses  of  building  the 
latter,  the  chamber  of  London  was 
made  an  office  for  the  receipt  of 
contributions,  and,  in  the  space 
of  ten  years  only,  the  sum  of 
£126,000  was  paid  into  it.  Charles 
the  Second  generously  gave  a  thou- 
sand pounds  a  year  out  of  his  privy 
purse,  besides  a  duty  on  coals, 
which  produced  five  thousand 
pounds  a  year,  over  and  above  all 
other  grants  in  its  favour.  Sir 
Christopher  prepared  a  design,  well 
studied  and  truly  magnificent,  con- 
formable to  the  best  style  of  the 
Greek  and  Roman  architecture, 
which  all   approved,    except  the 


bishops,  who  thought  it  not  suffi- 
ciently laid  out  m  the  cathedral 
fashion.  The  design  was  therefore 
varied  in  many  respects,  until  the 
plan  of  the  present  mighty  struc- 
ture, which  is  in  the  form  of  a  long 
cross,  was  unanimously  approved ; 
soon  after  which,  the  building  was 
put  in  hand,  and  the  first  stone  was 
laid  by  Sir  Christopher  himself,  on 
the  21st  of  June,  1675. 

"  The  church  of  Walbrook,"  it  is 
observed  by  the  author  of  the  cri- 
tical review  of  the  public  buildings, 
&c.  of  London,  "  is  famous  all 
over  Europe,  and  is  justly  reputed 
the  masterpiece  of  the  celebrated 
Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Perhaps 
Italy  itself  can  produce  no  modern 
building  that  can  vie  with  this  in 
taste  or  proportion.  There  is  not 
a  beauty  which  the  plan  would  ad- 
mit of,  that  is  not  to  be  found  here 
in  its  greatest  perfection ;  and  fo- 
reigners very  justly  call  our  judg- 
ment in  question,  for  understand- 
ing its  graces  no  better,  and  allow- 
ing it  no  higher  a  degree  of  fame." 
The  steeple  of  St.  Mary-le-Bow, 
which  is  particularly  grand  and 
beautiful,  stands  upon  an  old 
Roman  causeway,  that  lies  eighteen 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  present 
street ;  and  the  body  of  the  church 
stands  on  the  walls  of  a  Roman 
temple. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the 
churches  of  the  city  of  London, 
royal  palaces,  hospitals,  and  public 
edifices,  built  by  Sir  Christopher 
Wren,  whilst  he  was  surveyor- 
general  of  the  royal  works. 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral. 
Allliallows  the  Great. 
Allhallows,  Bread  Street. 
Allliallows,  Lombard  Street. 
St.  Alban,  Wood  Street. 
St.  Anne  and  Agnes. 
St.  Andrew,  Wardrobe 
St.  Andrew,  Holborn. 
St.  Antholin. 
St.  Austin. 


W  Y  A 


W  Y  A 


St.  Bene't,  Gracechurch. 
St.  Bene'l,  Paul's  Wharf. 
St.  Bene't,  Fink. 
St.  Bride. 
St.  Bartholomew. 
Christ's  Church. 
St.  Clement,  Eastcheap. 
S.  Clement,  Danes. 
St.  Dionis,  Backchurch. 
St.  Edmund  the  King-. 
St.  George,  Botolph  Lane. 
St.  James,  Garlic  Hill. 
St.  James,  Westminster. 
St.  Lawrence,  Jewry. 
St.  Michael,  UasinghaU. 
St.  Michael,  Royal. 
St.  Michael,  Queenhithe. 
St.  Michael,  Wood  Street. 
St.  Michael,  Crooked  Lane. 
St.  Michael,  Cornhill. 
St.  Martin,  Ludgate. 
St.  Matthew,  Friday  Street. 
St.  Margaret,  Lothbury. 
St.  Margaret  Pattens. 
St.  Mary,  Abchurch. 
St.  Mary,  Aldertnanbary. 
St.  Mary-le-Bow. 
St.  Mary  Magdalen. 
St.  Mary,  Somerset. 
St.  Mary  at  Hill. 
St.  Nicholas  Cole  Abbey. 
St.  Olave,  Jewry. 
St.  Peter,  Cornhill. 
St.  Swiihin,  Cannon  Street. 
St.  Stephen,  Walbrook. 
St.  Stephen,  Coleman  Street. 
St.  Mildred,  Bread  Street. 
St.  Mildred,  Poultry. 
St.  Magnus,  London  Bridge. 
St.  Foster's  Church. 
Westminster  Abbey,  repaired. 
St.  Christopher. 
St.  Dunstan  in  the  East. 
St.  Mary,  Aldermanbury. 
St.  Sepulchre's. 
The  Monument. 
Custom  House,  London. 
Winchester  Castle. 
Hampton  Court. 
Chelsea  Hospital. 
Greenwich  Hospital. 
Theatre  at  Oxford. 
Trinity  College  Library,  Cambridge. 
Emmanuel  College  Chapel,  Cambridge. 
&c.  &c. 

Wyatt,  James,  an  eminent  mo- 
dern architect,  was  born  atBurton,in 
Stafford  shire,  about  the  year  1743, 
of  a  respectable  family,  and  having 
at  an  early  period  showed  great 
genius  for  architectural  design,  his 


friends  succeeded  in  introducing 
him  into  the  suite  of  Lord  Bagot, 
then  about  to  go  as  the  ambassador 
of  England  to  Rome.  There  he 
studied  the  architecture  of  Italy, 
and  stored  up  that  transcendent 
knowledge  of  the  rules  of  his  pro- 
fession, and  that  exquisite  taste  for 
the  development  of  those  rules, 
which  placed  him  without  a  rival 
among  British  architects.  He  was 
frequently  heard  to  say,  that  he 
had  measured  with  his  own  hand 
every  part  of  the  dome  of  St. 
Peter's,  at  the  imminent  danger  of 
his  life,  as  he  was  obliged  to  lie 
on  his  back  on  a  ladder  slung 
horizontally,  without  cradle  or  side- 
rail,  over  a  void  of  three  hundred 
feet.  From  Rome  he  went  to  Ve- 
nice, and  there  studied  some  time 
under  the  celebrated  architect  Vis- 
centini,  under  whom  he  acquired 
an  unusual  perfection  in  architec- 
tural painting.  At  the  age  of 
twenty  he  returned  to  London  with 
a  taste  formed  by  the  finest  models 
of  ancient  Rome,  and  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  best  living  masters  in 
Italy.  He  was  first  employed  on 
the  Pantheon,  in  Oxford-street,  the 
grandeur  and  symmetry  of  which 
procured  him  the  admiration  of 
every  person  of  taste  in  Europe. 
He  was  invited  by  the  empress  of 
Russia,  through  her  ambassador  at 
London,  to  settle  at  St.  Petersburg; 
but,  at  the  recommendation  of  his 
friends,  he  declined  the  offer  of  the 
munificentCatherine.  On  the  death 
of  Sir  William  Chambers,  he  was 
appointed  by  the  king  to  the  office 
of  surveyor-general  to  the  board  of 
works.  A  dispute  having  arisen  in 
the  Royal  Academy,  which  induced 
Mr.  West  to  relinquish  the  pre- 
sident's chair,  Mr.  Wyatt  was  elect- 
ed, and  reluctantly  accepted  the 
vacant  office  at  the  king's  express 
desire,  but  he  restored  it  to  Mr. 
West  the  ensuing  year.   Mr. Wyatt 

503 


WYK 


W  YK 


died  by  an  accident  on  the  fifth  of 
September,  1813,  at  a  about  se- 
venty years  of  age.  He  was  on  his 
way  to  London  with  Mr.  Codring- 
ton,  in  that  gentleman's  carriage, 
when  it  was  overturned  near  Marl- 
borough, and  the  suddenness  and 
violence  of  the  accident  is  supposed 
to  have  produced  a  concussion  of 
the-  brain,  as  he  died  instantly. 
Among  the  principal  works  of  this 
celebrated  man,  are  — -the  palace  at 
Kew,  Fonthill  Abbey,  Hanworth 
Church,  the  House  of  Lords,  parts 
of  Henry  the  Seventh's  Chapel  and 
Windsor  Castle,  Bulstrode,  Dod- 
dington  Hall,  Cashiobury,Ashbridge 
Hall,  &c.  The  writer  of  his  life 
observes,  that  although  he  was 
educated  a  Roman  architect,  and 
made  his  grand  and  successful 
debut  in  England  under  that  cha- 
racter, yet  his  genius  was  not  to 
be  bounded  in  a  single  sphere,  and 
it  afterwards  revived  in  his  country 
the  long  forgotten  beauties  of  the 
Gothic  style.  However,  it  has  been 
observed,  that  Mr.  Wyatt  was  far 
from  being  successful,  either  in  his 
original  attempts,  or  in  his  restora- 
tions of  the  pure  Gothic. 

Wykeham, William  of,  illus- 
trious for  his  patronage  of  and 
skill  in  architecture,  was  born  at 
Wykeham,  in  Hampshire,  in  1324, 
of  a  respectable  family,  though  his 
parents  were  then  reduced  in  cir- 
cumstances. He  found,  however, 
a  patron,  who  is  supposed  to  have 
been  Nicholas  Uvedale,  lord  of  the 
manor  of  Wykeham,  and  governor 
of  Winchester  Castle,  who  main- 
tained him  at  Winchester  school, 
where  he  gave  early  proofs  of  piety 
and  learning.  He  was  afterwards 
recommended  to  the  notice  of  Ed- 
ward III.,  and  was  introduced  at 
court  at  about  twenty- two  or  twen- 
ty-three years  of  age.  There  is 
every  reason  to  suppose  that  his 
skill  in  drawing  recommended  him 


to  a  sovereign,  who  was  bent  on 
adding  to  his  country  the  orna- 
ment and  utility  of  magnificent  and 
durable  structures.  The  office  he 
first  held  was  that  of  clerk  of  all 
the  king's  works  in  the  castle  and 
park  of  Windsor,  to  which  he  was 
appointed  in  May  1356;  and  it  was 
by  his  advice,  that  the  king  was  in- 
duced to  pull  down  great  part  of 
his  castle;  and  by  his  skill,  that  it 
was  rebuilt  nearly  in  the  manner 
in  which  it  now  stands.  His  other 
great  work  was  Queenborough  Cas- 
tle; and  although  in  these  military 
structures  he  had  little  scope  for 
the  genius  which  he  afterwards  dis- 
played at  Oxford  and  Winchester, 
they  would  have  been  sufficient  to 
prove  that  he  had  already  reached 
that  degree  of  architectural  skill 
which  modern  art  can  scarcely 
imitate. 

Wykeham  now  quickly  became 
a  favourite  with  his  sovereign,  who 
bestowed  on  him  various  marks  of 
royal  favour.  He  was  successively 
promoted  to  a  variety  of  ecclesias- 
tical preferments;  and  the  annual 
value  of  his  livings,  for  some  time 
before  he  became  bishop  of  Win- 
chester, amounted  to  eight  hundred 
and  forty-two  pounds :  but  it  is  re- 
corded of  him,  that  "  he  only 
received  the  revenues  of  the  church 
with  one  hand,  to  expend  them  in 
her  service  with  the  other."  While 
he  was  dean  of  St.  Martin  le  Grand, 
in  London,  he  rebuilt,  at  his  own 
expense,  the  cloister  of  the  chapter- 
house, and  the  body  of  the  church. 
His  civil  promotions  were  equally 
rapid  and  honourable  with  those 
which  he  obtained  in  the  church. 
On  the  death  of  his  old  friend 
and  patron,  William  de  Edyngdon, 
bishop  of  Winchester,  in  1366, 
Wykeham  was  immediately  and 
unanimously  elected  by  the  prior  and 
convent  to  succeed  him,  and,  shortly 
after,  he  was  appointed  chancellor 


X  Y  S 


X  Y  S 


of  England.  Soon  after  his  being 
settled  in  the  bishopric  of  Win- 
chester, he  began  to  employ  his 
architectural  skill  in  the  repairs  of 
the  cathedral,  the  whole  expense  of 
which  was  defrayed  by  himself,  but 
his  more  enlarged  designs  for  this 
edifice  were  delayed  to  a  more  dis- 
tant period. 

By  the  intrigues  of  a  party, 
headed  by  the  duke  of  Lancaster, 
in  the  last  year  of  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward III.,  an  accusation,  branching 
into  eight  articles,  was  brought 
against  VVykeham;  but,  upon  a  fair 
trial, seven  were  found  entirely  desti- 
tute of  proof,  and  the  eighth  only 
was  laid  hold  of  as  a  pretext  for 
seizing  into  the  king's  hands  the 
temporalities  of  the  bishopric  of 
Winchester,  excluding  the  bishop 
from  parliament,  and  removing  him 
from  court.  At  the  ensuing  con- 
vocation, the  bishop  of  London, 
William  Courtney,  had  the  spirit 
to  oppose  any  subsidy  to  the  king 
until  satisfaction  should  be  made 
for  the  injury  done  to  the  whole 
body  of  the  clergy,  in  the  person  of 
the  bishop  of  Winchester;  and  he 
was  so  firmly  supported  by  the 
convocation,  that  the  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  though  a  warm  par- 
tizan  of  the  duke  of  Lancaster, 
was  obliged   to  admit  Wykeham 


into  their  assembly,  where  he  was 
received  by  every  member  with 
every  possible  mark  of  respect. 
He  was  soon  after  restored  to  his 
temporalities,  and  during  the  fol- 
lowing reign  was  equally  distin- 
guished as  a  benefactor,  a  legislator, 
and  an  architect,  and  gained  from 
every  one  the  character  of  a  states- 
man of  the  most  inflexible  in- 
tegrity. 

In  1379,  having  completed  the 
several  purchases  of  land  necessary 
for  that  purpose,  he  obtained  the 
king's  patent  or  license  to  found 
New  College,  Oxford,  dated  June 
20th,  and  likewise  the  pope's  bull 
to  the  same  effect,  and  the  founda- 
tion stone  was  laid  March  .5,  1380, 
and  the  whole  completed  in  six 
years.  The  year  after  this  college 
was  finished,  he  began  another  at 
Winchester,  which  was  likewise 
completed  in  six  years,  with  a 
magnificence  scarcely  inferior  to 
that  at  Oxford.  He  died  in  1404, 
in  his  eightieth  year,  and  was  in- 
terred in  the  beautiful  chantry 
which  he  had  built  for  himself  in 
Winchester  cathedral.  In  this  cathe- 
dral we  still  see  the  triumphs  of  his 
skill,  in  the  main  body  of  the  edi- 
fice from  the  tower  to  the  west 
end,  but  more  particularly  in  his 
chantry. 


X. 


Xenodochium,  ( Gr.  Ievoq,  a 
guest,  hxopat,  to  receive, )  the 
name  given  by  the  ancients  to  a 
hospital,  or  an  inn,  for  the  recep- 
tion of  strangers. 

Xvstus,  (Gr.)  "The  word  xustos 
with  them,  (the  Greeks,)  is  applied 


to  a  spacious  portico,  in  which  the 
athletae  exercise  themselves  during 
winter :  the  Romans,  on  the  con- 
trary, term  the  hypsethral  walks 
xysti,  which  are  called  pcridro- 
mides  by  the  Greeks."  Vitruvius, 
lib.  iv.  c.  10. 


505 


YBS 


YBS 


Yacht,  or  Yatch,  in  naval  ar- 
chitecture, a  vessel  of  state,  usually 
employed  to  convey  princes,  am- 
bassadors, or  other  great  personages. 
As  its  principal  design  is  to  accom- 
modate the  passengers,  it  is  usually 
fitted  with  a  variety  of  convenient 
apartments,  with  suitable  furniture, 
according  to  the  quality  and  num- 
ber of  the  persons  it  is  intended  to 
contain.  The  royal  yachts  are  ge- 
nerally rigged  as  ketches,  except 
the  principal  one  reserved  for  the 
sovereign,  which  is  equipped  with 
three  masts  like  a  ship.  They  are 
generally  richly  ornamented  with 
sculpture,  and  are  commanded  by 
captains  in  his  majesty's  navy. 
There  are  also  many  other  yachts 
of  a  smaller  kind,  employed  by  the 
commissioners  of  the  excise,  &c. 
or  used  as  pleasure-boats  by  private 
gentlemen. 

Yard  measure,  see  Weights 
and  Measures. 

Yard,  in  naval  architecture,  a 
long  piece  of  timber  suspended 
upon  the  masts  of  a  ship,  to  ex- 
tend the  sails  to  the  wind.  The 
yard-arm  is  that  half  of  the  yard 
that  is  on  either  side  of  the  mast, 
when  it  lies  athwart  the  ship. 

Ybsambul,  or  Ebsambul,  a 
village  in  Nubia,  celebrated  for  the 
remains  of  its  magnificent  temples. 
The  first,  or  northernmost,  stands 
just  over  the  bank  of  the  river, 
about  twenty  feet  above  the  surface 
of  the  water,  and  is  cut  out  of  the 
sandstone  rock.  In  front  of  the 
entrance,  in  narrow  recesses  facing 
the  river,  are  six  colossal  figures, 
three  on  each  side  of  the  door,  each 
accompanied  with  smaller  figures. 
They  are,  according  to  Burckhardt, 
r<  1.  A  juvenile  Osiris,  with  a  narrow 
beard  and  a  tiara  on  his  head, 
accompanied  by  two  small  erect 
figures,  about  four  feet  in  height, 

506 


one  on  each  side  the  legs.  2.  Isis, 
with  Horus  in  her  arms,  and  a 
small  figure  also  on  each  side; 
though  coarsely  executed,  the  coun- 
tenance of  the  Isis  is  truly  grand 
and  benevolent.  3.  A  youth,  with 
the  usual  high  bonnet  upon  his 
head,  his  arms  hanging  down,  at- 
tended by  two  small  figures  like  the 
preceding.  On  the  other  side  the 
door,  4.  The  same  youth.  5.  Isis, 
having  upon  her  head  the  ulobe, 
encompassed  with  two  serpents. 
6.  The  youth  a  third  time :  each 
with  the  two  small  attendant  fi- 
gures as  before."  Over  the  door 
appear  Osiris  and  the  hawk-headed 
deity,  seated  back  to  back,  receiv- 
ing offerings.  The  spaces  between 
the  recesses  that  contain  the  statues 
are  covered  with  hieroglyphics. 

The  whole  of  the  front,  which 
has  been  wrought  out  of  the  rock, 
is  a  hundred  and  eleven  feet  long. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  dedi- 
cated to  Isis.  The  door  leads  into 
the  pronaos,  which  is  thirteen  paces 
by  seven;  this  is  supported  by  six 
square  columns,  three  feet  square, 
with  Isis-headed  capitals,  like  those 
at  Dendera,  except  that  they  are  in 
much  lower  relief,  and  that  the  hair 
falls  down  in  two  thick  ringlets. 
Both  the  columns,  the  walls,  and 
the  ceilings  are  adorned  with  hiero- 
glyphics and  symbolic  figures.  The 
figures  appear  to  have  been  all 
painted  yellow,  except  the  hair, 
which  is  black  ;  that  of  Isis  is  in 
black  and  white  stripes.  From  the 
pronaos  we  enter  the  narrow  cella 
by  one  large  and  two  smaller  doors/ 
The  cella  is  only  three  paces  in 
depth,  and  has  a  dark  chamber  on 
each  side.  The  adytum  is  seven 
feet  square  :  in  a  niche  at  the  upper 
end,  are  remains  of  a  small  sit- 
ting statue,  cut  out  of  the  rock ; 
and  in  the  floor  is  a  deep  sepul- 


YBS 


Y  B  S 


chral  excavation.  The  style  of  the 
sculptures  in  this  part  indicates  a 
high  antiquity. 

The  second,  or  more  southern 
temple,  is  the  ne  plus  ultra  of 
Egyptian  labour ;  and  no  other 
temple,  either  of  Egypt  or  Nubia, 
can  be  put  in  competition  with  it. 
The  first  notice  of  it  was  given  by 
Burckhardt,  but  the  interior  was 
first  laid  open  by  Belzoni,  in  1817. 

Burckhardt  gives  the  following 
description  of  the  appearance  of 
this  magnificent  excavation,  at  the 
time  of  his  visit : — 

"  Having,  as  I  supposed,  seen 
all  the  antiquities  of  Ebsambul,  I 
was  about  to  ascend  the  sandy  side 
of  the  mountain  by  the  same  way 
I  had  descended,  when,  having 
luckily  turned  more  to  the  south- 
ward, I  fell  in  with  what  is  yet 
visible  of  four  immense  colossal 
statues,  cut  out  of  the  rock,  at  a 
distance  of  about  two  hundred 
yards  from  the  temple :  they  stand 
in  a  deep  recess,  excavated  in  the 
mountain,  but  are  now  almost  en- 
tirely buried  beneath  the  sands, 
which  are  here  blown  down  in 
torrents.  The  entire  head,  and 
part  of  the  breast  and  arms,  of  one 
of  the  statues,  are  yet  above  the 
surface :  of  the  one  next  to  it, 
scarcely  any  part  is  visible,  the 
head  being  broken  off,  and  the 
body  covered  with  sand  to  above 
the  shoulders;  of  the  other  two, 
the  bonnets  only  appear.  They  do 
not  front  the  river,  like  those  of 
the  temple  just  described,  but  are 
turned  with  their  faces  due  north, 
toward  the  more  fertile  climes  of 
Egypt;  so  that  the  line  on  which 
they  stand  forms  an  angle  with  the 
course  of  the  stream.  The  head, 
which  is  above  the  surface,  has  a 
most  expressive  youthful  counte- 
nance, approaching  nearer  to  the 
Grecian  model  of  beauty  than  that 
of  any  ancient  Egyptian  figure  I 


have  seen  :  indeed,  were  it  not  for 
a  thin  oblong  beard,  it  might  well 
pass  for  a  head  of  Pallas.  This 
statue  wears  the  high  bonnet,  usu- 
ally called  the  corn-measure,  in  the 
front  of  which  is  a  projection  bear- 
ing the  figure  of  a  Nilometer: 
the  same  is  upon  the  bonnets  of  the 
other  two.  The  arms  are  covered 
with  hieroglyphics  deeply  cut  in 
the  sand-stone,  and  well  executed. 
The  statue  measures  seven  yards 
across  the  shoulders,  and  cannot, 
therefore,  if  in  an  upright  posture, 
be  less  than  from  sixty-five  to 
seventy  feet  in  height."  On  being 
uncovered,  they  have  been  disco- 
vered to  be  in  a  sitting  posture  ; 
and  their  height  is  fifty-one  feet, 
not  including  the  head-dress,  which 
is  fourteen  feet  more. 

The  information  and  conjectures 
of  Mr.  Burckhardt  determined  Mr. 
Salt  to  engage  the  services  of  Bel- 
zoni, in  attempting  to  clear  and 
open  the  temple.  The  difficulty  of 
the  enterprise  obliged  him  to  desist 
in  his  first  attempt,  after  he  had 
uncovered  about  twenty  feet  of  the 
front  of  the  temple.  "  The  amaz- 
ing accumulation  of  sand,"  he  says, 
"  was  such,  that  it  appeared  an 
impossibility  ever  to  reach  the  door. 
We  ascended  a  hill  of  sand  at  the~ 
upper  part  of  the  temple,  and  there 
found  the  head  of  a  hawk  project- 
ing out  of  the  sand,  only  to  its 
neck.  From  the  situation  of  this 
figure,  I  concluded  it  to  be  over 
the  door  ;  and,  from  the  size  of  the 
head,  that  it  must  be  more  than 
twenty  feet  high  ;  so  that,  with  the 
cornice  and  frieze,  I  calculated  that 
the  door-way  could  not  be  less  than 
thirty-five  feet  below  the  surface  of 
the  sand."  This  was  towards  the 
end  of  September,  1816.  After 
having  been  joined  at  Philae,  the 
following  June,  by  Captains  Irby 
and  Mangles,  and  Mr.  William 
Beechey,  Belzoni  again  ascended 


Y  B  S 


YBS 


to  Ybsambul,  and,  on  tbe  eleventh 
of  July,  they  renewed  tbe  opera- 
tions. After  encountering  many 
difficulties  and  vexations,  on  tbe 
thirty- first  of  July  they  discovered 
the  upper  part  of  the  door,  and  on 
the  first  of  August  entered  tbe 
temple,  having  made  a  passage 
sufficiently  wide  to  admit  them. 

The  exterior  front  of  this  vast 
excavation  he  found  to  be  one  hun- 
dred and  seventeen  feet  in  length. 
From  tbe  upper  cornice  to  the  base, 
its  height  is  eighty-six  feet  and  six 
inches.  The  entrance,  which  is 
nearly  in  the  centre,  is  surmounted 
with  a  frieze,  torus,  and  cornice, 
with  the  figure  of  the  hawk-headed 
deity  over  it,  which  is  twenty  feet 
high,  and  is  receiving  offerings  from 
two  female  figures  on  each  side ; 
these  are  represented  on  the  level 
surface  of  the  rock,  and  are  sur- 
rounded with  hieroglyphics.  Below, 
on  the  left  hand,  is  a  small  statue 
of  Isis,  and  on  the  right  that  of  a 
terminal  wolf.  A  moulding  runs 
round  the  top  of  the  temple  and 
down  the  sides.  Four  tablets  of 
hieroglyphics  above,  answer  to  the 
four  statues.  Over  these  is  a  row 
of  monkeys,  twenty-two  in  number, 
and  about  eight  feet  high.  The 
■four  colossal  statues  are  cut  out  of 
the  solid  rock,  and  under  the  arm 
of  one  of  them  may  be  seen  traces 
of  the  stucco  with  which  they  ap- 
pear to  have  been  covered  :  traces 
of  red  paint  are  discernible  in  seve- 
ral places. 

The  interior  consists  of  no  fewer 
than  fourteen  chambers,  together 
extending  a  hundred  and  fifty-four 
fe'A  in  length.  The  entrance-door 
/?ads  into  a  spacious  ball,  fifty- 
seven  feet  by  fifty-two,  whose  roof 
appears  to  have  been  supported  by 
a  double  row  of  colossal  statues, 
thirty  feet  high,  the  tops  of  their 
head-dresses  reaching  to  the  ceil- 
ing.   Their  size,  magnified  by  the 


dimness  that  surrounds  them,  has 
an    almost   overwhelming  effect. 
They  are  finely  executed,  and  ap- 
pear to  represent  Osiris,  with  his 
legs  crossed,  and  holding  in  one 
hand  the  scourge,  and  in  the  other 
the  crosier,  or  tau.    The  square 
pillars  to  which  they  are  attached 
are  five  feet  and  a  half  square,  and, 
as  well  as  the  walls,  are  covered 
with  beautiful  hieroglyphics  and  bold 
sculptural  representations.  The  co- 
louring appears  to  have  been  origi- 
nally exceedingly  beautiful,  but  it 
has  been  materially  injured  by  the 
extreme  heat  and  closeness  of  the 
apartments,  occasioned  by  the  want 
of  a  free  circulation  of  air.  Belzoni 
supposes  the  heat  to  be  as  high  as 
130°  of  Fahrenheit.    On  each  side 
of  the  door,  behind  the  columns,  is 
a  battle  scene,  in  \*hich  the  gigantic 
hero,  in  his  waf-nh-A-iot,  is  destroy- 
ing his  enemt«e  whh  his  arrows. 
The  desigr     esemble  those  of  the 
sculptures  '   Medinet  Habou,  com- 
prising ** storming  of  castles,  pro- 
cessions of  prisoners,  sacrifices,  &c; 
and  the  hero  appears  to  be  the  same 
personage,  but  the  vanquished  seem 
to  be  of  different  nations,  some  of 
them  being  perfectly  black,  with  all 
the  characteristics  of  the  negroes 
of  the  interior,  while  others  bear  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  modern 
Nubian.    Their  dress,  which  is  ge- 
nerally the  skin  of  the  leopard  or 
tiger,  shows  that  they  are  intended 
for  savage  tribes. 

The  second  hall  is  a  kind  of 
antechamber,  thirty-seven  feet  by 
twenty-five,  containing  four  pillars, 
each  about  four  feet  square:  its 
walls  are  covered  with  hierogly- 
phics in  tolerable  preservation. 
Beyond  this  is  a  long  narrow  cham- 
ber, thirty-seven  feet  by  ten,  which 
contains  the  entrance  to  the  ady- 
tum. At  each  end  of  this  cham- 
ber a  door  leads  into  a  small  side- 
room,  eight  feet  by  seven,  running 


YEW 


Y  O  R 


,n  the  same  direction  as  the  sanc- 
tuary, which  is  an  apartment, 
twenty-three  feet  and  a  half  by 
twelve,  containing  an  altar  in  the 
centre.  At  the  upper  end  of  this 
sanctuary  are  four  colossal  sitting 
figures,  about  eight  feet  high,  in 
good  preservation.  The  first  to  the 
right  hand  is  the  hawk -headed 
deity.  The  second  is  a  beardless 
figure,  with*  a  casque  somewhat 
resembling  that  given  to  Minerva. 
The  third  is  bearded,  and  has  a 
tall  head-dress,  which  resembles  the 
tutulus.  The  fourth  is  bearded 
and  bareheaded.  Belzoni  found 
also  several  detached  statues,  which 
he  carried  away  with  him. 

The  remaining  eight  chambers 
are  side-apartments,  two  running 
out  on  each  side  of  the  second  hall, 
from  an  intermediate  vestibule,  and 
two  from  the  right-hand  side  of  the 
entrance-chamber:  the  first  of  these 
has  never  been  finished,  and  there 
are  none  on  the  corresponding  side. 
Around  them  are  benches,  which 
appear  to  have  been  designed  as 
seats,  though  they  may  have  been 
intended  to  answer  some  other 
purpose.  A  light  black  substance, 
supposed  to  be  decayed  wood,  was 
found  in  every  apartment,  in  some 
places  to  the  depth  of  two  feet. 
Many  small  pieces  of  wood  were 
strewed  about,  which,  when  they 
were  touched,  crumbled  into  dust. 
The  wooden  pivots  for  the  doors 
still  remained  in  the  upper  corner 
of  each  of  the  entrances,  and  one 
broken  brass  socket  was  found, 
which  had  been  designed  to  receive 
the  pivot  of  a  hinge.  Such  are  the 
remains,  which  Sir  F.  Henniker 
justly  styles,  "  the  noblest  monu- 
ment of  antiquity  that  is  to  be 
found  on  the  banks  of  the  Nile." 
In  our  plate  Temple,  Jig.  9,  is  a 
plan  of  this  temple. 

Yew-tree,  (taxus.)  Yew-trees 
are  remarkable  for  their  duration. 


At  Fountain's  Abbey,  in  Yorkshire, 

are  seven  very  large  yew-trees, 
commonly  called  the  Seven  Sisters, 
which  were  standing,  according  to 
the  current  tradition,  in  1088. 
When  the  great  abbey  was  build- 
ing, which  was  finished  in  1283, 
the  masons  are  said  to  have  worked 
their  stones  under  the  shade  of 
these  trees.  On  measurement, 
their  respective  circumferences  were 
found  to  be  as  follows  : — the  small- 
est tree,  round  its  body,  five  yards 
one  foot ;  four  others,  from  five 
yards  and  a  half  to  seven  yards  and 
a  half;  the  sixth,  nine  yards  and  a 
half;  and  the  seventh,  eleven  yards 
one  foot  seven  inches,  in  circum- 
ference, being  two  yards  ten  inches 
larger  than  the  great  yew-tree  in 
the  church-yard  of  Gresford,  in 
North  Wales,  which  is  nine  yards 
nine  inches. 

York  Cathedral.  The  see  of 
York  owes  its  origin  to  Edwin,  the 
Saxon  king  of  Northumbria,  who, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  seventh 
century,  married  Ethelburga,  the 
sister  of  Ebald,  king  of  Kent,  and 
daughter  of  Ethelbert,  the  first 
Christian  king  of  that  district. 
Edwin  was  baptized  at  York,  on 
Easter-day,  April  12,  627,  and  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  cathedral, 
which  was  at  first,  according  to 
Bede,  a  wooden  building.  The  king 
soon  afterwards  commenced  a  regu- 
lar and  appropriate  church  of  stone, 
which  was  intended  to  enclose  and 
protect  the  former,  but  he  did  not 
live  to  see  it  completed.  It  was 
completed,  of  a  qu-adrangular  form, 
by  Oswald,  before  642.  Wilfred, 
appointed  to  this  see  in  669,  found 
it  in  a  state  of  rapid  decay:  Ed- 
dius,  who  wrote  about  720,  says, 
that  the  timbers  of  the  roof  were 
rotten,  the  walls  decayed,  the  win- 
dows destitute  of  glass,  whereby  the 
interior  parts  were  exposed  to  the 
injuries  of  the  weather;  the  whole 


YOR 


Y  0  It 


edifice  having  been  left  to  the  birds 
of  the  air  for  an  undisturbed  resi- 
dence. Wilfred  strengthened  the 
walls,  renewed  the  wood-work  of 
the  roof,  and  covered  it  with  lead, 
glazed  the  windows,  which,  accord- 
ing to  William  of  Malmsbury,  had 
been  originally  furnished  only  with 
linen  curtains  and  lattices  of  wood, 
and  white-washed  the  walls.  Wil- 
fred's cathedral  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  741,  and  archbishop  Egbert, 
a  few  years  afterwards,  commenced 
the  erection  of  a  new  church,  which 
was  finished  by  his  successor  Al- 
bert. Alcuin  (de  Pontif.)  describes 
this  as  a  lofty  building,  supported 
by  arches  and  columns,  with  large 
windows  and  vaulted  roof,  and  con- 
taining porticos  and  galleries — 

Haec  nimis  alta  domus  solidis  suffulta 
column  is 

Suppositse    quae   stant   curratis  arcubus, 
intas 

Emicat  cgregiis  laqnearibns  atquo  fenes- 
tris  ; 

Pulchraque  porticibus  fulget  circumdata 
ruultis, 

Plurima  diversis  retinens  solaria  tectis 
Quae  triginta  tenent  variis  ornatibus  aras." 

When,  in  1069,  the  Danes  were 
invited  by  the  Northumbrians  to 
assist  them  in  throwing  off  the 
yoke  of  the  Norman  conqueror,  in 
the  contest  which  ensued,  the  ca- 
thedral was  again  destroyed  by  fire. 
It  was  rebuilt  by  archbishop  Tho- 
mas, soon  after;  but,  in  1137,  it 
was  once  more  destroyed  by  an 
accidental  fire,  and  its  re-erection 
was  not  commenced  till  the  time  of 
archbishop  Roger,  in  1171,  who 
built  the  choir  with  its  vaults. 
Archbishop  Walter  Grey,  in  1227, 
erected  the  south  transept,  and,  in 
1260,  John  le  Romayne,  treasurer 
of  the  church,  completed  the  north 
transept,  and  erected  a  handsome 
tower,  or  steeple,  in  the  place  now 
occupied  by  the  great  lantern  tower. 
His  son,  archbishop  John  le  Ro- 
mayne, laid  the  foundation  of  the 

510 


nave,  April  7,  1291,  which  was 
finished  about  forty  years  after  by 
his  successor  William  de  Melton. 
The  materials  for  building  the  nave 
were  furnished  by  Robert  de  Vava- 
sour, who  granted  the  use  of  his 
quarry,  near  Tadcaster,  for  the 
purpose ;  and  by  Robert  de  Percy, 
lord  of  Bolton,  who  gave  his  wood 
at  Bolton  to  furnish  timber  for  the 
roof,  &c. 

In  1 352,  archbishop  John  Thores- 
by  pulled  down  the  work  of  arch- 
bishop Roger,  and  erected  in  its 
place  the  present  choir,  and  also 
took  down  the  old  central  tower, 
which  had  been  erected  by  John  le 
Romayne,  and  substituted  in  its 
place  the  elegant  lantern  tower  in 
the  centre  of  the  edifice.  The  rest 
of  the  structure,  except  the  towers 
at  the  west-end,  were  finished  be- 
tween 1405  and  1426.  The  western 
towers  appear  to  have  been  erected 
by  John  de  Birmingham,  about 
1402.  The  chapter-house  is  attri- 
buted to  archbishop  Walter  Grey ; 
but  is,  according  to  Mr.  Britton, 
evidently  posterior  to  his  time.  The 
vestry  was  anciently  a  chapel,  and 
was  founded  by  archbishop  Zouch, 
about  the  year  1350. 

In  magnitude  and  architectural 
beauty,  the  cathedral  of  York  has 
generally  been  considered  to  take 
nearly  the  first  rank  among  the 
architectural  edifices  of  England.. 
It  is  very  nearly  regular  in  its  ar- 
rangement and  style  of  architecture. 
The  whole  edifice  consists  internally 
of  a  nave  with  its  two  aisles,  a 
transept  with  two  aisles  and  a  lan- 
tern in  the  centre,  a  choir  and 
lady  chapel  with  two  aisles,  vestries, 
a  chapel  on  the  south  side,  and  a 
chapter-room  with  a  vestibule  on 
the  north  side. 

The  west  front  is  formed  by  two 
uniform  towers,  strengthened  by 
buttresses  at  their  corners,  dimi- 
nishing at  four  divisions  as  they 


Y  O  R 


YOR 


ascend,  and  rising  from  the  western 
ends  of  the  aisles  of  the  nave ;  be- 
tween them  rises  the  front  of  the 
middle  aisle  to  the  same  height  as 
its  side  walls,  and  an  open  battle- 
ment runs  across  the  whole  breadth, 
round  the  towers,  continuing  along 
the  sides  of  the  nave.  The  whole 
front  is  covered  with  rich  sculp- 
ture, and  adorned  with  a  number 
of  niches,  wrought  into  the  wall 
and  the  buttresses.  The  grand 
window  in  the  middle  division  is  a 
splendid  example  of  the  leafy  tra- 
cery that  marks  the  style  of  the 
middle  of  the  fourteenth  century. 
The  door-way,  which  is  compara- 
tively of  small  dimensions,  is  di- 
vided by  a  slender  pillar  into  two 
smaller  arches,  above  which  is  a 
circular  glazed  compartment,  orna- 
mented by  tracery.  The  double 
buttresses  at  each  angle  diminish  in 
their  breaks,  and  are  finished  ele- 
gantly with  crochets,  &c.  Above 
the  cornice,  which  runs  entirely 
round  the  towers,  even  at  the  an- 
gles, rise  eight  lofty  square  pinna- 
cles, and  a  high  and  elaborate 
battlement.  The  walls  of  the 
upper  portion  of  the  towers  are 
beautifully  adorned  with  pinnacles, 
gables,  niches,  &c. 

The  nave,  which  consists  of  two 
stories,  is  divided  by  buttresses  into 
seven  parts.  The  north  side  is 
plain,  and  the  broad  and  massive 
buttresses  of  the  aisle  have  no  pin- 
nacles :  and  the  once  lofty  pinnacles 
of  the  south  aisle  are  so  much  de- 
cayed, as  to  display  only  shapeless 
fragments.  The  central  tower  is  in 
the  Tudor  style :  each  of  its  four 
sides  has  two  large  windows,  with 
two  tiers  of  mullions,  bounded  on 
each  side  by  compartmented  but- 
tresses. 

The  superb  front  of  the  south 
transept,  which  was  completed  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  III.,  is  divided 
into  three  parts  by  buttresses,  the 


central  compartment  containing  the 
porch.  The  great  circular  window, 
over  it,  consists  of  two  concentric 
circles  of  small  columns  and  trefoil 
arches,  with  a  pierced  centre  and 
spandrils.  The  early  date  of  the 
erection  of  the  south  transept,  Mr. 
Britton  observes,  "  is  evinced  by  its 
acutely-pointed  arches,  and  slender 
pillars  with  plain  or  slightly  orna- 
mented capitals,  its  narrow  and 
acutely-pointed  windows,  destitute 
of  mullions,  (except  in  the  central 
window,  which  is  probably  a  mo- 
dern insertion,)  and  its  angular 
pediments;  while' the  octangular 
turrets  and  pinnacle  of  the  gable, 
however  rich  in  the  decorations  of 
more  modern  works,  are  injurious 
to  the  simplicity  and  harmony  of 
the  original  design." 

In  the  exterior  of  the  north 
transept,  we  see  the  finished  neat- 
ness and  plainness  of  the  first  period 
of  the  pointed  style  ;  the  two  lancet 
lights,  in  each  bay  of  the  aisles, 
being  divided  by  slender  buttresses, 
neatly  canted  at  the  angles,  and 
with  mouldings.  Under  the  five 
long  single  lights  in  the  north  end, 
runs  a  series  of  arches  with  trefoil 
heads.  Each  of  the  clerestory 
windows  of  the  exterior  of  the  choir 
is  inserted  in  the  inner  part  of  the 
wall,  and  has  an  open  screen  before 
it.  The  east  end  of  the  building 
is  extremely  beautiful,  the  outline 
formed  by  four  pinnacles,  very  lofty, 
rising  from  the  buttresses,  and  fi- 
nished with  an  open  crown,  out  of 
which  rise  the  crocheted  spires. 
Over  the  centre  and  aisles  are  open 
worked  parapets,  and  the  centre 
is  occupied  by  a  square  turret. 
The  buttresses  are  adorned  with 
pedestals,  canopies,  and  niches; 
but  all  the  statues  which  formerly 
filled  them,  except  three,  have  been 
destroyed. 

In  the  interior  of  the  transept 
the  early  pointed  style  prevails; 


Y  O  It 


YO  R 


but  the  style  is  very  irregular,  pre- 
senting cloistered  detached  columns 
with  bands,  bases  with  deep  and 
bold  members,  and  capitals  richly 
and  fancifully  sculptured.  The 
arches  have  heads  both  acute  and 
obtuse,  some  nearly  circular.  The 
roof  of  the  transept  is  of  wood, 
arched  and  adorned  with  ribs  and 
knots,  in  imitation  of  those  of  the 
nave  and  choir.  The  chapter-house 
is  entered  from  the  north-east  corner 
of  the  transept,  by  a  door-way  of 
singular  form  and  ornament.  In 
the  eastern  part  of  the  transept, 
the  capitals  of  the  columns,  the 
brackets,  mouldings  of  arches,  &c. 
are  all  most  elaborately  sculptured. 
The  south  transept  is  not  so  regular 
or  so  well  finished  as  the  opposite, 
though  its  middle  story  is  rather 
richer  in  detail. 

The  pillars  of  the  nave  are  re- 
markably plain,  consisting  of  three- 
quarter  shafts,  larger  and  smaller 
alternately,  attached  to  a  solid  pier; 
part  of  them  rises  up  to  the  spring- 
ing of  the  groined  roof,  while  the 
others  support  the  vaulting  of  the 
aisles,  and  the  principal  side  arches. 
The  bases  and  capitals  are  simple 
and  flat.  Over  each  of  the  princi- 
pal arches  is  a  window,  containing 
in  its  breadth  five  lights,  between 
which  and  the  arch  is  a  triforium, 
consisting  of  five  openings  between 
mullions,  with  trefoil  heads  and 
acute  pediments. 

The  aisles  are  very  lofty  and 
grand.  The  wall,  below  the  win- 
dows, is  adorned  with  panelling 
and  tracery,  with  crocheted  gables, 
divided  by  pinnacles,  a  mode  of 
decoration  which  began  about  the 
time  of  Edward  I.  The  arches  of 
the  great  tower,  or  lantern,  are 
supported  by  vast  clustered  piers; 
and  its  gallery  is  at  once  simple  and 
elegant.  Between  the  nave  and  the 
choii  is  a  gorgeous  stone  screen, 
tovered  with  a  superabundance  of 

512 


niches,  canopies,  brackets,  and  other 
architectural  ornaments.  Near  its 
centre  is  the  arched  entrance  to  the 
choir,  the  exterior  moulding  of  an 
ogee  shape,  terminating  in  a  rich 
finial.  The  following  is  fMr.  Brit- 
ton's  description  of  the  choir : — 

"  After  passing  through  the 
screen  just  described,  the  visitor  is 
introduced  to  the  choir,  which  is 
grand  in  scale,  and  rich  in  adorn- 
ment. On  each  side  is  a  series  of 
twenty  stalls,  with  twelve  at  the 
west  end,  beneath  the  organ.  These 
are  of  oak,  and  are  peculiarly  rich 
in  their  canopies  and  carved  deco- 
rations. Each  seat,  or  stall,  has  its 
moveable  misericordia,  with  project- 
ing rests  for  the  elbows,  from  which 
rise  two  detached  slender  columns, 
supporting  an  elaborate  canopy. 
The  style  and  character  of  these 
stalls  are  delineated  in  Plate  XXIII. 
and  in  Plate  XXIV.  [of  his  '  History 
and  Antiquities  of  York  Cathedral.'] 
The  former  plate  also  displays  the 
general  architecture  and  fitting  up 
of  the  choir,  with  the  cathedral 
or  archbishop's  throne  on  the  south 
side,  built  in  1740,  and  the  pulpit 
opposite.  Both  of  these  are  of 
modern  workmanship,  and  do  not 
harmonize  with  the  stalls.  At  the 
eastern  end  of  the  choir  is  the  altar 
table,  raised  above  the  regular  floor, 
by  a  series  of  fifteen  steps.  Behind 
it  is  a  handsome  screen,  with  mul- 
lions, tracery,  a  parapet,  &c.  Its 
open  days,  or  lights,  are  filled  with 
plate  glass,  which  affords  a  view  of 
the  elegant  eastern  window.  The 
architectural  character  of  this  screen 
is  shown  in  the  plate  of  the  choir 
above  referred  to,  and  one  com- 
partment of  it  is  delineated  in  Plate 
XXIV. 

"  The  little  transept,  as  we  must 
call  it  for  distinction's  sake,  was  a 
fine  contrivance  of  the  architect. 
Standing  against  the  pulpit,  or  on 
the  opposite  side,  its  effect  is  un- 


YOR 


YOR 


commonly  beautiful.  The  lines  of 
the  sides  become  diversified,  with- 
out breaking  off ;  and  the  interior, 
with  the  lofty  windows  at  each  end 
and  the  sides,  are  peculiarly  ele- 
gant. 

"  Behind  the  stalls  of  the  choir 
are  closets,  some  of  which  are  used 
as  vestries  by  the  singing  men ; 
modern  staircases  have  been  con- 
structed, leading  to  the  galleries 
erected  above,  and  which  disfigure 
the  view  into  the  aisles.  These 
closets  are  fronted,  next  the  aisles, 
by  open  screens  of  oak,  some  of 
which  are  of  excellent  carving,  and 
more  elaborate  than  others.  In  the 
centre  of  the  choir  stands  a  desk 
for  the  vicars-choral  to  chant  the 
litany  in  ;  it  is  enclosed  in  a  pew  of 
carved  wood.  The  brazen  eagle- 
stand  is  modern.  Its  pillar  is  not 
elegantly  formed,  and  the  position, 
at  one  side  of  the  choir,  is  not  so 
well  chosen  as  if  placed  in  the 
centre. 

"  There  were  anciently  three 
altars  in  the  choir,  viz.  St.  Stephen's, 
our  Lady's,  and  the  high  altar  in 
the  centre.  On  each  side  of  the 
latter  was  a  door-way  to  the  apart- 
ment between  the  screens,  where 
the  archbishop  used,  on  solemn 
festivals,  to  put  on  some  of  his 
robes;  and  which  was  sometimes 
improperly  styled  the  '  Sanctum 
Sanctorum'  here,  as  in  other  places. 

"  The  roof  of  the  choir  is  of  a. 
loftier  pitch  than  that  of  the  nave, 
and  is  actually  higher  by  some 
feet.  The  ribs  are  also  more  nu- 
merous, and  cross  each  other  in 
angular  compartments:  from  their 
number,  however,  they  take  off  the 
leading  distinction  of  the  main 
ribs. 

"  The  walls  in  the  aisles  are 
panelled  with  mouldings,  which 
partly  correspond  with  the  win- 
dows. Niches  fill  up  the  spaces 
between  the  windows  and  pilasters. 
3T 


The  gallery  over  the  great  arches 
is  rather  injured  by  the  height  of 
its  openings,  being  divided  by  a 
stone  rail.  The  open  gallery  be- 
neath the  clerestory  windows,  and 
forming  a  part  of  each,  is  richer 
than  that  in  the  nave  :  each  divi- 
sion being  crowned  by  a  curved 
canopy,  finished  with  crochets. 
The  aisles  are  groined  in  the  simple 
style  of  the  nave.  The  eastern  bay 
is  the  narrowest." 

The  window  at  the  east  end  is 
exceedingly  splendid,  and  nearly 
corresponds  with  the  choir  in  height 
and  breadth.  The  outer  rim  of  the 
arch  is  wrought  into  little  taberna- 
cles filled  with  half-length  figures, 
and  the  soffit  of  the  arch  has  a 
series  of  canopies  running  up  to 
the  crown  of  it,  each  occupied  by 
a  projecting  bust.  On  the  glass 
is  represented  nearly  two  hundred 
historical  subjects.  The  heads  of 
the  figures  are  most  beautifully 
drawn. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  chorr 
are  three  chapels  or  vestries.  The 
crypt,  beneath  the  altar,  is  entered 
by  eight  steps  from  the  aisles  of  the 
choir.  It  has  four  aisles,  each  of 
three  arches,  supported  by  short 
columns,  five  feet  six  inches  high. 
The  side  piers,  or  half  columns,  are 
octagonal,  with  capitals  of  more 
modern  and  plainer  work.  Six 
round  columns  in  it  have  ancient 
capitals.  The  interior  of  the  chap- 
ter-house, which  is  entered  from 
the  north  transept,  is  of  large 
dimension,  and  of  an  octagonal 
form.  On  seven  of  its  sides  are 
fine  arched  windows.  Its  vestibule 
is  peculiarly  interesting  in  its 
sculptural  and  architectural  deco- 
rations. 

On  the  second  of  February, 
1829,  this  grand  edifice  again 
became  a  prey  to  the  flames. 
The  following  account  of  this 
disaster,  the  work  of  an  incendiary, 


zo  c 


ZOD 


is  given  in  the  Gentleman's  Maga- 
zine. 

"  Feb.  2.— The  interior  of  that 
stupendous  monument  of  past  ages, 
York  Minster,  was  nearly  destroyed 
by  fire.  It  was  discovered  about 
seven  o'clock  in  the  morning, 
when  nearly  the  whole  of  the  wood- 
work of  the  choir  was  in  flames, 
which  were  soon  communicated  to 
the  organ,  and  in  about  an  hour 
they  reached  the  roof,  which  was 
soon  in  a  blaze.  The  spectacle  at 
nine  o'clock  was  awful.  The  inte- 
rior of  the  vast  building  was  a  mass 
of  fire,  glowing  with  the  most 
intense  heat,  and  reflected  upon 
the  beautiful  stained  glass.  Great 
fears  were  entertained  for  the  east 
window,  but  the  approach  of  the 
fire  was  stopped  by  sawing  asunder 
the  beams  of  the  roof,  and  pushing 
the  rafters  into  the  burning  abyss. 
The  flames  raged  furiously,  until 
the  roof  had  fallen  in,  and  about 
twelve  o'clock  ail  fears  of  their 
extending  themselves  had  van- 
ished, but  the  engines  continued 


to  play  throughout  the  day,  and 
the  night  following.  They  were 
unable  to  reach  the  roof,  owing  to 
its  height,  otherwise  they  might 
have  been  more  serviceable.  The 
damage  may  be  summed  up  thus : 
the  roof  of  the  choir  quite  gone, 
the  wood-work  on  each  side  con- 
sumed, the  organ  entirely  destroy- 
ed, many  monuments  broken,  and 
the  communion  plate  melted.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  east  window  is 
entire,  the  screen  uninjured,  al- 
though immediately  below  the 
organ;  the  records  in  the  vestry, the 
horn  of  Ulphus,  the  coronation 
chair,  and  the  brass  eagle,  are 
saved,  and  the  wills  in  the  Pre- 
rogative-office are  in  safety.  The 
portion  of  the  roof  which  has  fallen 
is  two  hundred  and  twenty- two 
feet  in  length  ;  and  to  restore  the 
Minster  to  its  recent  state,  £80,000 
will  probably  be  required."  A  pub- 
lic subscription  was  made,  to  repair 
the  Minster,  and  a  large  sum  col- 
lected. Various  plans  have  been 
suggested  for  the  repairs. 


Zacco,  or  Zaccho,  (Ital.)  the 
same  as  Zocle. 

Zeta,  or  Zeticula,  (Gr.)  a  small 
withdrawing  chamber ;  a  stove- 
room  ;  a  parlour.  In  churches,  the 
zeta  was  a  room  in  which  the 
church-keeper  or  sexton  lived. 
Formerly  this  room  was  built  over 
the  porch  way  and  entrance  into  the 
church.  The  sexton  here  kept  his 
books,  and  gave  his  returns  as  cus- 
tom enforced,  and  in  the  zeta  all 
parochial  business  was  settled. 

Zocle,  Socle,  or  Zocco,  a  term 
given  to  a  low  square  member,  used 
instead  of  a  pedestal,  to  support  a 
column.  When  a  zocle  runs  round 
a  building,  it  is  termed  a  continued 
zocle.     A  zocle  differs   from  a 

514 


pedestal  in  being  without  base  or 
cornice.    See  Plinth. 

Zodiac,  (Gr.  fahiaKog,  contain- 
ing living  creatures,  from  to 
live.)  There  are  still  existing  a 
.number  of  monuments  which  are 
decorated  with  a  figure  of  the 
zodiac.  One  of  the  most  curious 
is  that  termed  the  rustic  calendar, 
and  the  Farnese  calendar,  as  be- 
longing to  the  villa  Farnese.  It  is 
a  square  marble,  each  of  its  faces 
containing  three  signs  of  the  zodiac, 
and  three  columns  on  which  are 
engraved  the  names  of  the  months, 
and  of  their  presiding  deities,  and 
also  the  length  of  the  hours,  both 
equinoxial  and  natural,  of  the  day 
and  night.    This  marble  served  as 


ZO  D 


Z  O  N 


the  base  to  a  solar  dial.  The 
plates  16,  and  16  a  and  b  of  the 
Monumenti  Gabini,  represent  a 
circular  monument  consisting;  of  a 
portion  of  a  fluted  column,  sur- 
mounted by  a  disc  of  Pentelic  mar- 
ble. The  horizontal  suiface  is 
surrounded  by  a  band,  on  which 
are .  sculptured  twelve  small  busts. 
The  perpendicular  band,  which  is 
represented  in  plate  16  b  of  that 
work,  has  the  twelve  signs  of  the 
zodiac,  and  after  each  sign  is  repre- 
sented a  symbolical  figure,  gene- 
rally an  animal,  the  emblem  of  the 
deity  who  presides  over  the  corre- 
sponding month.  Some  authors 
consider  this  as  being  the  surface 
of  an  altar  dedicated  to  the  twelve 
principal  gods  of  the  ancient  my- 
thology, and  they  support  this 
opinion  by  various  passages  of 
ancient  authors,  and  by  inscrip- 
tions. The  Farnesian  calendar 
appears  also  to  have  been  an  altar, 
but  of  a  square  form. 

On  the  summit  of  the  nave  of 
the  grand  temple  of  Dendera,  is  a 
small  apartment,  part  of  whose 
ceiling  is  occupied  by  what  has 
been  supposed  to  be  a  celestial 
planisphere,  a  drawing  of  which  is 
given  by  M.  Denon,  in  the  hun- 
dred and  thirtieth  plate  to  his 
"  Voyage  en  Egvpte."  There,  the 
French  savans  recognized  the 
twelve  signs  of  the  zodiac  inter- 
mixed with  hieroglyphical  figures, 
so  ancient  as  to  overturn  the  chrono- 
logy of  scripture  ;  their  wild  specu- 
lations occasioning  so  powerful  a 
prepossession  in  favour  of  their 
extreme  antiquity,  as  to  lead  them 
to  overlook  the  very  obvious  proofs 
of  the  modern  character  of  the 
whole  edifice.  A  minute  descrip- 
tion of  the  various  compartments 
is  given  by  Mr.  Richardson.    "  To 


me,"  he  says,  "  it  appears,  that 
without  the  most  unwarrantable 
supplements,  and  the  greatest  dis- 
tortion of  interpretation,  it  cannot 
be  considered  as  a  zodiac  at  all. 
For,  first,  the  number  of  signs  is 
incomplete ;  the  advocates  for  the 
zodiacal  interpretation  acknowledge 
this  ;  there  is  no  Crab."  And  after 
pointing  out  the  various  other  dis- 
crepancies, the  learned  traveller 
concludes,  by  stating  it  as  his  de- 
cided opinion,  that  "  the  whole  is 
a  mythological  exhibition  of  the 
most  interesting  objects  in  the 
Egyptian  theology,  without  having 
any  reference  whatever  to  astro- 
nomy. "  The  representation  given 
of  this  pretended  zodiac,  in  the 
splendid  work  published  at  Paris, 
is  pronounced  to  be  extremely  ele- 
gant and  extremely  incorrect,  not 
in  the  least  degree  preserving  the 
style  and  character  of  the  original, 
and  containing  several  important 
variations.  This  "  zodiac"  has  since 
been  rpmoved,  "  very  skilfully, 
indeed,  but  very  unfortunately  for 
the  appearance  of  the  temple, 
which  was  indisputably  the  best 
preserved  of  any  in  Egypt."  It 
is  now  at  Paris.    See  Dendera. 

The  custom  of  placing  the  signs 
of  the  zodiac  upon  sacred  monu- 
ments has  been  continued  since 
the  rise  of  Christianity.  A  very 
old  example  may  be  seen  over  one 
of  the  side  gates  of  the  cathedra, 
of  Autun  :  others  are  observed  at 
the  portals  of  the  cathedrals  of 
Vezelay  and  of  Arras.  That  at 
the  Parisian  church  has  been  de- 
scribed by  M.  Dupuis ;  and  M. 
Lalande  has  given  drawings  and 
descriptions  of  that  at  the  church 
of  Strasburgh,  in  the  "  Memoires 
de  I*  Institut  National." 

Zone.    The  following  is — 


516 


ZON 


Z  O  N 


A  Table  for  finding  the  Areas  of  the  Zones  of  a  Circle,  the  diameter,  which  is 
unity,  being  divided  into  1000  equal  parts,  and  the  Heights  of  the  Zones  being 
expressed  in  decimal  parts  from  .001  to  5.  Such  a  Table  is  not  only  useful  in 
finding  the  Areas  of  the  Zones  of  Circles,  but  in  finding  the  Areas  of  the  surfaces 
of  all  solids  which  depend  upon  expressions  similar  to  such  Areas. 

Table  of  Areas  of  Zones. 


Area. 


.001000 
.002000 
.003000 
.004000 
.005000 
.006000 
.007000 
.008000 
009000 
.010000 
.011000 
.011999 
.012999 
.013998 
.014998 
.015997 
.016997 
.017996 
.018996 
.019995 
.020994 
.021993 
.022992 
.023991 
.024990 
.025989 
.026987 
.027986 
.028984 
.029982 
.030980 
.031978 
.032976 
.033974 
.034972 
.035969 
.036967 
.037965 
.038962 
.039958 
.040954>'! 
.041951 
.042947 
.043944 
.044940 
.045935 
.046931 
516 


Ht. 


Area. 


.048 
.049 
.050 
.051 
.052 
.053 
.054 
.055 
.056 
.057 
.058 
.059 
.060 
.061 
.062 
.063 
.064 
.065 
.066 
.067 
.063 
.069 
.070 
.071 
.072 
.073 
.074 
.075 
.076 
.077 
.078 
.079 
.080 
.081 
.082 
.083 
.084 
.085 
.086 
.087 
.088 
.089 
.090 
.091 
.092 
.093 
.094 


.047927 
.048922 
.049917 
.050912 
.051906 
.052901 
.053895 
.054890 
.055883 
.056877 
.057870 
.053863 
.059856 
.060849 
.061841 
.062833 
.063825 
.064817 
.065807 
.066799 
.067790 
.068782 
.069771 
.070761 
.071751 
.072740 
.073729 
.074718 
.075707 
.076695 
.077683 
.078670 
.079658 
.080645 
.081631 
.082618 
.083604 
.084589 
.085574 
.086559 
.087544 
.088528 
.089512 
.090496 
.091479 
.092461 
.093444 


Ht. 


Area. 


.095 
.096 
.097 
.098 
099 
.100 
.101 
.102 
.103 
.104 
.105 
.106 
.107 
.108 
.109 
.110 
.111 
.112 
.113 
.114 
.115 
.116 
.117 
.118 
.119 
.120 
.121 
.122 
.123 
.124 
.125 
.126 
.127 
.128 
.129 
.130 
.131 
.132 
.133 
.134 
.135 
.136 
.137 
.138 
.139 
.140 
.141 


.094426 

.095407 

.096388 

.097369 

.098350 

.099330 

.100309 

.101288 

.102267 

.103246 

.104223 

.105201 

.106178 

.107155 

.108131 

.109107 

.110082 

.111057 

.112031 

.113005 

.113978 

.114951 

.115924 

.116896 

.117867 

.118838 

.119809 

.120779 

.121748 

.122717 

.123686 

.124654 

.125621 

.126588 

.127555 

.128521 

.129486 

.130451 

.131415 

.132379 

.133342 

.134304 

.135266 

.136228 

.137189 

.138149 

.139109 


Ht. 


Area. 


42 
143 
144 
145 
146 
147 
148 
149 
150 
151 
152 
153 
154 
155 
156 
157 
158 
159 
160 
161 
162 
163 
164 
165 
166 
67 
68 
69 
70 
71 
72 
173 
74 
75 
76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 
82 
83 
84 
85 


87 


.140063 
.141026 
.141984 
.142942 
.143898 
.144854 
.145810 
.146765 
.147719 
.148673 
.149625 
.150578 
.151530 
.152481 
.153431 
.154381 
.155330 
.156278 
.157226 
.158173 
.159119 
.160065 
.161010 
.161954 
.162898 
.163841 
.164784 
.165725 
.166666 
.167606 
.168549 
.169484 
.170422 
.171359 
.172295 
.173231 
.174166 
.175100 
.176033 
.176966 
.177897 
.178828 
.179759 
.180688 
.181617 
.182545 
.183472 


Ht. 


.189 

.190 

.191 

.192 

.193 

.194 

.195 

.196 

.197 

.198 

.199 

.200 

.201 

.202 

.203 

.204 

.205 

.206 

.207 

.208 

.209 

.210 

.211 

.212 

.213 

.214 

.215 

.216 

.217 

.218 

.219 

.220 

.221 

.222 

.223 

.224 

.225 

.226 

.227 

.228 

.229 

.230 

.231 

.232 

.233 

.234 

.235 


ZO  N 


ZO  N 


Ht. 

'  Area.  ! 

Ht. 

Area.  1 

Ht. 

Area. 

Hi 

Area.   ?  Ht. 

y 

Area. 

.236 

.226919 : 

.289 

.271987 ! 

.342 

.313050' 

.395 

.348791  ;  .448 

.3771 38 

.237 

.227800  J 

.290 

.272802 ; 

.343 

.313778 j 

.396 

.349403 ;  .449 

.377580 

.238 

.228680 ; 

.291 

.273616 ; 

.344 

.314505  • 

.397 

.350012  •  .450 

.378018 

.239 

.229559 1 

.292 

.274428  > 

.345 

.315230 

.398 

.350619  :  .451 

.378452 

.240 

.230439  i 

.293 

.275239  i 

.346 

.315952; 

.399 

.351223  i  .452 

.378881 

.241 

.231313  ; 

.294 

.276049; 

.347 

.316673  ; 

.400 

.351 824  •  .453 

.379307 

.242 

.232189 ; 

.295 

.276857; 

.348 

.317393! 

.401 

.352423  >  .454 

.379728 

.243 

.233063 ! 

.296 

.277664  i 

.349 

.318110' 

.402 

.35301 9 >  .455 

.380145 

.244 

.233937? 

.297 

.278469 ; 

.350 

.318825 ' 

.403 

1353612  J  .456 

.380557 

.245 

.234809; 

.298 

.279273  s 

.351 

.319538; 

.404 

.354202  j  .457 

.380965 

.246 

.235680  s' 

.299 

.280075  i 

.352 

.320249! 

.405 

.354790  i  .458 

.381369 

.247 

.236550 ! 

.300 

.280876 ' 

.353 

.320958; 

.406 

.355376;  .459 

.381768 

.248 

-.237419] 

.301 

.281675 ; 

.354 

.321666- 

.407 

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517 

.392699 

ZOT 


Z  OT 


Zopiiorus,  (Gr.  from  £oov,  an 
animal,  and  (f>epu),  to  bear,)  a  name 
given  by  the  Greeks  to  the  frieze,  be- 
cause it  was  covered  in  general  with 
figures  of  animals,  &c.  SeeFrieze. 

Zotiieca,  (from  the  Greek,)  a 
small  room  or  alcove,  which  might 

518 


be  added  to,  or  separated  from, 
the  room  to  which  it  adjoined, 
by  means  of  curtains  and  windows. 
Pliny  mentions  them  in  his  de- 
scription of  his  Laurentine  villa  : 
see  the  article  Villa.  See  also 
Niche, 


APPENDIX. 
No.  1. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLES  of  the  PRINCIPAL  ARCHITECTS 

of  different  Countries, 

BOTH  BEFORE  AND  SINCE  THE  CHRISTIAN  ERA. 
[Of  those  marked  thus  *,  a  further  account  will  be  found  under  their  proper  articles.] 


NAME. 


COUNTRY.    B.  C. 


1  Theodorus 


2  Hermogenes 

3*Agamedes  and 
Trophonius 

4  Amphion 

5  Memnon 

6  Chersiphron 

7  Demetrius 


8  Eupalinus 

9  Mandrocles 

10  Chirosophus 


11  *Callicrates 

12  Pythius 


13  Spintharus 


M  Agaptus 
16  Libon 


Samos 

Alabanda 
Delphi 


Thebes 
Persia 
Ephesus 
Ephesus 


Megara 
Samos 

Crete 


Athens 
Priene 


Corinth 


El  is 
Elis 


abt. 
700 

650 

600 


600 
600 
600 
540 


500 


500 


500 


472 
450 


450 


450 
450 


WORKS. 


The  labyrinth  at  Lemnos,  some 
buildings  at  Sparta,  and  the  tem- 
ple of  Juno  at  Samos. 

Temple  of  Bacchus  at  Teos,  and 
that  of  Diana  at  Magnesia. 

Temple  of  Apollo  at  Delphi;  a 
temple  dedicated  to  Neptune, 
near  Mantinea. 

Citadel  of  Thebes. 

A  palace  for  Cyrus  at  Ecbatana. 

First  temple  of  the  Ephesian  Diana. 

Continued  the  temple  of  Diana, 
which  had  been  begun  by  Cher- 
siphron. 

An  aqueduct,  with  many  other  edi- 
fices, at  Samos. 

The  wooden  bridge  over  the  Thra- 
cian  Bosphorus,  erected  by  the 
command  of  Darius. 

Temple  of  Ceres  and  Proserpine, 
another  of  the  Paphian  Venus, 
and  one  of  Apollo  ;  all  atTegea. 

Mausoleum  of  Artemisia  in  Caria ; 
design  for  the  temple  of  Pallas 
at  Priene.  In  the  former  he  was 
assisted  by  Statirus. 

Rebuilt  the  temple  of  Apollo  at 
Delphi,  which  had  been  destroy- 
ed by  fire. 

Portico  at  Elis. 

Temple   of  Jupiter  Olympius  a 
Olympia. 

519 


"NAME. 

COUNTRY. 

B.C. 

16  Ictinus 

Athens 

450 

17  Callicrates 

Athens 

450 

10  Mnesicles 
*9  Corabus 

Athens 
Eleusis 

450 
450 

20  *Antistates 

21  *Scopas 

Athens 
Greece 

450 
430 

22  Pseonius 

Ephesus 

420 

23  Archias 

Corinth 

400 

24  Callias 

25  Argelius 

26  Mnesthes 

27  Cleomenes 

Aradus 
Athens 

400 
400 

A  A  A 

400 
359 

28  *Dinocrates 

Macedonia 

350 

Q0  Andronicus 
30  *Callimachus 

Athens 
Corinth 

350 
340 

31  Epimachus 

32  *Sostratus 

33  Philo 

Athens 
Gnidus 
Athens 

300 
300 

OA  A 

300 

3*  Eupolemus 

Argos 

300 

35  Phaeax 

36  Cuss  ut:  us 

As;ri  omentum 
Rome 

AAA 

200 
196 

37  Hermodorus 

Salamis 

100 

30  Muzius 

Rome 

100 

39  Valerius 

40  Batraehus 

Oaul  Us 

Rome 

Laconia 

Earonia 

100 
40 
40 

520 


WORKS. 


Parthenon  at  Athens;  temple  of 
Ceres  and  Proserpine  at  Eleusis; 
temple  of  Apollo  Epicurius  in 
Arcadia. 

Assisted  Ictinus  in  the  erection  of 
the  Parthenon. 

Propylsea  of  the  Parthenon. 

Ccelesterium  at  Eleusis. 

A  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Athens. 

One  side  of  the  tomb  of  Mausolus; 
a  column  of  the  temple  at  Ephe- 
sus. 

Completed  the  temple  of  Diana 

at  Ephesus. 
Many  temples  and  other  edifices  at 

Syracuse. 
Temples,  &c.  at  Rhodes. 
Temple  of  the  Ionian  iEsculapius. 
Temple  of  Apollo  at  Magnesia. 
Plan  of  the  city  of  Alexandria,  in 

Egypt. 

Rebuilt  the  temple  of  Diana  at 
Ephesus;  built  Alexandria;  was 
the  author  of  the  proposition  to 
transform  mount  Athos  into  a 
colossal  figure. 

Tower  of  the  winds  at  Athens. 

Said  to  be  the  inventor  of  the 
Corinthian  order. 

A  storm  tower. 

The  pharos  of  Alexandria. 

Enlarged  the  arsenal  and  the  Pi- 
raeus at  Athens ;  erected  the 
great  theatre  which  was  rebuilt 
by  order  of  Adrian. 

Several  temples  and  a  theatre  at 
Argos. 

Various  buildings  at  Agrigentum. 

Design  for  the  temple  of  Jupiter 
Olympius  at  Athens. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Stator  in  the 
forum  at  Rome;  temple  of  Mars 
in  the  Circus  Flaminius. 

Temple  of  Honour  and  Virtue  near 
the  trophies  of  Marius  at  Rome. 

Several  amphitheatres  with  roofs. 

These  two  architects  built  several 
temples  at  Rome.  The  name  of 
the  first  (Parpa-^oQ)  signifies  a 
frog ;  and  that  of  the  latter 
(oravpos)  a  lizard ;  and  they  per- 


name. 

|  COUNTRY. 

E.  c. 

42  Dexiphanes 

Cyprus 

40 

43  Cyrus 

4*  Postumius 

45  Cocceius  Auc- 

Rome 
Rome 
Rome 

35 
30 
30 

tus 

46  Fussitius 

Rome 

30 

A.  C. 

47  Vitruvius  Pol- 

Formiae 

1 

lio 

48  VitruviiisCerdo 
*o  Celer  and  { 

50  Severus  $ 

51  Rabirius 

Verona 

Rome 

Rome 

1 

50 

80 

J.V1  US  1.1  us 

53  Fronton  lis 

54  ' Apollodorus 

R  nmo 

J.  VUUlC 

Rome 
Damascus 

90 
100 

"5  Lacer 

Rome 

50  Detrianus 

Rome 

57  *Antonius,  the 

Senator 

58  Nicon 

59  Metrodorus 

Rome 

Pergamus 
Persia 

150 
320 

60  *Alipius 

Antioch 

350 

3U 


"WORKS. 


petuated  their  names  on  some  of 
their  works  by  the  allegorical  re- 
presentation of  these  two  animals 
sculptured  upon  them.  The 
churches  of  St.  Eusebius  and  ot 
St.  Lorenzo-fuori- le-Mura,  at 
Rome,  still  contain  some  columns 
whose  pedestals  are  sculptured 
with  a  lizard  and  a  frog. 

Rebuilt  the  pharos  at  Alexandria, 
at  the  command  of  Cleopatra, 
the  other  having  fallen  down. 

Architect  to  Cicero. 

Many  works  at  Rome  and  Naples. 

Grotto  of  Puzzuoli;  grotto  of  Cu- 
mae,  near  the  lake  now  called 
Lago  d'Averno. 

Several  buildings  at  Rome ;  the 
first  Roman  who  wrote  on  archi- 
tecture. 


A  basilica  justicice  at  Famo.  A 

great  writer  on  architecture. 
A  triumphal  arch  at  Verona. 

Golden  house  of  Nero. 

Palace  of  Domitian  on  mount  Pa- 
latine. 

A  temple  of  Ceres  at  Rome. 

He  has  left  a  work  on  aqueducts. 

Forum  Trajani  at  Rome ;  a  bridge 
over  the  Danube  in  Lower  Hun- 
gary. 

A  bridge  over  the  Tagus  in  Spain ; 

a  temple,  now  dedicated  to  San 

Giuliano. 
The   Moles  Hadriani;   the  Pons 

.ZElius;  now  called  the  Castello 

and  Ponte  San  Angelo. 
A  pantheon   at   Epidaurus;  the 

baths  of  yEsculapius. 
Several  fine  works  at  Pergamus. 
Many  buildings  in  India,  and  some 

at    Constantinople.     The  first 

known  Christian  architect. 
Employed   by  Julian  to  lay  the 

foundation  of  a  new  temple  at 

Jerusalem. 

521 


NAME. 


COUNTRY.    A.  C. 


61  Ciriades 

62  Sennamar 

63  Aloisius 


61  St.  Germain, 
bp.  of  Paris 


65  St.  Avitus,  bp. 
of  Clermont 

66  St.  Agricola, 
bp.  of  Chalons 

67  ^Etherius 

68  *Anthemius  of 
Tralles 

6?  Isidorus 

70  Chryses  of 
Dara 


71  Isidorus 

72  Johannes 

73  Saxulpbus,  ab- 
bot of  Peter- 
borough, after- 
wards made  bp. 
of  Lichfield  in 

74  Biscopius,  Be- 

nedict 

75  Egbert,  arch- 

bp.  of  York 

76  Albert,  arch- 

bp.  of  York 

77  Eanbald,  arch- 

bp.  of  York 

78  Romuald'.is 


79  Tietland 


Rome 

400 

Arabia 

450 

Padua 

490 

France 

France 

France 

Constanti- 
nople 
Lydia 

Miletus 

Persia 


Byzantium 
Miletus 

England 


England 
England 
England 
England 

France 

Switzerland 


500 

500 
500 
550 
550 
550 
550 


600 
600 


673 

7th 
cent. 

8th 
cent. 

8th 
cent. 

8th 
cent. 

840 


900 


WORKS. 


A  church  and  bridge. 

Sedir  and  Khaovarnack,  two  cele- 
brated palaces  in  Arabia. 

Assisted  in  the  erection  of  the  ce- 
lebrated rotunda  at  Ravenna,  the 
cupola  of  which  is  said  to  have 
been  of  one  stone,  38  feet  in 
diameter,  and  15  feet  thick. 

The  plan  of  the  church  of  St.  Ger- 
main at  Paris,  previously  dedi- 
cated to  St.  Vincent;  a  convent 
at  St.  Mans. 

Church  of  Madonne  du  Port. 

Cathedral  of  Chalons,  with  many 
other  churches  in  his  diocese. 

Part  of  the  imperial  palace  called 
Chalcis,  at  Constantinople. 

St.  Sophia  at  Constantinople. 

Assisted  Anthemiul  in  the  erection 
of  the  church  of  St.  Sophia. 

Constructed  the  celebrated  dykes 
along  the  Euripus,  near  Dara, 
to  keep  the  river  in  its  channel, 
and  to  keep  out  the  sea.  He 
was  particularly  excellent  in  hy- 
draulic architecture. 

The  city  of  Zenobia,  in  Syria, 
was  the  work  of  these  two  archi- 
tects. 

Built  the  monastery  of  Medeshamp- 
stede,  afterwards  called  Peter- 
borough. 


Conventual     church   of  Wear- 
mouth. 
Re-edified  York  Cathedral. 


Completed  the  building  of  York 
cathedral,  under  Egbert. 

Superintended  the  erection  of  York 
cathedral  under  his  predecessor, 
archbishop  Albert. 

The  cathedral  of  Rheims,  the  earli- 
est example  of  Gothic  achitec- 
ture. 

Convent  of  Einseidela  in  Switzer- 
land. 


522 


NAME. 


so  Tioda 


81  Ednoth,a  monk 
of  Worcester 

82  Dunstan,  arch- 
bp.  of  Canter- 
bury 

83  YElfric,  bp.  of 
Creciiton 

81  Elphege.bp.  of 
Winchester 

85  Buschetto  of 
Dulichium 


8f>  Aldhun,  bp.  of 

Durham 
«7  Pietro.  di  Us- 

tamber 
88  Aldred,  bp.  of 

Worcester 


COUNTRY.    A.  C. 


Spain 

England 
England 
England 

England 

Of  Greek 
extraction. 

England 

Spain 

England 


900 


974 


died 
988 

close 
I  Oth 
cent, 
died 
1006 
1016 


died 
1018 
1020 

1046 


WORKS. 


The  palace  of  king  Alphonso  the 
Chaste  at  Oviedo,  now  the  epis- 
copal palace;  the  churches  of 
St.  Salvator,  St.  Michael,  and  St. 
Mary. 

Superintended  the  erection  of  the 
church  and  conventual  offices  of 
Ramsey  abbey. 

Built  for  himself  a  cell  at  Glaston- 
bury abbey,  and  was  skilful  in 
mechanics. 

Built  part  of  Malmsbury  abbey 
church,  in  the  reign  of  Edgar. 

Crypts  of  Winchester  cathedral. 

The  cathedral  or  duomo  of  Pisa, 
the  earliest  example  of  the 
Lombard  ecclesiastical  style  of 
architecture.  It  was  built  in 
1016. 

First  cathedral  church  at  Dur- 
ham. 

Cathedral  of  Chartres. 


Architects  contemporary  with,  and  posterior  to,  the  Conquest  oj 
England  by  the  Normans. 

[B,  at  the  head  of  the  Col.  stands  for  born-V  for  died— FL  for  flourished.'] 


NAME. 


89  Alvaro  Gar- 
ria  of  Estella 
in  Navarre 

9°  Lan franc, 
archbishop  of 
Canterbury 

9'  Remigius, 
bishop  of 
Lincoln 

92  Karilepho, 
bishop  of 
Durham 


COUNTRY  B. 


Spain 

England 

England 


England 


D.  FL. 


1089 
1092 
1095 


1070 


WORKS. 


Choir  of  Canterbury  catheral, 
which  was  burnt,  in  1174. 

Part  of  Lincoln  cathedral. 


Began  the  cathedral  church 
of  Durham,  on  a  plan 
which  he  had  brought  with 
him  from  France,  when  he 
was  abbot  of  St.  Vincent's 
in  Normandy. 


name. 


country 


B. 


D. 


FL. 


WORKS. 


93  Walkelyn, 
bishop  of 
Winchester 

94  Harlevvin, 
abbot  of 
Giastonbury 

95  Mauritius, 
bishop  of 
London 

9<5Cundulf, 
bishop  of 
Rochester 


England 
England 
England 
England 


97  Odo,  prior  of  England 
Croyland 


England 


England 


England 


9«  Ernulf, 

bishop  of 

Rochester 
99  Alexander, 

bishop  of 

Lincoln 
i°°  Ran u If,  or 

Ralf  Flam- 
bard,  bishop 

of  Durham 

101  Henry  of  jEngland 
Blois,  bishop 
of  Winches- 
ter 

102  Malverne, 
Alduin  de 


England 


103  Raimond  of  France 
Montfort  I 

104  Roger,  bp. 
of  Sarum 


io5  Dioti  Salvi 


*o6  Buono 


524 


England 
Italy 


Venice 


1097 


1097 


1107 


1108 


Said  to  have  erected  the 
oldest  parts  of  Winchester 
cathedral. 

Rebuilt  the  abbey  church  of 
Glastonbury. 

Built  old  St.  Paul's,  in  1083. 


—  White 
Tower  or 
Rochester 


1113 


1115 

to 
1125 
1123 

to 
1147 


1128 


1139 


Hen. 
I. 


Rochester  Castle, 
Tower,   in  the 
London ;  rebuilt 
cathedral. 

Monastic  Church  of  Croy- 
land. Arnold,  a  lay  bro- 
ther of  the  abbey,  was 
employed  under  Odo  as 
mason. 

Completed  Gundulf's  works 
at  Rochester. 

Rebuilt  Lincoln  cathedral. 


Part  of  Durham  cathedral- 
Norham  castle. 


1129  A  most  celebrated  architect 

to  he  built  the  conventual 
1169  churches  of  St.  Cross  and 
Rumsey,  in  Hampshire. 
Architect  or  surveyor  of  the 
works  of  a  bridge  over  the 
Wye  at  Hereford. 
11 39 The  cathedral  of  Lugo. 


Castles  at  Sherborn  and  De- 
vizes;  supposed  to  have 
built  Malmsbury  abbey. 
1150  The  Battisterio  of  Pisa,  near 
the  Campo  Santa.  His 
works  were  in  the  Lombard 
style,  and  were  overloaded 
with  minute  ornaments. 
The  tower  of  St.  Mark  at 
Venice,  which  is  330  feet 
high,  and  40  feet  square, 
built  in  1154;  a  design  for 
enlarging  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore  at 


CUV  N  T  11  Y 


«>7  Sugger  of 
St.  Denis 


i°8  Roger,  arch- 
bishop of 
York 

«>9  Pietro  di 
Cozzo  da 
Limena 


uo  Wilhelm,  or 
Guglielmo 


111  William  of  England 
Sens 

112  Sisseverne,  England 
monk  of  St. 
Alban's 

113  Goldclif,  England 
Hugo  de 

114  Eversolt,  England 
Gilbert  de 

115  Baldwin,  England 
abp.  of  Can- 
terbury 

116  Isembert  of  France 
Xaintes 


France 


England 


Italy 


Germany 


1190 


WORKS. 


Florence,  of  which  the  mas- 
ter walls  still  exist  ;  the 
Vicaria  and  the  Castello 
del'  Uovo  at  Naples;  the 
church  of  St.  Andrew  at 
Pistola  la  Casa  della 
Citta;  a  campanile  at 
Arezzo. 

1150  Rebuilt  the  church  and  abbey 
of  St.  Denis,  near  Paris. 
He  was  distinguished  by 
his  perfection  in  the  Gothic 
style. 

1154  None  of  his  works   at  his 
to      cathedral  are  now  remain- 
1181 

11 70  The  celebrated  great  hall  at 
Padua,  which  is  256  feet 
long,  86  wide,  and  72  high, 
built  in  1172,  burnt  in 
1420,  and  restored  by  two 
Venetian  architects,  Rizzo 
and  Piccino ;  it  was  dis- 
mantled by  a  whirlwind  in 
1756,  and  again  restored 
by  Ferracina. 
1170  The  hanging  tower  at  Pisa, 
built  in  1174.  Bonnano 
and  Thomaso,  two  sculptors 
of  Pisa,  were  also  engaged 
upon  it. 
1 175'Canterbury  cathedral. 

12th  jSt.  Alban's  abbey  church, 
cent. 


12th 
cent. 
12th 
cent 


1201 


An  architect  of  St.  Alban's. 

An  architect  of  St.  Alban's 
abbey. 

Church  at  Hackington,  near 
Canterbury,  and  another  at 
Lambeth. 

Bridges  of  Xaintes  and  Ro- 
chelle. — Recommended  by 
king  John  to  the  citizens 
of  London,  as  a  proper  per- 
son to  finish  London  bridge, 
begun  by  Peter  of  Cole- 
church. 

525 


NAME. 


COUNTRY 


FL. 


WORKS. 


1!7  Ebor,  J.  de,  England 

abbot  of 

Fountains 
Peter  of  England 

Colechurch 
n9  Berham,  EJEngland 

de,  canon  of 

Salisbury 


120  Odo  Auri 
faber,  or  the 
Goldsmith 

121  Fitz-Odo, 
Edw. 

122  Eustaehius, 
bp.  of  Ely 

Robert  of 
Lusarche 


124  Etienne  de 
Bonneveil 


125  Poore,bp.of 
Salisbury 

126  Melsonby 
bishop  of 
Durham 

127  Hoo,W.  de, 
prior  of 
Rochester 

12»  Jean  d' 

Echelles 
129  Pierre  de 

Montereau 


130  Eudo  de 
Montreuil 

526 


England 


England 


England 


France 

France 

England 
England 

England 

France 
France 


France 


1205 


1215 


1237 


1293  Began  the  abbey  church  there. 

to 
1209. 

Began  London  bridge. 

1209  Overseer  of  the  works  of  Salis- 
bury cathedral,  under  John 
and  Henry  III.  Lord  Or- 
ford  supposes  him  to  have 
been  the  same  person  who 
is  called  Elyas  the  engineer, 
in  a  record  of  the  reign 
of  king  John,  relating  to 
the  repair  of  the  king's 
houses  at  Westminster  in 
1209. 

Hen.  Clerk  of  the  works  at  West- 
III.  minster. 

Master  of  the  works  at  West- 
minster, under  Henry  III. 
Gallery  of  Ely  cathedral. 

1220  The  cathedral  of  Amiens, 
which  was  continued  by 
Thomas  de  Cormont,  and 
finished  by  his  son  Ren- 
auld. 

1220  The  church  of  the  Trinity  at 
Upsal   in    Sweden,  built 
after  the  model  of  that  of 
Notre  Dame  at  Paris. 
Began  Salisbury  cathedral. 

1237  Part  of  cathedral  of  Durham. 


1239 


1250 


Choir  of  Rochester  cathedral. 


The  portico  of  the  cathedral 
of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris. 
1250 The  holy  chapel  atVincennes; 
the  refectory,  dormitory, 
chapter-house,  and  chapel 
of  Notre  Dame,  in  the  con- 
vent of  St.  Germain  des 
Prez,  near  Paris. 
>0The  church  of  the  Hotel  Dieu 
at  Paris  ;  the  churches  of 
St.  Catherine  du  Val  des 


NAME.         'COUNTRYI  B. 


"I  San  Gon- 

salvo 
i3r  San  Pietro 

132  Lapo,  or 
Jacobus 


133  Nicola  da 
Pisa 


134  Fuccio 


Portugal 
Portugal 
Germany 

Pisa 


Italy 


1250 
1250 
1250 


1250 


W  OKKS. 


1270 


Ecoliers,  of  St.  Croix  de  la 
Bretonnerie,  of  Blancs  Man- 
teaux,  of  the  Mathurins,  of 
the  Cordeliers,  and  of  the 
Carthusians  at  Paris.  His 
style  was  dark  and  heavy. 
Stone  bridge  at  Tui. 

Stone  bridge  called  II  Ponte 

de  Cavez. 
Convent  and  church  of  St. 
Francisco  ;  Palazzo  del 
Bargello  ;  and  the  facade  of 
the  archbishop's  palace  at 
Florence. 
Convent  and  church  of  the 
Dominicans  at  Bologna; 
church  of  St.  Micheli,  some 
palaces,  and  the  octagonal 
campanile  of  the  Augustins, 
at  Pisa ;  the  great  church 
del  Santo  at  Padua;  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria  at 
Orvietto ;  church  de'  Fratri 
Minori  at  Venice ;  abbey 
and  church  in  the  plains  of 
Taliacozzo,  in  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  built  as  a  memo- 
rial of  the  victory  obtained 
there  by  Charles  I.  over 
Conrad;  plans  of  the  church 
of  St.  Giovanni  at  Sienna, 
of  the  church  and  convent 
della  Santissima  Trinita 
at  Florence,  and  of  those  of 
the  Dominicans  at  Arezzo, 
which  were  built  by  Mag- 
lione  his  scholar;  the  re- 
pairs and  alterations  to  the 
duomo  at  Volterra ;  the 
church  and  convent  of  the 
Dominicans  at  Viterbo.  He 
intermixed  the  Gothic  with 
the  Lombard  style. 
Church  of  St.  Maria  suPArno 
at  Florence;  the  gates 
against  the  river  Volturno 
at  Capua;  he  finished  the 
Vicaria  and  Castello  del* 
Uovo,  at  Naples,  which 
were  commenced  l>vBuono; 

5i>7 


NAME. 


135  Ferrante 
Maglione, 
disciple  of 
Nicola 


136  Masuccio 


137  Marino 
Boccanera 

138  Arnolfo 
Fiorentino 


139  Pietro  Perez 

140  Robert  de 
Covey 

141  Ervvin  von 
Steinbach 


COUNTRY 


Pisa 


Naples 


Genoa 


Florence 


Spain 
France 

Germany 


142  Giovanni  da  Pisa 
Pisa 


1230 


1232 


1305 


1300 


WORKS. 


he  was  distinguished  for  his 
skill  in  fortification. 
1270  Cathedral  and  church  of  St. 
Lorenzo    at   Naples  ;  the 
Palazzo  Vecchio  at  Naples, 
in  conjunction    with  Gio- 
vanni   Benin    Casa ;  the 
church  and  convent  of  the 
Dominicans  at  Arezzo. 
Church  of  Santa  Maria  della 
Nuovo  at  Naples;  churches 
of  S.  Dominico  Maggiore 
and  S.  Giovanni  Maggiore; 
the  archiepiscopal  palace, 
and  Palazzo  Colombrano, 
at  Naples. 
1280  The  mole,  arsenal,  and  har- 
to      bour  of  Genoa  were  de- 
1300     signed  and  begun  by  him. 
The  church  of  S.  Croce  at 
Florence ;  the  walls  of  the 
city,  with  the  towers;  the 
Palazzo  della  Signoria,  now 
called  II  Palazzo  Vecchia; 
the  model  and  plan  of  the 
cathedral  of  S.  Maria  del 
Fiore,  to  which  the  cupola 
was  added  by  Bruneleschi; 
the  abbey,  and  the  Piazza 
San  Micheli ;    the  Piazza 
dei  Priori.   His  works  were 
greatly  admired. 
1280The  cathedral  of  Toledo. 
1280  Rebuilt    the    cathedral  at 
Rheims. 

1280  The  celebrated  minster  of 
Strasburg  was  superintend- 
ed by  him  for  twenty-eight 
years. 

1220 The  Campo  Santo,  or  public 
to  cemetery,  at  Pisa ;  the  tri- 
1280  bune  of  the  Duomo  in  the 
same  city ;  Castel  Nuovo, 
and  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria  della  Nuovo,  at  Na- 
ples ;  the  facade  of  the 
cathedral  at  Sienna;  many 
churches  and  palaces  at 
Arezzo  and  other  towns  in 
Italy.  He  was  the  first 
architect    in    the  modern 


528 


NAME. 

COUNTRY 

.43  *Andrea  da 

Pisa 

Pisa 

***  Henry  de 

England 

Ellerton 

i«>  *Agostino 

Italy 

da  Siena,  or 

da  Pisa 

i4o  *Angelo,  his 

Italy 

brother 

l47  Boyden, 

England 

William 

Bek,  A.de, 

England 

bishop  of 

Durham 

149  Henry  La- 

England 

tomus,  or  the 

Stonecutter, 

abbot  of 

Evesham 

150Helpstone,J. 

England 

151  Eversden, 

England 

Hugh  do, 

abbot  of 

St.  Alban's 

3X 

1270 


FL. 


1345 


1310 


1319 


1326 


WORKS. 


style  of  fortification,  and 
his  churches  and  other 
buildings  are  grand  and 
cheerful.  He  was  the  son 
and  scholar  of  Nicola  da 
Pisa. 

Plan  of  the  fortress  della 
Scarperia  at  Mugello,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Appenines  ;  plan 
and  model  of  the  church  of 
San  Giovanni  at  Pistoja ; 
the  ducal  Palazzo  Gualtieri 
at  Florence.  He  was  dis- 
tinguished in  fortification. 
Ed.I.  Master  Mason  of  Caernarvon 
castle. 

1300The  north  and  west  facades  of 
the  cathedral  of  Siena,  as 
also  the  two  gates;  the 
church  and  convent  of  St. 
Francis ;  the  Palazzo  de* 
Nove  Magistrati ;  the  grand 
fountain  in  the  piazza  oppo- 
site the  Palazzo  della  Sig- 
noria  ;  the  hall  of  the  coun- 
cil chamber,  and  the  Pa- 
lazzo publico:  the  church 
di  Santa  Maria  in  Piazza 
Manetti  was  built  by  him,  in 
conjunction  with  Angelo  da 
Pisa,  who  was  his  brother. 
1308  Chief  architect  to  the  chapel 
to  |  of  the  Virgin  at  St.  Alban's 
1326  abbey  church,  which  was 
erected  during  the  abbacy 
of  Hugo  de  Eversden. 
Built  and  enlarged  Barnard 
castle,  and  other  for- 
tresses. 

Chapter  -  house,  Dormitory, 
Refectory,  Abbot's  -  hall, 
and  kitchen  of  the  monas- 
tery at  Evesham. 


1322Th 


Tower,  or  Water- 
in    the    walls  of 


e  New 
Tower, 
Chester. 
The  Lady  Chapel  in  St.  Al 
ban's  abbey  church. 


529 


NAME. 


158  Walter 

Weston 
153  Thomas  of 

Canterbury 
15*  Giacoma 

Lanfrani 

155  Jean  Rauy 


256  Lincoln, 
J.  de 

157  William  of 
Wykeham 
bishop  of 
Winchester 

i5«  *Calendario 

153  Walsing- 
ham,  prior 
of  Ely 

160  Rede,  bp.  of 
Chichester 


161  *Andrea  di 
Cione  Or- 
gagna 

1G2  Boterell,  J. 


163  Nick  Wal- 
ton 

l6+Lote  Stephen 
Yevele,  or 
Zevele,  H. 

165  Gainsbo- 
rough, or 
Gaynisburgl 


166  Chichele, 
archbp.  of 
Canterbury 

530 


COUNTRY 


England 
England 
Italy 

France 

England 


England 


Ven 


ice 


England 


England 


Florence 


England 


England 


England 


England 


D. 


1029 


FL. 


WORKS. 


1363 


England 


(1362 


1389 


1443 


1330jSt.  Stephen's  chapel. 

1330  St.  Stephen's  Chapel,  West- 

I  minster. 
1330,Church  of  St.  Francis  at  Imo- 
la;  church  of  St.  Antonio 
at  Venice. 
1340  Finished  the  building:  of  the 
church  of  Notre  Dame  at 
Paris. 

1350  Master  of  the  works  in  the 
king's  chapel  in  the  palace 
of  Westminster. 
1350  New  College,  Oxford  ;  part  of 
Winchester  cathedral  ;  plan 
of  Windsor  Castle. 

1354  The  porticoes  around  the  place 
St.  Mark. 
Lantern  tower  and  choir  of 
Ely  cathedral.  —  "  Artifi- 
ciosus  frater."  Leland. 
1369  An  eminent  mathematician — 
built  first  library  at  Merton 
College,  Oxford — Amberly 
Castle,  Sussex. 
Additions  to  the  ducal  palace 
at   Florence;    his  brother 
built  the  tower  and  gate  of 
San  Pietro  Gattolini. 
1395  Clerk  of  the  works  for  the 
alteration    and    repair  of 
Westminster   Hall,  under 
Richard  II. 
Rich  "  Master  carpenter  and  en- 
II.      gineer  of  the  king's  works 
for  the  art  of  car  pen  try." 
14th  Monumeut    of    Richard  II. 
cent.     and  his   queen,  in  West- 
minster Abbey. 
14th  An    architect    employed  at 
cent.     Lincoln  cathedral.    On  his 
monument,  still  existing  in 
the  cathedral,  he  is  said  to 
have  died  in  June,  mccc — , 
the  last  portion  of  the  date 
being  obliterated. 
Founded  All  Souls' College; 
built  a  monument  for  him- 
self in  Canterbury  cathe- 
dral; made  additions  to  Can- 


NAME. 


COUNTRY 


167  *Philipp0 

Bruneleschi 


168  Michelozzo 
Michelozzi 


Florence 


1377 


1446 


FL.  I 


WORKS. 


Florence 


UOO 


terbury  cathedral,  Lambeth 
palace,    Croydon  church, 
and  Rochester  bridge. 
Cupola  of  the  cathedral  of 
Santa  Maria  del  Fiore  at 
Florence.     A   council  of 
artists   was   held  at  Flo- 
rence in  1420,  to  consider 
and  advise  on  this  scheme, 
at  which  even  English  art- 
ists are  said  to  have  assisted  : 
after  a  diversity  of  opinions, 
Bruneleschi's  project  was 
approved  of  and  adopted. 
His  other  principal  works 
were,    the    Palazzo  Pitti, 
which  was  begun  and  half- 
finished  by  him,  the  remain- 
der being  the  work  of  Luca 
Fancelli;  a  great  part  of 
the  church  of  San  Spirito; 
the   church  degl'  Angeli, 
designed  and   begun,  but 
not  completed,  from  want  of 
money;  the  monastery  de' 
Camaldosi ;  the  fortress  of 
Milan,  and  several  works 
about  that  city ;  a  model 
for  the  fortress  of  Pesaro; 
the  old  and  new  citadel  at 
Pisa;   some   other  works 
there,  as  well  as  at  Trento, 
and  in  other  parts  of  Italy. 
He    drained    the  country 
round  Mantua.    He  set  the 
first  example  of  a  purer 
style  in  the  architecture  of 
Italy. 

The  Palazzo  de  Medicis,  now 
dei  Marchesi  Ricardi ;  the 
Palazzo  Caffaoiulo  ;  the 
convent  of  the  Dominicans; 
the  Noviziato  di  Santa  Cro- 
ce  ;  the  chapel  in  the  church 
dei  Servi ;  the  Palazzo  della 
Villa  Careggi,  the  Palazzo 
Tornabuoni,  now  dei  Mar- 
chesi Corsi ;  and  several 
other  palaces,  churches,  and 
convents  at  Florence ;  the 
monastery  of   the  Black 

531 


NAME. 


COUNTRY  B 


D.  FL. 


WORKS. 


tifc  Giuliatio  of 
Majano, 


Near 
Florence 


1377 


J  447 


170  Winferd,W. 

W  Frowcester, 

Walter, 

abbot  of 

Gloucester 
W  Croyland, 

William  de 

173  Keyes, 
Roger 

174  Arderne,  J. 


W  Horwood, 
W.  a  free- 
mason 

176  Close,  or 
Cloos,bp.  of 
Lichfield 


177  Christobok) 

532 


England 
England 

England 
England 


England 


England 


England 


1403 


1412 


1417 

to 
1427 
1422 


1434 


1452 


Italy 


1450 


Benedictines  at  Venice;  the 
Palace  di  Caffagiuolo,  and 
the  Palazzo  della  Villa  Ca- 
reggi,  at  Mugello;  some 
buildings  at  Trento ;  a 
beautiful  fountain  at  Assisi; 
la  Citadella  Vecchia  at  Pe- 
rugia ;  the  alterations  to  the 
palace  presented  by  Fran- 
cisco Sforza  to  Cosimo  di 
Medici,  whom  he  followed 
in  his  exile;  other  great 
works  in  various  parts  of 
Italy. 

The  Palazzo  del  Poggio  Reale 
at  Naples;  a  Corinthian 
triumphal  gate  at  the  Castel 
Nuovo  ;  many  fountains  in 
the  same  city;  the  Cortile 
S.  Damaso,  in  the  Vatican 
at  Rome,  whither  he  was 
invited  by  Paul  II. ;  the 
palace  and  church  of  San 
Marco  at  Rome ;  he  also 
enlarged  the  church  at 
Loreto. 

Master  mason  to  William  of 

Wykeham,  at  Winchester. 
Built  the   great  cloisters  of 
his  monastery  in  1400. 


Master  of  the  works  at  Croy- 
land Abbey,  in  the  time  of 
abbot  Upton. 
Architect  of  All  Souls'  Col- 
lege, Oxford. 
Clerk  of  the  works  at  the 
building  of  the  monument 
of  Henry  V.  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  who  died  in  1422. 
Collegiate  chapel  of  Fother- 
inghay. 

Supposed  to  have  designed 
King's  College  chapel,  Cam- 
bridge, though,  according 
to  Hearne,  his  father  was 
the  architect. 
A  mosque  at  Constantinople, 
with  eight  schools,  and 


NAME. 


ICOUNTRY 


*W  Baccio 
Pintelli 


Florence 


180  Bartolomeo 
Bramantino 

181  Giovanni 
del  Pozz, 

182  Andrea 
Ciccione 


Ridolfo 
Fioravanti 


184  Orcbyarde, 
W 

135  Francesco 
di  Giorgio 


Italy 

Spain 

Naples 

Bologna 


England 


biena 


1423 


D.  FL. 


1455 


1470 


1450 


1450 


1450 


WORKS. 


1450 


1458 


eight  hospitals,  on  the  site 
of  the  church  of  the  Apos- 
tles, by  order  of  Maho- 
met II. 

Church  and  convent  of  Santa 
Maria  del  Popolo  at  Rome; 
the  celebrated  Capella  Sis- 
tina  in  the  Vatican ;  the 
hospital  of  S.  Spirito  in 
Sassia ;  the  Ponte  Sisto ; 
designs  for  the  church  of 
San  Pietro  in  Montorio; 
the  church  of  S.  Sisto;  the 
church  of  San  Augostino, 
and  the  church  of  San 
Pietro, in  Vincula,at  Rome; 
he  rebuilt  the  church  and 
convent  of  St.  Francis  at 
Assisi,  and  built  the  palace 
for  the  cardinal  del  Roverc 
at  Borgo  Vecchio;  some 
attribute  to  him  the  palace 
built  for  the  duke  Federigo 
Feltre  at  Urbino.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first 
to  set  the  example  of  gran- 
deur in  the  architecture  of 
chapels. 
Church  of  San  Satiro  at  Mi- 
lan, and  other  works  in 
various  parts  of  Italy. 
The  Dominican  convent,  and 
a  great  bridge  over  the 
Huccar,  near  Cuenza. 
The  convent  and  church  of 
Monte  Olivito;  the  palace 
of  Bartolomeo  da  Capua; 
and  several  other  convents 
and  palaces  in  the  city  of 
Naples. 

Restored  the  hanging  tower 
of  the  church  of  S.  Biagio 
at  Cento,  to  its  perpendi- 
cular position,  and  built 
many  churches  at  Mos- 
cow. 

Architect  of  Magdalen  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  under  bishop 
Wayneflete. 

The  ducal  palace  at  Urbino. 

633 


NAME. 


i86*Leon  Bat- 
tista  Alberti 


Florence 


187  Farleigh,  or 
Ferley,  W. 
abbot  of 
Gloucester 

188Beauchamp 
bishop  of 
Sarurn 


189  Wayneflete: 
bishop  of 
Winchester 


England 


England 


England 


W  Kendale, 

John 
M»  Essex,  John 


J92  Bourde, 
John 

531 


England 


England 


England 


1398 


D. 


1472 


FL. 


WORKS. 


1481 


1472 

to 
1498 


Church  of  St.  Francis  at  Ri- 
mini ;  church  of  St.  Andrew 
at  Mantua ;  the  principal  - 
facade  of  Santa  Maria  No- 
vella, at  Florence,  has  been 
attributed  by  some  to  Al- 
berti •  but  Gwilt  is  of  opi- 
nion, from  the  circumstance 
of  its  being  Gothic,  that  it 
may  more  properly  be  as- 
signed to  Bettini ;  the  gate 
and  Corinthian  Loggie  are 
however  from  the  designs 
of  Alberti,  as  also  the  Doric 
facade  of  the  Palazzo  Ru- 
cellai,  and  the  choir  and 
tribune  of  the  church  della 
Nunziate,  all  at  Florence. 
He  also  repaired  the  Aqua 
Vergine,  and  the  fountain 
of  Trevi,  at  Rome,  under 
Nicholas  V. ;  the  palace  for 
the  duke  Federigo  Feltre 
at  Urbino  ;  and  many  other 
buildings  in  Italy. 
Built  the  Lady  Chapel  about 
1490. 


1486 


Appointed  surveyor  of  the 
works  at  Windsor  Castle, 
by  Edward  IV. ;  supposed 
to  have  made  designs  for 
rebuilding  St.  George's  Cha- 
pel ;  built  a  chantry  chapel 
in  Salisbury  cathedral. 
Founder  of  Magdalen  College, 
Oxford;  overseer  of  the 
building  at  Windsor.  Le- 
land  was  informed  that  the 
greatest  part  of  the  build- 
ings of  Eton  College  were 
raised  under  his  direction, 
and  at  his  expense. 
Edw.  Supervisor  of  all  the  king's 
IV.  works. 

15th  An  artist  employed  on  the 
cent.     Beauchamp  monument, 

Warwick. 
15th  Employed  on  the  Beauchamp 
[cent,     monument,  Warwick. 


NAMJi. 


«3Druell,  J. 
archdeacon 
of  Exeter 

iy4  *Bramante 
Lazzari,  or 
Bramante  d 
Urbino,  of 
Castel  Du- 
rante, 


195  Francesco 
Giamberti 

*96  Ventura 
Vitoni 

197  Alcock,  J. 
bishop  of 
Ely 


198  Moston,  J. 
of  Cambridge 
abp. 


CwUNT  11  VI 


D. 


FL. 


England 


near 
Urbino 


Florence 
Pistoja 


England 


England 


1444  1514 


1500 


1500 


15th 
cent, 


1470 
1479 


WORKS. 


One  of  the  architects  em- 
ployed on  All  Souls'  Col- 
lege, Oxford. 

First  designed  and  commenced 
the  building  of  St.  Peter's, 
at  Rome,  in  1513  ;  a  small 
model  was  executed  after 
the  same  design  for  an 
insulated  church  without  the 
walls  of  Todi ;  many  works 
in  the  Vatican,  particularly 
the  library  and  the  Belvi- 
dere  court,  with  a  magni- 
ficent design  for  alterations 
to  be  made  in  it,  under 
Julius  II. ;  the  rotundo  in 
the  convent  of  San  Pietro 
Montorio ;  the  palaces  of 
S.  Giocomo  Scoscia  Cavalli 
ora  de'  Conti  Geraud,  del 
Duca  de  Sora,  della  Can- 
cellaria,  dell  Nuovo  dell' 
Imperiale;  the  churches  of 
S.  S.  Euloy  de'  Orfano, 
Lorenzo,  and  Damaso  ;  the 
cloisters  of  the  monastery 
della  Pace,  &c.  at  Rome; 
the  Strada  Julia  in  that 
city;  the  ducal  palace  at 
Urbino ;  the  Palazzo  Pub- 
lico at  Breschia ;  design 
for  the  church  dell'  Umilta 
at  Pistoja. 

Numerous  plans  for  buildings 
at  Florence  and  Rome. 

The  church  dell'  Umilta  at 
Pistoja,  after  the  design  of 
Bramanti, whose  pupil  he  was. 

A  sepulchral  chapel  in  Ely 
cathedral,  episcopal  palace 
at  Downham,  and  supposed 
to  have  designed  St.  Mary's, 
or  the  University  Church, 
Cambridge. 

Part  of  palace  at  Lambeth  ; 
another  at  Canterbury — 
"  made  a  great  building  at 
Charing  in  Kent" — "almost 
the  whole  house  of  Forde. 
He  builded  at  Alington 
Park." — Leland. 

5J5 


NAME.  ^COUNTRY 


199  Gabriello 
d'Agnolo 


200  Gian  Fran- 
cesco Nor- 


mando 


201  PietroLom- 
bardo 


202  Martino 
Lombardo 


Naples 


Florence 


Venice 


Venice 


203  John  Cole  England 


204  Sir  Reginald  (England 
Bray 


205  John  Hyl- 
mer 

206  William 
Vertue 


2°7  Giuliano  di 
San  Gallo 


536 


England 


England 


Florence 


B. 


D. 


1503 


1443 1517 


FL. 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1500 


1501 
to 
1506 


1507 


1507 


WORKS. 


Church  of  S.  Giuseppe; 
church  of  Santa  Maria 
Egiziaca ;  palace  for  Fer- 
dinando  Orsinj,  duke  of 
Gravina,  at  Naples. 
Church  of  S.  Severino  ;  Pa- 
lazzo Filomarini ;  Palazzo 
Cantalupo  in  the  Posilipo, 
at  Naples  ;  several  build- 
ings in  Spain. 
The  tomb  of  Dante,  the  poet, 
in  the  church  of  St.  Francis 
at  Ravenna  ;  church  of  S.S. 
Paolo,  E.  Giovanni,  and 
monastery  adjoining  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria 
Mater  Domini ;  clock  tower 
in  the  square  of  St.  Mark  ; 
the  German  warehouse  on 
the  Rialto ;  the  school  della 
Misericordia ;  the  cloister 
of  Santa  Giustina  at  Pa- 
dua. 

The  school  or  confraternity  of 
San  Marco,   and  perhaps 
the  church  of  S.  Zaccaria 
at  Venice. 
Builder  of  Louth 
"  Broach." 


spire  or 


The  design  of  Henry  VII. 's 
chapel,  Westminster,  and  of 
other  works  at  St.  George's 
chapel,  Windsor. 
St.  George's  chapel,  Windsor. 


A   freemason,  employed 
executing  the 
ing  of  the  choir  of 


groined  ceil- 
St. 


George's  chapel,  Windsor. 
The  cloister  of  the  Carmel- 
ites di  Santa  Maddelena  de 
Pazzi  at  Florence  ;  a  clois- 
ter for  the  Fratri  Eremitani 
di  S.  Agostino  ;  la  gran 
fabbrica  del  Poggio  Impe- 
riale,  a  fortress  near  the 
Porto  a  Prato,  and  other 
works  at  Florence  ;  a  mag- 
nificent palace  at  Poggio 
Cajana  for  Lorenzo  di  Me- 


N/.  ME. 


!  *Simone 
Cronaca,  or 
Poliignolo 


2°9  *Aristotle 
Alberti 

210  Leonardo 
da  Vinci 
of  Castello 
da  Vinci, 

211  *Fra.  Gio- 
condo 


m  Novel lo  da 
San  Lucano 


COUNTRY 


Florence 


Bologna 

near 
Florence 


Verona 


Naples 


1454 


D. 


1509 


1443  1518 


1435 


FL. 


WORKS. 


16th 

cent. 


1500 


dici ;  repaired  the  cupola 
of  the  church  della  Ma- 
donna at  Loreto;  restored 
the  roof  and  decorations  of 
the  ceiling  of  the  church  of 
Santa  Maria  Maggiore ; 
restored  the  church  dell' 
Anima ;  the  Palazzo  Ro- 
vere,  near  San  Pietro  in 
Vincula  at  Rome  ;  the  Pa- 
lazzo Rovere  at  Savona  ; 
an  unfinished  palace  at  Mi- 
lan ;  the  fortress  and  gate 
of  San  Marco,  of  the  Doric 
order  ;  many  palaces  at 
Pisa ;  the  fortifications  at 
Ostia. 

Facade  of  the  Palazzo  Strozzi 
at  Florence  ;  the  church  of 
S.  Francis  at  S.  Miniato, 
near  Florence  ;  convent  of 
the  Padri  Serviti ;  the  Sa- 
cristy of  Santo  Spirito  and 
the  council  chamber  at 
Florence. 
A  bridge  in  Hungary;  several 

churches  in  Russia. 
The  aqueduct  of  the  Adda  at 
Milan  ;  various  machines, 
plans,  and  works  on  archi- 
tecture. 

Many  bridges,  especially  that 

of  Notre  Dame  at  Paris ; 

the  public  hall  and  Ponte 

della  Pietra  at  Verona  ;  the 

fortifications  at  Treviso;  the 

cleansing  of  the  Lagunes, 

and  a  design  for  the  Ponte 

Rialto,  at  Venice  ;  after  the 

death  of  Bramante,  he  was 

eno-aoed  with  Rafael le  and 
©  — 

San  Gallo  in  erecting  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome. 
The  palace  of  prince  Robert 
Sanseverino,  duke  of  Sa- 
lerno, at  Naples ;  and  the 
restoration  of  the  church  of 
San  Domenico  Maggiore, 
which  was  built  by  Lu- 
cano. 


3Y 


537 


NAME. 


COUNTRY 


WORKS. 


213 Percy,  John,  England 
abbot  of  Lei- 
cester 

214  Rafaelle  Urbino 
d'Urbino 


215  Bolton  ,W. 
prior  of  St. 
Bartholo- 
mew's 

216  John  of  Pa- 
dua 

217  Gibbes,W. 
last  prior  of 
Bath 

218  Hector 
Asheley 


219  Andrea 
Contucci  di 
Monte  San- 
sovino 


220  Bartolemeo 
Buono  of 
Bergamo 

221  Guglielmo 
Bergarnasco 
of  Bergamo 

538 


1483 


1520 


1520 


England 


Italy 
England 

England 


Italy 


1460 


1529 


Hen. 

8th 
1509 

to 
1547 


Hen. 
8th 


of 
Hen. 
8  th 


Brick  buildings  at  Leicester 
abbey. 

Continued  the  erection  of  St. 
Peter's  at  Rome,  after  the 
death  of  Bramante,  his 
master  in  architecture;  sub- 
ordinate in  buildings  of  the 
Farnesian  ;  church  of  Santa 
Maria  in  Navicella,  repaired 
and  altered  ;  stables  of 
Agostino,  near  the  Palazzo 
Farnese ;  the  Palazzo  Caf- 
farelli,  now  Stoppani ;  the 
gardens  of  the  Vatican  ;  the 
facade  of  the  church  of  San 
Lorenzo,  and  of  the  Palazzo 
Uggoceioni,  now  Pandolfini, 
at  Florence. 
Supposed  to  have  designed 
Henry  VII. *s  chapel,  where 
he  was  master  of  the  works. 


Devizer  of  buildings  to 
Henry  VIII.  of  England. 
Continued  the  building  of 
Bath  abbey  church  till  the 
dissolution  of  monasteries. 
Surveyor  of  buildings,  em- 
ployed in  the  erection  of 
Hunsdon  house. 


Italy 


Italy 


1529 


The  beautiful  chapel  del  Sa- 
gramento  in  the  church  di 
Santo  Spirito ;  the  palace 
della  Canonica  at  Loretto  ; 
a  cloister  for  the  monks  of 
S.  Agostino,  and  a  little 
chapel  without  the  walls  of 
Sansoverino  ;  some  build- 
ings at  Venice,  and  many  in 
Portugal. 
Church  of  S.  Rocco;  some 
parts  of  the  campanile  di 
San  Marco,  and  the  Pro- 
curazie  Vecchie  at  Venice. 
1520  The  Capella  Emiliana  of 
the  Camaldulenses,  at  Mu- 
rano,  an  island  of  the  La- 
gunes ;  the  Palazzo  di  Ca- 


NAME. 


222  *Maestro 
Filippo 

223  Giovanni  di 
Ololzago,  of 
Biscay 


2C*  Pietro  di 
Gamiel 


225  Giovanni 

Alonzo 
226Fra  G.o. 

vanni  d'Es- 

cobedo 

227  Giovanni 
Campero 

228  *Antonio 
San  Gallo 
of  Mugello, 


COUNTRY  B. 


Spain 
Spain 

Spain 

Spain 
Spain 

Spain 

near 
Florence 


D.  FL. 


1546 


WORKS. 


merlinghi, 


near  the  Ponte 
Kialto  at  Venice ;  Palace 
at  Portogruato,  in  the 
Friuli ;  the  gate  di  Santo 
Thommaso  at  Treviso  ;  the 
gate  called  11  Portello  at 
Padua. 

1520Restoration  of  the  cathedral 

of  Seville. 
1520  Cathedral  of  Huesca  in  Arra- 
gon;  he  blended  the  modern 
Greek  style  with  Gothic,  in 
the  manner  called  Araba- 
tedescho. 

1520  Convent  of  S.  Eugracia  at 
Saragossa ;  college  of  Al- 
cala,  in  the  Grseco-Gothic 
style  of  architecture. 
1520  Sanctuary  of  Guadaloupe. 

1520 The  grand  aqueduct  of  Se- 
govia, by  order  of  queen 
Isabella. 

1520  The  church  and  convent  of 
S.  Francis,  at  Fordelaguna. 
The  churches  of  the  Madonna 
di  Loretto  near  Trajan's 
column,  of  Santa  Maria  di 
Monserrato,  of  S.  Giovanni 
de  Fiorentini ;  the  Palaz- 
zetto  de'  Conte  Palma  ;  the 
Palazzi  di  Santo  Buono  for 
himself,  now  that  of  the 
Marchesi  Sacchetti  ;  Far- 
nese,  begun  by  Paul  III., 
when  a  cardinal ;  the  fortifi- 
cations of  Civita  Vecchia, 
of  Civita  Castellana,  of  Par- 
ma, Ancona,  and  many 
other  strong  places  in  Italy; 
he  altered  the  Mola  of 
Adrian  to  its  present  form 
of  the  castle  of  S.  Angelo  ; 
the  triumphal  arch  in  the 
square  of  S.  Mark  at  Ve- 
nice ;  a  temple  to  our  Lady 
at  Monte  Pulciano  ;  he 
built  the  Capella  Paolino 
del  Vaticano,  and  assisted 
in  the  works  of  S.  Pe- 
ter's. 


NAME. 


COUNTRY 


B. 


1). 


FL. 


WORKS. 


229  *Baldas- 
sare  Pe- 
ruzzi 


V olterra 


1481 


1536 


230  Marco  di  Sienna 
Pino 


231  Andrea 
Brioso 

232  Ferdinando 
Manlio 


233  Giovanni 
Merliano 
da  Nola 


Padua 


Naples 


Italy 


Plan  and  model  of  the  cathe- 
dral or  duomo  at  Carpi ; 
two  designs  for  the  facade 
of  San  Petronio,  and  the 
gate  of  San  Michele  in 
Bosco  at  Bologna  ;  fortifi- 
cations at  Sienna  ;  the  little 
palace  built  for  Agostino 
Chigi,  now  called  the  Far- 
nesina  in  the  Langara  ;  the 
Palazzo  Massimi,  near  the 
church  of  San  Pantaleo ; 
the  Villa  di  Papa  Giulio 
III. ;  the  cortile  of  the 
palace  de  Duchi  Altemps ; 
the  casino  at  the  Palazzo 
Chigi ;  the  tomb  of  pope 
Hadrian  IV.  in  the  church 
dell'  Anima  ;  the  Palazzo 
Spinosa,  now  the  hospital 
degli  Eretici  convertiti  at 
Rome ;  he  assisted  in  the 
erection  of  St.  Peter's,  and 
was  buried  by  the  side  of 
Rafaelle,  in  the  Pantheon. 
His  style  was  distinguished 
for  taste. 

1530  Modernized  the  church  della 
Trinita  di  Palazzo,  and 
built  the  church  and  con- 
vent of  Giesu  Vecchio  at 
Naples. 

1530  The  Loggia,  and  council-house 
in  the  Piazza  di  Signori  at 
Padua,  finished  in  1526. 
1530  Church  and  hospital  della 
Nunziata ;  the  Strada  di 
Porta  Nolana,and  di  Monte 
Olivetto.  with  other  streets 
and  palaces  at  Naples;  a 
bridge  at  Capua. 
1530 The  Strada  di  Toledo;  the 
church  of  S.  Giorgio  de' 
Genovesi  ;  the  church  of 
S.Giacomo  degli  Spagnoli ; 
plan  of  the  palace  del  Prin- 
cipe di  San  Severo,  and  the 
palace  of  the  ducca  della 
Torre ;  the  Castel  Capuano 
altered  to  a  court  of  law;  a 
fountain  at  the  extremity 


540 


COUNTRY  E. 


D.  FL. 


WOKKS. 


234  Giovanni 
Gil  de  Hon- 
tanon 

233  Baccio 
d'Agnolo 


Spain 
Florence 


1460 


1543 


236  Giovanni 
Maria  Fal- 
conetto 


Verona 


1458  1534 


237  Rodrigo  Gil 
de  Hontanon 


238  Pietro  de 
Uria 

239  Alonzo  de 
Cobarrubias 


Spain 

Spain 
Spain 


240  Diego  Siloe 


Toledo 


of  the  Mole,  and  some  tri- 
umphal arches  for  the  en- 
trance of  Charles  V.,  on  his 
return  from  Tunis,  at  Na- 
ples. 


1530  Plan  of  the  cathedral  of  Sala- 
manca. 


The  beautiful  bell  tower  or 
campanile  of  San  Spirito  ; 
the  lantern  above  the  cu- 
pola of  Santa  Maria  del 
Fiore,  the  great  altar  and 
choir  of  which  was  built  by 
his  son  Giuliano ;  the  pa- 
lace for  Giovanni  Bartolini 
in  the  Piazza  di  Santa 
Trinita ;  the  Palazzo  Sal- 
vieto  at  Rome. 

The  church  della  Madonna 
della  Grazie,  for  the  Domi- 
nicans at  Padua ;  a  palace 
in  the  Castel  d'Usopo  in 
the  Friuli;  the  palace  for 
Luigi  Cornaro,  near  the 
Santo ;  the  Doric  gate  to 
the  Palazzo  Capitano ;  a 
music  hall,  which  was  much 
admired  by  Serlio,  who  de- 
nominated it  "  La  Rotondo 
di  Padoua;"  the  gates  of 
S.  S.  Giovanni  and  Savo- 
narola. 

Superintended  the  erection  of 
the  cathedral  of  Salamanca; 
built  the  cathedral  of  Se- 


1540 

1540 
1540 


1540 


govia. 

Biidge  of  Almaraz,  over  the 
Tagus. 

Facade  of  the  Alcaziar  at 
Toledo;  convent  and  church 
of  S.  Michael  at  Valen/.a  ; 
repaired  the  church  of  To- 
ledo, which  was  erected  in 
587,  during  the  reign  of 
king  Reccaredo. 
Cathedral  and  Alcaziar  at 
Granada;  church  and  con- 
vent of  S.  Gerome  in  the 
same  city. 

541 


NAME. 


(COUNTRY  B. 


2*1  *Girolamo 
Genga 


*«MicheloSan 
heli 


Urbino 


Verona 


D.  FL. 


1476  1558 


14841559 


2«  *Philibert 
de  Lor  me 

542 


France 


1557 


WORKS. 


A  palace  of  the  duke  of  Ur- 
bino, sul  monte  dell'  Im- 
periale  ;  the  court  of  the 
palace  restored  ;  the  church 
of  San  Giovanni  Battista, 
at  Pesaro ;  facade  of  the 
cathedral  and  the  bishop's 
palace  at  Mantua;  the  con- 
vent de'  Zoccolanti  at  Monte 
Baroccio.  His  son,  Bar- 
tolemeo,  was  also  an  artist 
of  considerable  repute,  and 
there  are  several  of  his 
works  at  Mondavio,  Pesau, 
and  other  parts  of  Italy. 

Cathedral  of  Monte  Fiascone; 
church  of  S.  Dominichino 
at  Orvietto  ;  numerous  for- 
tresses in  the  Venetian  terri- 
tory, in  Corfu,  Lorn  bard  y, 
and  the  Ecclesiastical  state, 
as  at  Legnani,  Orri  Nuovi, 
Castello  ;  the  palaces  di 
Canossa  della  Gran  Guar- 
dia  on  the  Bra  ;  Pelligrini 
de'  Versi  ;  the  prefecturate 
and  the  facade  of  the  pa- 
lazzo  Bevelaqua  at  Verona ; 
the  chapel  Guareschi  in  the 
church  of  S.  Bernardino  ; 
design  for  the  campanile  of 
the  duomo;  the  churches 
of  Santa  Maria  in  Organo 
de  Monaci,  di  Monti  Oli- 
vetti, di  San  Giorgio,  and 
della  Madonna  di  Cam- 
pagna,  in  the  same  city ; 
the  gates  Nuova,  del  Pallio, 
di  S.  Zenone,  del  Palazzo 
Pretorio,  and  del  Palazzo 
Prefettizio,  at  Verona  ;  the 
fortifications  of  the  same 
city,  the  first  instance  of 
the  introduction  of  trian- 
gular bastions  ;  the  first 
bastion,  that  of  della  Ma- 
dellina,  was  erected  in 
1527. 

Commenced  the  Tuilleries ; 
built  the  chateaus  of  Anet 
and  Neudon. 


NAME. 


24*  *G.  Allesi 


245  Sante  Lom- 
bardo 


246  *Giacomo 
Barozzi  da 
Vignola 

247GiulioPippi, 
or  Giulio 
Romano 


COUNTRY  B. 


««  Michel 
Angiolo  di 
Buonarotti 


Italy 


Venice 


Vignola 


Rome 


Florence 


1500 


1504 


1507 


1492 


1474 


FL. 


1572 


1560 


1573 


1546 


1563 


The  Escurial  in  Spain ;  he 
was  much  employed  at 
Genoa. 

The  Palazzo  Vendramini ;  the 
staircase  and  facade  of  the 
school  of  S.  Rocco ;  the 
palaces  Trevisani  and  Gra- 
denigo,  at  Venice. 
The  magnificent  palace  at  Ca- 
prarole,  for  cardinal  Far- 
nese. 

The  villa  Madama;  the  Pa- 
lazzo Lante,  at  San  Pietro ; 
church  della  Modona  del 
Orto  ;  Palazzo  Ciccia  porci 
alia  Strada  di  Bunchi ;  Pa- 
lazzo Cenci  sulla  Piazza 
S.  Eustachio,  near  the  Pa- 
lazzo Lante,  and  other  build- 
ings in  Rome  ;  the  Palazzo 
del  T,  at  Mantua  ;  the  pa- 
lace at  Marmiruolo,  five 
miles  from  Mantua ;  the 
modernising  and  enlarging 
the  ducal  palaces,  the  duo- 
mo,  and  many  other  build- 
ings in  the  same  city ;  the 
facade  of  S.  Petronio  at 
Bologna;  and  some  works 
at  Vicenza.  His  style  was 
cheerful  and  pleasing. 

Library  of  the  Medici,  gene- 
rally called  the  Laurentian 
library,  at  Florence;  model 
for  the  facade  of  the  church 
of  San  Lorenzo ;  the  second 
sacristy  of  Lorenzo,  com- 
monly called  the  Capelle 
del  Depositi  ;  the  church 
San  Giovanni, which  he  did 
not  finish  ;  fortifications  at 
Florence,  and  at  Monte  San 
Miniato  ;  monument  of  Ju- 
lius II.  in  the  church  of 
S.  Pietro  in  Vinculis,  at 
Rome  ;  plan  of  the  Cani- 
pidoglio  ;  palace  of  the 
Conservatori  ;  the  building 
in  the  centre,  and  the  flight 
of  steps  in  the  Campidoglio 
or  Capitol,  at  Rome  ;  con- 

543 


NAME. 


Country  b 


2*9  Mascall,  or  England 
Marshall, 
Eustace, 


250  Damiano 
For  men  t,  of 
Valenza 

251  Martino  de 
Gainza 

252  Alonzo  Ber- 
ruguete,  of 
Parades, 
near  Valla- 
dolid 


253  Pietro  de 
Valdevira 


25*  Pietro  Ez 
guerra,  of 
Ojebar,  near 
Perayas 

255  Ferdinando 
Ruiz,  of 
Cordova 

544 


Spain 

Spain 
Spain 


D.  FL. 


1567 


Spain 


Spain 


Spain 


WORKS. 


tinuation  of  the  palace  Far- 
nese,  and  several  gates  at 
Rome,  particularly  the  Por- 
ta Nomentana,  or  Pia  ;  the 
steeple  of  S.  Michaele,  at 
Ostia ;  the  Carth  usian  church 
of  Santa  Maria  degli  An- 
geli ;  the  gate  to  the  vine- 
yard del  PatriarcaGrimani ; 
the  tower  of  S.  Lorenzo,  at 
Ardea ;  the  church  of  Santa 
Maria,  in  the  Certosa,  at 
Rome ;  many  plans  of  pa- 
laces, churches,  and  cha- 
pels. He  was  employed  on 
St.  Peter's,  after  the  death 
of  San  Gallo. 
Clerk  of  the  works  to  cardinal 
Wolsey,  at  the  building  of 
Christchurch  college,  Ox- 
ford, and  chief  clerk  of 
accounts,  for  all  the  build- 
ings of  Henry  VIII.,  within 
twenty  miles  of  London. 


1550  Facade  of  the  church  of  S. 
Eugracia  at  Saragossa. 

1550  The  chapel  royal  at  Seville. 

1550  Plan  of  the  former  royal  pa- 
lace at  Madrid  ;  gate  of 
S.  Martino  at  Toledo ;  pa- 
lace of  Alcala  in  that  city  ; 
he  also  assisted  at  the  erec- 
tion of  the  cathedral  of  Cu- 
enza. 

30  The  beautiful  chapel  of  S. 
Salvador  at  Ubeda ;  a  pa- 
lace in  the  same  place  ;  the 
hospital  and  chapel  of  S. 
Iago  at  Baeza. 

1550  Cathedral  of  Plasencia;  church 
of  S.  Matteo  de  Caceres ; 
church  of  Malpartida. 


1550 


Heightened  the  great  steeple 
of  the  cathedral  of  Seville, 
called  the  Torre  della  Gi- 
ralda 


NAME. 


COUNTRY 


FL. 


WORKS. 


256  Macbuca  [Spain 
25?  Antonio  Florence 
Fiorentino 

i 


258  Jacopo 
Tatti,  sur- 
named  San- 


sovino 


2*9  Theodore 
Havens 


260  Domenico 
Testocopoli 


261  Garzia 
d'Emere 

202  Bartolemo 
di  Busta- 
mente 

2(33  Giovan  Bat- 
tista  di  To- 
ledo 


3Z 


Florence 


England 


Greece 


Spain 
Spain 

Spain 


1570 


1479  1570 


1550  Royal  palace  of  Grenada. 

Church  of  Santa  Caterina  a 
Formello  at  Naples  ;  the 
cupola  of  this  church  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first 
that  was  raised  of  any  con- 
siderable magnitude  in  that 
city. 

Church  of  S.  Marcello  begun, 
and  that  of  S.  Giovanni  de' 
Fiorentini  built;  the  Loggia 
on  the  via  Flaminia,  just 
out  of  the  Porto  del  Popolo, 
for  Marco  Coscia  ;  the  Pa- 
lazzo Gaddi,  now  del  Nico- 
lini,  at  Rome ;  church  of 
S.  Francesco  della  Vigna, 
which  was  finished  by  Pal- 
ladio;  the  Palazzo  Cornari, 
sul  canal  Grande  at  San 
Maurizio ;  the  mint  and 
other  public  buildings  at 
Venice  ;  church  of  San 
Fantino ;  church  of  San 
Geminiauo,  &c.  His  style 
was  the  Lombard. 
155SCaius  college,  Cambridge;  a 
fair  specimen  of  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  day,  pedantic, 
eccentric,  and  affected. 
1560  College  of  the  Donna  Maria 
d'  Arragona  at  Madrid  ; 
church  and  convent  of  the 
Dominican  nuns,  and  also 
the  Ayuntamiento  at  To- 
ledo ;  church  and  convent 
of  the  Bernardine  nuns  at 
Silos.  His  style  was  heavy 
and  gloomy. 
1560  Parochial  church  of  Valeria, 

near  Cuenza. 
1560  Hospital  of  S.  John  the  Bap- 
tist, near  Toledo. 

1560  Designs  for  the  Escurial ;  he 
assisted  in  planning  the 
street  of  Toledo  at  Naples, 
the  church  of  S.  Iago,  be- 
longing to  the  Spaniards  ; 
a  palace  at  Posilipo  in  the 
same  city. 

W5 


NAME. 


COUNTRY 


26*  John 

Thynne 
"65  Giovanni 

d'Herrera,  of 

Movellar 


£6G  Pierre  de 
Lescott 

«67  *Sebastiano 
Serlio 


*C8*Bartolemeo 
Ammanati 


2e9  *Nicholas 
Abate 


2T0  *Andrea 
Palladio,  of 
Vicenza 

271  Dominico 
Fontana 

272  John  Shute 


*73  Robert 
Adams 

s74  Louis  de 
Foix 


*Jaques 
Androuet 
du  Cerceau 


England 
Austria 


France 
Bologna 

Italy 

Modena 

Italy 
Milan 


England 


England 


France 


France 


B. 


1510 


1511 


1512 


1518 


1543 


D. 


1578 
1578 

1592 


FL. 


WORKS. 


1570 


1580 


1670 


end 
of 
16th 
cent. 

end 
of 
16th 
cent. 


Built  Somerset  house  in  1567 

He  continued  the  Escurial  af- 
ter the  death  of  his  master, 
Giovan  Battista ;  plan  of 
the  church  of  S.  Jago,  near 
Cuenza  :  bridge  of  Segovia 
at  Madrid  ;  palace  of  Aran- 
juez. 

The  Fontaine  des  Saintes 
Innocens,  in  the  rue  Saint- 
Denys  at  Paris. 
The  palace  of  Grimani,  at 
Venice  ;  employed  by  Fran- 
cis I.  of  France,  at  Fontain- 
bleau, 

The  Palazzo  Pitti ;  the  beau- 
tiful bridge  of  Santissima 
Trinita  ;  Rucellai  palace  at 
Rome ;  Jesuit's  college  at 
Rome. 

The  old  Chateau  of  Meudon  ; 
tomb  of  Francis  I.  at  S. 
Denys;  decorated  the  apart- 
ments of  the  palace  of  Fon- 
tainbleau. 

Palace  Foscari ;  Olympic  thea- 
tre at  Vicenza. 

Chapel  of  the  Manger  in  the 
church  of  S.  Maggiore  ; 
library  of  the  Vatican. 

A  painter  and  architect,  who 
flourished  during  the  reign 
of  queen  Elizabeth,  from 
1558  to  1608. 

Superintendent  of  royal  build- 
ings to  queen  Elizabeth. 

Monastery  of  the  Escurial  in 
Spain ;  the  new  canal  of 
the  Adour  ;  the  "  Tour  de 
Cordouan,"  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Garonne. 

Pont  Neuf  at  Paris;  the  hotels 
de  Sully,  de  Mayenne,  and 
that  of  the  Fermes  General ; 
designed  the  fine  gallery, 
built  by  Henry  IV  at  the 
Tuilleries. 


546 


"NAME. 


jCOUNTR  Y  B. 


WORKS. 


n6  *  Vincenzo 
Scamozzi 


Vicenza  1552116161 


2*7  *CarIo  Ma- Lombardyll  556  1629 
clerno 


278  John  War- 

ren 

2-9  Sir  H.Wot- 
ton 


Tnigo  Jones 


81  *  Giovanni 
Battista 
Alisti 


m  Pierre  le 
Muet 

283  ^Francesco 
Borromini 

884  Alessa  >dro 

Algardi 
285  *  Lorenzo 

Bernini 


28fi  *  Francois 
Mansart 


287  *Alonzo 

Cano 
2«3  *Claude 

Perrault 


£89  *Francois 


Blondel 


England 
England 

England 
Ferrara 

France 

Italy 

Bologna 
Naples 

France 

Spain 
France 

France 


1568  1639 


1572 


1651 


1630 


1591  1669 

1599 

16021654 
1598  1680 


1598  1666 


1608 


1600 
1613 


1676 


1688 


1617  1686 


The  supposed  inventor  of  the 
angular  Ionic  capital  ;  he 
made  some  additions  to  the 
library  of  S.  Mark,  finished 
the  Olympic  theatre  at 
Vicenza,  and  built  a  theatre 
at  Sabioneta. 

Altered  Michel  Angiola's  de- 
sign for  St.  Peter's  at  Rome, 
from  a  Greek  to  a  Latin 
cross  ;  bee:an  the  palace  ot 
Urban  VIII. 

Architect  of  St.  Mary's  church 
tower,  Cambridge. 

Author  of  "  the  Elements  ot 
Architecture,"  published, 
London,  1624. 

The  banqueting  house ;  the 
chapel  of  Lincoln's  Inn  ; 
Surgeon's  hall  ;  the  arcade 
of  Covent  Garden. 

Fortress  at  Ferrara ;  many 
palaces,  theatres,  and  other 
public  buildings  at  Mantua, 
Parma,  Modena,  and  Ve- 
nice. 

Plan  for  the  Grand  Hotel 
of  Zuynes;  the  hotel  l'Aigle 
and  Beauvilliers. 

Author  of  "  numerous  ab- 
surdities," at  Rome  and 
Florence. 

Chiefly  employed  at  Rome. 

The  celebrated  piazza,  colon- 
nade, and  staircase,  at  St. 
Peter's  ;  grand  fountain  of 
the  Piazza  Navona. 
Abbey  of  Val  de  Grace  ; 
Chateau  des  Masons  ;  por- 
tal of  the  Minims  in  the 
Place  Royale. 
The  "  Michael  Angelo  of 
Spain." 

Facade  of  the  Louvre  ;  chapel 
of  Sceaux;  chapel  of  Notre 
Dame,  in  the  church  of  the 
Petits  Peres. 
Bridge  over  the  Charentc,  at 
Saintes  ;  gate  of  S.  Denis, 
at  Paris,  repair  and  deco- 


COUNTRY 


290  *Antoine  le  France 
Pa  utre 


29J  Jaques  le 
Mercier 


Chrismas, 
Gerard 

w  John  Eve- 
lyn 

29*  *  Sir  Chris- 
topher Wren 


^  Robert 
Hooke 


29<3  John  Ben- 
son 

w  Carlo  Fon- 

tana 
298  Julis  Har- 

douin  Man- 

sart 


France 


299  Francesco 
Fontana 

300  Rev.  H. 
Aldrich 


301  Sir  John 
Vanbrugh 


548 


England 


En  srl  and 


England 


England 


England 
Italy 


1614 


D. 


1691 


16201705 
(1706 
1632 1723 


Fr 


ance 


Rome 
England 


England 


1635 


1702 


FL. 


Louis 
XIII 
and 
XIV. 
1610 


WORKS. 


rations  of  the  gates  of  S. 

Antoine  and  S.  Bernard. 
Wings  of  St.  Cloud  ;  church 

of  the   nunnery  of  Port 

Royal ;   hotels   of  Gevres 

and  Beauvais. 
La  Sorbonne ;  le  Palais  Royal ; 

S.  Roch  ;  le  Val  de  Grace ; 

were  erected  by  him  after 

the  designs  of  Mansard. 


to 
17151 

17th  Designed  Aldersgate,  London, 
cent.  I    was    an   "  architect  and 
sculptor." 


16341714 
1639  1708 


1708 


1647  1*10 


1725 
1726 


St.  Paul's ;  city  of  London, 
after  the  fire  ;  Hampton 
Court ;  Greenwich  Hospi- 
tal, &c. 

Bethlem  Hospital  ;  Ashe's 
Almshouses ;  British  Mu- 
seum. He  was  the  asso- 
ciate of  Wren.  He  gave  a 
plan  for  rebuilding  London, 
after  the  fire. 

The  successor  to  Wren. 

One  of  the  last  architects  of 

St.  Peter's. 
The  Dome  des  Invalids ;  la 
!    Galerie  du  Palais  Royal  ; 
!    the  Place  de  Louis  le  Grand; 
!    that  des  Victoires  ;  &c.  He 

was  the  nephew  of  Francis 

Mansart. 


Three  sides  of  the  quadrangle 
of  Christ's  church,  called 
Peckwater's  square,  chapel 
of  Trinity  college,and  church 
of  All  Saints,  at  Oxford. 

Blenheim  house  ;  Castle  Ho- 
ward, Yorkshire;  Eastberry, 
Dorset;  King's  Weston,  near 
Bristol  ;  St.  John's  church, 
Westminster  ;  the  Opera- 
house. 


NAME. 


302  Robert  de 
la  Cotte 


303  Nicholas 
Havvksmoor, 
pupil  to 
Wren 

304  Alexander 
Jean  Bap- 
tiste  le  Blond 


305  Gilles  Maria  France 
Oppenord 

306  *Qermain  France 
Boffrand, 
of  Nantes 

307  *Jean  de  ,France 
Bott 

308  James  GibbslScotland 


COUNTRY 


France 


England 


France 


W  William 
Kent 


310  *  Edmund 
Bonchardon 

311  *Francois 
Caviller 
Jean  Nicho- 
las Servan- 
doni 


313  *Francois 
Blondel,  of 
Rouen 


Earl  of 
Burlington 

315  John  Bret- 
tin  gh  am 


England 

France 
France 
Florence 

France 


England 


England 


D. 


FL. 


1657 


1666 


1735 


1736 


1679  1719 


1667 

1674 
1674 


1730 
1755 

1745 
1754 


1685  1748 


1698 


1698 


1695 


1705 


1762 
1760 


1766 


1774 


WORKS. 


1730 


He  continued  the  dome  des 
Invdlides;  finished  the  cha- 
pel of  Versailles  ;  and  rais- 
ed the  new  buildings  of 
S.  Denys. 

Designed  the  church  of  St. 
George,  Bioomsbury,  and 
St.  Anne,  Limehouse. 

L'Hotel  de  Vend6me  in  the 
rue  d'Enfer,  at  Paris.  He 
was  employed  in  Russia  by 
Peter  the  Great. 


Much  employed  in  Paris  and 
Germany. 

Fortifications  of  Weissel. 

RadclifFe  library,  Oxford;  the 
new  church  in  the  Strand  ; 
St.  Martin's  in  the  Fields  ; 
King's  college,  Royal  libra- 
ry, and  Senate  house,  Cam- 
bridge. 

Temple  of  Venus  at  Stowe ; 
Earl  of  Leicester's  house  at 
Holkham,Norfolk;  staircase 
at  Lady  Isabella  Finche's  in 
Berkeley  square. 
Several  fine  buildings  at  Paris. 

Sometime  employed  by  the 
elector  of  Munich. 

Part  of  the  church  of  S.  Sul- 
pice,  at  Paris  ;  many  thea- 
tres, and  decorations  for 
theatres,  at  different  places. 

Royal  abbey  of  St.  Louis  ;  a 
street  and  square  leading 
opposite  to  the  cathedral, 
at  Rouen ;  many  other  works 
both  there,  and  at  Stras- 
burg. 

Chiswick  House;  Burlington 
House,  Piccadilly. 

Holkham  Hall,  in  Norfolk, 
finished  in  1764. 

549 


N  A  M  E 


3i6*J0hn  Ro- 

dolphus 

Perronet 
317  *Jacques 

Germain 

Soufflot 


3i8*Nicholas 
Antoine 
Boulanger 

319  *Sir  William 
Chambers 

320  *Robert 
Adam 


321  *James 
Adam 

322  *  James 
Wyatt 


COUNTRY  B. 


France  1708 


France 

France 

England 
England 


England 
England 


1714 


1722 


1728 


D.  FL. 


1794 


1780 


1759 


1796 


17431813 


WORKS. 


Bridges 


Director  of  the  bridges  and 
roads  of  France. 

Hospital  at  Lyons  ;  exchange, 
concert-room,  and  theatre, 
in  the  same  city ;  portal, 
nave,  and  towers  of  the 
church  of  St.  Genevieve. 

causeways,  and  va- 
rious public  works  in  Cham- 
pagne, Burgundy,  and  Lor- 
raine. 
Somerset  House. 

Architect  to  the  king ;  author 
of  a  work  on  the  Ruins  ot 
Spalatro ;  his  principal 
works  are  the  register- 
office  at  Edinburgh  ;  the 
infirmary  at  Glasgow;  the 
Edinburgh  university ;  Lu- 
ton mansion-house ;  Adel- 
phi  terrace. 

Brother  and  colleague  of 
Robert  Adam. 

Pantheon  in  Oxford-street, 
London ;  palace  at  Kew  ; 
Fon thill  abbey,  &c. ;  re- 
paired Henry  VII.'s  chapel, 
the  House  of  Lords,  &c. 


550 


INDEX 

TO  THE 

TABLES   OF  ARCHITECTS. 


Hie  numbers  refer  to  the  numbers  which  precede  each  name  in  the  Table* 


Abate,  269 

Antistates,  20 

Antonio  Fiorentino,  257 

Adam,  R.  320 
Adam,  J.  321 

Antonius,  57 
Apollodorus,  54 

Adams,  R.  273 

jEJfric,  83 

Archias,  23 

TEtherius,  67 

Arderne,  174 

Agamedes,  3 

Argelius,  25 

Arnollo  Fiorentino,  138 

Agaptus,  1 1 

Aguoio,  B.  d',  235 

Asheley,  218 

Agnolo,  G.  d\  199 

Avitus,  St.  65 

Agostino  da  Sienna,  145 

Agricola,  St.  GG 

Baldassare  Peruzzi,  229 
Baldwin,  Archbishop,  115 

Albert,  7G 

Alberti,  186 

Batrachus,  40 

Alberti,  A.  209 

Battista  di  Toledo,  263 

Alcock,  197 

Beauchamp,  188 

Aldhun,  86 

Bek,  148 

Aid  red,  88 

Benson,  296 

Aldrich,  300 

Bergamasco,  221 

Alexander,  99 

Berham,  119 

Algardi,  284 

Bernini,  285 

Alioti,  281 

Berruguete,  252 

Alipius.  60 

Biscopius,  74 

Allesi,  G.  244 

Blond,  304 

Aloisius,  63 

Blondel,  289 

Alonzo,  225 

Blondel,  F.  313 

Ammanati,  268 

Boccanera,  137 

Amphion,  4 

Boflrand,  30G 

Andrea  di  Cione  Orgagna,  161 

Bolton,  \V.  215 

Andrea  da  Pisa,  143 

Bonneveil,  124 

Andronicus,  29 

Borromini,  283 

Androuet,  275 

Boterell,  162 

Angelo  da  Pisa  146 

Bott,  307 

Angiolo,  Michel,  248 

Bouchardon,  310 

Anthemius,  68 

Boulanger,  318 

551 


INDEX  OF  ARCHITECTS. 


Bourde,  192 
Boyden,  147 
B  ram  ante,  194 
Bramantino,  180 
Bray,  204 
Brettingham,  315 
Brioso,  231 
Bruneleschi,  167 
Buonarotti,  248 
Buono,  10G 
Buono,  B.  220 
Burlington,  314 
Buschetto,  85 
Bustamente,  262 

Calendario,  158 
Callias,  24 
Calliorates,  11,  17 
CalJimachus,  30 
Campero,  227 
Cano,  2S7 
Celer,  49 
Cerceau,  275 
Chambers,  319 
Chersiphron,  6 
Chichele,  Archbishop,  16G 
Chirosophus,  10 
Chrismas,  292 
Christobolo,  177 
Chryses,  70 
Ciccione,  182 
Ciriades,  61 
Cleomenes,  27 
Cloos,  or  Close,  176 
Cobarrubias,  239 
Coeceius  A'ictus.  45 
Cole,  J.  203 

Colechurch,  Peter  of,  118 
Contucci,  219 
Coraebus,  19 
Cossutius,  36 
Cotte,  Be  la,  302 
Covey,  140 
Cozzo,  P.  di,  109 
Cronaca,  208 
Croyland,  W.  de,  172 
Cuviller,  3U 
Cyrus,  43 

Da  Vinci,  210 
Demetrius,  7 
Detrianus,  56 
Dexiphanes,  42 
Dinocrates,  28 
Druell,  193 
Dunstan,  82 

Eanbald.  77 
Ebor,  J.'de,  117 
Echelles,  J.  de,  128 
Ednoth,  81 

Egbert,  Archbishop,  75 
Ellerton,  144 

552 


Elphege,  84 
Epimachus,  31 
Ernulf,  Bishop,  98 
Erwin  von  Steinbach,  141 
Escobedo,  226 
Essex,  91 
Eupalinus,  8 
Eupolemus.  34 
Eustachius,  122 
Evelyn,  293 
Eversden,  H.  de,  151 
Eversolt,  114 
Ezguerra,  254 

Falconetto,  236 
Farleigh,  187 
Ferley,  187 
Ferrante,  135 
Filippo,  222 
Fioravanti,  183 
Fitz-Odo,  121 
Flambard,  100 
Foix,  274 
Fontana,  C.  297 
Fontana,  D-  271 
Fontana,  F.  299 
Forment,  250 
Frontinus,  53 
Frowcester,  171 
Fuccio,  134 
Fussitius,  46 

Gainsborough  165 
Gainza,  251 
Gallo,  San,  207 
Gallo,  San,  A.  228 
Gamiel,  224 
Garria,  Alv.  89 
Gazzia,  261 
Genga,  241 
Germain,  St.  64 
Giamberti,  195 
Gibbes,  217 
Gibbs,  308 

Gil,  G.  de  Hontanon,  234 
Gil,  R.  de  Hontanon,  237 
Giocondo,  211 
Giorgio,  185 

Giovan  Battista  di  Toledo,  26.' 
Giovanni  da  Pisa,  142 
Giuliano,  169 
Giulio  Romano,  247 
Goldclif,  113 
Gonsalvo,  131 
Guglielmo,  110 
Gundulf,  96 

Harlewin,  94 
Havens,  259 
Hawksmoor,  303 
Helpstone,  150 
Henry  of  Blois,  101 
Henry  Latomus,  149 


INDEX  OF  ARCHITECTS 


Hermodorus,  37 
Hermogenes,  2 
Herrera,  265 
Hontanon,  G.  234 
Hontanon,  R.  237 
Hoo,  W.  de,  127 
Hooke,  295 
Horwood,  175 
Hylmer,  205 

Ictinus,  16 
Isembert,  116 
lsidorus,  69,  71 

Jacobus,  132 
Johannes,  72 
John  of  Padua,  216 
Jones,  Inigo,  280 

Karilepho,  92 
Kendale,  190 
Kent,  309 
Keyes,  173 

Lacer,  55 
Lanfranc,  90 
Lanfrani,  154 
Lapo,  132 
Lazzari,  194 
Lescott,  266 
Libon,  15 
Lincoln,  156 
Lombardo,  M.  202 
Lombardo,  P.  201 
Lombardo,  S.  245 
Lorme,  243 
Lote,  161 

Machuca,  256 
Maderno,  277 
Maglione,  135 
Malyerne,  A.  de,  102 
Mandrocles,  9 
Manlio,  232 
Mansart,  F.  286 
Mansart,  J.  H.  298 
Marshall,  249 
Mascal,  249 
Masuccio,  136 
Mauritius,  95 
Melsonby,  126 
Memnon,  5 
Mercier,  291 
Merliano,  233 
Metrodorus,  59 
Micheli,  262 
Miohelozzo,  148 
Mnesicles,  18 
Mnesthes,  26 
Montereau,  129 
Montreuil,  130 
Morton,  198 
Muet,  282 

4  A 


Mustius,  52 
Muzius,  38 

Nicola  da  Pisa,  133 
Nicon,  58 
Nonnando,  200 
Novcllo,  212 

Odo  Aurifaber,  120 
Odo  of  Croyfand,  97 
Ololzaga,  223 
Oppenord,  305 
Orchyarde,  184 

Paeonius,  22 
Palladio,  270 
Pautre,  290 
Percy,  213 
Perez,  139 
Perrault,  288 
Perron et,  316 
Peruzzi,  229 
Phaeax,  35 
Philo,  33 
Pino,  230 
Pinteili,  178 
Pippi,  247 
Pollajuolo,  20S 
Poore,  Bishop,  125 
Postumius,  44 
Pozzo,  G.  del,  181 
Pythias,  12 

Rabirius,  51 
Rafaelle,  214 

Raimond  de  Mountfort,  103 

Rauy,  155 

Rede,  160 

Remigius,  91 

Robert  of  Lusarch,  123 

Roger,  Bishop,  140 

Roger,  Archbishop,  108 

Romualdus,  78 

Ruiz,  255 

Salva,  105 
San  Gallo,  207 
San  Gallo,  A.  228 
San  Lucano,  212 
San  Micheli,  242 
San  Pietro,  131 
Sansovino,  258 
Sante  Lombardo,  245 
Saurus,  41 
Scamozzi,  276 
Scopas.  21 
Scnnamar,  62 
Serlio,  267 
Servandoni,  312 
SeveniB,  50 
Sexulphus,  73 
Shute,  272 
Silue,  Diego,  240 

553 


INDEX  OF  ARCHITECTS. 


Simone,  208 
Sisseverne,  112 
Sostratus,  32 
Soufflot,  31T 
Spintharus,  13 
Sugger,  107 

Tatti,  25S 
Festocopoli,  260 
Theodorus,  1 

Thomas  of  Canterbury,  153 
Thynne,  2G4 
Tietland,  79 
Tioda,  80 
Trophonius,  3 

Urica,  238 
Ustaraber,  87 

Valdevira,  253 
Valerius,  39 
Vanbrugh,  301 
Vertue,  206 

554 


Vignola,  24G 
Vinci,  Da,  210 
Vitoni,  196 
Vitruvius  Cerdo,  48 
Vitruvius  Pollio,  47 

Walkelyn,  93 
Walsingham,  159 
Waltcn,  163 
Warren,  278 
Wayneflete,  189 
Weston,  152 
Wilhelm,  110 
William  of  Sens,  111 
Winfred,  170 
Wotton,  279 
Wren,  294 
Wyatt,  322 
Wykekam,  157 

Yevele,  164 

Zevele,  164 


APPENDIX. 

No.  II. 


A  MANUAL  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY, 

ARRANGED   IN  CLASSES. 


Class  I.  Grecian  Architecture. 

II.  Roman  Architecture. 

III.  Miscellaneous  Works  on  an- 
cient Architecture. 

IV.  Old  English  and  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture. 

V.  Modern  English  Architecture. 

VI.  Foreign  Architecture,  (modern.) 


Class  VII.  Rural  Architecture.  ^ 

VIII.  Ornaments. 

IX.  Sepulchral  Monuments. 

X.  Theatres,  &c. 

XI.  Bridges,  &c. 

XI T.    Elementary    and  Practical 

Works. 

XIII.  Miscellaneous. 


CLASS  I.— GRECIAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

1.  Aberdeen,  Earl  of. 

An  Inquiry  into  the  Principles  of  Beauty  in  Grecian  Architecture, 
8vo.  1822. 

2.  Aikin,  Edmund. 

An  Essay  on  the  Doric  order,  imperial  folio.  1810. 

3.  Cockeuell,  R.  C,  A.R.A.  F.S.A. 

Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Agrigentum,  commonly  called  the 

Temple  of  the  Giants,  royal  folio,  10  fine  plates,  and  3  vignettes, 

by  Moses,  Edwards,  Carter,  &c.  1830. 
Grand  Restoration  of  Athens,  its  Temples,  Sculpture,  &c,  engraved 

by  J.  Coney,  very  large  folio  size.  1829. 
"  The  complete  Elucidation  of  the  Temple  of  TEgina,"  is  advertised 

to  be  in  the  press. 

4.  Delagardette. 

Les  Ruines  de  Psestum,  ou  Posidonia,  ancienne  Ville  de  la  Grand 
Grece,  Levees,  Mesurees,  et  Dessinees  sur  les  lieux.  Royal  folio 
Paris.  1799. 

5.  Gartner,  F. 

Architectural  Monuments  of  Greece  and  Sicily,  folio.  Munster.  1819. 
The  description  is  in  German,  the  plates  being  lithographed. 

6.  Harris  and  Angell. 

Sculptured  Metopes  at  Selinus,  large  4to.,  plates.  1826. 


APPENDIX  II. 


7.  HlTTORFS,  J. 

Architecture  Antique  de  la  Sicile.  Paris,  1825-30.  It  is  published 
in  six  livraisons,  and  has  numerous  well-executed  plates.  It  is 
uniform  with  his  work  on  the  Modem  Architecture  of  Sicily.  See 
Class  VI. 

8.  Kinnard,  W. 

Antiquities  at  Athens  and  Delos  illustrated,  imperial  folio.  1830. 

9.  Lz  Roy,  M. 

Les  Ruines  des  plus  Beaux  Monuments  de  la  Grece,  considerees  du 
cote  de  i'Hrstbire  et  du  cote  de  l'Architecture,  2  vols,  folio.  Paris, 
1770.    60  fine  engravings. 

This  work  is  accused  by  Stuart  of  great  incorrectness. 

10.  Major,  T. 

Ruines  de  Psestum,  large  folio,  1768,  with  24  fine  plates. 

11.  Riou,  S. 

Grecian  Orders  of  Architecture,  delineated  and  explained  from  the 
f     Architectural  Antiquities  of  Athens,  folio,  London,   1768,  with 
28  plates  and  vignettes,  by  Grignion. 

12.  Stanhope,  J.  S. 

Olympia,  or  Topography  illustrative  of  the  ancient  State  of  the  Plain 
of  Olympia,  and  of  the  Ruins  of  the  City  of  Elis,  imperial  folio, 
1824.  Very  fine  plates,  by  George  Cooke,  from  the  drawings  of 
Devvint  and  Allason. 

13.  Stuart,  James,  F.R.S.  F.S.A.  and  Nicholas  Revett. 
The  Antiquities  of  Athens,  4  volumes,  large  folio,  1762,  &c.  ' 
Antiquities  of  Athens,  a  second  edition,  with  a  very  considerable 

Augmentation  of  Notes  of  Subjects  further  elucidated  and  brought 
to  light  by  scientific  travellers  since  the  times  of*  Stuart  and  Revett, 
edited  by  W.  Kinnard,  Architect,  with  an  additional  and  entirely 
new  Volume  (as  Supplement)  of  Architecture  and  Antiquities  in 
Greece,  Sicily,  &c,  the  result  of  recent  Travels  and  Investigations, 
by  C.  R.  Cockerell,  A.R.A.  F.S.A. ,  W.  Kinnard,  T.  L.  Donaldson, 
W.  Jenkins,  and  W.  Railton,  architects,  4  volumes,  royal  folio, 
about  200  plates,  1825-30. 

The  ihree  Volumes  of  tliis  new  edition  of  Stuart  and  Revett  contain,  besides  the 
text,  notes  and  further  elucidations  of  Grecian  Architecture,  extracted  from  the 
editor's  own  researches  ;  also,  the  discoveries  of  those  eminent  Architects  and 
Antiquaries  who  have  kindly  favoured  this  edi'ion  with  their  useful  details  and 
corrections,  made  in  recent  travels.  The  fourth  is  supplementary  to  the  original 
re.searche.s  of  Stuart  and  Revett,  and  augments  the  knowledge  of  Grecian  archi- 
tectural composition,  by  the  accession  of  the  details  of  three  Temples,  never 
hitherto  adequately  published  :  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olympius  at  Agrigentum, 
renowned  for  its  colossi  and  gigantic  dimensions,  by  Mr.  C.  R.  Cockerell  ;  that 
of  Plugalia,  important  from  the  pure  age  and  style  of  art  in  which  it  was  executed, 
by  Mr.  T.  L.  Donaldson;  and  that  of  Corfu,  by  Mr.  W.  Railton,  peculiar  in  the 
details,  and  interesting,  as  rccenlly  discovered  in  a  British  possession.  With  these 
subjects  are  introduced  the  details  and  restoration  of  the  Treasury  of  Atreus.  The 
volume  contains  also  many  delineations  of  detached  examples  of  Giecian  antiquity, 
illustrated  by  remarks  on  the  character  of  Athenian  edifices  and  Grecian  decoration  ; 
among  which  are  a  disquisition  on  the  origin  of  Grecian  ornament,  by  Mr.  W. 
Kinnard;  a  parallel  of  the  Entasis  of  Athenian  columns,  by  Mr.  W.  Jenkins  ;  and 
an  Essay  on  the  arrangement  of  tho  Greek  theatre,  illustrated  by  original  plans  of 
three  Grecian  edifices  of  that  description.  Corrected  details  of  Antiquities  at  Delos, 
and  various  fragments  of  pure  Grecian  Ornamental  Architecture,  are  also  inserted. 
556 


APPENDIX  II. 


14.  Wilkins,  Wm,  M.A.  R.A.  F.S.A. 

The  Antiquities  of  Magna  Graecia,  imperial  folio.  Eighty-seven  fine 
engravings  of  views,  and  architectural  plates  of  Grecian  temples,  with 
their  details.    Cambridge,  1807. 

Atheniensia,  or  Remarks  on  the  Topography  and  Buildings  of  Athens, 
royal  octavo.  1816. 

15.     

The  unedited  Antiquities  of  Attica,  comprising  the  Architectural 
Remains  of  Eleusis,  Rhamnus,  Sunium,  and  Thoricus.  By  the 
Society  of  Dilettanti,  and  edited  by  Wilkins,  Gandy  Deering,  and 
Bedford,  imperial  folio,  79  fine  plates.  1817. 

The  Antiquities  of  Ionia,  by  Chandler,  Revett,  and  Parrs,  2  volumes, 
imperial  folio,  1817,  with  fine  plates.  A  new  edition  of  the  first 
volume  was  edited  by  Wilkins,  Gandy  Deering,  &c. 

Antichita  Siciliane  Spiegate,  opera  del  Padre  D.  Guis,  M.  Pancrazi, 
2  torn,  folio.   Napoli,  1751. 

Voyage  Pittoresque  en  Sicile,  dedie  a  son  Altesse  Royale  Madame  la 
Duchesse  de  Berry;  most  sumptuous  profusion  of  very  beautiful 
plates,  engraved  from  the  drawings  of  the  best  artists  of  Europe. 
Paris. 


CLASS  II.— ROMAN  ARCHITECTURE. 

16.  Adam,  Robert,  F.R.S. 

Ruins  of  the  Palace  of  the  Emperor  Dioclesian  at  Spalatro,  in 
Dalmatia,  large  folio,  with  61  plates,  finely  engraved  by  Bartolozzi 
and  others,  1764. 

Architectural  Remains  in, Rome,  Pola,  and  Naples,  from  drawings  by 
Clerisseau,  under  the  direction  of  Robert  Adam,  Esq.  F.R.S. 

17.  Allason,  T. 

Picturesque  Views  of  the  Antiquities  of  Pola,  in  Istria,  large  folio, 
1817,  with  14  fine  plates. 

18.  Barbault. 

Vues  des  plus  beaux  Restes  des  Antiquites  Romaines,  large  folio, 
Rome,  1775.   i20  plates. 

19.  Bellori,  J.  P. 

Veteres  Arcus  Augustorum  Triumphis  insignes  ex  Reliquiis  qua 
Romee  adhuc  supersunt,  per  J.  J.  de  Rubeis,  large  folio,  Roma, 
1690.   52  fine  plates. 

20.  Blouet,  G.  Abel. 

Restauration  des  Thermes  d'Antonin  Caracalla  a  Rome,  large  folio, 
very  fine  plates.  Paris,  1828. 

21.  Bon  ion  i,  A. 

Collectanea  Antiquitatum  Romanarum  quas  centum  tabulis  TEneis 
incisas,  et  A.  R.  Venuti  notis  illustravit,  folio,  with  103  fine  plates 
by  Rossi. 

22.  Caristie,  Aug. 

Flan  et  Coupe  d'un  Partie  du  Forum  Romaine,  et  des  Monumens  sur 
la  Voie  Saciee,  Atlas  folio.  Paris,  1821 

557 


APPENDIX  II. 


23.  Cameron,  C. 

Baths  of  the  Romans  explained  and  illustrated,  with  the  Illustration^ 
of  Palladio,  a  large  and  thick  folio,  with  75  plates,  1772. 

24.  Castell,  R. 

Villas  of  the  Ancients  illustrated,  plates,  large  folio,  1728. 

25.  Clerisseau,  C. 

Antiquiles  de  la  France,  (Nismes,)  le  texte  historique  et  descriptif, 
par  J.  G.  Le  Grand,  imperial  folio.  Paris,  1804.  63  fine  plates. 
See  also  Adams,  Robert, 

26.  Desgodetz,  M. 

Les  Edifices  Antiques  de  Rome,  140  plates,  folio.  Paris,  1779. 
Ancient  Buildings  of  Rome,  translated  by  George  Marshall,  2  vols. 

large  folio,  1771. 
The  French  edition  of  1682  contains  300  plates. 

27.  Gell,  Sir  W,,  and  J.  P.  Gandy  Deering. 

Pompeiana,  the  Topography,  Edifices,  and  Ornaments  of  Pompeii, 
2  vols,  imperial  octavo,  with  fine  plates,  1824. 

28.  Labacco, 

Libro  d'Antonio  Labacco  Appartenente  a  l'Architettura,  nel  qual  si 
figurano  alcune  notabili  Antiquita  di  Roma,  folio,  plates,  Roma. 

29.  Mazois,  F. 

Ruines  de  Pompei  dessinees  et  Mesurees,  31  livraisons,  imperial  folio, 
with  beautiful  plates.  Paris,  1830. 

30.  Morgiien,  F. 

Gabinetto  di  tutte  le  piu  interessanti  Vedute  degli  Antiche  Monu- 
menti  esistenti  in  Pozzuolo,  Cuma,  e  Baja,  oblong  folio,  41  plates. 
Napoli,  1803. 

Veduta  di  Pesto,  Napoli,  Pozzuoli,  Baja,  Cuma,  &c.  oblong  folio, 
with  40  plates. 

31.  Moreau,  C. 

Fragmens  et  Ornamens  d'Architecture,  dessinees  a  Rome  d'apres 
l'Antique,  formant  un  supplement  a  l'CEuvre  d'Architecture  de 
Desgodetz,  very  large  folio,  with  36  well-engraved  plates.  Paris. 

32.  Nibby,  Ant. 

Del  Foro  Romano,  della  Via  Sacra,  dell'  Anfiteatro  Flavio,  e  di 
Luoghi  Adjacenti,  octavo.   Roma,  1819. 

33.  A  VERB  EKE. 

Antiquities  of  Rome,  Atlas  folio,  with  fine  plates. 

34.  Palladio,  Andrea. 

II  Tempio  di  Minerva  in  Assisi,  confrontato  colle  Tavole  da  Giov. 

Antolini,  fol.  Milano. 
Les  Thermes  des  Romains,  dessinees  par  Andre  Palladio,  par  O.  B. 

Scamozzi  d'apres  l'Exemplaire  du  Lord  Burlington,  folio.  Vi- 

cenza,  1785. 

35.  Piranesi,  J.  Baptist, 

Works  complete,  published  after  his  death  by  his  son,  Francis  Piranesi, 
in  29  volumes  imperial  folio;  containing  nearly  2000  plates. 

The  contents  of  these  volumes  are  as  follows: 

Vol.  I.  Ruins  of  ancient  edifices  at  Rome,  with  the  explanation,  aqueducts, 
baths,  the  forum,  &c.  &c. 

Vol.  2.  Funeral  monnments,  cippi,  vases,  &c. 

Vol.  3.  Ancient  bas-reliefs,  stuccoes,  mosaics,  inscriplions,  &c. 

553 


APPENDIX  II. 


Vol.  4.  The  bridges  0f  Rome,  the  remains  of  the  isle  of  Tibar,  the  rains  of  the 
theatre,  porticoes,  &c. 

Vol.  5.  The  monuments  of  the  Scipios. 

Vol.  6.  Ancient  temples,  the  temples  of  Vesta,  of  Honour  and  Virtue,  statue  o! 
the  goddess  Vesta,  altar  to  Bacchus,  the  pantheon,  &c.  . 

Vol.  7.  The  magnificence  of  the  ancient  Roman  architecture,  pedestals  of  the 
arches  of  Titus  and  Septimius  Severus,  portico  of  the  capitol,  &c. 

Vol.  8.  Grecian,  Etruscan,  and  Roman  architecture,  arches  of  triumph,  bridges, 
temples,  amphitheatres,  prisons,  &c. 

Vol.  9.  Fetes  and  triumphs,  from  the  foundation  of  Rome  to  Tiberius,  temple  of 
Castor  and  Hercules,  and  other  antique  monuments  of  the  ancient  city  of  Cora,  &c. 

Vol.  10.  The  Campus  Marlius,  ruins  of  the  theatre  of  Pompeii,  porlico  of  Octa- 
vius,  reservoir  of  the  Virgin  Water,  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  palace  of  Aurelius, 
the  Pantheon,  the  cave  of  the  Archives  of  the  Romans,  baths  and  tombs  of  Adrian, 
apotheosis  of  Antoninus  Pius,  arch  of  Marcus  Aurelius,  baths  of  Sallust,  &c. 

Vol.  11.  Antiquities  of  Albano,  temple  of  Jupiter,  sepulchres  attributed  to  the 
Horaces,  amphitheatre  of  Domitian,  ancient  baths,  &c. 

Vols.  12,  13.  Candelabras,  vases,  lamps,  &c. 

Vol.  14.  The  Trajan  and  Antonine  columns.  ^ 

Vol.  15.  Ruins  of  Passtum. 

Vols.  1G,  17.  Principal  modern  edifices  of  Rome. 
Vol.  18.  Ancien.t  statues  and  busts. 
Vol.  19.  Theatre  of  Herculaneura. 

Vol.  20.  Egyptian,  Grecian,  Etruscan,  and  Roman  chimneypieces,  ornaments,  &o. 
Vols.  21 — 26.  Paintings  after  Guerchino,  Rafaello,  Michael  Angelo,  &c. 
Vol.  27.  Pompeii,  its  tombs,  utensils,  ornaments,  &c. 
Vol.  28.  Antiquities  of  Pompeii,  its  houses,  &c. 
Vol.  29.  Antiquities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum. 

Antichita  Romane  de  Tieme  della  Republica  e  de  primi  Impcratori,  small 
oblong  folio,  with  28  plates. 

Delia  Magnificenza  ed  Architecture  de  Romane,  imperial  folio,  Roma,  1761. 

36.  Rossini, 

Veduta  di  Roma,  101  very  large  folio  views  of  the  most  remarkable 
antiquities  and  buildings  in  Rome  and  its  neighbourhood,  2  vols. 
Roma,  1823-4. 

37.  RuBElS,  DoMINICI  DE. 

Romance  Masmitudinis  Monumenta,  oblong  folio,  with  138  plates, 
Romse,  1699.  . 

38.  RuBEIS,  J.  DE. 

Insignium  Romse  templorum  prospectus  exteriores  interioresque,  a 
celeb,  architect,  inventi,  nunc  tandem  suis  cum  plantis  ac  mensuris, 
folio,  Romse,  1684.    71  plates. 

39.  Seynes,  Alp.  de. 

Monumens  Romains  de  Nismes,  folio,  Paris,  1818.    16  plates. 

40.  Taylor,  G.  L.  and  Edward  Cresy. 

Architectural  Antiquities  of  Rome,  2  vols,  imperial  folio,  1821-2. 

41.  Valadier's,  G. 

Raccolta  delle  piu  insigni  Fabbriche  di  Roma  Antica  e  sue  Adja- 
cenze  :  I.  Tempio  di  Antonino  e  Faustina,  9  plates.  II.  Tempio 
detto  della  Sibilla  in  Tivoli,  10  plates.  III.  Tempio  detto  di  Vesta 
in  Roma,  5  plates.  IV.  Tempio  detto  di  Giove  Statore,  8  plates. 
V.  Tempio  di  Giove  Tonante,  10  plates;  Colonna  Onoraria  di  Foca 
lmperature  eretta  in  Roma  da  Smaras;do  Patrizio  ed  Esarco  d'ltalia, 
3  plates.  VI.  Teat.ro  di  Marcello,  7  plates.  VII.  Tempio  detto  di 
Marte  Ultore,  11  plates;  large  imperial  folio,  containing,  together, 
63  very  fine  plates  by  Vincenzo  Feoli,  of  Rome,  Roma,  1810-20. 

Arco  di  Tito,  4to.,  Roma,  1822.    8  plates. 

559 


APPENDIX  II. 


42.  Vasi,  Guiseppe. 

Magniticenze  di  Roma  Antica  e  Moderna,  comprised  in  a  collection 
of  200  topographical  views  ;  with  historical  descriptions  in  Italian. 
3  vols,  oblong  4to.,  1747. 

43.  Wood,  R. 

Ruins  of  Balbec,  large  folio,  1757. 
Ruins  of  Palmvra  ;  large  folio,  1753. 

44.  — — 

Antichita  d'Ercolano,  esposte  con  qualche  spiegazioni ;  with  an  im- 
mense number  of  engravings  from  the  busts,  bas-reliefs,  statues, 
urns,  paintings,  buildings,  &c.  &c.  discovered  in  the  subterraneous 
ruins  of  that  celebrated  city,  9  vols,  folio,  Napoli,  1765-92. 

Antichita  di  Pozzuoli,  large  folio,  with  near  a  hundred  fine  plates,  the 
text  engraved  in  Italian  and  Latin. 

Descrizione  Antiquario-Architettemia  con  rami  dell'Arco  di  Augusto, 
Ponte  di  Tiberio,  e  Tempio  Malatestiano  di  Rimino,  folio,  Rimino, 
1813.    17  plates. 

Dissertazione  sull'  Architettura  del  Tempio  di  Roma,  4to.,  Roma, 
1820. 

Ruins  of  Rome  and  its  vicinity,  (a  select  collection  of)  executed  from 
drawings  made  upon  the  spot,  in  the  year  1791,  with  descriptions 
in  French  and  English,  4to.  1797. 


CLASS  III.— MISCELLANEOUS  WORKS  ON  ANCIENT  ARCHI- 
TECTURE; EGYPTIAN,  INDIAN,  &c. 

45.  Belgrado. 

Architettura  Egiziana,  Dissertaziona  d'un  Corrispondente  dell'  Aca- 
demia  della  Scienzi  di  Parigi,  &c.  4to.,  Parma,  1786. 

46.  Cassas. 

Voyage  Pittoresque  de  la  Syrie,  de  la  Phenicie,  de  la  Palestine  et  de 
la  Basse  Egypte,  2  vols,  large  folio.  This  work  contains  a  pro- 
fusion of  fine  plates  of  the  temples  and  other  buildings  of  these 
countries,  with  many  plates  of  architectural  details. 

47.  Coste,  P. 

Architecture  Arabe,  ou  Monumens  du  Kaire  dessines  et  mesures  pen- 
dant 1820,  21,  22,  Paris,  1824. 

48.  Fox's,  W. 

Grecian,  Roman,  and  Gothic  Architecture,  8vo.,  1827. 

49.  Freatit,  R.,  of  Pambray. 

Paralleie  de  P Architecture  Antique  et  de  la  Moderne,  folio,  Paris. 
Parallel  of  the  ancient   and   modern  Architecture,   translated  by 
J.  Evelyn,  folio,  1733. 

50.  Gau,  F.  C. 

Antiquites  de  la  Nubie,  ou  Monumens  inedits  des  bords  du  Nil, 
situes  entre  la  premiere  et  la  seconde  Cataracte,  11  livraisons  ; 
elephant  folio,  Paris,  1824-5. 

51.  Langles,  L. 

Monumens,  Anc.ens  et  Modernes,  de  l'Hindoustan,  2  vols,  folio, 
Paris,  1818. 

560 


APPENDIX  II. 


52.  Le  Brun,  L. 

Theorie  de  l'Architecture  Greeques  et  Romaine,  deduile  de  PAnalise 
*  des  Monumens  Antiques,  &c.    Avec  des  planches  et  un  discours 
preliminaire,   par  Fr.  Et.  Joubert,  folio,  Paris,  1807,  with  26 
plates. 

53.  MONTFAUCON,  BERNARD  DE. 

L'Antiquite  expliqee  et  representee  en  figures,  5  vols,  folio,  Supple- 
ment, 5  vols,  folio.    In  all  964  plates,  Paris,  1729-33. 

Tlie  following  is  a  list  of  that  part  of  tlie  contents  which  relates  to  Architecture. 
Tom.  1,  to  3.  Statues,  bas-reliefs,  gems,  &c. 

Tom,  4.  |>t.  1.  Triumphal  arches,  columns  of  Trajan  and  Antonine. 
Tom.  4.  pt.  2.  Roads,  bridges,  aqueducts,  ships,  &c. 

Tom.  5.  pt.  I.  Hvpogajn,  columbaria,  sepulchres,  mosaics,  tombs,  sepulchral 
urns,  mausoleums. 

Tom.  5.  pt.  2.  Egyptian  pyramids,  tombs  of  the  Gauls  and  Germans,  and  of 
other  ancient  nations. 

Supplement,  torn.  1.  Statues,  &c. 

Tom.  2.  Temples,  mosaics,  altars,  temples  of  the  Egyptians,  temple  of  Mout- 
moiillon,  column  of  Cussi,  temple  at  Corseul,  cVc. 

Tom.  3.  Statues,  vases,  coins,  &c. —  Labyrinths,  columns  of  Pompey  and  Se- 
verus.  gateways  of  ancient  cities,  baths,  fountains,  theatres. 

Tom.  4.  Statues,  busts,  &c. — Triumphal  arches,  bridges,  aqueducts,  military 
columns,  ships,  seaports,  light-houses,  octagonal  towers,  tesselated  pavements. 

Tom.  5.  Tombs  o'f  the  Romans,  Etruscans,  Gauls,  &c,  Druiilical  circles,  &c. 

Montfaucon's  Antiquities  and  Supplement  ;  translated  by  Humphrey,  with  the 
Antiquities  of  Italy,  being  his  Travels  from  Paris  through  Italy  in  the  years  1G98 
and  1C99,  9  vols,  folio,  1721,  &c. 

54.  Morris,  R. 

Essay  in  defence  of  ancient  Architecture,  4to.,  1728. 

55.  Murphy,  J. 

Arabian  Antiquities  of  Spain,  elephant  folio,  1816,  with  100  very  fine 
plates. 

56.  Norm  and,  C. 

Nouveau  Parallele  des  Ordres  d'Architecture  des  Grecs,  des  Remains, 
et  des  xAuteurs  rnodernes,  folio,  Paris,  1819. 

New  Parallel  of  the  Order  of  Architecture,  according;  to  the  Greeks 
and  Rowans  and  modern  Architects,  with  the  original  plates,  drawn 
and  engraved  by  C.  Normand,  arch.  The  text  translated,  and 
2  additional  plates,  by  Mr.  Pugin,  folio,  62  plates,  1829. 

57.  Qui nc y,  Quatrem ere  de. 

L'Architecture  Egyptienne  consideree,  4to.,  Paris,  1803.    18  plates. 

58.  Smith,  J. 

Specimens  of  Antient  Carpentry,  4to.  40  plates. 

59.  Vitruvius. 

Vitruvii  de  Architectura  Opera,  cum  Comment.  D.  Barbari,  folio, 

wood-cuts,  Venet,  1567. 
Vitruvii  de  Architectura  Opera,  cum  Notis  Variorum,  et  Lexicon,  &c. 

a  J.  de  Laer,  folio,  Amst.  L.  Elzevir.  1649. 
Vitruvii  de  Architectura  Opera  ad  opt.  edit  collati  stud.  Soc.  Bipont. 

8vo.  Argent,  1807. 
Formre  ad  explicandos  Vitruvii  decern  libras  de  Architectura,  cura 

A.  Rode,  folio,  Berolini,  1801. 
I  died  Libri  dell*  Architectura  di  Vitruvio,  trad,  et  commentati  da 

M.  Barbaro,  folio,  wood-cuts,  Venice,  1556. 

4B  661 


APPENDIX  II. 


L'Architettura  generale  di  Vitruvio,  12mo.  plates,  Venice,  1747. 
UArcbitettura  di  Vitruvio  Trad,  e  Conventata  dal  Marchese  B.  Ga- 

liani,  folio,  plates,  Napoli,  1790. 
Les  dix  Livres  d'Architecture  de  Vitruve,  Trad,  par  Perrault,  folio, 

Paris,  1673,  1684. 
Vitruvius's  Architecture,  translated  by  W.  Newton,  2  vols,  folio,  plates, 

1791. 

Vitruvius'  Civil  Architecture,  translated  by  W.  Wilkins,  M.A.  R.A, 
F.S. A. containing  also,  as  an  Introduction  to  the  work,  the  Earl  of 
Aberdeen's  Inquiry  into  the  Beauty  of  Grecian  Architecture,  2  vols, 
imperial  4to.,  41  tine  plates  by  Lowry,  1812-17. 

The  Architecture  of  Vitruvius,  in  ten  books,  translated  by  Joseph 
Gwilt,  F.S.A.  Illustrated  with  ten  plates,  explanatory  of  those 
parts  of  the  text  more  especially  relating  to  Civil  Architecture,  and 
ten  vignettes,  one  at  the  head  of  each  book,  imperial  8vo.  1825, 
uniform  with  Gwilt's  edition  of  Chambers. 

60.  WlNCKELMANN. 

Remarks  sur  l'Architecture  des  Anciens,  8vo.  Paris,  1788. 

61.  

Parallele  de  l'Architecture  Antique  et  de  la  Moderne,  folio,  several 

plates,  Paris,  1702. 
Rudiments  of  Ancient  Architecture,  with  a  Dictionary  of  Terms,  8vo. 

plates,  1804. 


CLASS  IV.— OLD  ENGLISH  AND  GOTHIC  ARCHITECTURE. 

62.  Astle,  T. 

On  Stone  Pillars,  Crosses,  and  Crucifixes,  4to.,  plates,  1803. 

63.  Atkinson,  Thomas,  of  Stamford  Street. 

Gothic.  Ornaments,  selected  from  the  different  Cathedral  Churches  in 
England,  imperial  4to.,  48  plates,  1828-9. 

64.  Boisseree,  Sulpice. 

Histoire  et  Description  de  la  Cathedrale  de  Cologne,  accompagnee  de 
Recherches  sur  l'Architecture  des  Anciennes  Cathedrales;  imperial 
folio,  with  a  very  large  atlas  folio  volume  of  plates,  consisting  of  a 
View  of  Cologne,  the  Rhine,  and  the  Cathedral ;  perspective  Views 
of  the  Cathedral ;  Plan  of  the  Cathedral ;  Geometrical  Elevation; 
Transverse  Section;  Capitals,  Columns,  and  other  Details;  Win- 
dows, with  their  stained  glass,  coloured  ;  Details  of  Buttresses  and 
Parts;  eight  plates  in  all,  drawn  and  engraved  beautifully  to  a  very 
large  scale.    Stuttgard,  1827. 

65.  Bentham,  Jeremy. 

History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Church  of  Ely,  large  4to.,  1771. 

66.  Bouillart,  J. 

Histoire  de  l'Abbay  Royale  de  Saint  Germain  des  Pres,  folio,  with 
very  fine  plates.  Paris,  1724. 

67.  Biudgin,  R. 

Sefton  Church,  with  part  of  the  Interior  Decorations,  imperial  4to., 
31  plates,  1822. 

562 


APPENDIX  II. 


68.  Britton.  John,  F.S.A.,  &c. 

Architectural  Antiquities  of  Great  Britain,  4  volumes,  278  fine 
plates,  1805. 

Chronological  and  Historical  Illustrations  of  ancient  Ecclesiastical 
Architecture  of  Great  Britain,  designed  as  a  fifth  volume  of  the 
preceding;,  thick  4to,  with  86  plates,  1827. 

Cathedral  Antiquities: — Salisbury,  31  fine  plates,  4to. ;  Norwich, 
25  plates;  Winchester,  30  plates;  York,  35  plates;  Lichfield, 
16  plates;  Oxford,  11  plates;  Canterbury,  26  plates;  Wells,  22 
plates;  Peterborough,  16  plates;  Gloucester,  22  plates;  Bristol, 
12  plates;  Hereford,  16  plates;  Bath,  10  plates;  Exeter,  22  plates. 

History  and  Illustration  of  RedclifTe  Church,  Bristol,  12  plates, 
royal  octavo,  1813. 

Union  of  Architecture,  Sculpture,  and  Painting,  exemplified  in  a 
series  of  23  engravings  and  6  wood-cuts;  with  descriptive  Accounts 
of  the  House  of  John  Soane,  4to.  1827. 

Picturesque  Antiquities  of  English  Cities,  60  fine  plates,  4to. 

Picturesque  Views  of  the  English  Cities,  by  Robson,  31  plates,  4to. 

Illustrations  of  Fonthill  Abbey,  fine  plates,  4to.  1823. 

Dictionary  of  the  Architecture  and  Archgeology  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
royal  8vo.  fine  plates. 

Architectural  Illustrations  of  Roslyn  Chapel,  Scotland,  14  plates, 
imperial  4to.  1810. 

69.  Carter,  J. 

Ancient  Architecture  of  England,  2  vols,  folio,  106  plates,  1793. 

70.  Ciiapuy. 

Vues  Pittoresques  de  la  Cathedrale  de  Paris,  imperial  4to.,  10  plates. 
Paris,  1823. 

Cathedrales  Franchises,  large  4to.,  plates  on  India  paper,  Paris,1827. 

71 .  Clarke,  W.  B. 

The  ancient  Crosses  of  England  Restored,  by  W.  B.  Clarke,  Archi- 
tect, in  6  Numbers,  each  containing  2  plates,  large  folio:  plate  I, 
a  Restored  Outline,  engraved  by  Turrell ;  plate  2,  the  Plans, 
Sections,  and  Details.  The  text  consists  of  an  Historical  Account 
of  each  Building,  and  Critical  Remarks  on  the  Style  of  their 
Architecture  and  Beauty  of  the  Design.  No.  I.  contains  the 
Drawings  of  Waltham  Cross. 

72.  Co  I'M  an,  J.S. 

Etchings  of  ancient  Monastic,  Collegiate,  Castellated,  and  Domestic 

Gothic  Antiquities,  large  folio,1 25  plates,  1811. 
Specimens  of  «.he  Architectural  Antiquities  of  Norfolk,  containing  60 

finished  etchings,  representing  exterior  and  interior  views  of  the  most 

celebrated  remains  of  Antiquity  in  the  County,  large  folio,  1818. 
Antiquities  of  St.  Mary's  Chapel,  at  Stourbridge,  near  Cambridge, 

folio,  1819. 

Architectural  Antiquities  of  Normandy,  represented  and  illustrated  in 
a  series  of  100  etchings,  2  vols,  foiio,  1820-21. 

73.  COiTINGIIAM,   L.  N. 

Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of  King  Henry  the  VIl.th's 
Chapel  at  Westminster,  (the  Exterior,)  atlas  folio,  45  plates, 
1822. 

663 


APPENDIX  II. 


Views,  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of  the  Interior  of 
King  Henry  the  Vll.th's  Chapel  at  Westminster;  fine  elaborate 
plates,  usefully  detailed,  and  illustrative  of  the  whole  Interior  of 
this  magnificent  Gothic  structure.  1830. 

Working  Drawings  for  Gothic  Ornaments,  selected  and  composed  from 
the  best  Examples ;  consisting  of  Capitals,  Bases,  Cornices,  Friezes, 
Pendants,  Crockets,  Corbals,  Spandrils,  Roses,  Battlements, 
Doors,  Windows,  various  specimens  of  Mouldings,  and  a  design 
for  a  Gothic  Mansion ;  atlas  folio,  38  plates,  with  a  Descrip- 
tion. This  work  was  purposely  got  up  for  the  use  of  the  architect, 
modeller,  carver,  ornamental  painter,  &c.  &c.  being  on  a  large 
scale,  with  sections,  showing  the  depths  of  the  undercuttings,  &c. 

Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  at  large  of  Westminster  Hall, 
atlas  folio,  1822. 

74.  Cresy,  Edward,  and  G.  L.Taylor. 

The  Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages  at  Pisa,  illustrated  by  Plans, 
Sections,  Elevations,  Details,  and  Views  of  the  Baptistery,  Campa- 
nile or  Leaning  Tower,  Cathedral,  and  Campo  Santo;  from 
Drawings  and  Measurements  taken  in  the  year  1817  ;  accompanied 
by  descriptive  Accounts  of  their  History  and  Construction ;  by 
Edward  Cresy  and  G.  L.  Taylor,  Architects  and  F.S.A.  imperial 
quarto,  fine  plates,  1828-9. 

These  buildings  exhibit  the  finest  specimens  of  tiie  Lombard  style  to  be  found  in 
Italy,  and  are  curious,  as  affording  the  earliest  examples  of  the  pointed  or  Gothic 
character  in  that  country.  The  Leaning  Tower  has  long  been  an  object  of  attention 
to  travellers.  The  Pointed  Architecture  within  and  without  the  Baptistery  is 
assigned  to  a  much  later  period  than  is  usually  given  to  it,  as  is  proved  by  the  # 
discovery  of  the  Monument  of  the  Architect,  and  an  inscription  on  the  Building. 
The  Cathedral  and  Campo  Santo  are  well  known  as  the  most  superb  edifices  of  the 
middle  ages  in  Italy. 

75.  Dallaway,  Rev.  J. 

Observations  on  English  Architecture,  royal  8vo.  1806. 

Notices  of  ancient  Church  Architecture  in  the  15th  century,  4to.  1824. 

76.  Davy,  H. 

Architectural  Antiquities  of  Suffolk,  folio,  1823-4. 
A  Set  of  Etchings  illustrative  of  Beccles  Church,  and  other  Suffolk 
Antiquities,  folio,  10  plates,  1818. 

77.  Ducarel. 

Antiquites  Anglo-Norrnandes,  par  A.  L.  Lechaude  d'Anisy,  imperial 
8vo.  42  plates.  Caen,  1823. 

78.  Gutensohn,  J.  G.  von,  and  J.  M.  Knapp. 

Deukmale  der  Christlichen  Religion.     The  Antiquities,  with  plates, 
sections,  views,  and  details  of  Christian  Architecture  of  Continental 
Churches,  large  folio,  Stutgard,  1827-30.    The  text  in  German, 
the  plates  very  neatly  executed  in  outline. 
"9.  Halfpenny,  J. 

Gothic  Ornaments  in  the  Cathedral  Church  of  York,  4to.  1^5 
plates,  1795. 

Fragmenta  Vetusta,  or  Remains  of  ancient  Buildings  in  York,  royal 
4to,  34  plates,  1807. 

564 


APPENDIX  il. 


80.  Hall,  Str  J. 

Essay  on  the  Origin,  History,  and  Principles  of  Gothic  Architecture, 
4to.  1313,  59  plates. 

81.  Hawkins,  J.  S. 

Origin  and  Progress  of  Gothic  Architecture,  8vo. 

82.  Hunt,  T.  F. 

Examples  of  Tudor  Architecture,  adapted  to  modern  Habitations; 
with  illustrative  Details   selected    from    ancient   Edifices,  and 
Observations  on  the  Furniture  of  the  Tudor  period,  4to.  37  plates, 
y  1830. 

83.  JOLIMONT,  F.  T.  DE. 

Monumens  les  plus  remarquables  de  la  Ville  du  Rouen,  large  folio, 
Paris,  1822,  30  plates. 

84.  King,  E. 

Munimenta  Antiqua,  or  Observations  on  ancient  Castles,  including 
Remarks  on  the  whole  Progress  of  Architecture  in  Great  Britain, 
folio,  4  volumes,  1799. 

85.  Lamb,  E.  B. 

Etchings  of  Gothic  Ornaments,  large  4to.  1829-30 

86.  MlLNER,  J. 

Treatise  on  the  Ecclesiastical  Architecture  of  England,  large  octavo, 
plates,  1811. 

87.  Moller,  George. 

Monuments  de  I'Architecture  Allemande,  72  well-etched  plates,  folio, 
with  an  historical  Account  ,  in  the  German  language,  of  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture, particularly  as  relates  to  Germany,  Darmstadt,  1819-23. 

Cathedral  Church  of  Cologne,  extensively  detailed  on  9  very  large 
size  elephant  folio  plates,  finely  etched,  ib.  1818. 

Plan,  Elevations,  Views,  Details,  Sections,  Monuments,  &c.  of  the 
Church  of  Elizabeth  at  Marburg,  folio,  18  plates,  ib. 

Essay  on  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Gothic  Architecture,  folio,  in 
German,  ib. 

The  same  work  translated  into  English,  and  revised,  by  Mr.  Joseph 
Gwilt,  8vo.,  1826. 

88.  Murphy,  J. 

Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Views  of  the  Church  of  Batalha  in 
Spain,  folio,  27  plates,  1795. 

89.  Park tv,  G.  I. 

Monastic  and  Baronial  Remains  in  England,  Wales,  and  Scotland, 
2  vols.,  large  8vo.,  upwards  of  100  plates,  1816. 

90.  Puc;  in,  Aug.,  Architect. 

Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture  at  Oxford,  61  plates,  4to. 

Specimens  of  Gothic  Architecture,  selected  from  various  ancient 
Edifices  in  England,  consisting  of  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and 
Parts  at  large,  2  vols.  4to.,  120  plates,  1823. 

Specimens  of  Anglo-Norman  Architecture.,  consisting  of  Plans,  Ele- 
vations, and  Views,  4to.,  80  plates,  1826. 

Examples  of  Gothic  Architecture,  consisting  of  a  series  of  Plans, 
Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details,  selected  from  some  of  the  most 
admited  Edifices  in  England,  chiefly  of  the  fourteenth,  fifteenth,  and 
sixteenth  centuries  ;  consisting  principally  of  Domestic  Architecture, 

505 


APPENDIX  II. 


with  Historical  Accounts,  by  E.  J.Willson,  Arch.,  F.S.A.,  72  plates, 
4to.,  1830. 

Examples  of  Gothic  Ornaments  and  Gables,  from  Sketches  lately 
taken  in  various  parts  of  England  and  France,  5  parts,  containing 
100  plates,  4to.,  1830. 

Views  illustrative  of  Pugin's  Examples  of  Gothic  Architecture, 
2  parts,  4to.,  23  plates  sketched  from  nature,  and  drawn  on  stone, 
hv  Mr.  Joseph  Nash,  with  letter-press  descriptions,  by  Mr.  W.  H. 
Leeds,  1830. 

91.  Rick  man,  Tuos. 

Attempt  to  discriminate  the  styles  of  Architecture  in  England,  with 
notices  of  above  3000  British  Edifices,  8vo.,  plates,  1825. 

92.  Robinson,  P.  F. 

Attempts  to  Ascertain  the  Age  of  Mickelham  Church,  in  Surry,  with 
remarks  on  the  Architecture  of  that  building,  large  4to.,  plates,  1824. 

93.  Shaw,  H. 

A  Series  of  Details  of  Gothic  Architecture,  selected  from  various 
cathedrals,  churches,  &c,  drawn  on  stone,  by  H.  Shaw,  folio,  20 
plates,  1823. 

History  and  Antiquities  of  the  chapel  at  Luton  Park,  a  seat  of  the 
Marquis  of  Bute,  imperial  folio,  1829. 

94.  Simpson. 

Series  of  Ancient  Baptismal  Fonts,  large  imperial  8vo.,  40  fine  plates, 
1828. 

95-   WlHTTINGTON,  G.  D. 

Historical  Survey  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  France,  royal 
8vo.,  plates,  1816. 

96.  Wilkins,  W.  M.A. 

Remarks  on  the  Architecture  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  Normans,  4to. 
plates,  1796. 

Description  of  the  Church  of  Melbourne  in  Derbyshire,  with  an 
attempt  to  explain  from  it  the  real  situation  of  the  Porticoes  in 
Ancient  Churches,  4to.,  1796. 

An  Account  of  the  Prior's  Chapel,  at  Ely,  4to.,  plates,  1796. 

97.  Woolnotii,  W. 

Ancient  Castles  of  England  and  Wales,  2  vols,  large  8vo.,  numerous 
fine  plates,  1825. 

98.  

Archeeologia,  or  Miscellaneous  tracts  relating  to  Antiquity,  published 
by  the  Society  of  Antiquaries,  22  vols.  4to.,  1793,  &c. — This 
work  not  only  contains  many  essays  of  Gothic  and  old  English 
Architecture,  and  subjects  connected  with  it,  but  also  on  Ancient 
and  Modern  Architecture  in  general. 

The  following  are  the  articles  relating  to  Architecture  contained  in  the  first 
22  volumes  : — 

(a)  Vol.  I. — Ward  on  the  Antiquity  and  Use  of  Beacons.  Loveday's  Observa- 
tions on  Shrines.  Vertue  on  the  Monument  of  Edward  the  Confessor.  Stukeley 
on  the  Sanctuary  at  W  estminster.  Lethieullier  on  Roman  Roads.  Account  of 
the  Ermin  Street,  and  a  Roman  Burial-place,  by  Mr.  Frederic.  Milborne's 
Description  of  Wetheral  Cells.  Foik.es  on  the  Trajan  and  Antonine  Pillars. 
"VVray  <m  the  Walls  of  Ancient  Rome.  Tovey  on  Roman  Brick.  Lyltleton  on  the 
Antiquity  of  Brick  Buildings  in  England.  Barririgton  on  the  Welsh  Castlea. 
CdiingicD  on  the  Round  Tower  at  Ardmoie,  in  Ireland. 
566 


APPENDIX  II. 


(b}  Vol.  IT. — Harris  on  the  Julia  Strata,  and  on  Roman  Architectural  Remains 
in  Wales.  Lyttleton  on  a  remarkable  Monument  in  Penrith  Church-yard.  Brere- 
ton on  Round  Towers  in  Ireland.  Gou<;h  on  the  Round  Tower  at  Brechin. 
Littleton  on  an  Ancient  Font  at  Bridekirk.  Burton's  Account  of  a  Roman  Sepul- 
chre found  near  York.  Webster  on  Roman  Walls  and  Bricks.  Gough  on  a 
Tomb  in  Salisbury  Cathedral.  DemidofF  and  Forster  on  Tartarian  Tombs. 
Pownal  on  the  Sepulchral  Monument  at  New  Grange.  Lethieullier  on  Sepulchral 
Monuments.  Watson  on  Druidical  Monuments  in  Yorkshire.  Bentham  on  Ely 
Minster. 

(r)  Vol.  III. — Gough  on  Roman  Altars.  Wratson  on  a  Roman  Station  in  Derby- 
shire. Preston  on  the  Barrows  in  Westmoreland.  Mander  on  a  Barrow  in  Derby- 
shire. Pownal  on  British  Remains  in  Caernarvonshire.  King  on  Bury  Abbey  Church. 
Barrington  on  the  Corbridge  Altars. 

(c?)  Vol.  IV. — Strange  on  Roman  Antiquities  in  S.Wales.  Essex  on  (he  Antiquity 
and  different  Modes  of  Brick  and  Stone  Buildings  in  England.  Pegge  on  Kit's  Coity 
House  in  Kent.  Essex  on  Lincolu  Cathedral.  Hamilton  on  Pompeii.  King  on 
Ancient  Castles. 

(e)  Vol.  V. — Strange  on  Roman  Antiquities  in  Monmouthshire.  Pegge  on  the 
Rudston  Pyramidal  Stone.  Drake  on  Roman  Stations  in  Essex.  Barrington  on 
St.  Justin's  Tomb.  Strange  on  Roman  Antiquities  in  Istria  and  Dalmatia.  Rook 
on  Roman  Camps  in  Gloucestershire.  Pope  on  the  Dune  of  Dormadilla.  Pegge 
on  the  Stone  Collins  found  at  Christ  Church.  Anderson  on  Monuments  and  Fortifi- 
cations in  Scotland.  Minet  on  a  Roman  Bath  at  Dover.  Wyndham  on  an  Ancient 
Building  at  Warnford. 

(/)  Vol.  VI. — Strange  on  Roman  Antiquities  in  Wales.  Englefield  on  Reading 
Abbey.  Wyndham  on  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus.  Anderson  on  Scotch  Fortifi- 
cations. Barrington  on  Vitrified  Walls.  Englefield  on  Ancient  Buildings  at  York. 
Rooke  on  Druidical  Remains  in  Derbyshire.  Essex  on  Round  Churches.  King  on 
Ancient  Castles.    Denne  on  Rochester  Castle. 

(g)  Vol.  VII. —  Rooke  pn  Druidical  Remains  in  Derbyshire.  Cade  on  Roman 
Roads  and  Antiquities.  Bray  on  the  Leicester  Military  Stone.  Pegge  on  Aid- 
borough  Church,  that  it  was  not  Saxon.  Pegge  on  Druidical  Monuments  in  Der- 
byshire. Pownal  on  Ship  Temples.  Hay  on  Roman  Antiquities  in  Wales.  Tooke 
on  Tartar  Tombs.  King  on  the  Castle  at  Rouen.  Barrington  on  Caverns  in  Berks. 
Hunter  on  Caverns  near  Bombay.  Dalrymple  on  a  Pagoda  near  Bombay.  Lethieullier 
on  the  Temple  at  Salselte.  Hardwick  on  the  Flavian  Amphitheatre.  Essex  on  a  Timber 
Bridge  at  Rochester. 

(/ij  Vol.  VIII, — Rooke  on  Druidical  Temples.  Lort  on  Stone  Collins  found  at 
Cambridge.  Douglas  on  a  Roman  Tile.  Willis  on  the  Ikeneld  Street.  Ledwich 
on  Ancient  Churches.  Macneil  on  Indian  Caverns.  Rooke  on  Roman  Villse  at 
Mansfield  Woodhouse.  Molesworth  on  the  Druid  Temple  at  Jersey.  Conway  on 
the  same.  Barrington  on  Druidical  Antiquities,  and  on  the  Crypts  in  Canterbury 
Cathedral. 

(i)  Vol.  IX. — Bray  on  a  Roman  Road  in  Surrey.  Pownal  on  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture. Rooke  on  Roman  Remains  in  Derbyshire.  Pegge  on  a  Tumulus  in 
Derbyshire.  Rooke  on  Roman  Roads  in  Nottinghamshire.  Drake  on  Brotherton 
Church.  Harmer  on  Round  Towers  in  Ireland.  Lysons  on  Roman  Remains  in 
Glouccvtershire.  Leighton  on  Roman  Baths  at  Uriconium.  Brereton  on  Brere- 
ton  Church,  Cheshire.  Englefield  on  St.  Mary's  Abbey  York.  On  Bernard's 
Cross. 

(it)  Vol.  X. —  Pegge  on  Roman  Antiquities  in  Derbyshire.  Denne  on  Canterbury 
Cathedral.  Pegge  on  Brereton  Church.  Gough  on  two  ancient  Mansion-houses. 
Banks  on  Louth  Church  and  Steeple.  Riddt-1  on  Scotch  Fortifications.  Rooke  on 
Druidical  Remains  in  Cumberland.  Rooke  on  Caverns  in  Derbyshire.  Lysons  on 
Quenington  Church.  Lysons  on  Roman  Antiquities  in  Gloucestershire.  Gough 
on  Mosaic  Work  since  the  Introduction  of  Christianity.  Brand  on  a  Saxon  Arch  at 
Dinton  Church.  Pegge  on  a  Font  ht  Burnham  Deepdale.  Gough  on  a  Font  at  East 
Meon.  Carte  on  Fonts.  Denne  on  Maidstone  Church.  Denne  on  Stone  Seats  in 
Churches.  Denne  on  Brereton  Church.  Pownal  on  Sepulchral  Remains  at  Lincoln. 
Rooke  on  Roman  Remains  in  Sherwood  Forest.  Blackader  on  the  Pagoda  of  Madura. 
Caley  on  a  Shrine  at  York. 

(/)  Vol.  XI. — Falconer  on  the  Temple  of  Diana  at  Ephcsns.  Simmons  on 
Kit's  Coity  House.      Carlile   on    Roman  Antiquities   in   Cumberland.  ^  Riddel  on 


APPENDIX  II. 


Fonts  in  Scotland.  Denne  on  Fonts.  Willett  on  Naval  Architecture.  Majoi 
on  Bicknacre  Priory.  Denne  on  Canterbury  Cathedral,  and  Stone  Seats  in 
Churches. 

(in)  Vol.  XTT. —  Pegge  on  Roman  Antiquities  in  Derbyshire.  Banks  on  a 
Roman  Sepulchre  in  Lincolnshire.  Denne  on  a  Triple  Slope  Seat  at  Upchurch 
in  Kent,     ilolden  on  the  Font  at  Thorpe  Salvin,  in  Yorkshire. 

(n)  Vol.  XIII. — Maun  on  a  Roman  Camp  in  Westphalia.  Astle  on  Sione 
Pillars,  Crosses,  and  Crucifixes.  Combe  on  a  Greek  Sepulchral  Monument. 
Wilkins  on  the  Church  of  Melbourne,  Derbyshire,  and  on  ihe  real  Situation  of  the 
Portions  in  ancient  Churches.    Howard  on  Hyde  Abbey.    Lee  on  a  Reman  Altar. 

(o)  Vol.  XIV. — Gibson  on  a  Stone  Cross  at  Hemsby.  Walford  on  a  Roman 
Military  Way  in  Essex.  Englefield  on  an  Ancient  Building  in  Southampton. 
Wilkins'  Account  of  the  Priory  Chapel  at  Ely.  Howard  on  Bridekiik  Font,  and 
on  the  Runic  Column  at  Beweasdle.  Latham  on  the  Abbey  Church  of  Ramsey. 
Lvsons  on  the  Tombs  in  the  Abbey  Church  at  Tewkesbury.  Dallaway  on  the 
Walls  of  Constantinople.    On  a  Cross  at  Somersby. 

(p)  Vol.  XV. — Cunningham  on  Tumuli  in  Wiltshire.  Jackson  on  the  Ruins  of 
Carthage.  Becke  on  Roman  Stations  and  Roads  in  Berkshire.  Boys  on  the 
Tomb  of  Theobald  in  Canterbury  Cathedral.  Saycrs  on  the  Dormitory  of  the 
Cathedral  Monastery  of  Norwich.  Hamilton  on  the  Fortresses  of  ancient  Greece. 
Smirke  on  Gothic  Architecture  in  Italy  and  Sicily.  Englefield  on  the  same  subject. 
On  the  Door  of  Thorpe  Salvin  Church,  Yorkshire.    On  Cairns  and  Caves  in  Ireland. 

(9)  Vol.  XVI.  —  Aguillon  on  a  Roman  Aqueduct  at  Antibes.  Finegan  on  a 
Cromleach  in  Kilkenny.  Kerrick  on  Foreign  Gothic  Architecture.  Repton  on 
Fonts.  Bankes  on  a  Roman  Vault  at  York.  Waddilove  on  a  Font  at  South 
Kilvington.  Repton  on  a  Barrow  in  Norfolk.  Several  plates  of  Norman  Archi- 
tecture, in  the  Appendix. 

(r)  Vol.  XVII. — Saunders  on  the  Origin  of  Gothic  Architecture.  Ware  on 
Vaults.  Waddilove  on  Ripon  Minster.  Price  on  Roman  Remains  near  Llan- 
drindod.  Ellis  on  Norham  Castle.  Gosselin  on  Druhiical  Remains  in  Jersey. 
Rackett  on  a  Roman  Pavement  at  Dorchester. 

(s)  Vol.  XVIII. — Lysons  on  Roman  Buildings  in  Gloucestershire.  Kerrick 
on  Sepulchral  Monuments  in  Italy  and  Fiance.  Lysons  on  a  Roman  Villa  at 
Bignor.     Ware  on  Decorative  Architecture.     On  an  ancient  Crypt  nt  Chest,  r. 

(t)  Vol.  XIX. — Narrien  on  a  Roman  Encampment  in  Berkshire.  Baker  on 
Ancient  Fortresses  in  Gloucestershire.  Lvsons  on  a  Roman  Villa  at  Bignor. 
On  the  Vescica  Piscis  of  the  Architecture  of  the  Middle  Ages,  and  in  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture.   On  Barrows. 

(«)  Vol.  XX. — Meyrick  on  the  Tomb  of  Sir  John  Chandos,  in  France.  Taylor 
on  Gothic  Ornaments  at  Pisa. 

(jc)  Vol.  XXI. —  Rennel  on  the  Architectural  Remains  at  Jerash.  Repton  on 
Ancient  Buildings  in  Prussia.  Amyot  on  the  Priory  at  Kirkharn,  and  the  Castle  of 
Bolton.    Smiike  on  the  Origin  of  the  pointed  Arch. 

(y)  Vol.  XXII. — Turner  on  a  Roman  Bath  in  Lincolnshire.  Hoare  on  Mosaic 
Pavements.  Logan  on  Monumental  Stones  in  Scotland.  Lo^an  on  Druidical 
Monuments  in  Normandy,  and  in  Scotland.    Cotton  on  HiN'Caslles. 

The  Cathedrals,  published  by  the  Antiquarian  Society,  in  elephant 
folio,  1795,  &c. 

Vetusta  Monumenta,  published  by  the  Antiquarian  Society,  6  vols. 

lar^e  folio,  with  numerous  line  plates. 
Architectural  Notes  on  German  Churches,  with  remarks  on  the  origin 

of  Gothic  Architecture,  Cambridge,  8vo.,  1830. 
Essays  on  Gothic  Architecture,  by  Warton,  Bentham,  Grose,  and 

Milner,  royal  8vo.,  plates,  1800. 
Specimens  of  Gothic  Ornaments,  selected  from  Lavenham  Church,  in 

Suffolk,  4to.,  1796. 
Views,  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  &c.  of  the  Cathedral  Church  of 

St.  Stephen's  at  Vienna,  accompanied  with  a  Description,  historical 

and  critical,  of  its  Construction,  dedicated  to  Leo  XII.,  imperial 

folio,  10  plates,  Milan,  1827. 


APPENDIX  II. 

CLASS  V.— MODERN  ENGLISH  ARCHITECTURE. 

99.  Adam,  R.  and  J. 

The  Works  in  Architecture  of  the  late  Robert  and  James  Adam, 
Architects,  complete  in  3  vols,  imperial  folio,  containing  Plans, 
Elevations,  Sections,  and  Details  of  the  principal  Buildings,  public 
and  private,  erected  in  Great  Britain  in  the  reign  of  George  III.  with 
Designs  of  every  kind  both  for  interior  and  exterior  Decoration, 
105  tine  plates,  engraved  by  Bartolozzi,  Piranesi  Zucchi,  Pastorini, 
Cunego,  &c,  1822. 
Design  of  the  New  Building  of  the  University  of  Edinburgh  ;  on  three 
sheets,  23  inches  by  17,  consisting  of  the  Plan  of  the  principal 
story,  design  of  the  South  Front,  and  the  design  of  the  East  Front. 
Designed  and  drawn  by  Robert  Adam,  Architect. 
100  Alexander. 

On  the  Construction  and  fitting  up  of  Meeting  Houses,  &c,  Plans, 
Sections,  and  Description,  4to.,  plates,  1820. 

101.  B  RETTING  II  AM,  M. 

Plans,  Elevations,  and  Sections  of  Holkham,  in  Norfolk,  folio,  1773. 

102.  Br  it-ton  and  Pug  in. 

Illustrations  of  the  Public  Buildings  of  London,  with  Historical  and 
Descriptive  Accounts,  2  vols.,  140  plates,  royal  8vo.,  1825-7. 

103.  Campbell, 

Vitruvius  Brittanicus,  or  the  British  Architect,  containing  the  Plans, 
Elevations,  and  Sections  of  public  and  private  Buildings  in  Great 
Britain,  4  vols,  folio;  Woolf  and  Gandon's  Supplement,  forming 
a  fifth  volume. 
104  Chambers,  Sir  W. 

Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  and  Perspective  Views  of  the  Gardens 
and  Buildings  at  Kew,  large  folio,  fine  plates,  1763. 

105.  Gibbs>  J. 

Description  of  the  RadclifFe  Library,  Oxford,  23  plates,  folio,  1747. 

106.  Goldicutt,  J. 

Her.ot's  Hospital,  Edinburgh,  the  design  of  Inigo  Jones,  folio, 
8  plates,  1828. 

107.  Jones,  Inigo. 

Designs,  consisting  of  Plans  and  Elevations  for  public  and  private 
Buildings,  2  vols,  folio,  137  plates,  1727,  1770. 

108.  Laing,  D. 

Plans,  Elevations,  and  Sections  of  Buildings,  public  and  private,  in 
various  parts  of  England,  &c,  large  folio,  59  plates,  1818. 

109.  Lewis,  J. 

Original  Designs  in  Architecture,  consisting  of  Plans,  Elevations,  and 
Sections  of  various  public  and  private  Buildings  in  England  and 
Ireland,  2  vols,  folio,  61  plates,  1780-97. 

110.  Middleton,  C. 

Plans,  Elevations,  and  Sections  of  the  House  of  Correction,  Cold 
Bath  Fields,  large  folio,  50  plates,  1788. 

111.  Mitchell,  R. 

Plans  and  Views  in  Perspective,  with  Descriptions  of  Buildings, 
erected  in  England  and  Scotland,  folio,  18  plates,  1801. 
4C  569 


APPENDIX  II. 


112.  Paine,  J. 

Plans,  Elevations,  and  Sections  of  Noblemen  and  Gentlemen's 
Houses,  2  vols.,  imperial  folio,  175  plates,  1767-83. 

113.  Richardson,  G. 

New  Vitruvius  Britannicus  ;  consisting;  of  Plans  and  Elevations  of 
Modern  Buildings  erected  in  Great  Britain,  large  folio,  72  plates, 
1802. 

114.  Soane,  John,  Professor  of  Architecture  in  the  Royal  Academy, 
R.A.  F.R.  and  A.S. 

Designs  in  Architecture,  imperial  8vo.,  38  plates,  1778-98. 

Plans,  Elevations,  and  Sections  of  Buildings  erected  in  various 

Countries,  folio,  47  plates,  1788. 
Sketches  in  Architecture,    containing   Plans   and   Elevations  of 

Cottages,  Villas,  and  other  useful  Buildings,  folio,  43  plates, 

1798. 

Designs  for  Public  and  Private  Buildings,  many  of  which  have  been 

executed,  royal  folio,  56  plates,  1828. 
Works  of  the  New  Law  Courts  at  Westminster,  the  Treasury,  the 

Board  of  Trade,  the  New  Privy  Council  Office,  &c,  royal  folio, 

26  plates,  1829. 

Civil  Architecture  :  Designs  for  completing  some  of  the  Public  Build- 
ings in  Westminster,  and  for  correcting  defects  in  others,  privately 
printed  for  very  limited  circulation,  1829. 

115.  Wren,  Sir  Christopher. 

Eleven  large  4to.  plates,  of  the  WTorks  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren, 
consisting  of  Bow  Church  ;  St.  Stephen's,  Walbrook  ;  first,  design 
of  St.  Paul's;  Sr..  James's,  Westminster  ;  College  of  Physicians  ; 
St.  Duncan's  in  the  East ;  Chichester  Spire  ;  Roof  of  the  Shel- 
donian  Theatre,  Oxford  ;  Theory  of  Comets  ;  Plan  for  Rebuilding 
of  the  Citv  of  London  ;  Diagrams  illustrative  of  the  Theory  of 
Arches,  and  a  fine  portrait. 

116.  

Critical  Review  of  the  Public  Buildings  of  London  and  Westminster, 
12mo.,  1786. 


CLASS  VI. — FOREIGN  ARCHITECTURE,  (MODERN.) 

117.  Blondell,  J.  B.,  and  R.  L.  Lusson. 

Plan,  Coupe,  Elevation,  et  Details  du  noveau  marche  St.  Germain, 
fol.  Paris,  1816,  11  plates. 

118.  BOFFRAND. 

Livre  d'Architecture,  contenant  les  Principes  generaux  de  cet  Art, 
et  les  Plans,  Elevations,  et  Profils  de  quelques  uns  des  batimens 
faits  en  France  et  dans  les  pays  Etrangers.     Paris,  1745, 
69  plates. 

119.  Briseaux,  C.  E. 

L'Art  de  Batir  des  Maisons  de  Campayne,  ou  l'on  traite  de  leur 
distribution,  de  leur  construction,  et  de  leur  decoration,  2  vols. 

570 


APPENDIX  II. 


4to.  Paris,  1743,  with  260  plates  of  the  old  French  country 
mansions,  &c. 

120.  BllONGN i art,  A.  T. 

Plans  du  Palais  de  la  Bourse  de  Paris,  et  du  Cimetiere  Mont- Louis, 
folio,  Paris,  1814. 

121.  Carpentier,  M.  le. 

Plans,  Coupes,  et  Elevations  du  Hotel  de  Ville  de  Rouen,  folio, 
Paris,  1758. 

122.  Cjcognara,  Leopoldo. 

Le  Fabriche  piu  conspieue  di  Venezia  misurate,  illustrate,  ed  intag- 
liate,  2  vols,  very  large  folio,  Venet.  1815,  with  a  prolusion  of 
well-executed  piates  in  outline. 

123.  Clociiar,  P. 

Palais,  Maisons,  et  Vues  d'ltalie,  folio,  102  fine  plates,  Paris,  1809. 

124.  Coste,  P. 

Architecture  Arabe,  ou  Monumens  du  Kaire,  fol.  1824,  74  plates. 

125.  Del  Re. 

Maisons  de  Plaisance  ou  Palais  de  Campagne  de  l'Etat  de  Milan, 
folio;  a  profusion  of  large  folding;  plates.  Milan,  1727. 

126.  Dumont,  G.  M. 

Details  des  plus  interessantes  parties  d'Architeeture  de  la  basilique 
de  St.  Pierre,  large  folio,  Paris,  1763,  70  plates. 

127.  Duval. 

Fontaines  de  Paris,  folio. 

128.  Falda,  G.  B. 

Nuovi  Desegni  dell'  Architetture,  e  piante  de  palazzi  di  Roma, 
oblong  folio,  61  plates. 

129.  Ferrerio,  P. 

Palazzi  di  Roma,  2  vols,  oblong  folio,  105  plates. 

130.  Gauthier,  M.  P. 

Plus  Beaux  Edifices  de  la  Ville  des  Genes  et  de  ses  Environs,  folio, 
21  livrasions,  Paris,  1824-30. 

131.  Geradu,  St.  Ett. 

Le  grand  Golfe  de  Naples  ou  recueil  des  plus  beaux  palais  de  la 
dite  viiie,  folio,  Naples,  1771,  31  plates. 

132.  Grandjean  de  Montigny,  and  A.  Famin. 
Architecture  Toscane,  folio,  73  plates,  Florence. 

133.  Gwilt,  Jos.,  F.S.A. 

Notices  of  the  Buildings  of  Architects  of  Italy,  8vo.,  1818. 

134.  Hittorff,  J.  and  L.  Zanth. 

Architecture  moderne  de  la  Sicile,  16  livraisons,  imperial  folio, 
Paris,  1825-30.  # 

135.  Jombert,  C.  A. 

Repertoire  des  Artistes,  ou  recueil  de  Compositions  d'Architeeture 
et  d'Ornamens,  &c.  de  siecle  de  Louis  XlVth,  2  torn,  folio,  about 
400  plates,  Paris,  1765. 

Architecture  moderne,  2  torn.  4to.,  Paris,  1764. 

136.  Kleiner,  S. 

Residences  memorables  de  l'incom parable  heros  de  notre  siecle,  ou 
representation  exacte  des  edifices  et  Jardins  de  sou  altesse  Se- 
renis.  iv.  le  Prince  Eugene  Francois,  oblong  folio,  Virnna,  1731. 


APPENDIX  II. 


Neo-aucta  Vienna  Austrise,  seu  vera  et  accurata  represent,  antiq. 
turn  modern,  ecclesiarum,  colossarum,  fundationum,  hospitalium, 
&c.  66  plates,  oblong  folio,  Vienna,  1733. 
J 37.  Krafft,  J.  C. 

A  Collection  of  Draughts  of  the  prettiest  Houses  in  Paris  and  its 
Environs,  2  vols.  4to.,  150  plates,  with  description  in  English, 
French,  and  German,  Paris,  1809. 

138.  Leg  rand,  J.  G.  and  C.  P.  Landon. 

Description  de  Paris  et  de  ses  Edifices,  2  torn.  Paris,  1806-9. 

139.  Le  Hoi,  J. 

Le  Brabant  illustre,  folio,  Amst.  1705,  with  nearly  200  fine  plates. 

140.  Letarouilly,  P. 

Edifices  de  Rome  Moderne,  large  imperial  folio,  20  livraisons,  plates 
in  outline,  Paris,  1826-30. 

141.  Moisy,  M. 

Fontaines  de  Paris  Anciennes  et  Nouvelles,  Notes,  &c.  par  Duval, 
folio,  59  plates,  Paris,  1812. 

142.  Percier,  Charles,  and  P.  F.  L.  Fontaines. 

Choix  des  plus  celebres  Maisons  de  Rome  et  de  ses  Environs,  large 

folio,  75  plates,  Paris,  1809. 
Palais,  Maisons,  et  autre  Edifices  modernes  dessinees  a  Rome,  folio, 

100  plates. 

Plans  de  Plusieurs  Chateaux,  Palais,  et  Residences  des  Souverains 
de  France,  d'ltalie,  d'Espagne,  et  de  Ri?sse,  folio. 

143.  Rogers,  j.  Architect,  of  Boston,  New  England. 

A  Description  of  Tremont  House,  with  Architectural  Illustrations, 
4to.,  1830,  with  31  plates. 

144.  Rossini. 

Vedute  di  Roma,  2  vols,  folio,  101  plates,  Rome,  1823-4. 

145.  Rubens,  P.  P. 

Palazzi  di  Genova,  folio,  72  plates. 

146.  Sciieu lt,  F.  L. 

Recueil  d'Architecture  dessinee  et  Mesure  en  Italie,  folio,  Paris, 
1821,  72  plates. 

147.  Shaw,  H. 

Specimens  of  the  magnificent  and  elaborate  Ornaments,  &c.  of  the 
Age  of  Louis  XIV.,  4to.,  1829. 

148.  Silvestre,  Israel. 

Iconographical  Works  of  the  splendid  Palaces  in  France,  in  Plans, 
Sections,  Details,  Elevations,  and  Views,  particularly  of  the 
Louvre,  Thuilleries,  Vincennes,  £Jt.  Germain  en  laye,  Versailles, 
Fontainebleau,  Chasteau  de  Madrid,  Chasteau  de  Monceaux, 
Chasteaux  de  Chambor,  Chasteaux  de  Blois,  &c.  4i  very  fine 
plates,  large  folio,  Paris,  1670-76-79. 

149.  Suvs,  F.  T.  and  L.  P.  Haudebourt. 

Palais  Massimi  a  Rome,  Plans,  Coupes,  Elevations,  &c.  des  deux 
Palais  Massimi,  large  folio,  43  plates,  Paris,  1818. 

150.  Tappen,  G. 

Professional  Observations  on  the  Architecture  in  France  and  Italy, 
8vo.,  1806. 

572 


APPENDIX  II. 


151.  Taylor,  Geo.,  and  Edward  Cresy. 

Revived  Architecture  of  Italy,  Part  I.,  all  that  is  published,  con- 
taining the  Giustiniani  Palace,  near  Genoa;  the  Saoli  Palace, 
Genoa. 

152.  Tiiiollet,  M. 

Croix  de  Maisons,  Edifices,  et  Monumens  Publics  de  Paris  et  de  ses 
Environs,  large  folio,  96  plates,  Paris,  1830. 

153.  - 

Sammlung  Architectonischer  Entwerfe  von  Schinkel,  &c.  a  very 
neat  German  work  of  the  buildings  of  Berlin,  folio,  24  plates, 
Berlin,  1819-24. 

Chateau  de  Versailles ;  Plans,  Elevations,  Sections,  Views,  and 

Details  of  the  Palace  of  Versailles,  folio,  Paris. 
Risse  von    Privat-Gebauden  der  Munchen  und  ihrer  Umgebung, 

2  Parts,  oblong  folio,  Munich,  1829. 


CLASS  VII.— RURAL  ARCHITECTURE. 

154.  Aikin,  E. 

Designs  for  Villas,  &c.  4to.,  31  plates. 

155.  Atkinson,  W. 

Views  of  Picturesque  Cottages,  with  Plans,  4to.,  1805,  20  plates. 

156.  Busby,  C.  A. 

Designs  for  Villas  and  Country  Houses,  4to.,  1808. 

157.  Crunden,  J. 

Convenient  and  Ornamental  Architecture,  4to.,  70  plates,  1815. 

158.  Dearn,  T.  D.  W. 

Sketches  in  Architecture,  Designs  for  Cottages  and  Rural  Dwellings, 

large  4to,  20  plates,  1807. 
Hints  on  Improved  Method  of  Building,  8vo.,  2  plates,  1821. 

159.  Elsam,  R. 

Essay  on  Rural  Architecture,  large  4to,  33  plates,  1803. 

Hints  for  Improving  the  Condition  of  the  Peasantry,  Plans,  Eleva- 
tions, and  descriptive  Views  of  Characteristic  Designs  fur  Cottages, 
large  4to.,  1816. 

160.  Gaudy,  J. 

The  Rural  Architect,  4to.,  1805,  42  plates. 

Designs  for  Cottages,  Cottage  Farms,  and  other  Buildings,  including 
Entrance-gates  and  Lodge,  4to.,  1805,  43  plates. 

161.  Gyfford,  E. 

Designs  for  elegant  Cottages  and  small  Villas,  4to.,  26  plates. 

162.  Halfpenny,  W.  and  J. 
Rural  Architecture,  8vo.,  1755. 

Designs  for  convenient  Farm  Houses,  2  Parts,  4to.  and  8vo., 
1751. 

163.  Hunt,  T.  F. 

Designs  for  Parsonage-houses,  Alms-houses,  &c.  &c.  with  Examples 
of  Gabels  and  other  curious  Remains,  4to.,  21  plates,  J  827. 

573 


APPENDIX  II. 


Half  a  Dozen  Hints  on  Picturesque  Domestic  Architecture,  in  a 
series  of  Designs  for  Gates,  Lodges,  Game-keepers'  Cottages,  &c. 
4to.,  1827. 

Architettura  Campestre,  displayed  in  Lodges,  Gardeners'  Houses, 
and  other  Buildings,  4to.,  1827. 

164.  Jackson,  J.  G. 

Designs  for  Villas,  4 to.,  1830. 

165.  Laing,  D. 

Hints  for  Dwellings,  Designs  for  Cottages,  Farm-houses,  Villas,  &c. 
4to.,  34  plates,  1800. 

166.  Lightole,  T. 

The  Gentleman  and  Farmer's  Architect,  4to.,  25  plates,  1764. 

167.  Lug  Ait,  R. 

Country  Gentleman's  Architect,  4to.,  22  plates,  1815. 
Architectural  Sketches  for  Cottages,  Rural  Dwellings,  and  Villas, 
4to.,  38  plates,  1805. 

168.  MlDDLETON,  C. 

Picturesque  and  Architectural  Views  for  Cottages,  Farm-houses,  and 
Country  Villas,  folio,  21  plates,  1793. 

169.  Miller,  J. 

Country  Gentleman's  Architect,  4to.,  32  plates,  1788. 

170.  Morel  Vinde,  Vicomte  de. 

Essai  sur  les  Constructions  Rurales  Economiques  contenant 
leurs  Plans,  Coupes,  Elevations,  Details,  et  Devis,  folio, 
Paris,  1824. 

171.  Papwortii,  J.  B. 

Hints  on  Ornamental  Gardening,  Designs  for  Garden  Buildings, 

Gates,  Fences,  Railings,  &c,  4to.,  1823. 
Rural  Architecture,  4to. 

172.  Parker,  T.  N. 

Essay  on  Hanging  and  Fastening  of  Gates  and  Wickets,  8vo. 
1801. 

173.  Pocock,  W.  F. 

Rustic  Cottages,  Villas,  &c.  4to.  33  plates. 

174.  Robinson,^  P.  F. 

Rural  Architecture,  or  a  Series  of  Designs  for  ornamental  Cottages, 
Lodges,  &c,  96  plates,  4to.,  1828. 

Series  of  Designs  for  ornamental  Villas,  96  plates,  4to.,  1830. 

Designs  for  Farm  Buildings,  96  plates,  4to.,  1830. 

Village  Architecture,  being  a  Series  of  Designs  for  the  Inn,  School- 
house,  Alms-houses,  Market-houses,  Shambles,  Work -house, 
Parsonage,  Town-hall,  and  Church,  4to.,  40  plates,  1830. 

175.  Rogers,  J.,  Architect,  of  Boston,  New  England. 

A  Description  of  Tremont  House,  with  Architectural  Illustrations, 
4to.,  31  plates,  1830. 

176.  Stevens,  F. 

Views  of  Cottages  and  Farm-houses  in  England  and  Wales,  4to,, 
52  plates,  1815. 

177.  Wetten,  R. 

Designs  for  Villas  in  the  Italian  Style  of  Architecture,  4to., 
1830. 

574 


APPENDIX  II. 

^78.  

Account  of  the  Paper  Roofs  used  at  Tew  Lodge,  Oxon,  so  decidedly 
preferable  for  Churches,  Warehouses,  and  Agricultural  Build- 
ings, 8vo. 

Architecture  Rurale,  8vo.,  Thoulouse,  1820,  with  11  folding- 
plates. 


CLASS  VIII.  —  ORNAMENTS. 

179.  Adam,  R. 

Vases  and  Foliage,  4to.,  14  plates,  1821. 

180.  Albertoli. 

Corso  Elementare  di  Ornamenti  Architettonici,  folio,  28  plates, 
Milan,  1805. 

181.  COLUMBANI,  P. 

Capitals  of  Friezes  and  Cornices,  &c,  4to. 

182.  Colette,  J. 

Livre  de  divers  Ornamens  pour  plafonds,  cintres,  sarbaisser,  gale- 
ries,  &c,  folio,  10  plates. 

183.  Le  Noirt,  A. 

Nouvelle  Collection  d'Arabesques  propres  a.  la  Decoration  des 
Appartemens,  dessinees  a  Rome  par  L.  Poussin,  4to.,  Paris. 

184.  Le  Pautre,  J. 

(Evres  d'Architecture,  contenant  les  frises,  feuillages,  montans  ou 
pilastres,  grotesques,  moresques,  parrneaux,  placarts,  trumeaux, 
lambris,  amortissemens,  plafonds,  et  generalement  tout  ce  qui 
concerne  l'Ornement,  3  torn,  fol,  Paris,  1751. 

185.  Norm  and,  C. 

Nouveau  Recueil  en  divers  Genres  d'Ornemens  et  autres  objets 
propres  a  la  Decorations,  46  plates,  folio,  Paris,  1803. 

186.  Pergolesi. 

Ornaments,  large  folio,  30  plates,  1777. 

187.  Richardson,  G. 

Book  of  Ceilings,  composed  in  the  style  of  the  Antique  Grotesque, 
folio,  48  plates,  1776. 

188.  Tatiiam,  C.  H. 

Grecian  and  Roman  Ornaments,  folio,  96  plates,  1825. 

189.  Vulliamy,  L. 

Examples  of  Ornamental  Sculpture  in  Architecture,  containing  40 
plates,  drawn  from  the  originals  in  Greece,  &c.  engraved  by 
Henry  Moses,  imperial  folio,  1828. 

190.  Westmacott,  R. 

Designs  for  Chimneys,  oblong  folio,  20  plates,  1777. 

191.  

Architectural  Ornaments,  or  a  Collection  of  Capitals,  Friezes, 
Roses,  Entablatures,  Mouldings,  &c.  from  the  Antique,  100 
plates,  1824. 

Principes  d'Ornemens,  containing  Antique  Roses,  Flowers,  Modil- 
lions,  &c,  4to.,  40  plates,  Paris. 

675 

* 


APPENDIX  II. 


Reeueil  d'Arabesques,  contenant  les  Loges  du  Vatican,  gravees 
d'apres  Raphael,  et  grand  nombre  d'autres  compositions  du  merae 
gout,  dans  le  style  antique,  large  folio,  Paris,  1802. 


CLASS  I X. — SEPULCHRAL  MONUMENTS. 

192.  Bartoli,  P.  S. 

Gli  Antichi  Sepolchri  ovvero  Mausolei  Romani  ed  Etruschi,  folio, 
110  plates,  Rom.  1727. 

193.  Clore,  L. 

Monumental  Remains  of  Noble  and  Eminent  Persons,  imperial  8vo. 
30  fine  plates,  1S26. 

194.  Bosio,  Ant. 

Roma  Sotterranea,  folio,  Roma,  1632. 

195.  Gougii,  R. 

Sepulchral  Monuments  in  Great  Britain,  5  vols,  folio,  1796. 

196.  Gozzini,  Vikc. 

Monumenti  Sepolchrali  della  Toscana,  Musi  da  G.  P.  Lasinio  sotta 
la  direzeoni  dei  Sig.  Cav.  P.  B.  de  Carnbray  Ligny,  folio, 
Florence,  1819,  47  plates. 

197.  Grandjean  de  Monttgny,  A. 

Reeueil  des  plus  beaux  Tombeaux,  executes  en  Italie  dans  les  xv. 
et  xvi.  Siecles.  folio,  24  plates,  Paris,  1813. 

198.  Grangent,  C.  Durand,  and  S.  Durant. 

Description  des  Monumens  Antiques  du  Midi  de  la  France,  folio, 
42  plates,  Paris,  1819. 

199.  Griffiths,  J. 

Museum  of  French  Monuments,  royal  8vo.,  43  plates,  1803, 

200.  Hyeit,  W.  H. 

Sepulchral  Memorials,  consisting  of  Engravings  from  the  Altars, 
Tombs,  &c.  within  the  county  of  Northampton,  folio. 

201.  Imbard,  E.  P. 

Tombeau  de  Louis  XII.,  et  de  Francois  I.,  d'apres  les  Marbres  du 
Musee  des  Petits  Augustins,  folio,  30  plates,  Paris,  1823. 

202.  JoLIMONT,   F.  T.  DE. 

Les  Mausolees  Franc_ais,  ou  reeueil  des  tombeaux  les  plus  remarqua- 
oles  eleves  dans  le  Pere  la  Chaise,  folio,  55  plates,  Paris,  1823. 

203.  Malipiiant,  G. 

Designs  for  Sepulchral  Monuments,  Mural  tablets,  &c,  4to.,  31 
plates,  1824. 

204.  M i l Lin,  A.  L. 

Antiquites  Nationales,  ou  reeueil  des  Monumens  pour  servir  a 
I'histoire  de  fEmpire  Francais,  tels  que  tombeaux,  &c,  livres  des 
Abbayes,  Monasteres,  Chateaux,  &c.  5  torn.,  folio,  Paris,1790-9. 

205.  . 

I  Regali  Sepolcri  del  Duomo  di  Palermo  riconosciuti  e  illustrati, 

folio,  Napoli,  1784. 
Raccolta  di  SarcofV.gi,  urne,  e  altri  Monumenti  di  Sculptura  del 

Campo  Santo  di  Pisa,  4to.,  Pisa,  1820.  180  plates. 

576 


APPENDIX  II. 


CLASS  X. — THEATRES,  AMPHITHEATRES,  &c. 

206.  Arnaldi,  Conte  Enea. 

Idea  di  un  Teatro  nelle  principal  sue  parti  simile  a'  teatri  antichi  air 
uso  moderno  accomodate-,  4to,  Vicenza,  1762. 

207.  Beccega,  T.  C. 

SulT  Architettura  Greco-Romana  applicata  alia  construzione  del 
Teatro  Moderno  Italiano  e  Sulle  machine  teatrali,  folio,  Venezia, 
1817. 

208.  Bianchi  di  Lugano,  P. 

Osservazioni  suli'  arena,  e  sul  podio  dell*  Anfiteatro  Flavio,  folio, 
Roma,  1812. 

209.  Don  net,  A. 

Architectonographie  des  Theatres  de  Paris,  8vo.,  with  a  4to  volume 
of  plates,  Paris,  1821. 

210.  DUMONT,  SlEUR. 

Parallele  de  Plans  des  Salles  de  Spectacles  dTtalie  et  de  France, 
avec  des  Details  de  Machines  Theatrales,  large  imperial  folio,  61 
plates,  Paris,  1774. 

211.  Giorgi,  Felice. 

Descrizione  Istorica  del  Teatro  di  Tor  di  Nino,  4to.,  9  plates,  Roma, 
1795. 

212.  Mokelli,  C. 

Pianta,  e  Spacato  del  Nuovo  Teatro  dTmola,  folio,  Roma,  1780. 

213.  Patte. 

Essai  sur  l'Architecture  Theatrale,  8vo.,  Paris,  1782. 

214.  Louis,  M. 

Salle  de  Spectacle  de  Bourdeaux,  atlas  folio,  Paris,  1782.  Contain- 
ing also  plans  of  the  theatres  of  Naples,  Aliberti,  Turin,  London, 
the  Argentine,  those  of  Berlin,  Versailles,  Paris,  Lyons,  Mete, 
Madrid,  Brest,  &c. 

215.  Saunders,  G. 

Treatise  of  Theatres,  4to.,  1790,  13  plates. 

216.  Vaudoyer,  A.  L.  T. 

Description  du  Teatre  de  Marcellus  a  Rome,  4to.,  Paris,  1812. 

217.  Ware. 

Remarks  on  Theatres,  8vo.,  plates,  1809. 

218.  W  v  ATT,  B, 

On  the  Rebuilding  of  Drury  Lane  Theatre,  4to.,  1812. 


CLASS  XL— BRIDGES,  &c,  AND  WORKS  FOR  THE 
ENGINEER. 

219.  Anselin,  N.  I.  B. 

Experiences  sur  la  main-d'eeuvre  de  differens  travaux  dependans  du 
service  des  Ingenieurs  des  pouts  et  chaussees,  et  des  Ingenieurs 
des  batimens  civils,  4to.,  Boulogne,  1810. 

4D  577 


APPENDIX  II. 


220.  Atwood,  G. 

Dissertation  on  the  Construction  and  Properties  of  Arches,  2  parts, 
4to,  1801-4. 

221.  Aubry,  M. 

Memoires,  containing  Memoire  sur  la  Construction  d'un  Pont  de 
Bois  de  450  pieds  d'ouverture  d'un  seul  jet,  sur  la  force  d'impul- 
sion  des  courants  d'eau  et  d'air  ambiant,  &c,  4to.,  Paris,  1790. 

222.  Barlow,  P. 

Essay  on  the  Strength  and  Stress  of  Timber,  &c,  8vo.,  1828. 

223.  Barres  du  Molard,  Le  Vicomte  de. 

Nouveau  Systeme  de  pont  a  grandes  portees,  ou  Moyen  tres  econo- 
mique  de  construire  des  arches  de  toutes  grandeurs  ;  applicable 
a  toutes  les  constructions  particulieres  et  publiques,  &c,  4to., 
Paris. 

224.  Beaudemoulin,  L.  A. 

Recherches  sur  la  Fondation  par  immersion  des  Ouvrages  Hydrau- 
liques,  et  particulierement  des  ecluses,  4to.,  Paris,  1827. 

225.  Belidor. 

Architecture  Hydraulique,  4  torn.,  4to.,  Paris,  1737,  &c. 

226.  Boistard,  L.  C. 

Recueil  d'Experiences  et  d'Observations  sur  le  pont  de  Nemours, 
pour  celle  de  l'Arsenal,  &c,  4to.,  Paris,  1822.  19  plates. 

227.  Bonrepos,  P.  P.  Requit  de. 

Histoire  du  Canal  de  Languedoc,  8vo.,  Paris,  1805. 

228.  Camus  de  Mezieres. 

Traite  sur  la  force  des  Bois  de  Charpente,  ouvrage  essentiel  pour 
ceux  qui  veulent  batir,  et  qui  donne  les  moyens  de  procurer  plus 
de  solidite  aux  edifices,  de  connaitre  la  bonne  et  la  mauvais 
qualite  de  Bois,  de  calculer  leur  force,  8vo.,  Paris,  1782. 

229.  Cordier,  M.  L. 

Essais  sur  la  Construction  des  Routes,  des  ponts  suspendus,  &c, 
8vo.,  with  a  folio  volume  of  plates,  Lille,  1823. 

230.  Coulier. 

Description  generale  des  Phares,  Fanaux,  &c,  construits  pour  la 
surete  de  la  Navigation,  8vo.,  1829. 

231.  Coulomb. 

Recherches  sur  les  moyens  d'executer  sous  l'eau  des  travaux 
hydrauliques  sans  employer  aucun  epuisement,  8vo.,  Paris. 

232.  Decessart,  (Inspecteur-general  des  Ponts  et  Chausees.) 
Travaux  Hydrauliques,  2  vols,  avec  67  pi.  gravees  avec  le  plus  grand 

soin,  4to.,  Paris,  1806. 

233.  Dupin,  Baron. 

Memoires  sur  la  Marine  et  les  Ponts  et  Chaussees  de  France  et 

d'Angleterre,  8vo.,  Paris,  1818. 
Application  de  Geometrie  et  de  Mecanique  a.  la  Marine  et  aux  Ponts 

et  Chaussees,  17  plates,  4to.,  Paris,  1822. 

234.  Exchaquet,  H. 

Dictionnaire  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  8vo.,  12  plates,  Paris,  1787. 

235.  Gerstner,  M.  F.  de. 

Memoire  sur  les  Grandes  Routes,  les  Chemins  de  Fer  et  les  Canaux 
de  Navigation,  par  Girard,  8vo.,  Paris,  1827. 

578 


APPENDIX  lh 


236.  Goury,  G. 

Recueil  d'Observations,  Memoires,  et  Projets  concernant  la  Naviga- 
tion interieure,  les  Bays,  les  Dessechements,  les  Ports  maritimes, 
les  Routes,  les  Pouts,  l'Arcliitecture,  &e.,  2  torn.  4to.  avec  un  atlas 
de  planches,  Paris,  1827. 

237.  Gwilt,  Joseph,  F.S.A. 

Treatise  on  the  Equilibrium  of  Arches,  8vo.,  1826. 
On  the  rebuilding  of  London  Bridge,  8vo.,  1823. 

238.  Hutton,  C. 

Tracts  on  Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Subjects,  comprising  the 
Theory  of  Bridges,  3  vols.  8vo.,  1812. 

239.  Le  Sage,  P.  C. 

Recueil  de  divers  Memoires  des  Ponts  et  Chaussees,  2  torn.  4to., 
Paris,  1810. 

240.  Milne,  J. 

Theory  and  Principles  of  Bridges  and  Piers,  8vo.,  36  plates,  1806. 

241.  Navier. 

Memoire  sur  les  Ponts  suspendus,  avec  un  Atlas,  en  folio,  des 
planches,  2  vols.  4to.,  Paris,  1830. 

242.  Perronet. 

Memoire  sur  la  recherche  des  moyens  que  Ton  pourroit  employer 
pour  construire  de  grandes  arches  de  pierre  de  deux  cents,  trois 
cents,  quatre  cents,  et  jusqu'a  cinq  cents  pieds  d'ouverture,  4to., 
Paris,  1793. 

Ses  Ouvres,  4to.,  with  an  atlas  folio  volume  of  plates,  Paris. 

243.  Prony,  M.  de. 

Nouvelle  Architecture  Hydraulique,  2  torn.  4to.,  upwards  of  50 
plates,  Paris. 

244.  Regemorte,  M.  de. 

Description  du  Nouveau  Pont  de  Pierre  sur  la  Riviere  d'Allier  a 
Moulins,  large  folio,  Paris.  1771. 

245.  Seaward,  J. 

Observations  on  the  rebuilding  of  London  Bridge,  8vo.,  plates,  1824. 

246.  Seguin,  Aine. 

Des  Ponts  en  fil  de  fer,  8vo.,  plates,  1824. 

247.  Semple. 

On  Building  in  Water,  4to.,  plates. 

248.  Smeaton,  J. 

Building  and  Construction  of  the  Eddystone  Lighthouse,  imperial 
folio,  23  plates,  1813. 

249.  Stevenson,  R. 

Account  of  the  Bell  Rock  Lighthouse,  4to.,  plates,  1824. 

250.  Telford,  ^. 

Reports  on  the  Holyhead  Roads,  Harbour,  Bridges,  &c,  large  thick 
folio  vol.  with  plates,  1822. 

251.  Town,  J. 

Improvement  in  the  Construction  of  Wood  and  Iron  Bridges,  8vo., 
plates,  New-Haven,  U.  S.,  1821. 

252.  Vicat,  L.  J. 

Description  du  Pont  Suspendu  construit  sur  la  Dordogne  a  Argental, 
4to.,  plates,  Paris,  1830. 

r  .579 


APPENDIX  II. 


Recherches  sur  les  Mortiers,  4to.,  plates,  Paris,  18]  8. 

253.  Vulliamy,  L. 

Bridge  of  the  S.S.  Trinita,  large  folio,  4  fine  plates,  1822 

254.  Watson,  E. 

History  of  the  Rise,  Progress,  and  Existing  Condition  of  the  Western 
Canals  in  the  State  of  New  York,  8vo.,  plates,  1820. 

255.  Wiebeking,  Le  Chevalier. 

Grand  Work  on  Engineering,  Bridges,  Roads,  Canals,  &c.,  4  thick 
vols.  4to.  with  a  very  large  atlas  folio  volume,  of  plates,  Munich, 
1814-24. 

256.  . 

Annual  Reports  of  the  State  of  New  York,  in  relation  to  the  Erie 
and  Champion  Canals,  2  vols.,  large  thick  8vo.,  Albany,  1825. 

Remarks  on  the  Constructions  of  Bridges,  and  Improvements  to 
Secure  the  Foundations  on  the  different  Soils  where  they  are  in- 
tended to  be  built,  4to.,  4  folding  plates,  1740. 


CLASS  XII.— ELEMENTARY  AND  PRACTICAL  WORKS. 

257.  Androuet  du  Ceiiceau,  J. 

Livre  d'Architecture,  folio,  50  plates,  Paris,  1662. 

258.  Aviler,  C.  A.  d\ 

Cours  d'Architecture,  4to.,  Paris,  1750. 

259.  Barozzi  da  Vignola,  J. 

(Euvres  Completes,  large  folio,  Paris,  1823. 

Gli  Ordini  d'Architettura  Civile,  4to.,  44  plates,  Milano,  1814. 

260.  Blondel,  J  F. 

Cours  d'Architecture,  9  torn.  8vo.,  300  plates,  Paris,  1771-77. 

261.  Borgnis,  J.  A. 

Traite  elementaire  de  Construction  appliquee  a.  l'Architecture  Civile, 
2  torn.  4to.,  30  folded  plates,  Paris,  1823. 

262.  Brunet,  F. 

Dimensions  des  fers  qui  doivent  former  la  Coupole  de  la  Halle  aux 
Grains,  oblong  4to.,  1809. 

263.  Bruyere,  L. 

Etudes  relatives  k  l'Art  des  Constructions,  large  folio,  1823. 

264.  Bullet. 

Architecture  pratique,  8vo.,  Paris,  1774. 
A  new  edition  by  M.  Mazois,  Paris,  1824. 

265.  Calderari,  O. 

Opere  di  Architettura,  2  torn,  large  folio,  90  plates,  Vicenza,  1808. 

266.  Chambers,  Sir  W. 

Treatise  on  the  Decorative  Part  of  Civil  Architecture,  63  plates, 
1791. 

A  new  edition  by  Gwilt,  2  vols,  imperial  8vo.,'  1825. 

267.  Clerc,  S.  le. 

Treatise  of  Architecture,  translated  by  Chambers,  2  vols.  8vo.,  with  a 
volume  of  plates,  1732. 

580 


APPENDIX  II. 

268.  Detournelle. 

Recueil  d'Architecture  Nouvelle,  folio,  60  plates,  Paris,  1805, 
Projets  d'Architecture,  folio,  120  plates,  1806. 
Nouveau  Vignole  au  Trait,  ou  Elemens  d'Ordre,  4to.  20  plates, 
Paris,  1804. 

269.  Douliot,  I.  P. 

Traite  Special  de  Coupe  des  Pierres,  2  torn.  4to.,  Paris,  1825. 

270.  Durand,  J.  N.  L. 

Precis  des  Lecons  d'Architecture,  2  torn.,  4to.,  64  plates,  Paris,  1819. 

271.  Fourneaus,  H. 

Art  du  Trait  de  Charpenterie,  4  tom.  folio,  87  plates,  Paris,  1820. 

272.  Gibbs,  J. 

Book  of  Architecture,  150  plates,  imperial  folio,  1728. 

273.  Gwilt,  Jos.  F.S.A. 

Rudiments  of  Architecture,  practical  and  theoretical,  royal  8vo.,  fine 
plates,  with  many  vignettes  illustrative  of  the  various  arts  con- 
nected with  Architecture,  1826. 

274.  Halfpenny,  W. 

Architecture  Delineated,  4to.,  45  plates,  1749. 
Art  of  Sound  Building,  folio,  1725. 

275.  Hiort,  J.W. 

Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Chimneys,  royal  8vo.,  1829. 

276.  Krafft,  J.  Ch. 

Recueil  d'Architecture  Civil,  large  folio,  121  plates,  Paris,  1812, 
Art  de  la  Charpente,  large  thick  folio,  400  plates,  Paris,  1805. 

277.  Langley,  Batty,  Architect. 

•  A  Reply  to  Mr.  John  James's  Review  of  the  several  Pamphlets  and 
Schemes  that  have  been  offered  to  the  Public,  for  the  Building  of 
a  Bridge  at  Westminster,  with  a  plate,  8vo.,  London,  1737. 

The  Builder's  Director,  or,  Bench-Mate;  being  a  pocket  treasury  of 
the  Grecian,  Roman,  and  Gothic  Orders  of  Architecture,  propor- 
tioned by  minutes  and  by  equal  parts;  engraved  on  184  copper- 
plates, 8vo.,  London,  1767. 

The  Builder's  Jewel ;  or,  the  Youth's  Instructor,  and  Workman's 
Remembrancer  :  explaining  short  and  easy  rules  for  drawing  and 
working  the  five  Orders  of  Columns,  &c,  by  B.  Langley,  and 
Thomas  Batty;  illustrated  by  examples  enlarged  on  100  copper- 
plates.   The  eleventh  edition,  London,  1768. 

The  Builder's  Complete  Assistant  ;  or,  a  Library  of  Arts  and 
Sciences,  necessary  to  be  understood  by  builders  and  workmen  in 
general ;  with  77  large  quarto  copper-plates.  The  third  edition, 
2  vols.,  London,  1738. 

The  City  and  Country  Builder's  and  Workman's  Treasury  of  Designs; 
or,  the  Art  of  Drawing  and  Working  the  Ornamental  Parts  of 
Architecture:  illustrated  by  upwards  of  400  designs,  engraved  on 
186  plates,  4to.,  London,  1740. 

The  London  Prices  of  Bricklayer's  Materials  and  Works,  both  of  new 
buildings  and  repairs,  justly  ascertained  ;  and  the  common 
exactions  and  abuses  therein  detected  :  with  designs  for  piers, 
gates,  piazzas,  &c,  8vo.,  London,  1748. 

Gothic  Architecture  improved,  4to.,  64  plates,  1747. 

581 


APPENDIX  II. 


278.  Le  Clerc,  Seb. 

Traite  d'Architecture,  4to.,  181  plates,  Paris,  1714. 

279.  Mandar. 

Etude  d'Architecture  Civile,  ou  plans,  elevations,  coupes,  et  details 
necessaires  pour  elever,  distribuer  et  decorer  une  Maison  et  ses 
dependances,  imperial  folio,  122  plates,  Paris,  1830. 

280.  Manetti,  G.  A. 

Studio  degli  Ordini  de  Architettura,  folio,  25  plates,  Firenze, 
1808. 

281.  Mesange,  M. 

Traite  de  Charpenterie  et  des  Bois  de  toutes  especes,  2  torn.  Paris, 
1753. 

282.  Milizia,  F. 

Principi  di  Architettura  Civile,  3  torn.,  8vo.,  Bassano,  1785. 

283.  Morris,  R. 

Architecture  improved,  50  plates,  8vo.,  1755. 

284.  Nicholson,  P. 

Principles  of  Architecture,  3  vols.,  8vo.,  216  plates  by  Lowry, 
1809. 

Builder's  and  Workman's  New  Director,  4to.,  1825. 

Student's  Instructor  in  Drawing  and  Working  the  Five  Orders  of 

Architecture,  8vo.,  34  plates,  182-5. 
New  Carpenter's  Guide,  or  Complete  Book  of  Lines,  4to. 

285.  Norma nd,  C. 

Le  Vignole  des  Ouvriers,  ou  Methode  facile  pour  tracer  les  Cinq 
Orders  d'Architecture,  4to.,  34  plates,  Paris,  1821. 

286.  Nosean. 

Manuel  du  Menuisier,  2  torn.  12mo.,  Paris,  1827. 

287.  Pain,  William,  Architect. 

The  Practical  Builder,  or  Workman's  General  Assistant :  shewing 
the  most  easy  and  approved  methods  for  drawing  and  working 
the  whole  or  separate  part  of  any  building;  with  plates,  4to., 
London,  1774. 

The  Practical  House  Carpenter;  containing  a  great  variety  of  useful 
designs  in  Carpentry  and  Architecture ;  with  plates.  The  fifth 
edition,  with  additions,  4to.,  London,  1794. 

288.  Palladio,  Andrea. 

I  quattro  libri  dell' Architettura,  fol.,  Venet.,  1750.  Another  edition 
in  1616. 

Fabbriche  el  Designi,  raccolti  ed  illust.  da  O.  B.  Scarnozzi,  fol.. 

4  vols.,  with  a  vast  number  of  plates,  Vicenza,  1785. 
Four  Books  of  Architecture,  translated  by  J.  Ware,  212  plates, 

folio. 

289.  Partington,  C.  F. 

Builder's  Complete  Guide,  8vo.,  plates,  1825.' 

290.  Perrault,  C. 

Ordonnance  des  Cinq  Especes  de  Colonnes,  selon  la  Methode  des 
Anciens,  fol.,  Paris,  1683 — translated  into  English  by  J.  James, 
folio. 

291.  Quareugiii,  G. 

Fabbriche  e  Disegni,  large  folio,  59  plates,  and  a  portrait,  1821. 

582 


APPENDIX  II. 

292.  Richardson,  G. 

Works  in  Architecture,  folio,  5  parts,  35  plates,  1792. 

293.  Rondelet,  I. 

Traite  Theorique  et  Pratique  de  l'Art  de  Batir,  7  torn.  4to.  Paris, 
1812. 

A  new  edition,  6  torn,  numerous  plates,  Paris,  1829-30. 

294.  Ruggieri,  F. 

Studio  d'Architettura  Civile  Sopragli  Ornamenti  di  Porti,  &c.  3  torn. 
Florence,  1722-8,  with  nearly  200  plates. 

295.  Schmidt. 

Burgerlicher  Baumeister,  5  volumes,  folio,  Gotha,  1790. 

296.  Serlio. 

Architecture,  in  French,  German,  and  Dutch,  folio,  1553. 

297.  Thomas,  W. 

Original  Designs  in  Architecture,  large  folio,  27  plates,  1783. 

298.  Tredgold,  T. 

Elementary  Principles  of  Carpentry,  4to.,  1829. 

On  the  Strength  of  Cast  Iron  and  other  Metals,  8vo.,  1831. 

299.  Vitry,  U, 

Le  Vignole  de  Poche,  18mo.,  Paris,  1827. 

300.  Ware,  J. 

Complete  body  of  Architecture,  folio,  1756. 

301.  Wiebkking,  Le  Chevalier. 

Grand  Work  on  Civil   Architecture,    3  volumes,  elephant  folio, 
Munich,  1823. 

302.  . 

Architecture  de  P.  de  L'Orme,  folio,  Rouen,  1648. 


CLASS  XIII.— MISCELLANEOUS. 

303.  Amati,  C. 

Regoli  del  Chiar-oscuro  in  Architettura,  fol.  13  plates,  Milan,  1802 

304.  Bon  not. 

Detail  generale  de  fers  a.  l'usage  des  Batimens,  8vo.,  Paris. 

305.  Chapman,  W. 

On  the  Dry  Rot,  8vo.,  1817. 

306.  Coussin. 

Du  Genie  de  l'Architecture,  large  4to.,  60  plates,  Paris. 
367.  D'Espie,  Comte. 

Manner  of  securing  all  sorts  of  Buildings  from  Fire,  8vo.,  1755. 

308.  Elmes,  J. 

Lectures  on  Architecture,  8vo.,  1821. 
Memoirs  of  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  plates,  1823. 
Practical  Treatise  on  Ecclesiastical  and  Civil  Dilapidations,  imperial 
8vo.,  1829. 

Hints  for  the  Improvement  of  Prisons,  4to.,  plates,  1817. 

309.  Gauthey,  E.  M. 

Sur  les  Degradations  survenues  aux  Piliers  du  Dome  du  Pantheon, 
4to.,  plates,  Paris,  1798. 

583 


APPENDIX  II. 


310.  Gwilt,  Joseph. 

Sciography,  or  Examples  of  Shadows,  with  Rules  for  their  Pro- 
jection, intended  for  the  Use  of  Architectural  Draughtsmen  and 
other  Artists,  8vo.,  24  plates,  1824. 
For  Works  on  Architectural  Drawing,  see  the  article  Perspective,  in 
the  Dictionary. 
311-  Ledoux,  E.N. 

L'Architecture  consideree  sous  le  rapport  de  l'Art,  des  Mceurs,  et  de 
la  Legislation,  imperial  folio,  with  125  fine  plates,  1789. 

312.  Legrand,  J.G. 

Essai  sur  1'Histoire  generale  de  l'Architecture,  8vo.,  Paris,  1819. 

313.  L'Eveille,  C.  J. 

Considerations  sur  les  Frontons,  4to.,  plate,  Paris,  1824. 

314.  Mitford,  N. 

Principles  of  Design  in  Architecture  traced  in  Observations  on  Build- 
ings, 8vo.,  1819. 

315.  Nicholson,  P. 

Dictionary  of  Architecture,  2  vols,  thick  4to.,  1809. 

316.  Overton,  T.  C. 

Temple  Builder,  8vo.,  50  plates,  1774. 

317.  Roland  deVirloys. 

Dictionnaire  d'Architecture,  3  torn.,  4to.,  Paris,  1770. 

318.  Wade,  T. 

Treatise  on  the  Drv  Rot  in  Timber,  8vo.,  1815. 

319.  ; 

Collezione  dei  progretti  d'Architettura  Premiati  nei  Grandi  Con- 
corsi  triennali  dalP  Accad.  di  Belle  Arti  in  Firenze,  6  livraisons, 
large  folio,  plates,  Firenze. 

584 


INDEXES 


TO 

APPENDIX,    No.  II. 


I.— INDEX  OF  AUTHORS,  &c. 


The  numbers  referred  to  are  those  which  precede  the  name  of  each  writer. 


Aberdeen,  Eail  of,  1,  59 
Adam,  J.  99 

Adam,  Robert,  16,  99,  179 
Aguillon,  98  (§•) 
Aikin,  2,  154 
Albertoli,  180 
Alexander,  100 
Allason,  12,  17 
Amati,  303 
Amyot,  98  (x) 
Anderson,  98  (e,/) 
Androuet  du  Cerceau,  257 
Angell,  6 
Anisy,  77 
Anselin,  219 
Arnaldi,  206 
Astle,  T.  62,  98  (n) 
Atkinson,  T.  63 
Atkinson,  W.  155 
Atwood,  220 
Aubry,  221 
Averbeke,  33 
Aviler,  258 


Baker,  98  (t) 
Bankes,  98  (k,  mt  q) 
Barbaro,  59 
Barbault,  18 
Barlow,  222 
Barozzi,  259 
Barres  du  Molard,  223 
Barrington,  98  ( a,  cfe — h) 
Bartoli,  192 
Batty,  277 
Beaudemoulin,  224 
4E 


Beccega,  207 
Becke,  98  ( p ) 
Bedford,  15 
Beldrado,  45 
Belidor,  225 
Bellori,  J.  P.,  19 
Bentham,  65,  98  (I) 
Bianchi  di  Lugano,  208 
Blackader,  98  (k) 
Blondell,  117,  260 
Blore,  193 
Blouet.  20 
Boffrand,  118 
Boissere*e,  64 
Boistard,  226 
Bonnot,  304 
Bonrepos,  227 
Borgnis,  261 
Borioni,  21 
Bosio,  194 
Bouillart,  66 
Boys,  98  (p) 
Brand,  98  (k) 
Bray,  98  (g,  i) 
Brereton,  98  (b,  t ) 
Brettingham,  101 
Bridgin,  K.,  67 
Briseaux,  119 
Britton,  J.,  68,  102 
Brogniart,  120 
Brunet,  2G2 
Bruyere,  263 
Bullet,  264 
Busby,  156 
Burlington,  Lord,  34 
Burton,  98 

535 


INDEXES  TO    APPENDIX,    NO.  II. 


Cade,  98  (g) 
Calderari,  265 
Caley,  98  (k) 
Cameron,  23 
Campbell,  103 
Camus  de  Mezie'res,  228 
Caristie,  22 
Carlile,  98  (I) 
Carpentier,  121 
Carte,  98  (/c) 
Carter,  J.,  69 
Cassas,  46 
Castell,  24 

Chambers,  Sir  W.,  104,  266,  267 

Chandler,  15 

Chapman,  305 

Chapuy,  70 

Cicognara,  122 

Clarke,  W.  B.,  71 

Clercs  Le,  267,  278 

Clerisseau,  16,  25 

Clochar,  123 

Cockerell,  R.  C,  3,  13 

Collingston,  98  (a) 

Colette,  182 

Columbani,  181 

Combe,  98  (n) 

Conway,  98  (h) 

Cordier,  229 

Coste,  47,  124 

Colman,  J.  S.,  72 

Cottingham,  L.  N.,  73 

Cotton,  98  (y) 

Coulier,  230 

Coulomb,  231 

Cousin,  306 

Cresy,  40,  74,  151 

Crunden,  157 

Cunningnam,  98  (o) 

Dallaway,  75,  98  (o) 
Dalrymple,  98  (g)' 
D'Avila,  258 
Davy,  H.,  76 
Dearn,  158 
Decessart,  232 
Deering,  Gandy,  15,  27 
Delagardette,  4 
Del  Re,  125 
Denne,  98  (/,  k,  /,  m) 
Desgodets,  26,  31 
D'Espie,  367 
Detournelle,  268 
Dewint,  12 
Donaldson,  13 
Donnet,  209 
Douglas,  98  (h) 
Douliot,  269 
Drake,  98  (e,  i) 
Ducarel,  77 
Dumont,  126,  210 
Dupin,  233 
Durand,  198,  270 
Duval  127 

586 


Ellis,  98  (r) 
Elmes,  308 
Elsam,  159 

Engleneld,  98  f/,  «,  otp) 
Essex,  98  (d,f,g) 
Evelyn,  49 
Exchaquet,  234 

Falconer,  98  (I ) 
Falda,  128 
Famin,  132 
Ferrerio,  129 
Finegan,  98  (g ) 
Folkes,--98  (a) 
Fontaines,  142 
Forster,  98  (b) 
Fourneaus,  271 
Fox,  W.,  48 
Freart,  R.,  49 
Frederic,  98  (a) 

Gandon,  103 
Gandy,  J.,  160 
Gartner,  F.,  5 
Gau,  F.  C,  50 
Gauthier,  130 
Gauthy,  309 
Gell,  Sir  W.,  27 
Geradu,  131 
Gerstner,  235 
Gibbs,  J.,  105,  272 
Gibson,  98  (o) 
Giorgi,  211 
Goldicutt,  J.,  106 
Gosselin,  98  (r) 
Gough,  98  (6,  c,  k)  195 
Goury,  236 
Gozzini,  196 

Grandjean  de  Montigny,  132;  197 
Grand  gent,  198 
Griffiths,  199 
Guis,  15 

Gutensohn,  J.  G.  von,  78 
Gwilt,  J.,  59,  87,  133,  2377  266,  273, 
,  310 
Gyfford,  161 

Halfpenny,  79, 162,  274 
Hall,  Sir  J.,  80 
Hamilton,  98  (rf,  p) 
Hardwick,  98  (g-) 
Harmer,  98  (a) 
Harris,  6,  98  (b) 
Hauderbort,  149 
Hawkins,  81 
Hay,  98  (g) 
Hiort.  275 
Hittorfs,  7,  134 
Hoare,  98  (y) 
Holden,  98  (w) 
Howard,  98  (n,  o) 
Humphrey,  53 
Hunt,  T.  F.,  82,  163 
Hunter,  98  (g) 


Hutton,  238 
Hyet,  200 

Imbard,  201 

Jackson,  98  (p)  164 
Jenkins,  13 
Jolimont,  83,  202 
Jombert,  135 
Jones,  Inigo,  106,  107 
Joubert,  52 

Kerrick,  98  (</,  s) 
King,  84,  98  (c,  d,f,g) 
Kinnard,  W.,  8, 13 
Kleiner,  136 
Knapp,  78 
Krafft,  137,  236 

Labacco,  28 
Laing,  D.,  108,  165 
Lamb,  E.  B.,  85 
Landon,  138 
Langles,  51 
Langley,  277 
Latham,  98  (o) 
Le  Brun,  52 
Ledoux, 311 
Ledwich,  98  (h) 
Lee,  98,  («) 
Le  Grand,  25,  138,  312 
Leighton,  98  (i) 
Le  Noir,  183 
Le  Pautre,  184 
Le  Roi,  9,  139 
Le  Sage,  239 
Letarouilly,  140 
Lethieullier,  98  (a,  6,  g) 
L'Eveille,  312 
Lewis,  109 
Lighthole,  166 
Logan,  98  (y) 
Lorme,  P.  de,  302 
Lort,  98  (h) 
Loveday,  98  (a) 
Louis,  M.,  214 
Lugar,  167 
Lusson,  1 J  7 
Lysons,  98  (i,  h,  s,  t) 
Lyttleton,  98  (a,  b) 

Macniel,  08  (/t) 
Major,  10,  98  (I ) 
Maliphant,  203 
Mandar,  279 
Mander,  98  (c) 
Manetti,  280 
Mann,  98  (m) 
Marshall,  26 
Mazois,  29,  264 
Mesange,  281 
Meyrick,  98  (v) 
Middleton,  C,  110,  168 
Milborne,  98  (a) 


AUTHORS. 

Milizia,  282 
Miller,  J.,  169 
Millin,  204 
Milne,  240 
Milner,  86 
Minet,  98  (e) 
Mitchell,  111 
Mitford,  314 
Moisy,  141 
Moles-worth,  98  {k) 
Moller,  87 
Montfaucon,  53 
Moreau,  C,  31 
Morel,  Vinde,  170 
Morelli,  212 
Morghen,  30 
Morris,  54,  283 
Murphy,  J.,  55,  88 

Narrien,  98  (r) 
Nash,  90 
Navier,  241 
Newton,  W.,  59 
Nibby,  32 
Nicholson,  284,  315 
Normand,  C,  36,  185,  285 
Nosban,  286 

Overton,  316 

Pain,  287 
Paine,  J.,  112 
Palladio,  23,  34,  288 
Pancrazi,  15 
Papworth,  171 
Parker,  172 
Parky n,  89 
Parrs,  15 
Partington,  289 
Patte,  213 

Pegge,  98  (d,  <?,  g-,  j,  fr,  m) 

Percier,  142 

Perrault,  59,  290 

Perronet,  212 

Piranesi,  35 

Pocock,  173 

Pope,  98  (e) 

Pownal,  98  (6,  c,  g$,  ft) 

Preston,  98  (c) 

Price,  98  (r) 

Prony,  24:) 

Pugin,  56,  90,  102 

Quareughi,  291 
Quincy,  Q.  de,  57 

Rackett,  98  (r) 
Rail  ton,  13 
Reyemorte,  244 
Rennel,  98  (x) 
Repton,  98  (q,  x) 
Revett,  N.,  13,  15 
Richardson,  G.,  113,  187,  292 
Rickmau,  91 

537 


INDEXES  TO 

Riddel,  98  (kf  I  ) 
Kiou,  11 

Robinson,  92,  174 
Rogers,  J.,  143,  175 
Roi,  M.  le,  9 
Roland  de  Virloys,  317 
Rondelet,  293 
Rooke,  98  (e—k) 
Rossini,  36,  144 
Rubeis,  D.,  37 
Rubeis,  J.  19,  38,  145 
Ruggieri,  294 

Saunders,  98  (r)  215 
Sayers,  98  (p) 
Scamozzi,  34 
Scheult,  146 
Schmidt,  295 
Seaward,  245 
Seguin,  246 
Semple,  247 
Serlio,  296 
Seynes,  39 
Shaw,  H.,  93,  147 
Silvestre,  148 
Simmons,  98  (I) 
Simson,  94 
Smeaton,  248 
Smirke,  98  (p,  x) 
Smith,  J.,  58 
Soane,  J.,  114 
Stanhope,  J.  S.,  12 
Stevens,  176 
Stevenson,  249 
Strange,  98  (d,  <?,/,) 
Stuart,  James,  13 
Stukeley,  98  (a) 
Suys,  149 

Tappen,  150 
Tatham,  188 

Taylor,  40,  74,  98  (t>)  151 


APPENDIX,  NO.  II. 

Telford,  250 
Thiollet,  152 
Thomas,  297 
Tooke,  98  (g) 
Tovey,  98  (a) 
Town,  251 
Tredgold,  293 
Turner,  98  («/) 

Valadier,  G.,  41 
Vasi,  G.,  42 
Vaudoyer,  216 
Vertue,  98  (a) 
Vicat,  252 
Vignola,  259 
Vitruvius,  59 
Vitry,  U.,  299 

Waddilove,  98  (q,  r) 

Wade,  318 

Walford,  98  (o) 

Ward,  98  (a) 

Ware,  98  (r,  5)  217,  300 

Watson,  98  (6,  c)  254 

Webster,  98  (b) 

Westmacott,  190 

Wetten,  177 

Whittington,  95 

Wiebeking,  255,  301 

Wilkins,  W.,  14,  15,  59,  96,  98  (n,  0) 

Willett,  98  (0 

Willis,  98  (h) 

Winckelmann,  60 

Wood,  R.,  43 

Woolf,  103 

Woolnoth,  97 

Wray,  98  (a) 

Wren,  115,  308 

Wyatt,  218 

Wyndham,  98  (<?,/) 

Zanth,  134 


II. — INDEX  OF  SUBJECTS. 


Arbey,  66,  68,  98  (c,ff  i,  Z,  n,  x) 
iEgina,  3 
Agrigentum,  3,  13 
Almshouses,  163,  174 
Altar,  53,  98  (c,  n) 
American  Architecture,  143,  175 
Amphitheatre,  32,  35,  98  (q)  208 
Anglo-Norman  Architecture.    90,  96? 
98  (q) 

Anglo-Saxon  Architecture,  96,  98  (g,  k) 
Antonine  column,  35,  53,  98  (a) 
Aqueducts,  35,  53,  98  {q) 
Arabesque,  183,  191 
Arabian  Architecture,  47,  55,  124 
588 


Arch,  pointed,  98  (x) 
Arch,  construction  of,  220,  223,  237, 242 
Arches,  triumphal,  19,  41,  44,  53 
Athens,  3,  8,  11,  13,  14,  15 

Balbec,  43 

Barrows,  98  (c,  p,  qy  t) 
Baths,  20,  23,  35,  63,  98  (e,  i,  y) 
Beacons,  98  (a) 
Brick,  £8  (a,  b) 

Bridge,  35,  44,  35,  98  (g)  221,  223,  220, 

229,  233,  &c. 
Building,  158,  274,  277,  284,  287,  289, 

293,  295 


SUBJECTS. 


Campanile,  74 

Canal,  227,  235,  254,  255,  256 
Capitals,  181,  191 

Carpentry,  58, 27 1 , 276, 281 , 284, 287,298 
Castles,  84,  97,  98  (a,  d,f,  g,  r,  x,  y) 
Cathedrals,  63,  65,  68,  70,  74,  79,  87, 

98  (d,  k,  I,  r,) 
Ceilings,  182,  184,  187 
Chimney,  190,  275 

Church,  67,  68,  75,  76,  78,  87,  88, 92, 96, 

98  (c,  g— /c,  n,  o)  174 
Cippi,  35 
Columbaria,  53 
Cornices,  181 

Cottages,  114,  155,  158—161,  165,  167, 

168,  173,  174,  176 
Crosses,  62,  71,  98  (i,  n,  o) 
Crypt,  98  Ks) 

Design,  314 
Doric  Order,  2 
Dormitory,  98  (p) 

Druidical  Architecture,  53,  98  (6,  c,  d, 

f—h  9,  r,  y) 
Dry  rot,  305,  318 

Ecclesiastical  Architecture,  68,  86,  95 
Egyptian  Architecture,  45,  46,  53,  67 
Eleusis,  15 

Engineering,  219—256 

English  Architecture,  62—98,  99—116 

Entablatures,  191 

Entasis,  13 

Etruscan  Architecture,  35 

Farm-houses,  162,  165,  168,  176 

Fire,  on  preserving  buildings  from,  367 

Foliage,  179,  184,  191 

Font,  94,  98  ( b,  fc,  /,  m,  o,  q) 

Forum,  22,  32,  35 

Fountains,  53,  127,  141 

French  Architecture,  117, 119, 120, 121, 

135,  137,  138,  141,  142,  147,  148, 

150,  152,  170 
Friezes,  181,  184,  191 
Frontons,  313 

Gables,  90,  163 

Gates,  160,  103,  171,  172,  174 

Gateways,  53 

Geneva,  130 

German  Architecture,  136,  153 
German  Gothic  Architecture,  87,  98 
Gothic  Architecture,  48,  62—98 
Gothic  Architecture  of  Spain,  88 
Gothic  Ornaments,  73,  79,  85,  90,  (v,  y) 
Grecian  Architecture,  1 — 15,  35,  48,  52, 
56,  98  (p)  188,  189 

Herculaneum,  35,  44 

Hindu  Architecture,  51,  98  (g,  A,  Jc) 

Hydraulic  Architecture,  224,  225,  231, 

232.  243,  247 
Hypogaaa,  53 


Ionian  Antiquities,  15 
Iron,  304 

Italian  Architecture,  122,  125,  126,  128, 
129,  131,  132,  133,  142,  144,  145, 
146,  149,  150,  151,  177,  319 

Jerash,  98  (x) 
Joinery,  286 

Labyrinth,  53 

Light-house,  53,  230,  248,  249 

Lodges,  163,  174 

Lombard  style  of  Architecture,  74 

Mausoleum,  35,  53,  202 
Meeting  Houses,  100 
Metopes,  6 

Middle  ages,  Architecture  of  the,  68, 

74,  98  (t) 
Milliary  columns,  53,  98  (g) 
Mortar,  252 

Mosaics,  35,  53,  98  (A:,  y) 
Mouldings,  191 

Naval  Architecture,  53,  98  (/) 
Nismes,  25,  39 

Normandy,  Antiquities  of,  72,  77,  83 
Nubia,  50 

Olympia,  12 

Orders  of  Architecture,  11,  269,  277, 

280,  284,  285,  290 
Ornament,  13,  35,  73,  79,  85,  90,  98  (s) 

179—191,  294 

Paestum,  4,  10,  35 

Palace,  35,  120,  128,  129,  131,  14S,  149 

151,  153 
Palmyra,  43 
Pantheon,  35 
Paper  Roofs,  178 
Parsonage  Houses,  163,  174 
Pedestal,  35 
Perspective,  303,  310 
Piers,  240 
Pilasters,  184 
Pisa,  74,  98,  (i) 
Podium,  208 
Pola.  16,  17 

Pompeii,  27,  29,  35,  98  (d) 
Portico,  35,  96,  98  (n) 
Pozzuoli.  44 
Prison,  35,  110,  308 
Prussian  Architecture,  98  (x) 
Pyramids,  53 

Reservoir,  35 
Rhamnus,  15 

Roads,  53,  98  (a,  b,  g,  h,  t,  o,  p)  229 

250,  235,  255 
Roman  Architecture,  16— 4 1,  48,  52,  56 

98  (b)  188 
Roman  Antiquities  in  Britain,  98  (d— m- 


INDEXES  TO  APPENDIX,  NO.  II. 


Roman  Stations,  98  ( c,  e,  p) 

Rome,  Ancient,  1*6,  18,  &c. 

Rome,  Modern,  35,  128,  129,  140,  142, 

144,  149 
Rosslyn  Chapel,  68 
Round  Churches,  98  (/) 
Round  Towers,  98  (a,  6,  i) 
Rural  Architecture,  154 — 178 
Russia,  142 

Sanctuary,  98  (a) 
Selinus,  6  • 

Sepulchral  Monuments,  35,  53,  98  (a,  b, 

e,  g — k,  m,  n,  pf  s,  v,  y)  192 — 205 
Shrines,  98  (a,  k) 
Sicily,  Ancient,  5,  7.  15 
Sicily,  Modern,  134 
Spalatro,  16 
Stone-masonry,  270 
Stone  Pillars,  62,  98  (n, 
Stone  Seats  in  Churches,  98  (k — m) 
Strength  of  Metals,  298 
Stucco,  35 
Sunium,  15 

Temples,  3,  13,  34,  35,  38,  41,  44,53,98 

(f,  g,  I)  316 

590 


Tesselated  Pavement,  53,  98  (r) 

Theatre,  13,  35,  53,  206—218 

Therma,  20,  23,  34 

Thoricus,  15 

Tile,  Roman,  98  (h) 

Timber,  222,  228,  281 

Trajan's  Column,  35,  53,  98  (a) 

Treasury  of  Atreus,  1 3 

Triumphal  Arches,  19,  35,  41,  44,  63 

Tudor  Style  of  Architecture,  82 


University  of  Edinburgh,  99 


Vases,  35,  53,  179 
Vaults,  98  (r) 
Vesica  Piscis,  58  (t) 
Villa,  Ancient,  24 

Villa,  Modern,  114,  154,  156,  161,  164, 

167,  173,  177 
Vitrified  Forts,  &c.  in  Scotland,  98 

(*>/,*) 


Walls,  Roman,  98  (a,  b,  o) 
"Westminster  Abbey,  &c,  73 


APPENDIX,    No.  III. 


BRIEF  HEADS  OF  JURISPRUDENCE,  AS  FAR  AS  IT  IS 
CONNECTED  WITH  ARCHITECTURE. 


1.  To  Abate,  from  the  French  word  abattre,  to  throw  down,  in  old  law, 
is  the  prostration,  pulling  down,  or  destroying  of  houses,  by  the 
tenant,  (or  usufructuary,)  to  the  damage  of  the  proprietor.  The 
phrase  was  abattre  maison,  and  the  punishment  was  the  same  as  for 
committing  waste. 

2.  Accessorial  buildings,  are  minor  structures  in  addition  to  the  prin- 
cipal building:  they  belong  sometimes  to  the  freeholder,  sometimes 
to  the  landlord,  sometimes  to  the  tenant.  Lord-chancellor  Hardwicke, 
in  a  case  judged  in  1743,  says,  u  To  be  sure,  in  the  old  cases,  they 
go  a  great  way  upon  the  annexation  to  the  freehold ;  and  so  long 
ago  as  Henry  the  Seventh's  time,  the  courts  of  law  construed  even 
a  copper  and  furnaces  to  be  part  of  the  freehold.  Since  that  time, 
the  general  ground  the  court  have  gone  upon,  of  relaxing  this  strict 
construction  of  law,  is,  that  it  is  for  the  benefit  of  the  public  to 
encourage  tenants  for  life  to  do  what  is  advantageous  to  the  estate 
during  their  term."  All  buildings  were  reckoned,  among  the  Romans, 
to  be  accessories  to  the  soil.  Accessories  to  the  buildings,  were  all 
such  landlord's  fixtures  as  could  not  be  removed  by  the  tenant. 

3.  Adjunction,  is  the  building  on  another  man's  soil,  fitting  up  another 
man's  house,  &c;  and  it  is  an  ancient  legal  maxim,  that  whatever  is 
adjoined  to  a  principal,  becomes  part  of  that  principal,  (si  quis  in 
alieno  solo  ex  sua  materia  domum  sedificaverit,  illius  fit  domus,  cujus 
et  solum  est. — Justic.  Inst.  lib.  ii.  tit.  1.  §  30.)  The  houses  in  Bed- 
ford square,  for  instance,  are  adjunctive  to  the  freehold  of  the  duke 
of  Bedford,  and  will  become  the  property  of  the  duke,  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  building  leases.  Adjunctions  to  houses  already  built,  in 
the  shape  of  finishings,  &c,  become  part  of  the  house.  Fixtures 
may,  under  certain  circumstances,  be  removed;  but  adjunctions  to 
houses  can  in  no  case  be  removed,  without  incurring  the  penalties  of 
trespass  de  bonis  asportatis. 

A  tenant  who  erects  any  buildings  of  brick  and  mortar,  and  tiled, 
and  slated,  and  let  into  the  ground,  at  his  own  expense,  on  a  farm, 

691 


APPENDIX,  No.  III. 


cannot  remove  them,  even  though  it  be  during  his  term,  and  must 
leave  the  premises  in  the  same  state  as  when  he  entered.  But  they 
may  be  removed,  if  built  upon  blocks,  rollers,  or  pattens.  See  the 
rule  established  by  lord  Ellenborough,  in  the  case  of  Elwes,  v.  Maw. 
(East's  Reports,  vol.  iii.  p.  38.) 
4  Alteration,  or  despoiling  of  tenements,  as  of  a  shop  into  a  house  of 
residence,  or  vice  versa,  against  the  will  of  the  landlord,  as  well  as 
the  commission  or  causing  of  waste,  may  be  stopped  by  an  injunc- 
tion from  the  court  of  chancery.  A  lessee  can  be  restrained  from 
pulling  down  buildings,  and  can  be  compelled  to  put  them  in  the 
same  state  in  which  he  found  them,  if  they  have  been  suffered  to  run 
into  decay. 

5.  Ambry,  a  corruption  of  almonry,  the  apartment  where  the  arms, 
plate,  vessels,  utensils,  and  every  thing  necessary  for  house-keeping, 
are  kept ;  or  as  a  corruption  for  aumonrey,  from  the  Latin  eleemo- 
synaria,  a  house  adjoining  to  an  abbey,  where  alms  are  laid  up  for 
the  poor. 

6.  Ancient  demesne,  (vetus  patrimonium  domini,)  the  title  by  which  all 
manors  belonging  to  the  crown  were  held,  under  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, and  William  the  Conqueror. 

7.  Annealing  of  tile,  from  the  Saxon  oncelan,  to  treat  a  thing  so  as  to 
give  it  a  true  temper,  a  term  signifying  the  turning  or  hardening  of 
tiles,  often  used  in  old  statutes,  and  still  in  force.  By  the  17th 
Edward  IV.  §  3,  the  justices  of  peace,  on  information  that  such 
annealing  has  not  being  done  to  the  tiles,  shall  cause  the  tiles  to  be 
forfeited. 

8.  Annexation,  relates  to  sucn  permanent  fixtures,  chattels,  &c,  as 
cannot  be  legally  removed  from  a  house,  and  the  annexer  cannot 
remove  it  without  being  liable  to  damages.  But  buildings  may  be 
so  constructed,  that  they  shall  not  be  considered  as  annexed,  and 
therefore  appertaining  to  the  freehold.  For,  unless  they  be  abso- 
lutely annexed  to  the  principal  by  nails,  bolts,  mortar,  or  the  like, 
they  will  be  considered  as  mere  loose  and  moveable  chattels.  See 
Taunt,  vol.  i.  p.  19,  Barnew.  and  Aid.  vol.  ii.  p.  165. 

9.  Appurtenances,  are  inferior  portions  of  a  tenement,  as  out-houses, 
orchards,  yards,  and  gardens,  that  appertain  to  the  principal.  One 
messuage  cannot  be  appurtenant  to  another.  A  turbary  may  be 
appurtenant  to  a  house,  and  a  pew  in  a  church ;  but  the  latter  can- 
not be  appurtenant  to  land,  for  the  principal  and  appurtenant  must 
agree  in  nature  and  quality. 

10.  Aquage,  in  old  leases,  &c.  means  a  water-course,  and  in  some  cases 
toll  paid  for  water-carriages. 

11.  Archdeacons  and  their  officials  are  enjoined,  by  the  provincial  con- 
stitutions, to  shew  especial  regard  in  surveying  the  state  of  repairs  in 
churches,  &c,  particularly  in  respect  of  the  chancel.  By  the  statute 
of  the  17  George  III.  c.  53,  the  archdeacon  is  to  see  to  the  repairs 
of  parsonage  houses,  &c. 

12.  Architects,  are  answerable  in  law  for  ignorance.  By  the  Roman 
laws,  they  and  their  heirs  were  answerable  for  their  works  for  the 
space  of  fifteen  years.  Architects  have  generally  been  renumerated 
for  their  services  by  a  commission  of  five  per  cent  on  the  sum  laid 

592 


APPENDIX,  No.  III. 


out,  as  a  quantum  meruit.  See  the  case  of  Upsdell,  v.  Stewart,  in 
1793,  (Peake,  p.  193.)  On  the  architects  to  the  crown,  see  the 
acts  of  34  George  III.  48  George  III.  52  George  III.,  and  54 
George  III. 

13.  Astrum,  in  old  law,  a  house  or  place  of  habitation.  Stat,  of  18 
Edward  I. 

14.  Attegia,  in  old  law,  is  a  small  house. 

15.  Barton,  in  old  law  means  a  manor-house.  In  the  stat.  of  2  and  3 
Edward  VI.  c.  12,  barton  lands  and  demesne  lands  are  synonymous. 
The  word  is  used  provincially  in  Devonshire  for  a  manor-house,  and 
in  some  places  for  outhouses. 

16.  Batitoria,  in  law  Latin,  are  fulling  mills. 

17.  The  power  of  erecting  Beacons  is  vested  in  the  office  of  the  lord  high 
admiral,  and,  by  the  stat.  of  the  8  of  Eiiz.  c.  13,  in  the  corporation 
of  Trinity  house. 

18.  Benches,  when  affixed  to  the  house,  cannot  be  removed  without 
trespass  of  waste:  chimney  pieces,  pumps,  &c,  follow  the  same 
rule. 

19.  Dr.  Wood,  Bishop  of  Litchfield  and  Coventry  in  1637,  was  sus» 
pended  by  archbishop  Sancroft,  for  committing  waste,  and  suffering 
dilapidations  to  his  palace,  and  other  ecclesiastical  buildings.  The 
profits  of  his  bishopric  were  sequestered,  and  the  palace  rebuilt  out 
of  them. 

20.  Bow  windows,  are  regulated  by  the  building  act  of  the  statute  of  16 
George  III.  c.  78.  §  43. 

21.  Brewery  buildings,  are  generally  liable  to  the  same  law  as  agricul- 
tural buildings:  lord  Ellenborough,  in  the  case  of  Eiwes,  v.  Maw, 
said,  that  a  building  which  is  accessible  to  a  removeable  utensil,  is 
equally  removeable  with  the  thing  to  which  it  is  incident.  See  the 
judgment  of  lord  Hardwicke,  in  Blackst.  Rep.  vol.  i.  p.  259.  n. 
Atk.  vol.  iii.  p.  16.  n. 

22.  Stoves  set  in  Brickwork  may  be  removed  by  the  tenant. 

23.  Bridges.  The  inhabitants  of  a  county  are  liable  to  the  repair  of 
public  bridges,  and  also  to  the  repair  of  the  highway  to  the  extent 
of  three  hundred  feet  at  each  end  of  the  bridge.  An  allowance 
to  the  surveyors  of  bridges  is  to  be  made  by  the  justices  of  the  place 
where  the  bridge  is  situated.  By  43  George  III.  c.  59.  §  1.,  sur- 
veyors of  bridges  and  other  public  works,  appointed  by  the  justices 
at  quarter  sessions,  may  search  for,  take,  and  carry  away  gravel, 
stone,  sand,  and  other  materials,  for  the  repair  of  such  bridges,  &e. 
as  the  county  are  bound  to  repair.  By  55  George  III.  c.  143.  §  1. 
they  may,  by  the  order  of  two  acting  justices  of  the  county,  &c, 
search  for,  dig,  get,  and  carry  away,  any  stone  from  any  quarry 
within  such  county,  (except  quarries  within  a  garden,  yard,  avenue 
to  a  house,  lawn,  park,  paddock,  or  enclosed  plantation,  which  has  oi 
may  have  ornamental  timber  growing  thereon,)  without  leave  of  the 
owner,  and  making  proper  satisfaction.  See  also  the  statute  of 
43  George  III.  c.  39.  §  3—5. 

24.  Brig-bote,  in  Anglo-Saxon  law,  was  the  contribution  to  the  repairs 
of  bridges. 

25.  Building  act ;  see  the  art.  Bricklayer ,  in  the  dictionary. 

4  p  593 


APPENDIX,  No.  lit. 


26.  Justices  of  the  peace,  by  12  George  III.  c.  29,  and  13  George  III. 
c.  18,  are  to  see  the  repair  of  public  buildings. 

27.  Buildings  erected  by  tenants.  If  a  person  take, the  lease  of  a  house 
and  land,  and  covenants  to  have  the  demised  premises  in  good  repair 
at  the  end  of  the  term,  and  he  erects  a  tenement  upon  part  of  the 
land,  in  addition  to  those  which  were  there  before,  he  must  keep  and 
leave  it  in  good  repair  also.  A  tenant  having  a  ri«ht  to  remove 
erections,  may  do  it  after  the  expiration  of  his  lease.  Buildings 
which  are  let  into  the  soil,  or  otherwise  fixed  to  the  freehold,  are 
termed  estate  buildings.  From  various  decisions,  it  is  clear,  that  a 
covenant  entered  into  by  a  tenant  to  yield  up  in  repair,  at  the  expi- 
ration of  his  lease,  all  buildings  which  should  be  erected  during  the 
term,  upon  the  demised  premises,  includes  all  buildings  erected  and 
used  by  the  tenant  for  any  purpose,  if  such  building  be  let  into  the 
soil,  or  otherwise  affixed  to  the  freehold,  but  not  when  they  rest  upon 
blocks,  pattens,  or  piers. 

28.  Burghbote,  in  ancient  law,  a  tribute  towards  the  building  or  repair- 
ing the  castles  or  walls  of  a  borough  or  city. 

29.  Canons,  constitutions,  and  injunctions  relating  to  ecclesiastical 
buildings.  By  the  canon  of  archbishop  Edmund,  made  in  1234, 
18  Henry  III.,  if  the  rector  of  a  church  leave  the  houses  of  the 
church,  (such  as  the  manse  of  the  rectory  or  vicarage,  and  other 
edifices,  of  which  the  building  and  repairing  belongs  to  the  incum- 
bent,) ruinous  and  decayed,  the  expenses  of  the  repair  shall  be 
deducted  out  of  his  ecclesiastical  goods.  By  a  canon  of  archbishop 
Stratford,  archdeacons,  and  other  ordinaries,  in  their  visitations, 
may  command  to  be  repaired  under  pecuniary  penalties,  any  defects 
in  the  church,  or  its  ornaments,  or  in  the  fences  of  the  church-yard, 
or  in  the  houses  of  the  incumbents.  Custom,  that  is,  common  law, 
however,  requires  that  the  nave,  at  least,  of  the  church  be  repaired 
by  the  parishioners,  and  sometimes  the  chancel.  By  the  consti- 
tution of  Otho,  none  may  pull  down  ancient  churches,  without  leave 
of  the  diocesan.  By  the  canons  of  1603,  (1  James  I.,)  the  church- 
wardens are  bound  to  see  that  the  church,  except  the  chancels, 
be  kept  in  good  repair.  Archdeacons  are  to  survey  churches  every 
three  years,  and  certify  defects  to  the  high  commissioners.  The 
chancel,  &c,  is  to  be  repaired  by  the  incumbent,  or  by  others  to 
whom  the  repairs  may  belong.  The  parson  is  bound  to  repair 
the  chancel.  The  chancel  may  not  be  altered,  (5  and  6  Edward  VI. 
and  13  and  14  Car.  II.)  Lay  impropriators  are  also  to  repair  the 
chancel.  (Mod.  Rep.  P.  i.  p.  250,  P.  ii.  p.  254.)  Repairing  the 
chancel  is  a  discharge  from  contributing  to  the  repairs  of  the 
church.  The  statute  of  35  Edward  I.  c.  4,  (1307,)  with  respect 
to  trees  growing  in  church-yards,  says,  "  We  do  prohibit  the  parsons 
of  the  church,  that  they  do  not  presume  to  sell  them  unavoidably, 
but  when  the  chancel  of  the  church  doth  want  necessary  repa- 
rations. Neither  shall  they  be  converted  to  any  other  use,  except 
the  body  of  the  church  doth  need  l&e  repair.  In  which  case,  the 
parsons,  of  their  charity,  shall  do  welt  to  relieve  the  parishioners 
with  bestowing  upon  them  the  same  trees ;  which  we  will  not  com- 
mand to  be  done,  but  we  will  commend  it  when  it  is  done." 

594 


APPENDIX,  No.  III. 


The  13  Eliz.  c.  10.,  forbids  the  grant  of  ecclesiastical  possessions  for 
a  lease  of  more  than  twenty-one  years.  Dilapidations  to  be  judged 
only  by  credible  persons  on  oath,  and  repaired  according  to  the 
diocesan.  Executors  must  make  satisfaction  for  dilapidations  before 
the  payment  of  any  legacies.    See  the  13  Eliz.  c.  10. 

30.  Lord  Coke,  says,  that  no  subject  can  build  a  Castle,  or  house  of 
strength,  embattled,  &c.  or  other  fortress  defensible,  called  in  law  by  the 
names  castellum,  castrum,  domus  defensibilis,  and  jnansus  muralis, 
and  sometimes  domus  kernellatce  or  carnellatce,  tencllatcc,  rnachi- 
collatce,  mese  carnelet,  mansus  carnellatus,  fortified  hall  or  mansion, 
&c,  without  the  license  of  the  king. 

31.  Carnellatus,  or  kernellatus,  in  law,  signifies  fortified:  tenellatce, 
having  loop-holes  in  the  walls  to  shoot  arrows  from. 

32.  Churchwardens,  though  not  charged  with  the  repairs  of  the  Chancel, 
are  charged  with  seeing  that  it  is  not  permitted  to  fall  into 
decay. 

33.  Chimney-pieces,  if  put  up  by  the  tenant,  become,  by  the  rule  of 
law,  the  property  of  the  landlord.  But  in  the  case  of  Allen  v.  Allen,  it  is 
admitted,  that  marble  chimney-pieces  and  glasses  are  ornaments  that 
may  be  taken  down.  In  the  case  of  Lawton  v.Lawton,  lord  Hardwicke 
said,  "  What  would  have  been  held  to  be  waste  in  Henry  the 
Seventh's  time,  as  removing  wainscot  fixed  on  by  screws*  and  marble 
chimney-pieces,  is  now  allowed  to  be  done." 

34.  Cider  mills  erected  by  tenants,  and  let  into  the  ground,  are  remove- 
able,  as  they  are  included  in  the  exceptions  relating  to  trading 
erections. 

35.  Detached  pipes  and  Conduits  that  supply  houses  with  water,  belong 
to  the  freehold. 

36.  Conservatories,  green-houses,  hot-houses,  &c,  put  up  by  gardeners 
and  nursery-men,  though  built  of  wood  on  foundations  of  brick, 
may  be  taken  away,  as  being  for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  trade, 
according  to  lord  Kenyon.  Lord  Ellenborough  decided  that  they 
were  not  removeable.    (See  East's  Rep.  vol.  ii.  p.  66  and  91.) 

37.  When  a  builder  Contracts  for  a  certain  sum,  and  additions  are  made 
to  the  original  plan,  the  contract  remains  binding  as  far  as  it 
can  be  traced,  and  the  excess  only  is  recoverable  on  a  quantum 
meruit. 

38.  Copyhold  estate.  The  estate  of  the  copyholder  is  not  merely  at 
the  will  of  the  lord,  but  at  the  will  of  the  lord  according  to  the 
custom  of  the  manor.  A  copyholder  may  pull  down  ruinous  houses 
to  rebuild  others. 

39.  Curates,  at  will,  are  not  liable  to  dilapidations. 

40.  Disinherison,  is  the  injury  done  to  an  estate,  by  suffering  the 
tenements  thereon  to  go  to  ruin,  dilapidation,  or  waste. 

41.  Doors,  are  considered,  in  law,  as  belonging  to  the  freehold  :  as  are 
also  dressers,  if  affixed  to  the  wall  or  floor. 

42.  In  the  case  of  Kimpton,  v  Eve,  it  was  decided  to  be  waste  to 
destroy  a  dove-cote. 

43.  Dutch-barns,  a  shed  building  with  a  foundation  of  brick,  and 
.uprights  fixed  in  to  support  the  roof,  which  is  covered  with  tiles,  and 
the  sides  open,  are  removeable. 


APPENDIX,  No.  III. 


44.  Glass,  used  in  windows,  is  parcel  of  the  freehold,  and  breaking  or 
carrying;  it  away  is  waste. 

45.  Haga,  in  ancient  records,  means  a  house  or  dwelling.  In  an 
ancient  plea  concerning  Faversham  in  Kent,  hawes  are  interpreted 
to  mean  mansions. 

46.  The  Incidents  of  a  house,  are  glass,  doors,  wainscot,  and  the  like, 
and  belong  to  the  freehold. 

47.  The  word  Land,  includes  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  all  that  is 
under  it,  or  over  it;  and  when  a  person  grants  all  his  lands,  he 
grants  all  his  mines  of  metals  or  fossils,  his  woods,  his  waters,  and 
his  houses,  as  well  as  his  fields  and  meadows.  No  man  may  erect 
any  building  to  overhang  the  land  of  another  man. 

48.  Land-gabel,  in  Doomsday  book,  was  a  rent  rising  out  of  land 
or  tenement,  a  penny  for  every  house,  according  to  Spelman. 

49.  Monuments,  in  churches,  belong  to  the  heir  in  the  manner  of  heir- 
looms, and  may  not  be  taken  by  the  parson. 

50.  A  Mortgage  in  possession,  may  pull  down  ruinous  houses,  and  build 
up  others  on  their  site,  but  he  must  not  commit  dilapidations  or 
waste.  He  is  bound  to  keep  the  buildings  mortgaged  to  him  in 
necessary  repair,  and  he  will  be  allowed  the  charge  of  permanent 
improvements. 

51.  The  Occupier  of  a  house  must  fence  in  a  dangerous  area,  though  it 
has  remained  open  from  time  immemorial,  or  he  is  answerable  for  his 
negligence. 

52.  Lord  Coke  says,  "  If  a  man  has  a  house  near  to  my  house,  and  he 
sufTereth  his  house  to  become  so  ruinous  as  it  is  like  to  fall  on  my 
house,  I  may  have  a  writ  de  domo  rcparandd,  to  compel  him  to 
repair  his  house. 

53.  The  laws  relating  to  Party-walls,  are  principally  to  be  found  in  the 
building  act. 

54.  Tenantable  Repairs,  are  such  as  relate  only  to  the  finishing  and 
ornamenting  of  tenements.    The  case  of  Ferguson,  v.  .......  was 

an  action  to  recover  damages  for  suffering  a  house  of  the  plaintiff  to 
be  out  of  repair.  "  The  defendant  had  rented  a  house  of  the  plain- 
tiff, as  tenant  at  will,  at  £81  per  annum.  On  quitting  it,  the  house 
was  found  to  be  much  out  of  repair,  and  the  plaintiff  had  it  surveyed, 
and  an  estimate  made  of  the  sum  necessary  to  put  it  into  complete, 
instead  of  tenantable  repair;  and  for  this  account  he  brought  an 
action.  Lord  Kenyon  said,  "  that  the  plaintiff  was  not  to  be  per- 
mitted to  go  for  the  damages  so  claimed  ;  for  a  tenant  from  year  to 
year  is  bound  to  commit  no  waste,  and  to  make  fair  and  tenantable 
repairs,  such  as  putting  in  windows  and  doors  that  have  been  broken 
by  him,  so  as  to  prevent  waste  and  decay  of  the  premises;  but,  in 
the  present  case,  the  plaintiff  has  claimed  a  sum  for  putting  on  a  new 
roof,  on  an  old  worn-out  house :  this  his  lordship  thought  a  tenant 
not  bound  to  do,  and  that  the  plaintiff  had  no  title  to  recover." 

55.  Waste.  If  a  house  be  uncovered  when  a  tenant  takes  possession, 
it  is  no  waste  in  him  to  suffer  it  fall  down  :  but  if  he  pull  it  down,  it 
is  waste,  unless  he  build  it  up  a?ain.  Converting  one  chamber  into 
two,  or  two  into  one,  or  converting  a  hand-mill  into  a  horse-mill,  is 
waste.    If  a  tenant  build  a  new  house,  it  is  committing  waste 

596 


APPENDIX,  No.  III. 


upon  the  estate;  and  if  he  suffer  it  to  be  wasted  when  built,  it 
is  a  new  waste.  If  a  tenant  repair  a  house  which  he  has  suffered  to 
waste,  with  timber  felled  on  the  estate  without  leave,  it  is  double 
waste.  Digging  any  quarries  or  mines,  and  appropriating  the 
materials,  if  they  were  not  open  when  the  tenant  came  in,  is 
waste.  A  tenant  of  a  house,  which  was  ruinous  at  the  time  of 
leasing,  is  not  punishable  if  it  fall.  Improvements  without  leave 
are  waste. 

56.  Twenty  years*  enjoyment  of  Windows  give  a  right,  and  no  one 
may  obstruct  them.  But  if  they  be  stopped  up  for  twenty  years, 
the  right  is  lost.  When  the  window  is  darkened  by  a  wall,  and 
it  is  in  a  malt-house,  or  other  manufactory,  and  the  light  admit- 
ted is  still  sufficient  to  serve  the  original  purpose,  an  action  cannot 
be  maintained. 

597 


END  OF  VOL.  II. 


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